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Microgrids

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 LBNL-62937

ERNEST ORLANDO LAWRENCE

BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY

Microgrids:
An Overview of Ongoing
Research, Development, and
Demonstration Projects

Nikos Hatziargyrioua, Hiroshi Asanob, Reza Iravanic,

and Chris Marnayd

a
Power Division of the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering of National Technical University
of Athens, Greece
b
University of Tokyo and Institute of Electric Power Industry in Tokyo, Japan
c
University of Toronto, Canada
d
Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley
94720, USA

Environmental Energy
Technologies Division

July 2007

http://eetd.lbl.gov/EA/EMP/emp-pubs.html

The work described in this report was funded by the Office of Electricity Delivery and
Energy Reliability, Distributed Energy Program of the U.S. Department of Energy
under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231.
 Disclaimer

This document was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United

States Government. While this document is believed to contain correct
information, neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor
The Regents of the University of California, nor any of their employees, makes
any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal responsibility for the
accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product,
or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or
service by its trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not
necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring
by the United States Government or any agency thereof, or The Regents of the
University of California. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any
agency thereof, or The Regents of the University of California.

Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory is an equal

opportunity employer.
 by Nikos Hatziargyriou,
Hiroshi Asano, Reza Iravani,
and Chris Marnay

An Overview of Ongoing
Research, Development, and
Demonstration Projects

78 IEEE power & energy magazine 1540-7977/07/$25.00©2007 IEEE july/august 2007

 T
THE PENETRATION OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
(DG) at medium and low voltages (MV and LV), both in util-
ity networks and downstream of the meter, is increasing in
developed countries worldwide. One key economic potential
of DG application at customer premises lies in the opportuni-
ty to locally utilize the waste heat from conversion of pri-
mary fuel to electricity by reciprocating engine generators
(gensets), gas turbines, microturbines (MTs), or fuel cells
(FCs) using small-scale combined heat and power (CHP)
equipment. Consequently, there has been significant progress
toward developing small (kW-scale) CHP applications.
These systems, together with solar photovoltaic (PV) mod-
ules, small wind turbines (WTs), other small renewables
(such as biogas digestors), heat and electricity storage, and
controllable loads are expected to play a significant role in
future electricity supply. These technologies are herein col-
lectively called distributed energy resources (DERs). They
can substantially reduce carbon emissions, thereby contribut-
ing to the commitments of most developed countries (or in
some cases regional governments, such as California) to
meet their greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets (typi-
cally based on the Kyoto Protocol), or otherwise substantial-
ly reduce their carbon footprints. Also, the presence of
generation close to demand can increase the power quality
and reliability (PQR) of electricity delivered to sensitive end-
uses. Indeed, DERs can be used to actively enhance PQR. In
general, these three perceived benefits, increased energy effi-
ciency through CHP, reduced carbon emissions, and
improved PQR, are the key drivers for DER deployment,
although many other benefits, such as reduced line losses
and grid expansion deferral, are also often discussed.
While the application of DERs can potentially reduce the
need for traditional system expansion, controlling a potential-
ly huge number of DERs creates a daunting new challenge
for operating and controlling the network safely and efficient-
ly. This challenge can be partially addressed by microgrids,
which are entities that coordinate DERs in a consistently
more decentralized way, thereby reducing the control burden
on the grid and permitting them to provide their full benefits.
In the context of this article, a microgrid comprises a LV (≈≤
1 kV) or MV (usually ≈1–69 kV) locally-controlled cluster
of DERs that behaves, from the grid’s perspective, as a single
producer or load both electrically and in energy markets. A
microgrid operates safely and efficiently within its local dis-
tribution network, but it is also capable of islanding. Micro-
grid design and operation demand new skills and technology,
while distribution systems containing high DER penetration
may nonetheless require considerable operational control
capabilities. While not strictly compliant with the above defi-
nition, small isolated power systems are included here as
microgrids. They apply similar technology and provide added
© EYEWIRE

insights into how power systems may evolve differently

where they are currently rudimentary or nonexistant.

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 79

 This article outlines the ongoing research, development, was funded at €4.5 million. The Consortium, led by the
and demonstration (RD&D) efforts currently in progress in National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), included 14
Europe, the United States, Japan, and Canada as they have partners from seven EU countries, including utilities such as
been presented in a series of microgrids symposiums start- EdF (France), PPC (Greece), and EdP (Portugal); manufactur-
ed in Berkeley, California, on 17 June 2005, followed by a ers, such as EmForce, SMA, GERMANOS, and URENCO;
second near Montréal, Canada, on 23 June 2006, and by a plus research institutions and universities such as Labein,
third in Nagoya, Japan, on 6 April 2007. Presentations and INESC Porto, the University of Manchester, ISET Kassel, and
other materials from these events are available at Ecole de Mines. The RD&D objectives set were to:
http://der.lbl.gov. ✔ study the operation of microgrids to increase penetra-
tion of renewable and other DERs while reducing car-
RD&D Activities in Europe bon emissions
In the European Union (EU), the promotion and deployment of ✔ study the operation of microgrids in parallel with the
DERs are expected to benefit energy consumers, the European grid and islanded, as may follow faults
energy system, and the environment through optimization of the ✔ define and develop control strategies to ensure effi-
value chain from energy suppliers to end users. Microgrids are cient, reliable, and economic operation and manage-
considered a basic feature of future active distribution networks, ment of microgrids
able to take full advantage of DERs, if coordinated and operated ✔ define appropriate protection and grounding policies to
efficiently. They have been studied in a number of RD&D proj- assure safety, fault detection, separation, and islanded
ects, and they form a key component in the Strategic Research operation
Agenda for Europe’s Electricity Networks of the Future, avail- ✔ identify and develop the required telecommunication
able at http://ec.europa.eu/research/energy/pdf/smartgrids_ infrastructures and protocols
agenda_en.pdf. ✔ determine the economic benefits of microgrid opera-
tion and propose systematic methods to quantify them
The EU Microgrids Research Project ✔ simulate and demonstrate microgrid operation on labo-
At the EU international level, two major research efforts have ratory scales.
been devoted exclusively to microgrids. Within the 5th Frame- The project was successfully completed, providing several
work Programme (1998–2002), the Microgrids: Large Scale innovative technical solutions. Project highlights include the
Integration of Micro-Generation to Low Voltage Grids activity development of:

