1

Chapt
er-5
Sof
twar
eQual
i
tyAssur
anceandSecur
it
y

10.
ProjectSchedul i
ng:
I nprojectmanagement ,ascheduleconsi stofal istofproject
ter
mi nal el
ement s,withint
endedst artdat eandf ini
shdat e.
 Thes/ wpr ojectschedulingdistri
butesest imat edefforts
acrosst heplannedpr ojectperi
odbyal locat i
ngt heef f
ortto
parti
culars/ wengi neeri
ngtasks.
 Therear emanyt asksinas/ wpr oject
.Thepr ojectmanager
defi
nesal l
thet askandgener atestheschedul e.
I ni
ti
allyamacr oscopicscheduleisdev eloped, identi
fyi
ngal l
majorpr ocessf ramewor kactiv
iti
esandt hent hedetailed
scheduleofspeci f
ictasksareident i
fi
edandschedul ed.

11.Fact
orst
hatdel
ayPr
ojectSchedul
e
 Althought her earemanyr easonswhysof t
warei sfail
,most
canbet racedt ooneormor eoft hef oll
owingr ootcauses:
 Anunr eal i
sticdeadlineest abli
shedbysomeoneout si
det he
softwar eteam andf orcedonmanager sandpr actiti
oners.
 Changi ngcust omerr equir
ement sthatar enotref l
ectedin
schedul echanges.
 Anhonestunder esti
mat eoftheamountofef fortand/ orthe
numberofr esourcest hatwillber equiredtodot hejob.
 Predictableand/ orunpr edictableriskst hatwerenotconsi dered
whenpr ojectcommenced.
 Technical diffi
culti
est hatcouldnothav ebeenf oreseeninadv ance.
 Humandi ff
icult
iesthatcoul dnothav ebeenf oreseeni nadv ance.
 Miscommuni cationamongpr ojectstaffthatresultsindelay s.
 Af ail
urebypr oj
ectmanagementt or ecognizethatt heprojectis
fal
lingbehi ndschedul eandal ackofact iontocor rectthe
problem.

12.Pr
inci
plesofPr
ojectSchedul
ing:
 Compar
tment
ali
zat
ion:
Thepr
ojectmustbecompar
tment
ali
zed
 i
ntoanumberofmanageabl eact i
vi
ti
esandt asks.
I nter
dependency :Thei nterdependencyofeach
compar tment ali
zedact ivit
yort askmustbedet ermined.
 Timeal locat i
on: Eacht askt obeschedul edmustbeal l
ocated
somenumberofwor kuni t
s( e.g.,person‐daysofeffort
).
 Effortvalidation:thepr ojectmanagermustensur ethatnomor e
thant heal l
ocat ednumberofpeopl ehav ebeenschedul edatany
givent i
me.
 Def i
nedr esponsi bil
iti
es: Everyt askshoul dbeassignedt oa
specificteam member
 Def i
nedout comes: Everytaskshoul dhav eadef i
nedout come.
 Vii
.Def inedmi l
estones: Ev erytaskorgr oupoft asks
shouldbeassoci atedwi thapr ojectmi l
estone.
v ii
i.Ami l
estonei saccompl i
shedwhenoneormor ework
product shasbeenr eviewedf orqualityandhasbeenappr oved.

13.Projectschedulecan betracked byusing di

ff
erent
scheduli
ngt ool
sandt echni
ques.Pr ogr
am Eval
uation
ReviewTechnique(PERT)
i. PERT, isusedi nproject sthathaveunpr edict
abletasksand
acti
v i
ti
essuchasi nr esearchanddev elopmentproj ect
s.
i
i. Ituti
li
zest hreeestimat esoft hetimet ocompl et
et heproj
ect:
themostpr obable,themostpr omi sing, andthemost
unfavorable.ii
i.I
tisapr obabili
sti
ct ool.
i
i
i. i
V)I tusessev eralestimat estodet ermi nethetimecompl eti
on
ofthepr oj
ectandcont rolsact i
vit
iessot hati
twillbe
compl etedfasterandatal owercost .
14.Cr
it
icalPat
hMet
hod(
CPM)
:
 CPM i sat echniquethatisusedi nproj
ectsthathave
predictableact i
vi
ti
esandt askssuchasi nconstruct
ion
projects.
I tal
lowspr ojectpl
annerstodecidewhi chaspectofthe
projectt oreduceorincreasewhenat r
ade-offi
sneeded.
I ti
sadet ermi ni
sti
ctoolandpr ovi
desanest i
mat eonthe
costandt heamountoft i
met ospendinor dertocomplete
thepr oject.
I tal
lowspl annerstocontrolboththeti
meandcostoft heproj
ect
.
15.Di
ff
erencePERTVsCPM
 ThePr
ogr
am Ev
aluat
ionandRev
iewTechni
que(
PERT)i
s
 suit
ablef orprojectst hathav eunpredict
abl eactivi
ti
eswhi lethe
Crit
ical PathMet hod( CPM)i ssui t
ableforpr oject
st hathave
predictableactivit
ies.
 CPM usesasi ngleest i
mat eforthet i
met hatapr ojectcanbe
compl etedwhi lePERTusest hreeestimatesf orthet i
met hatit
canbecompl eted.
 CPM i sadet ermi nist
icprojectmanagementt oolwhi l
e
PERTi sapr obabili
sti
cpr ojectmanagementt ool.
 CPM al lowspr ojectmanagementpl anner
st odeterminewhi ch
aspectoft hepr ojectt osacrif
icewhenat rade-offisneededi n
ordertocompl etet heprojectwhilePERTdoesnot .

