Basic Digital Concepts

Introduction
 In science, technology, business, and, in fact, most other
fields of endeavor, we are constantly dealing with
quantities.
 Quantities are measured, monitored, recorded,
manipulated arithmetically, observed, or in some other
way utilized in most physical systems.
 It is important when dealing with various quantities that
we be able to represent their values efficiently and
accurately.
 There are basically two ways of representing the
numerical value of quantities: analog and digital.
 Digital versus Analog systems

Analog Representation:
 In analog representation
a quantity is represented
by a voltage, current, or
meter movement that is
proportional to the value
of that quantity.
 Analog quantities such
as those cited above
have an important
characteristic: they can
vary over a continuous
range of values.
Digital Representation:
 In digital representation the
quantities are represented not by
proportional quantities but by
symbols called digits.
 As an example, consider the digital
watch, which provides the time of
day in the form of decimal digits
which represent hours and minutes
(and sometimes seconds).
 As we know, the time of day
changes continuously, but the
digital watch reading does not
change continuously; rather, it
changes in steps of one per minute
(or per second).
The major difference between
 In other words, this digital
analog and digital quantities is
representation of the time of day

Analog  Continuous
changes in discrete steps, as
compared with the representation
of time provided by an analog
Digital  Discrete
watch, where the dial reading
changes continuously.
 Advantages and Limitations of Digital Techniques
 Advantages
 Digital systems are easier to design.
 The switching circuits in which there are only two voltage
levels, HIGH and LOW, are easier to design. The exact Limitation
numerical values of voltages are not important because
they have only logical significance; only the range in which There is really only
they fall is important.
 Information storage is easy. one major drawback
 There are many types of semiconductor and magnetic when using digital
memories of large capacity which can store data for
periods as long as necessary. techniques:
 Accuracy and precision are greater.
 Digital systems arc much more accurate and precise than
analog systems, because digital systems can be easily “ The real world is
expanded to handle more digits by adding more switching
circuits. Analog systems will be quite complex and costly mainly analog”
for the same accuracy and precision.
 Digital systems are more versatile.
 It is fairly easy to design digital systems whose operation is
controlled by a set of stored instructions called the
program. Any time the system operation is to be changed,
it can easily be accomplished by modifying the program
 Digital circuits are less affected by noise.
 Unwanted electrical signals are called noise. Noise is
unavoidable in any system. Since in analog systems the
exact values of voltages are important and in digital
systems only the range of values is important, the effect of
noise is more severe in analog systems. In digital systems,
noise is not critical as long as it is not large enough to
prevent us from distinguishing a HIGH from a LOW.
 To take advantage of digital techniques when dealing with
analog inputs and outputs, three steps must be followed:
 Convert the real-world analog inputs to digital form. (ADC)
 Process (operate on) the digital information.
 Convert the digital outputs back to real-world analog form. (DAC)
The following diagram shows a temperature control system that
requires analog/digital conversions in order to allow the use of
digital processing techniques.

Block diagram of a typical temperature control system.

 The need for conversion between analog and digital forms
of information can be considered a drawback because of
the added complexity and expense.
 Another factor that is often important is the extra time
required to perform these conversions.
 In many applications, these factors are outweighed by the
numerous advantages of using digital techniques, and so
the conversion between analog and digital quantities has
become quite commonplace in the current technology.
 There are situations, however, where using only analog
techniques is simpler and more economical.
 For example, the process of signal amplification is most easily
accomplished using analog circuitry.
 It is becoming more and more common to see both digital
and analog techniques employed within the same system
in order to profit from the advantages of each.
 In these hybrid systems, one of the most important parts
of the design phase involves determining what parts of
the system are to be analog and what parts are to be
digital.
 Binary logic Gates
 The general public as being magical sometimes looks upon
computers, calculators, and other digital devices.
 Actually, digital electronic devices are extremely logical in
their operation.
 The basic building block of any digital circuit is a logic gate.
 The logic gates we will use operate with binary numbers,
hence the term binary logic gates.
 Logic gates are the building blocks for even the most
complex computers.
 Logic gates can be constructed by using simple switches,
relays, vacuum tubes, transistors and diodes, or lCs.
 Because of their availability, wide use, and low cost, ICs will
be used to construct digital circuits.
 A variety of logic gates are available in all logic families
including TTL and CMOS.
 Digital Signals
 Digital systems use the binary number system.
 Therefore, two-state devices are used to represent the two binary digits 1 and
0 by two different voltage levels, called HIGH and LOW.
 If the HIGH voltage level is used to represent 1 and the LOW voltage level to
represent 0, the system is called the positive logic system.

 On the other hand, if the HIGH voltage level represents 0 and the LOW voltage
level represents 1, the system is called the negative logic system.