Public Grid
U=10 kV University Laboratories
SM DCM DCM
DCM SM
Power
Supply 1
Power
Supply 2 EMC Laboratory Pump Laboratory
IM
IM IM IM DCM SM
S=175 kW S=400 kW

WWW

Supervisory
Control Unit
Crossbar LAN
Switch Cabinet 5 6 9 10 11
7 12 81 82 83 z z
4
IM SM SM 12
Loads
z
3
SM CM 15 kW
Mini Grid
80 kW Grid Simulator Simulator PV-Battery-System PV-Battery-Diesel-System 10 kV Hardware Network Simulator SINVERT Solar Three Phase
2 5 kW WEC Hybrid System Inverter
16
Simulator 17 52 51 Central Control and
CM
Visualisation Unit
14 13
for Presentations
20 kW Variable Speed Genset
1
IM
SM

30 kW Diesel Generator Set CHP Station PV-Inverters Mini Grid Kit Virtual Battery Battery Bank

JB

Power Line
Interbus-S Control Line 3 x 1 kW-Photovoltaic
Internet Communication Line Arrays

figure 1. The microgrid laboratory facilities at ISET (source: ISET).

80 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

 ✔ DER models plus steady-state and dynamic analysis Germanos, and EmForce; power utilities from Denmark,
tools enabling simulation of LV asymmetrical, inverter- Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands, and Poland; and
dominated microgrid performance research teams from Greece, the United Kingdom,
✔ islanded and interconnected operating philosophies France, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. The new objec-
✔ control algorithms, both hierarchical and distributed tives include:
(agent based) ✔ investigation of new DER controllers to provide effec-
✔ local blackstart strategies tive and efficient operation of microgrids
✔ definitions of DER interface response and intelligence ✔ development of alternative control strategies using next-
requirements generation information and communications technology
✔ grounding and protection schemes ✔ creation of alternative network designs, including
✔ methods for quantification of reliability benefits application of modern protection methods, modern
✔ laboratory microgrids of various complexities and solid-state interfaces, and operation at variable fre-
functionalities. quencies
Several levels of centralized and decentralized control ✔ technical and commercial integration of multiple
were explored at the participating laboratories of ISET microgrids, including interface of several microgrids
(Germany), the University of Manchester (U.K.), Ecole de with upstream distribution management systems, plus
Mines (France), and NTUA (Greece), and relative benefits operation of decentralized markets for energy and
were identified. The ISET laboratory is shown in Figure 1. ancillary services
✔ standardization of technical and commercial protocols
The EU More Microgrids Research Project and hardware to allow easy installation of DERs with
A follow-up project titled More Microgrids: Advanced plug-and-play capabilities
Architectures and Control Concepts for More Microgrids ✔ studying the impact on power system operation,
within the 6th Framework Programme (2002–2006) was including benefits quantification of microgrids at
funded at €8.5 million, and is in progress. This second regional, national, and EU levels of reliability improve-
consortium, again led by NTUA, comprises manufactur- ments, reduction of network losses, environmental
ers, including Siemens, ABB, SMA, ZIV, I-Power, Anco, benefits, etc.

PV Array
PV Array

=
~ =
= ~
=
~ ~

AC Grid: 3~ 400 V

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
= = = = = =

Battery PV Diesel Battery PV

MORE PV-Mode
AC Grid: 3~ 400 V
PV Array

=
~

figure 2. Pilot Kythnos microgrid.

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 81

 Power Energy
Shifted Energy 8 kWh
0.8 kW

0.5 kW

0.2 kW

0.0 kW 0 kWh
00:00 10:00 13:00 24:00
Average Load and Cumulative Energy Consumption for Days with a Price Signal 10 a.m. – 1 p.m.
Average Load and Cumulative Energy Consumption for Days without a Price Signal

figure 3. Washing with the Sun encouraged customers to shift loads to high solar generation periods (source: MVV Energie).

✔ exploring the impact on the development of electricity Netherlands: Continuon’s MV/LV facility.
network infrastructures, including quantification of the Continuon operates a holiday camp with more than 200 cot-
benefits of microgrids, to the overall network, and to tages, equipped with grid-tied PV totaling 315 kW. The cot-
the reinforcement and replacement strategy of the tages are connected to an MV/LV transformer using four
aging EU electricity infrastructure approximately 400-m feeders. Daytime loads are low, so most
✔ executing extensive field trials of alternative control of the PV power is injected into the MV grid. During the
strategies in actual installations, with experimental val- evening and night, support from the grid is needed. High volt-
idation of various microgrid architectures in intercon- ages at the end of the feeder and a high level of voltage dis-
nected and islanded modes, and during transition tortion during high PV output have been noted. With the
testing of power electronics components and interfaces microgrid islanded, improvements in power quality are
and of alternative control strategies, communication sought using power electronic flexible ac distribution systems
protocols, etc. and storage.

EU Demonstration Sites Germany: MVV Residential Demonstration

Pilot installations include the following demonstration sites: at Mannheim-Wallstadt.
The 1,200-inhabitant ecological estate in Mannheim-Wallstadt
Greece: The Kythnos Island Microgrid. has been prepared for a continuous long-term field test site for
This system, shown in Figure 2, electrifies 12 houses in a small the More Microgrids project. A total of 30 kW of PV has
valley on Kythnos, an island in the Cyclades Archipelago, of already been installed by private investors, and further DERs
the Aegean Sea. The generation system comprises10 kW of are planned. The first goal of the experiment has been to
PV, a nominal 53-kWh battery bank, and a 5-kW diesel involve customers in load management. During a summer of
genset. A second PV array of about 2 kW, mounted on the 2006 2-month trial, more than 20 families and one municipal
roof of the control system building, is connected to an daycare center participated in the Washing with the Sun pro-
SMA inverter and a 32-kWh battery bank to provide power gram (Figure 3). Based on PV output availability information
for monitoring and communication. Residential service is in their neighborhood, customers shifted their loads to times
powered by three SMA battery inverters connected in a paral- when they could use solar electricity directly. As a result, par-
lel master-slave configuration forming one strong single- ticipating families shifted their loads significantly from the typ-
phase circuit. More than one of the 3.6-kW battery inverters ical residential evening peak toward hours with higher solar
is used only when more power is demanded by consumers. insolation, and from cloudy days toward sunny days.
The battery inverters can operate in frequency droop mode, In addition to the activities described, other demonstrations
allowing information flow to switching load controllers if the are taking place in Denmark, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. Also,
battery state of charge is low, and limiting the power output it should be noted that in addition to EU-funded RD&D, there
of the PV inverters when the battery bank is full. are several activities supported by national or regional

