DATABASES MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND SQL

DBMS & Structured Query Language

Basic Database concepts

Data : Raw facts and figures which are useful to an organization. We cannot take
decisions on the basis of data.
Information: Well processed data is called information. We can take decisions on
the basis of information
Field: Set of characters that represents specific data element.
Record: Collection of fields is called a record. A record can have fields of
different data types.
File: Collection of similar types of records is called a file.
Table: Collection of rows and columns that contains useful data/information is
called a table. A table generally refers to the passive entity which is kept in
secondary storage device.
Relation: Relation (collection of rows and columns) generally refers to an active
entity on which we can perform various operations.
Database: Collection of logically related data along with its description is termed
as database.
Tuple: A row in a relation is called a tuple.
Attribute: A column in a relation is called an attribute. It is also termed as field or
data item.
Degree: Number of attributes in a relation is called degree of a relation.
Cardinality: Number of tuples in a relation is called cardinality of a relation.
Primary Key: Primary key is a key that can uniquely identifies the records/tuples
in a relation. This key can never be duplicated and NULL.
Foreign Key: Non key attribute of a table acting as primary key in some other
table is known as Foreign Key in its current table. This key is used to enforce
referential integrity in RDBMS.
Candidate Key: Attributes of a table which can serve as a primary key are called
candidate key.
Alternate Key: All the candidate keys other than the primary keys of a relation are
alternate keys for a relation.
DBA: Data Base Administrator is a person (manager) that is responsible for
defining the data base schema, setting security features in database, ensuring
proper functioning of the data bases etc.
Select Operation: The select operation selects tuples from a relation which satisfy
a given condition. It is denoted by lowercase Greek Letter σ (sigma).
Project Operation: The project operation selects columns from a relation which
satisfy a given condition. It is denoted by lowercase Greek Letter π (pi). It can be
thought of as picking a sub set of all available columns.
Union Operation: The union (denoted as ∪) of a collection of relations is the set
of all distinct tuples in the collection. It is a binary operation that needs two
relations.
Set Difference Operation: This is denoted by – (minus) and is a binary operation.
It results in a set of tuples that are in one relation but not in another
-Structured Query Language

SQL is a non procedural language that is used to create, manipulate and process the
databases(relations).
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL contains commands that are used to create the tables, databases, indexes,
views, sequences and synonyms etc.
e.g: Create table, create view, create index, alter table etc.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
DML contains commands that can be used to manipulate the data base objects and
to query the databases for information retrieval.
e.g Select, Insert, Delete, Update etc.
3. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
TCL include commands to control the transactions in a data base system. The
commonly used commands in TCL are COMMIT, ROLLBACK etc.
- Operators in SQL: The following are the commonly used operators in SQL
1. Arithmetic Operators +, -, *, /
2. Relational Operators =, <, >, <=, >=, <>
3. Logical Operators OR, AND, NOT
-Data types of SQL: Just like any other programming language, the facility of
defining data of various types is available in SQL also. Following are the most
common data types of SQL.
1) NUMBER e.g. Number(n,d) Number (5,2)
2) CHAR CAHR(SIZE)
3) VARCHAR / VARCHAR2 VARCHAR2(SIZE)
4) DATE DD-MON-YYYY

- Constraints: Constraints are the conditions that can be enforced on the attributes
of a relation. The constraints come in play when ever we are trying to insert, delete
or update a record in a relation.

Not null ensures that we cannot leave a column as null. That is a value has to be
supplied for that column.
e.g. name varchar(25) not null
Unique constraint means that the values under that column are always unique.
e.g. Roll_no number(3) unique
Primary key constraint means that a column can not have duplicate values and not
even a null value.
e.g. Roll_no number(3) primary key
The main difference between unique and primary key constraint is that a column
specified as unique may have null value but primary key constraint does not allow
null values in the column.
Foreign key is used to enforce referential integrity and is declared as a primary key
in some other table.
e.g. cust_id varchar(5) references master(cust_id)
it declares cust_id column as a foreign key that refers to cust_id field of table
master.
That means we cannot insert that value in cust_id filed whose corresponding value
is not present in cust_id field of master table. Moreover we can’t delete any row in
master table , if a corresponding value of cust_id field is existing in the dependent
table.
Check constraint limits the values that can be inserted into a column of a table.
e.g. marks number(3) check(marks>=0)
The above statement declares marks to be of type number and while inserting or
updating the value in marks it is ensured that its value is always greater than or
equal to zero.
Default constraint is used to specify a default value to a column of a table
automatically. This default value will be used when user does not enter any value
for that column.
e.g. balance number(5) default = 0 47

 SQL COMMANDS :
1. Create Table command is used to create a table . The syntax of this Command
is:

CREATE TABLE <Table_name>

( column_name 1 data_type1 [(size) column_constraints],
column_name 1 data_type1 [(size) column_constraints],
:
:
[<table_constraint> (column_names)] );
2. The ALTER Table command is used to change the definition (structure) of
existing table.