 Normally, the binary 0 and 1 are represented by the logic voltage levels 0V and
+5 V.
 So, in positive logic system, 1 is represented by + 5 V (HIGH) and 0 is
represented by 0 V (LOW); and in a negative logic system, 0 is represented by
+ 5 V (HIGH) and l is represented by 0 V ( LOW).
 Both positive and negative logics are used in digital systems, but the positive
logic is more common.
 In reality, because of circuit variations, the 0 and 1 would be
represented by voltage ranges instead of particular voltage
levels.
 Example of Voltages Level in TTL family

5.0V HIGH
(Logic 1)

2.0 V Indeterminate
range

0.8V LOW
(Logic 0)

0V
Waveform Characteristics
 Most waveforms encountered in digital
systems are composed of series of pulses,
sometimes called pulse trains, and can be
classified as either periodic or nonperiodic.
 A periodic pulse waveform is one that repeats
itself at a fixed interval, called a period (T).
The frequency (f) is the rate at which it
repeats itself and is measured in hertz (Hz). Periodic pulse-train
 A nonperiodic pulse waveform, of course,
does not repeat itself at fixed intervals and
may be composed of pulses of randomly
differing pulse widths and/or randomly differing
time intervals between the pulses. An example
of each type is shown in Figure 1.5. Non-Periodic pulse-train
 The frequency (f) of a pulse (digital) waveform
is the reciprocal of the period. The relationship
between frequency and period is expressed as
f T
follows: 1 1
T f
 An important characteristic of a periodic digital
waveform is its duty cycle. The duty cycle is
the ratio of the pulse width (tW) to the period
(T) and can be expressed as a percentage.
t 
Duty cycle   W 100%
 T 
TIMING DIAGRAMS
 A timing diagram is a graph of digital
waveforms showing the actual time
relationship of two or more waveforms
and how each waveform changes in
relation to the others.
 By looking at a timing diagram, you can
determine the states (HIGH or LOW) of all
the waveforms at any specified point in
time and the exact time that a waveform
changes state relative to the other
waveforms.
 Figure 1.6 is an example of a timing
diagram made up of four waveforms.
Figure 1.6 Examples of timing diagram.

From this timing diagram you can see,

for example, that the three waveforms A,
B, and C are HIGH only during bit time 7
and they all change back LOW at the end
of bit time 7 (shaded area).
DATA TRANSFER
 Data refers to groups of bits that convey some type of information.
Binary data, which are represented by digital waveforms, must be
transferred from one circuit to another within a digital system or
from one system to another in order to accomplish a given pur-pose.
 In computer systems, as illustrated in Figure below, binary data are
transferred in two ways: serial and parallel.
 When bits are transferred in serial form from one point to another,
(a) Serial transfer of 8 bits of binary data from