82 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

 Energy
Circuit A: Sensitive Loads
Manager

Communications
Power Flow
Controller
Electric Wires
Circuit B : Controllable Loads
Static
Switch
Point of
Common
Coupling Traditional
Interconnection
Circuit C : Default Service
(Nonsenstive Loads)

figure 4. Schematic of an example CM (source: CERTS).

governments under way in Germany, Spain, the United King- small sites (∼<2 MW peak) without need for costly fast
dom, the Netherlands, and elsewhere. electrical controls or expensive site-specific engineering.
No single device is essential for operation, creating a
RD&D Activities in the United States robust system.
The United States has had a modest but slowly expanding Figure 4 shows an example CM, whose salient features are:
microgrids research program for a number of years, supported ✔ a lack of fast electrical controls. The operation of gen-
both by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) under the erators is controlled locally by power electronic
Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE), and devices incorporating droop characteristics that
by the California Energy Commission (CEC) through its Pub- respond to locally monitored frequency and voltage.
lic Interest Energy Research Program. Heightened demand for Consequently, devices that naturally require a power
high PQR in the U.S., primarily to match the high end of het- electronic interface, e.g., dc sources, are particularly
erogeneous end-use requirements, has naturally led to amenable to incorporation in a CM.
increased focus on enhancing PQR locally using microgrids. ✔ a single point of common coupling (PCC), and does
not export. To the utility the CM appears as a single
CERTS Microgrid Introduction
The most well-known U.S. microgrid RD&D effort has
been pursued under the Consortium for Electric Reliability
Technology Solutions (CERTS) (see http://certs.lbl.gov),
which was established in 1999 to explore implications for
power system reliability of emerging technological, eco-
nomic, regulatory–institutional, and environmental influ-
ences. From the inception of CERTS, the likely emergence
of DG was recognized as an important factor, and it has
been a focus of the CERTS RD&D agenda. The specific
concept of the CERTS Microgrid (CM) was fully developed
by 2002, when it was described in a white paper and pre-
sented at a CEC Workshop. Subsequently, building physical
examples was undertaken.
The CM, as with most microgrid paradigms, is intend-
ed to, as seamlessly as possible, separate from normal
utility service during a disruption and continue to serve
its critical internal loads until acceptable utility service is figure 5. Layout of the Dolan Technology Center CM test
restored. The CM provides this function for relatively bed (June 2006) (source: CERTS).

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 83

 opens and circuits A and B are served as an intention-
al island until acceptable power quality is restored.
✔ a dispersed plug-and-play system. No custom engi-
neering is required for interconnection of any single
device, as long as it has CM capability, making system
configuration flexible and variable. Generators may
not only be spread across circuits, they may be physi-
cally placed around the site, quite possibly co-located
with convenient heat sinks that offer economically
attractive CHP opportunities.
✔ generic slow controls. Other control functions, e.g.,
maintaining economic dispatch, are achieved by a slow
control network represented in Figure 4 as the Energy
Manager, which could be of many types; e.g., an add-
on to a legacy building energy management system.

CERTS Microgrid Test Bed

The viability of the CM has been well demonstrated in simulation
and through bench testing of a laboratory scale test system at the
University of Wisconsin, Madison. For some time, it has been the
CERTS objective to carry out full-scale testing of the CM concept
before deploying it at an actual site. To accomplish this, a full-
scale test has recently been installed at the Dolan Technology
Center in Columbus Ohio, which is operated by American
Electric Power, one of the largest U.S. electricity utilities.
figure 6. Prime movers and associated power electronics Figure 5 shows the layout of the test bed. The large white
at Dolan (source: CERTS). building at left contains the prime movers, three Tecogen
(http://www.tecogen.com/) 60-kW gensets based on a pro-
controlled load, no different than similar “customers.” duction General Motors 7.5 L engine, as shown in Figure 6.
✔ an explicit design to provide heterogeneous PQR. While these units have been typically installed as synchronous
This appears in the diagram as varying reliability on machines, the models used here have power electronic capa-
the three circuits. Circuit C is exposed to normal grid bility originally intended to enable variable speed operation
power; however, in the event of inadequate grid enhanced with CM capabilities. The large cabinet to the bot-
power quality, e.g. voltage sag, the static switch tom left contains the static switch, while the others seen in
the picture contain the various switchgear
and monitoring equipment needed to fully
exercise the CM and record its performance
Sun during scheduled test procedures. Progress
of the testing can be followed at
http://certs.aeptechlab.com/.
Utility Electricty Total Electricity Only End Uses
Electricity
Other CERTS Microgrid Activities
e

On-Site
ag

One notable feature of the CM project has

tor

Generation Refrigeration and

lS

Recovered Building Cooling been simultaneous RD&D into necessary

ma

Utility Heat tools for microgrid deployment, other than

er

Natural
Th

Gas the actual electrical hardware. Two major

Hot Water products of this unified approach are the
μGrid Analysis Tool (μGrid), under devel-
opment at the Georgia Institute of Technolo-
Natural Gas Building Heating
gy, and the Distributed Energy Resources
Customer Adoption Model (DER-CAM) in
Waste Natural Gas Only End Uses
Heat
use at Berkeley Lab and several other
RD&D facilities worldwide.
The CM as described above presents
figure 7. Energy flows within a microgrid (source: Berkeley Lab). unique electrical analysis challenges. The

84 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

unique characteristics of the CM are that it may contain three-
phase (three-, four-, and/or five-wire systems), single-phase Solar Collectors
(two- and/or three-wire), and two-circuit secondary circuits Solar PV
7
(three- and/or four-wire) systems, and a variety of sources NG Fried DG
6