ALTER TABLE <Table_name> ADD/MODIFY <Column_defnition>; For Add or

modify column
ALTER TABLE <Table_name> DROP COLUMN <Column_name>; For Deleting
a column
3. The INSERT Command: The rows (tuples) are added to a table by using
INSERT command. The syntax of Insert command is:

INSERT INTO <table_name> [(<column_list>)] VALUES (<value_list>);

e.g.,
INSERT INTO EMP (empno, ename, sex, sal, deptno) VALUES(1001, ’Ravi’,
’M’, 4500.00, 10);
If the order of values matches the actual order of columns in table then it is not
required to give the column_list in INSERT command. e.g.
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(1001, ’Ravi’, ’M’, 4500.00, 10);
4. The Update command is used to change the value in a table. The syntax of this
command is:

UPDATE <table_name>
SET column_name1=newvalue1/expression
[,column_name2=newvalue2/expression,……]
WHERE <condition>;
e.g., to increase the salary of all the employees of department No 10 by 10% , then
command will be:
UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal*1.1
WHERE Deptno=10;
5. The DELETE command removes rows from a table. This removes the entire
rows, not individual field values. The syntax of this command is

DELETE FROM <table_name>

[WHERE <condition>];
e.g., to delete the tuples from EMP that have salary less than 2000, the following
command is used:
DELETE FROM emp WHERE sal<2000;
To delete all tuples from emp table:
DELETE FROM emp;
6. The SELECT command is used to make queries on database. A query is a
command that is given to produce certain specified information from the database
table(s). The SELECT command can be used to retrieve a subset of rows or
columns from one or more tables. The syntax of Select Command is:

SELECT <Column-list>
FROM <table_name>
[WHERE <condition>]
[GROUP BY <column_list>]
[HAVING <condition>]
[ORDER BY <column_list [ASC|DESC ]>]
The select clause list the attributes desired in the result of a query.
e.g.,To display the names of all Employees in the emp relation:
select ename from emp;
To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after select.
Find the number of all departments in the emp relations, and remove duplicates
select distinct deptno from emp; 48
An asterisk (*) in the select clause denotes “all attributes”
SELECT * FROM emp;
The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the operation, +, –,
*, and /, and operating on constants or attributes of tuples. The query:
SELECT empno, ename, sal * 12 FROM emp;
would display all values same as in the emp relation, except that the value of the
attribute sal is multiplied by 12.
The WHERE clause in SELECT statement specifies the criteria for selection of
rows to be returned.
Conditions based on a range (BETWEEN Operator): The Between operator
defines a range of values that the column values must fall in to make condition true
. The range includes both lower value and upper value.

e.g., Find the empno of those employees whose salary between 90,000 and 100,000
(that is, 90,000 and 100,000)
SELECT empno FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 90000 AND 100000;
- Conditions based on a list (IN operator): To specify a list of values , IN
operator is used. IN operator selects values that match any value in a given list of
values.

For example , to display a list of members from ‘DELHI’, ‘MUMBAI’,

‘CHENNAI’ or ‘BANGALORE’ cities :
SELECT * FROM members WHERE city IN (‘DELHI’, ‘MUMBAI’,
‘CHENNAI’ , ‘BANGALORE’) ;
The NOT IN operator finds rows that do not match in the list. So if you write
SELECT * FROM members WHERE city NOT IN (‘DELHI’, ‘MUMBAI’,
‘CHENNAI’ , ‘BANGALORE’) ;
It will list members not from the cities mentioned in the list.
- Conditions based on Pattern: SQL also includes a string-matching operator,
LIKE, for comparison on character string using patterns. Patterns are described
using two special wildcard characters:
Percent (%) – ‘%’ matches any substring(one,more than one or no character).
Underscore (_) – ‘_’ character matches exactly one character.
- Patterns are case-senstive.
-Like keyword is used to select row contaning columns that match a wildcard
pattern.
-The keyword not like is used to select the row that do not match the specified
patterns of characters.
-Searching for NULL: The NULL value in a column is searched for in a table
using IS NULL in the WHERE clause (Relational Operators like =,<> etc can not
be used with NULL).

For example, to list details of all employees whose departments contain NULL
(i.e., novalue), you use the command:
SELECT empno, ename FROM emp Where Deptno IS NULL;
- ORDER BY Clause: Whenever a select query is executed the resulting rows are
displayed in the order in which the exist in the table. You can sort the result of a
query in a specific order using ORDER BY clause. The ORDER BY clause allow
sorting of query result by one or more columns. The sorting can be done either in
ascending or descending order.

Note:- If order is not specifies that by default the sorting will be performed in
ascending order.
-GROUP BY Clause: The GROUP BY clause groups the rows in the result by
columns that have the same values. Grouping is done on column name. It can also
be performed using aggregate functions in which case the aggregate function
produces single value for each group.
- Aggregate Functions: These functions operate on the multiset of values of a
column of a relation, and return a value

avg: average value

min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
-HAVING Clause: The HAVING clause place conditions on groups in contrast to
WHERE clause that place conditions on individual rows. While WHERE condition
cannot include aggregate functions, HAVING conditions can do so. e.g.,
Select avg(sal), sum(sal) from emp group by deptno having deptno=10;
Select job, count(*) from emp group by job having count(*)<3;
7. The DROP Command : The DROP TABLE command is used to drop (delete)
a table from database. But there is a condition for droping a table ; it must be an
empty table i.e. a table with rows in it cannot be dropped.The syntax of this
command is :

DROP TABLE <Table_name>;

e.g.,
DROP TABLE EMP;
8. Query Based on Two table (Join):
SELECT <Column-list>
FROM <table_name1>,<table_name2>
WHERE <Join_condition>[AND condition];
9. Qualified Names :
<tablename>.<fieldname>
This type of field names are called qualified field names and are used to
identifying a field if the two joining tables have fields with same name.