they are sent one bit at a time along a single conductor, as illustrated computer to modem.
in Figure (a) for the case of a computer-to-modem transfer.
 During the time interval from t0 to t1, the first bit is trans-ferred.
During the time interval from t1 to t2 the second bit is transferred,
and so on. To transfer eight bits in series, it takes eight time
intervals.
 When bits are transferred in parallel form, all the bits in a group are
sent out on separate lines at the same time. There is one line for each
bit as shown in Figure (b) for the example of eight bits being
transferred from a computer to a printer.
 To transfer eight bits in parallel, it takes one time interval compared
to eight time intervals for the serial transfer.
 To summarize, an advantage of serial transfer of binary data is that a
minimum of only one line is required. In parallel transfer, a number
of lines equal to the number of bits be transferred at one time is
required.
 A disadvantage of serial transfer is that it takes longer to transfer a
(b) Parallel transfer of 8 bits of binary
data from computer to printer. The
given number of bits than with parallel transfer. beginning time is to t0.
MEMORY
 When an input signal is applied to most devices or
circuits, the output somehow changes in response to
the input, and when the input signal is removed, the
output returns to its original state.
 These circuits do not exhibit the property of memory,
since their outputs revert back to normal.
 In digital circuitry certain types of devices and circuits
do have memory. When an input is applied to such a
circuit, the output will change its state, but it will
remain in the new state even after the input is
re-moved.
 This property of retaining its response to a momentary
input is called memory. Figure 1.8 illustrates
nonmemory and memory operations.
 Memory devices and circuits play an important role in
Figure 1.8 Comparison of
nonmemory and memory operation
digital systems because they provide means for storing
binary numbers either temporarily or permanently,
with the ability to change the stored information at
any time.
 We shall see later the memory elements those which
utilize in digital circuits (called latches and flip-flops).
DIGITAL COMPUTERS
 Digital techniques have found their way into innumerable areas of
technology, but the area of automatic digital computers is by far the most
notable and most extensive.
 A computer is a system of hardware that performs arithmetic operations,
manipulates data (usually in binary form), and makes decisions.
 A computer is faster and more accurate than people are, but unlike most
people it has to be given a complete set of instructions that tell it exactly
what to do at each step of its operation
 This step of instructions, called a program, is prepared by one or more
persons for each job the computer is to do.
 Programs are placed in the computer's memory unit in binary-coded form,
with each instruction having a unique code. The computer takes these
instruction codes from memory one at a time and performs the operation
called for by the code.
Major Parts of a Computer
 Figure 1.9 shows the five major functional parts of a digital computer
and their interaction. The solid lines with arrows represent the flow of
information. The dashed lines with arrows represent the flow of
timing and control signals.
 Input unit:
 Through this unit a complete set of instructions and
data is fed into the computer system and into the
memory unit, to be stored until needed. The information
typically enters the input unit by means of punched
cards, mag-netic tape, magnetic disk, or a keyboard
 Memory unit.
Figure 1.9 Functional diagram
of a digital computer
 The memory stores the instructions and data received
from the input unit. It stores the results of arithmetic
operations received from the arithmetic unit. It also
supplies information to the output unit.
 Control unit.
 This unit takes instructions from the memory unit one at
a time and interprets them. It then sends appropriate
signals to all the other units to cause the specific
instruction to be executed.
 Arithmetic/logic unit.
 All arithmetic calculations and logical decisions are
performed in this unit, which can then send results to
the memory unit to be stored
 Output unit.
 This unit takes data from the memory unit and prints out,
dis-plays, or otherwise presents the information to the operator
(or process, in the case of a process control computer).
Types of Computers??
 Computers will differ in their physical size, operating speed, memory
capacity, and processing capability, as well as other characteristics
 The three basic classifications are microcomputer, minicomputer,
and main-frame.
 The microcomputer :is the smallest type of computer. It generally
consists of several IC chips including a microprocessor chip,
memory chips, and input/output interface chips along with
input/output devices such as a keyboard and video display.
 Minicomputers are larger than microcomputers and have prices
that go into the tens of thousands of dollars (including input/output
peripheral equipment). "Minis" are widely used in industrial control
systems, scientific applications for schools and research
laboratories, and business applications for small businesses.
 Mainframes, the largest computers, are found in corporations,
banks, universities, and scientific laboratories. These
"maxicomputers" can cost as much as several million dollars and
include complete systems of peripheral equipment such as
mag-netic tape units, magnetic disk units, card punchers and
readers, keyboards, print-ers, and many more.
TESTING INSTRUMENTS IN DIGITAL SYSTEMS
 Troubleshooting is the technique of systematically isolating, identifying, and correcting a
fault in a circuit or system. A variety of instruments are available for use in digital
troubleshooting and testing. Some typical equipment is presented in this section.
 The Oscilloscope
 The oscilloscope (scope for short) is one of the most widely used instruments for
general testing and troubleshooting. It is basically a graph-displaying device that
traces a graph of an electrical signal on its screen.
 The logic probe
 is a convenient, inexpensive handheld tool that provides a means of troubleshooting in
a digital circuit by sensing various conditions at a point in a circuit, as illustrated in
Figure 1.11. The probe can detect high-level voltage; low-level voltage, single pulses,
repetitive pulses, and opens on a PC board. The probe lamp indicates the condition that
exists at a certain point.
 The logic pulser
 produces a repetitive pulse waveform that can be applied to any point in a circuit. You
can apply pulses at one point in a circuit with the pulser and check another point for
resulting pulses with a logic probe. Also, the pulser can be used in conjunction with the
current tracer, as indicated in Figure 1.12.
 The current tracer,
 also known as a current probe, senses when there is pulsating current in a line and is
particu-larly useful for locating shorts on a PC board.
The current tracer,
 also known as a current probe, senses when there is pulsating current in a line
and is particu-larly useful for locating shorts on a PC board.
The DC Power Supply
 The de power Supply is an indispensable instrument on any test bench. All digital
circuits require dc voltage to operate. For example, TTL circuits and many CMOS
circuits require approximately +5 V.
The Function Generator
 The function generator is a versatile signal source that provides pulse
waveforms, as well as sine wave and triangular waveforms. Many function
generators have logic-compatible outputs to provide proper level waveforms as
inputs to digital circuits in order to check the operation.
 The Digital Multimeter
 No test bench is complete without a digital multimeter (DMM). This instrument is
used for measuring dc and ac voltage, dc and ac current, and resistance. Figure
1.13 shows typical test bench and handheld DMMs.
 Digital Testing Instruments

Oscilloscope

Logic Probe & Pulser

Typical test instruments Logic Pulser & current Tracer