Installed Capacity (MW)

interconnected by power electronic devices employing differ-
ent control approaches. Existing analysis methods are not ade- Solar Thermal
5
Collectors
quate for analyzing microgrids like the CM, and consequently
4
μGrid has been developed with the capability of performing all
the necessary electrical analysis needed to design microgrids. 3
μGrid captures all of the key physical phenomena of three-, Solar PV
2
four-, or five-wire circuits, involving both three-phase and sin-
gle-phase circuits, while loads can be simulated in direct-phase 1
NG Engine
quantities using physically based models. The modeling
0
approach enables analysis of a variety of issues particularly rel-
600 800 1,000 1,200
evant to microgrids, such as prediction and evaluation of
Carbon Emissions (t/a)
imbalances, asymmetries, evaluation of derating due to imbal-
ances and asymmetries, estimation of stray voltages and
figure 8. Optimal equipment results under carbon
ground potential rise, etc., as well as dynamic interaction of the emissions constraints (source: Berkeley Lab).
various components and their effect on system stability, gener-
ation-load control (frequency control), and dynamic voltage dynamic analysis problem concerns the design and control
(VAR control). Predicting stray voltages and currents as well as algorithms of power electronic interfaces (converters), for
ground potential rise of neutrals and safety grounds are of para- which possibilities are numerous. μGrid includes some typical
mount safety importance since microgrids may be installed in a control schemes and capability for modeling additional
dispersed manner across publicly accessible areas. A key schemes that may be introduced by DERs manufacturers.

Conventional
Wind Photovoltaics Generation

Market
Operations

Load

Substation
Centralized
Energy
Manager

POCC

Water
Treatment

MEM: Communication
and Control Network
MEM: Local
Energy Control Network
Storage Thermal Network
Electrolyzer H2 Fuel Electrical Network
Storage Cell
Local Protection
Elements

figure 9. GE MEM framework (source: GE Global Research).

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 85

 TOBU Sewage Treatment Plant

Digestor Gas
Digestor
Holder
Gas
Digestion
Chamber

Gas Engines Battery PV

Wood with Exhaust Heat (100 kW) (50 kW)
Steam Boiler Boilers (3 × 170 kW)
Steam Boiler
(1 t/h) (4 t/h, existing)

Heat

Konakano Koyo Koyo

Konakano
Elementary School (46 Kw) Junior High School (53 Kw) Elementary School (46 Kw)
Junior High School (60 kW)
Private
Distribution Line
(Electricity and
Communication)
PV (10 kW) WT (8 kW) PV (10 kW) WT (8 kW) 5.4 km

PCC
Hachinohe Hachinohe City Hall (360 Kw) Hachinohe City Hall
Regional Water Supply Annex
Authority (40 Kw)

PV (10 kW)
WT (2 × kW)

Commercial Grid

figure 10. Overview of the Aomori project (source: Y. Fujioka, et. al., 2006, in further reading).

DER-CAM is a fully technology-neutral optimizing operating condition. Moving leftward along the x-axis repre-
model of economic DER adoption, written in the General sents tighter and tighter carbon caps imposed on this site. For
Algebraic Modeling System software. Its objective is to example, at a 1,000-t/a cap, the optimal system still includes
minimize the cost of operating on-site generation and CHP the thermal generator, but with additional solar thermal
systems, either for an individual customer site or a micro- capacity of about 2.7 MW, and also 900 kW of PV. Using
grid (http://der.lbl.gov). Figure 7 shows some of the major DER-CAM in this way, the economically optimal combina-
energy flows within a microgrid, from fuel inputs to the left tion of equipment to install in a microgrid can be found,
to useful energy end-uses to the right. DER-CAM chooses given environmental and other constraints.
the cost-minimizing equipment installation from an arbi-
trary list of available technologies that could include solar GE Global Research Microgrid
thermal or PV, thermal and electrical storage, any thermal DOE also co-funds with General Electric (GE) a second, sep-
prime mover, heat recovery devices, and CHP equipment arate two-year, approximately US$4 million microgrid effort
including absorption cooling. Since it finds the optimal led by GE Global Research. GE aims to develop and demon-
solution, the simultaneity of CHP-powered cooling with strate a microgrid energy management (MEM) framework for
absorption chillers is considered so that, for example, the a broad set of microgrid applications that provides a unified
benefit of downsizing generator capacity is traded off controls, protection, and energy management platform (Fig-
against the cost of nonelectrical cooling equipment. An ide- ure 9). At the asset level, MEM is intended to provide
alized operating schedule including grid and other fuel pur- advanced controls for both generation and load assets that are
chases is also produced. robust with respect to low-inertia environments. At the super-
Figure 8 shows DER-CAM results for a huge building in visory level, MEM will optimize the coordinated operation of
the hot southeastern part of California. Without any concern interconnected assets in the microgrid to meet customer
for carbon emissions, this site emits about 1,275 t/a of ele- objectives such as maximizing operational efficiency, mini-
mental carbon including emissions incurred by utility-deliv- mizing cost of operation, minimizing emissions impact, etc.,
ered electricity. DER-CAM chooses a 1-MW natural gas and is also intended to enable integration of renewables and
genset and 1.4 MW of solar thermal heat recovery for this microgrid dispatchability.

86 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

 The program is being executed in two phases. The complet- dards, methods, and technologies that will support microgrid
ed Phase I of the program focused on fundamental controls and deployment. Three of these are described below.
energy management technology development guided through Primarily funded by the CEC, the first full-scale integra-
the use of case studies considered to have market potential. tion test of commercial-grade utility grid interactive DERs in
These technologies were validated in simulation on a detailed the United States, the Distributed Utility Integration Test
model of a microgrid field demonstration to be executed in (DUIT), addresses a key technical issue, namely the electrical
Phase II. A multibuilding campus will be selected to demon- implications of operating multiple and diverse DERs at high
strate the technologies in a real-world application. Upon instal- penetration levels in utility distribution networks (http://
lation of equipment, validation and verification experiments to www.dua1.com/DUIT). Thorough testing is planned of the
prove the advanced microgrid functionality will be executed, feasibility and value of co-location and integration of DERs
with scheduled completion of the project in mid 2008. into the electric distribution system.
This program is complementary to many of the concurrent IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 21 is currently
research programs in this area. For example, whereas the supporting the development of IEEE P1547.4, Draft Guide for
CERTS program is focused on the design of local, robust Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource
controls for DER in microgrids, the bulk of the GE work Island Systems with Electric Power Systems. Currently in an
focuses on the development of the outer loop supervisory initial draft stage, this document is intended to cover micro-
controls that optimize energy utilization and operating costs grids or intentional islands containing DERs connected to both
and manage the integration of intermittent renewable energy local and area islanded electric power systems (EPS). This doc-
resources such as wind and solar energy. ument provides alternative approaches and good practices for
the design, operation, and integration of the microgrid, includ-
Other U.S. Microgrid RD&D ing the ability to separate and reconnect, while providing
Finally, it should be mentioned that many other RD&D activ- power to the islanded local EPSs. This guide includes the dis-
ities under way in the United States not explicitly sailing tributed resources, interconnection systems, and participating
under the microgrid flag are nonetheless developing stan- electric power systems, and it is intended to be used by EPS

250 50.5

Frequency
200 50

150 Air Conditioner 49.5

Electricity (kW)

Frequency (Hz)
Machine (37 kW)
Started Up Battery Output

100 49
Demand

Natural Gas Genset Output

50 48.5

0 48
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)

figure 11. Frequency control characteristics in islanded operation (source: Y. Fujioka, et. al., 2006, in further reading)

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 87

 University Zone

PCC

NG Remote Measuring
250 kW
Gensets Fuel Cell and Control System
50 kWp PV 2 × 350 kW MCFC

Integrated Power Dynamic Voltage

System Restorer (DVR1)

Normal Utility Quality

DVR2
Quality Quality
A dc B1 Quality Quality
B2 B3

Clinic Laboratory Servers Nursing Classroom Dormitories Hospital Nursing

(In-Energy Center) Home Building Facilities

City-Owned Road

City Zone

Water Plant High School

figure 12. System configuration of the Sendai demonstration project (source: K. Hirose et. al., 2006, in further reading).

designers, operators, system integrators, and equipment manu- energy sources might degrade the country’s outstanding
facturers. Implementation of this guide will expand the benefits PQR. Traditionally, customers that operate fossil fuel-fired
of using DERs by targeting improved electric power system DERs, such as natural gas gensets with CHP do so base-
reliability and build upon the interconnection requirements of loaded at rated power. Others that use intermittent renewable
IEEE 1547-2003, Standard for Interconnecting Distributed sources balance supply and demand through purchased grid
Resources with Electric Power Systems. power. In either case, residual purchases from the grid are
Northern Power and the National Renewable Energy Labo- volatile. Conversely, a microgrid can contribute load-follow-
ratory (NREL) have completed a project that examines the ing capability to a utility grid by balancing its own energy
regulatory and technical issues associated with installation and requirement using controllable prime movers to balance fluc-
operation of a microgrid in rural Vermont. Northern Power tuating load and renewable output. For example, a microgrid
worked with the local electricity utility to predict the impact with electrical storage and/or gensets can potentially fully
and effects of the microgrid at the end of a low capacity distri- compensate for its intermittent renewable supply and present
bution feeder with the poor PQR typical of rural areas. itself to the grid as a constant load. This principle has moti-
vated much of the RD&D in Japan, and has led to an empha-
RD&D Activities in Japan sis on controls and electrical storage.
Japan is the current world leader in microgrid demonstration
projects. The Japanese government has set ambitious targets NEDO Microgrid Projects
for increasing the contribution of renewable energy sources, The New Energy and Industrial Technology Development
such as WT and PV, but the fluctuating power of renewable Organization (NEDO), the research funding and management

88 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

agency of the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry, The energy management system developed through this
started three demonstrations under its Regional Power Grid project optimally meets building demands for electricity and
with Renewable Energy Resources Project in 2003. These heat by controlling the output of the gensets and boilers,
field tests focus on the integration of new energy sources into together with the charging and discharging of the battery bank.
a local distribution network. Proposed microgrid projects in The control objective is to minimize operating costs and CO2
Aomori, Aichi, and Kyoto Prefectures qualified for the pro- emissions while maintaining constant power flow at the PCC.
gram, and all have a significant renewable energy component. Figure 11 shows frequency test results during a prelimi-
nary islanded operation. This microgrid is connected to the
The Aomori Project in Hachinohe commercial grid, but the test islanding operation was imple-
This microgrid was put into operation in October 2005 and is mented to verify power quality control in more detail. During
being evaluated for PQR, cost effectiveness, and GHG emis- the period shown in the figure, the microgrid disconnected,
sion reductions over a planned demonstration period lasting then with the load at around 100 kW, a 37-kW air conditioner
until March 2008. Figure 10 gives an overview of the micro- was started. Although frequency drops lower than acceptable
grid. A central feature of the system is that only renewable for commercial grids in Japan, the target of maintaining the
energy sources, including PV, WTs (together totaling 100 frequency within 50 ± 0.5 Hz was almost achieved.
kW), and biomass, are used to supply electricity and heat.
The controllable DERs consist of three 170-kW gensets (510 The Aichi Project near the Central Japan Airport
kW total) burning sewage digester gas, a 100-kW lead-acid The first NEDO demonstration project started operation at
battery bank, and a 1.0-t/h woody biomass boiler. The micro- the site of the 2005 World Exposition in March 2005. The
grid serves seven City of Hachinohe buildings. These facili- system was moved to the Central Japan Airport City near
ties are interconnected through a 6-kV, 5.4-km duplicate Nagoya in 2006, where it began operation in early 2007. It
distribution line, with the whole system connected to the now supplies a Tokoname City office builging and a sewage
commercial grid at a single PCC. From November 2005 and plant via a private distribution line. Its main feature is a com-
July 2006, primary energy consumption was reduced by bination of the following fuel cells as the main sources: two
57.3%, thanks to reduced electricity purchases, while carbon [270-kW and 300-kW molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs)],
emissions were also reduced by 47.8%. A weeklong islanding four 200-kW phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs), and a 50-
test is planned during the project period. kW solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The MCFCs use biogas

Ramea Wind-Diesel Demonstration Project

WDICS Configuration
Diesel Plant
Internet
Connection WDICS
G1 SCADA
Feeder # 1
G2
Diesel Plant 1 km
PLC Wireless
Connection
G3

Wind Plant
Feeder # 2
System
Master

PFC
Wind Plant
Control
Master

Load
Regulator
WTC WTC WTC WTC WTC WTC
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6

Frontier Power Systems

Wind Plant System
Layout Ramea, NL
15 May 2004

figure 13. Ramea integrated wind-diesel project (source: CANMET).

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 89

 While the application of DERs can potentially reduce the need
for traditional system expansion, controlling a potentially huge
number of DERs creates a daunting new challenge for operating
and controlling the network safely and efficiently.

generated from high temperature (1,200 °C) treatment of B3 is not backed up. If the grid has a momentary voltage sag
wood waste and plastic bottles. Both the MCFCs and SOFC or outage, the switch-over time for the highest quality B serv-
are baseloaded while the PAFCs load follow. Total PV capac- ice is less than 15 ms. The cost of supplying multiple power
ity is 330 kW, and a 500-kW NAS battery is used for balanc- quality levels must be less than that of existing UPS, save
ing. Experiment results of intentional islanding mode have space, and reduce low power loss.
also been obtained. The integrated power system consists of a two-way mode
power module, dc-ac inverter, dc-dc converters, and a battery
The Kyoto Project at Kyotango bank. In an outage, the battery becomes a power source and
The municipal government of Kyotango City, north of feeds to each connected load. The electric power to the highest
Kyoto, leads this first virtual microgrid demonstration proj- quality, B1, load is supplied by the two-way mode power mod-
ect covering a 40-km span called the Kyoto Eco Energy Pro- ule. The power flows of premium quality A and dc do not
ject, which started operation in December 2005. It change, and the feed of stable electric power continues without
incorporates the following generation capacities: 50-kW of an outage. A dynamic voltage restorer is used for B2, while B3
PV, 50 kW of WTs, 5 × 80-kW biogas gensets, a 250-kW equipment is limited to momentary voltage dip compensation.
MCFC, and a 100-kW battery bank. An energy control cen-
ter communicates with the DERs by internet protocol over Private Sector Microgrid RD&D
the legacy telecom network to balance demand and supply, In addition to the government-sponsored projects described
and energy is fed into the legacy distribution system. Imbal- above, significant private sector research activities are also
ances can currently be rectified over 5-minute time-steps, in progress. Shimizu Corporation, a major commercial
and shorter ones are planned. building construction company, with the cooperation of the
University of Tokyo, is developing a microgrid control sys-
NEDO’s Sendai Project Under Its Advanced tem using a test microgrid at its research center in Tokyo.
Regional Electricity Network Program The DERs include two natural gas gensets of 90 kW and
In Sendai, NEDO also sponsors a multiple PQR service 350 kW, 4 × 100-kW-400-kJ electric double layer capaci-
demonstration which was completed in October 2006. The tors, and a 200-kW × 2-h NiMH battery bank. The princi-
purpose of this research is to demonstrate multiple simultane- ple project objective is to develop an optimum operation
ous PQR supply, as may be requested by a range of customers. and control system. The target market includes urban devel-
Over the research period of 2004–2008, the goals are: opments, university campuses, and high PQR demanding
✔ to prove that multiple power quality levels can be sup- facilities, such as hospitals, banks, data centers, etc.
plied simultaneously by a microgrid Tokyo Gas also aims to establish distributed energy net-
✔ to compare the economic viability of the multiple PQR works including microgrids within its service territory. A
approach compared conventional uninterruptible power microgrid is under development that again utilizes control-
supply (UPS) equipment. lable prime movers such as natural gas gensets to compensate
The system configuration is shown in Figure 12. The for fluctuating demand and renewable output. Costly battery
Energy Center and distribution line are installed and con- capacity can also be reduced if gensets can compensate for
nected to the utility line at a single PCC. The major DERs fluctuating renewable output. Partnering with the University
are a 250-kW MCFC, two 350-kW natural gas gensets, and of Tokyo, Tokyo Gas is developing an integrated DER control
a 50-kW battery bank. The microgrid directly serves some system based on simulation studies and experiments at its test
dc loads and additionally supplies four different qualities of facility in Yokohama. The test facility includes 2 × 25-kW
ac service to a university, a high school, and a sewage plant. and 2 × 9.9-kW natural gas gensets, 2 × 6-kW WTs, 10 kW
Premium quality A service is never interrupted and is of PV, batteries, and a biogas engine is under development.
conditioned by voltage and waveform correction. A B service This microgrid will also supply three PQR levels to a build-
is supplied at three qualities, the differences based on backup ing of the Yokohama Research Institute.
during utility grid outages. The highest quality B1 supply is In Japan, multiple field tests of microgrids are demon-
backed up by storage, while B2 is backed up by a genset, and strating the technical feasibility of microgrids with a focus

90 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

on incorporating renewable energy while maintaining con- ✔ provincial governments, such as the Ontario Ministry
stant grid inflows, and on providing multiple levels of PQR, of Research and Innovation.
but clear economic and environmental benefits have not yet Microgrid related RD&D at the Canadian universities has
been demonstrated. The economic evaluation of the micro- primarily focused on:
grids is still challenging. A method for economic design and ✔ development of analytical tools to investigate perform-
optimal operation of microgrids with renewable energy ance of DERs and their host microgrid under various
sources has been proposed by the University of Tokyo. An steady-state and dynamic operating modes, with spe-
operating plan for a hybrid system consisting of PV and cial emphasis on asymmetrical conditions due to sin-
gensets with CHP has been modeled for an actual building gle-phase loads
complex consisting of a 25,000 m2 office building and a ✔ control and protection strategies for autonomous
600-unit apartment building. When running costs are mini- microgrid operation
mized, the optimal operating strategy reduces waste heat by ✔ development of control/protection strategies and the cor-
adjusting the output of the gensets and purchasing low-cost responding algorithms for electronically-coupled DERs
off-peak electricity. ✔ development of power balancing and energy manage-
ment strategies and algorithms for a microgrid that
RD&D Activities in Canada includes multiple DERs
Microgrid-related RD&D activities in Canada are focused on ✔ investigation of dynamic phenomena associated with
MV. Most were initiated in universities or as part of the microgrid islanding and re-synchronizing
Decentralized Energy Production program managed by the ✔ development of islanding detection methods for paral-
CANMET Energy Technology Center in Varennes, near lel DERs in a microgrid
Montréal, funded by the Technology and Innovation program ✔ parallel operation and interactions of electronically
of Natural Resources Canada (NRCan). Microgrid-related coupled DERs
RD&D projects in Canada are mostly carried out in collabo- ✔ determination of the maximum viable penetration of
ration with the electric utility industry, manufacturers, and DERs in a utility distribution system
other stakeholders in DER integration and utilization. ✔ investigation of the impacts of high DER penetration in
Microgrid-related RD&D in the Canadian universities has existing protection strategies, and identification of alter-
been either fully or partially supported by either the natives
✔ Federal Government of Canada through either the Nat- ✔ exploration of the role of communication technologies
ural Sciences and Engineering Research Council or in operation, control, and protection of DERs and the
NRCan or by host microgrid.

Temp – Feeder

CB2 1 2 3 5
9.7 km 4.6 km Main Substation
2.5 km
L1 L2
43 MW L4 25 / 69 kV
X/R = 1.74 R1 2×6 MW
PCC
L sub CB1 69

S2 2.8 km
Rsub 69 kV
13 12
L12 11 10 9 8 260 MW
L10 L9 L8 L7 6
X / R= 1.6
14.2 km L5
5.0 km 6.8 km 10.6 km 4.6 km
R3 16.7 km
R2

S13
S12
S9 S8
S5
S6

Wind Farm WT2 WT1 HG Hydro Gen.

1.26 – MW 3–MW
Wind Farm
2.52 – MW

figure 14. Fortis-Alberta grid-tied microgrid (source: CANMET).

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 91

 In addition to microgrid-related collaborative RD&D with uni- The unique features of the Ramea project that contribute
versity teams, NRCan also has established collaborations with the to microgrid RD&D are:
electric utility industry to conduct field tests and experiments on: ✔ investigation of impacts of the intermittent nature of wind
✔ autonomous microgrid applications for remote areas power on frequency and voltage control in an autonomous
✔ grid-interfaced microgrid applications system without the presence of energy storage
✔ planned microgrid islanding ✔ exploration of the role of communications and
✔ development of a MV test line for industrial-grade pro- SCADA in operation of a fully automated diesel-WT
totype testing and performance evaluation. system, in particular with respect to energy manage-
A brief explanation of these four microgrid related activi- ment and instability issues
ties of CETC-V are as follows. ✔ analysis and control of power quality issues.

Remote Microgrids Applications Grid-Connected Microgrid Applications

Applications of autonomous microgrids for remote loca- Key research objectives of grid-tied microgrids are to investi-
tions are mainly for electrification of electrically noninte- gate full-scale development, field demonstration, and experi-
grated areas, often geographical islands. Traditionally, mental performance evaluation of:
remote and/or inaccessible communities in Canada have ✔ frequency and voltage control methods/algorithms and
been electrically supplied almost exclusively by diesel the available technologies, under various microgrid
gensets. In addition to reducing fuel costs, the main objec- operation modes
tive of autonomous microgrid applications is to investigate ✔ transition between grid-connected and islanded modes,
and develop field experience with planning and operating and vice versa
autonomous distribution grids that imbed multiple DR ✔ high DER penetration and its impact on the host grid
units of different types; e.g., diesel gensets, WTs, and PV. and interaction phenomena between DERs.
The results of research and field tests are used to identify In this context, the Fortis-Alberta distribution system
technology requirements, and to promote electric utility shown in Figure 14 has been identified as a grid-tied micro-
acceptance of the microgrid concept. grid. The system comprises a 25-kV distribution network
An example of such a project is the Ramea wind-diesel supplied by a 65-kV/25-kV substation normally connected
system, which is shown in Figure 13. It is an autonomous to the substation as the PCC. One approach to maintaining
diesel-based system with medium wind penetration. The supply during substation maintenance periods or subsequent
system has a peak load of 1.2 MW, and the integrated wind to faults is to temporarily connect the distribution system to
installation is rated at 395 kW. While diesel remains ultimate- the 25-kV distribution feeder, marked temp-feeder in Figure
ly responsible for supplying load, the system can absorb the 14, which is supplied from a 138-kV/25-kV substation.
total generated wind power as long as diesel units unit are An alternative approach to supply the load is to form an
loaded to at least 30% of their rated capacity. island on either the entire distribution feeder or a portion of

Boston Bar Substation

Feeder 1
3 MW
Peak Load
69 kV Feeder 2
Single Line

Feeder 3 8.75 MVA

4.16/25 kV
BC Hydro 14 MW
Utility Grid 69/25 kV

4.32 MW 4.32 MW

8 MW
Power Producer
Small Hydro Plant

figure 15. BC Hydro Boston Bar microgrid (source: CANMET).

92 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

 Substation
120 kV / 25 kV
13.8 kV / 120 kV
Feeder1: 7 MVA
12: 2.5 km VWVE1
SG
2B2
Feeder2: 4 MVA
Steam Turbine M M
31 MW, pf=0.85 VWVE2

M
Feeder3: 4 MVA
M M VWVE3
L1

HQ 120 kV Transmission Line 1B2

figure 16. HQ distribution system for planned islanding site (source: Hydro Québec).

it, depending on adequate availability of power from local on grid-connected and autonomous operating modes
DERs; however, slow response of the hydro unit and the (after islanding generator protection is also extended to
intermittent nature of the WTs impose restrictions that per- feeder protection)
mit only planned islanding. Furthermore, the wind intermit- ✔ resynchronization capability to connect the
tency and hydro water level dependency impose challenges autonomous island to the BC Hydro network without
for load following while islanded. Integration of fast-acting interruption
dispatchable DERs is an option to overcome these islanding ✔ black-start capability for the hydro unit using a 50-kW
operational issues. diesel genset.
A portion of the Hydro Québec (HQ) distribution sys-
Planned Microgrid Islanding tem connected to the Senneterre substation is also under
Planned islanding is a central element within the microgrid consideration for planned microgrid islanding. The sub-
concept used to maintain continuity of supply during station supplies 15 MW of residential and commercial
planned outages; e.g., substation maintenance periods. Fig- loads (Figure 16). The substation is supplied partly by a
ure 15 shows a one-line diagram of the British Columbia 125-kV line and partly by a privately owned and operated
(BC) Hydro Boston Bar system that adopts planned island- 31-MW thermal power plant that can also export excess
ing. The system is composed of a 69-kV/25-kV substation power. Planned islanding capability is required to prevent
supplying three radial feeders. One feeder incorporates an service interruption when the 125-kV line is not avail-
8.64-islanded-MW run-of-river hydro unit operated by an able. In October 2005, islanding tests were performed
independent power producer (IPP) and a 3-MW peak load. and a 12-hour islanding about an 11-MW load was suc-
The hydro units are equipped with the capability to accom- cessfully achieved.
modate planned islanding of the corresponding feeder, Microgrid related aspects of the Seneterre experiment are:
depending on generation availability, and the status of adja- ✔ control and mitigation of transients during switching to
cent feeder(s). islanded operation, based on load and generation bal-
The microgrid-related operating aspects of the project are: ancing prior to islanding
✔ load management of the island, including the two adja- ✔ stability based on a generator speed-droop governor
cent feeders control
✔ load-following capability with limited frequency fluc- ✔ protection coordination for the island
tuations ✔ power quality provision for specific loads during
✔ two modes of generator control and protection based autonomous operation.

july/august 2007 IEEE power & energy magazine 93

 Development of MV Test Line Okudera, and S. Uesaka, “Regional power grid with renew-
This project aims to upgrade one of HQ’s MV distribution lines able energy resources: A demonstrative project in Hachino-
for testing various concepts, methods, algorithms, and technolo- he,” CIGRE 2006, Paris, August 2006.
gies related to DER integration, smart distribution system con- K. Hirose, T. Takeda, and S. Muroyama, “Study on field
cepts, and microgrids. The test line, after upgrade, will provide demonstration of multiple power quality levels system in
an automated decentralized electricity network test site Sendai,” in Proc. INTELEC 2006, pp. 1–6, Sept. 2006.
(AIDENTS) including industrial-scale DERs, controllable linear RETScreen International, “Wind energy project—Isolated
and nonlinear loads, and power quality measurement devices. island community” [online]. Available: http://www.retscreen.
net/ang/t_case_studies.php.
Conclusions R. Fulton and C. Abbey, “Planned islanding of 8.6 MVA
Microgrids are a future power system configuration providing IPP for BC Hydro system reliability,” in Proc. 1st Int. Conf.
clear economic and environmental benefits compared to expan- Integration of RE and DEF, Brussels, Belgium, Dec. 2004.
sion of our legacy modern power systems. It is clear that devel-
opment of microgrid concepts and technologies requires Biographies
considerable effort to resolve numerous economic, commercial, Nikos Hatziargyriou received a Diploma in Electrical and
and technical challenges. Extensive RD&D efforts are therefore Mechanical Engineering from the National Technical Uni-
in progress, especially in Europe, the United States, Japan, and versity of Athens (NTUA) and the MSC and Ph.D. degrees
Canada, to provide efficient solutions and to demonstrate from UMIST, Manchester, England. Since 1984 he has been
microgrid operating concepts in laboratories and in pilot instal- with the Power Division of the School of Electrical and
lations. Close cooperation and exchange of information among Computer Engineering of NTUA, where he has been a full
these activities in the form of international symposiums has professor since 1985. His research interests include distrib-
proven highly beneficial for the advancement of the relevant uted energy resources and dynamic security analysis. He is a
research. Coordinated, joint RD&D efforts are expected to pro- senior member of IEEE, member of CIGRE SCC6, and
vide further mutual benefits for the research parties involved. member of the EU Technology Platform on Future Power
The emergence of microgrids may ultimately radically Systems (SmartGrids). He is elected Vice-president of the
change the way our ever expanding electricity demand is met, Public Power Corporation (PPC) of Greece and a member of
especially in places currently poorly served by the traditional its Administrative Council.
power system. Hiroshi Asano received the B.Eng., M.Eng., and D.Eng.
degrees in electrical engineering from the University of
Acknowledgments Tokyo. He is currently a professor at the University of Tokyo
The authors have drawn upon the assistance of many in the and a senior research scientist with the Central Research
preparation of this article. Of particular assistance have been Institute of Electric Power Industry in Tokyo, Japan. His
Sumit Bose (GE), Lisa Dignard-Bailey (NRCan), Toshihisa research interests include modeling and control of distributed
Funabashi (Meidensha), Susan Horgan (DUIT), Nicole Jenkins energy resources. He is a member of the IEEE and a senior
(U. of Manchester), Farid Katiraei (NRCan), Ben Kroposki member of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan.
(NREL), Jonathan Lynch (Northern), Satoshi Morozumi Reza Iravani received his B.Sc. degree in electrical engi-
(NEDO), Carl Brothers (Frontier), Jaoa Peças Lopes (INESC neering from Polytechnique University, Tehran, and worked
Porto), Mark Rawson (SMUD), Manuel Sánchez Jiméz (E.C.), as a consulting engineer from 1976 to 1979. Subsequently he
Goran Strbac (Imperial), and Bernard Treanton (CEC). received his Masters and Ph.D. degrees also in electrical
engineering from the University of Manitoba, Canada. Cur-
For Further Reading rently, he is a professor at the University of Toronto and his
European Commission (Apr. 2006), “European SmartGrids research interests include modeling and control of power
technology platform: Vision and strategy for Europe’s elec- electronic converters, distributed resources, and power sys-
tricity networks of the future” [online]. Available: http://ec. tems. He is an IEEE Fellow and a professional engineer in
europa.eu/research/energy/pdf/smartgrids_en.pdf. Ontario, Canada.
B. Buchholz, A. Engler, N. Hatziargyriou, J. Scholtes, U. Chris Marnay has a Ph.D. in Energy and Resources from
Schluecking, and I. Furones Fartos, “Lessons learned: European the University of California, Berkeley, and has worked at
pilot installations for distributed generation. An overview by the Berkeley Lab since 1984, where he is a member of the Con-
IRED cluster,” CIGRE 2006, Paris, August 2006, paper C6-302. sortium for Electrical Reliability Solutions (CERTS) team.
R. Lasseter, A. Abbas, C. Marnay, J. Stevens, J. Dagle, R. His group has recently focused on developing methods for
Guttromson, A. Sakis Meliopoulos, R. Yinger, and J. Eto, the economic evaluation of on-site power generation in build-
“Integration of distributed energy resources: The CERTS ings, especially where cooling is required. He has served in
microgrid concept,” California Energy Commission, P500- various consulting capacities and in 2006, he spent two
03-089F, Oct. 2003. months visiting the University of Kitakyushu as a Japan Soci-
Y. Fujioka, H. Maejima, S. Nakamura, Y. Kojima, M. ety for the Promotion of Science Fellow. p&e

94 IEEE power & energy magazine july/august 2007

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