16.Ti
me-
LineChar
tsorGant
tchar
t:
 At i
me- li
nechar tcanbedev elopedfortheenti
reprojector
separat echartscanbedev elopedforeachprojectfunct i
onorfor
eachi ndivi
dual worki
ngont hepr oj
ect.
 Allprojecttasks( f
orconceptscoping)areli
stedinthel eft
-handcol
umn.
 Thehor i
zontalbarsindi
catethedur at
ionofeachtask.
 Whenmul t
iplebarsoccuratthesamet i
meont hecal endar,
taskconcur rencyisimpli
ed.
 Thedi amondsi ndi
catemilestones.

17.Ti
mel
ineChar
ts:
Ta We We We We Wee

Ta
s
Ta
s
Ta
s
Ta
s
Ta
s
Ta
s
Ta
s
 7

18.ConceptofTaskNet
wor
k:
 At asknet wor k,alsocal l
edanact i
vit
ynet work,i
sa
graphi crepresent at i
onoft het askflowf oraproject.
I ti
st hemechani sm t hroughwhi cht asksequenceand
dependenci esar ei nputtoanaut omat edprojectscheduli
ngt ool
.
I nitssimpl estf orm, t
het asknet workdepictsmaj or
softwar eengi neer ingtasks.
 Theconcur rentnat ureofsof twareengi neer
ingact i
vit
ies
l
eadst oanumberofi mpor t
antschedul ingrequir
ement s.
I naddi ti
on,t hepr ojectmanagershoul dbeawar eoft hosetasks
thatlieont hecr i
ticalpath.
 Thati s,taskst hatmustbecompl et
edonschedul eifthe
projectasawhol ei stobecompl etedonschedul e.
 8

19.Way
sofPr
ojectTr
acki
ng:
 Tracking:-canbeaccompl i
shedi ndiff
erentway s:
 Conduct i
ngper i
odi cprojectstatusmeet i
ngsi nwhi cheach
team memberr epor t
spr ogressandpr oblems.
 Evaluati
ngt heresultsofal lr
ev i
ewsconduct edthroughoutt
he
softwareengineeringpr ocess.
 Determiningwhet herf ormal projectmilestoneshav e
beenaccompl i
shedbyt heschedul eddate.
 Compar ingactual start-
datet oplannedst art-dateforeachpr
ojectt
ask.
 Meet i
ngi nfor
mallywi thpractiti
oner stoobt aintheir
subjecti
veassessmentofpr ogr esst odateandpr obl
ems
onthehor i
zon.

Pr
oject
Whatcango
Whatisthe
Whatwt
h
i
lldamage

20.Management
:
  Softwarerisk:Asof twarer i
ski sany thi
ngwhichcancausea
delayinsoftwareorst opst hepr ogressofasystem oreven
terminatesthesoftwar epr oject .
 Riskisanexpect ationofl oss, apotentialpr
obl
em thatmayor
maynotoccuri nthef uture.
I ti
sgener all
ycausedduet ol ackofi nf
ormati
on,control
orti
me.
 Apossi bil
i
tyofsuff eri
ngf rom l oss.
 Losscanbeany thing,increasei nproducti
oncost,devel
opment
ofpoorqual i
tysoftwar e,notbei ngabletocompletetheproj
ect
ont i
me.
17

1.Qual
i
ty(
Q)
2.Qual
i
tycont
rol
(QC)
3.Qual
i
tyassur
ance(
QA)
4.Costofqual
i
ty

Qual
41. it
y
Wedefi
nequali
tyasachar
acter
isti
coratt
ri
but
esofsomet
hing.eg.pr
ogr
ams
i
ncl
udecomplexi
ty,
numberoffuncti
ons,
li
neofcodeet
c.
Twoki
ndsofqual
it
yar
e:
 Qual
it
yofdesign:char
acter
ist
ict
hatdesignersspeci
fyf
oran
i
tem.Itencompassesrequi
rement
s,specif
icati
onsanddesi
gn
oft
hesy st
em.
 Quali
tyofconfor
mance:
thedegr
eet
owhichthedesi
gn
speci
ficat
ionsar
efol
l
owedduri
ngmanuf
actur
ing.
I
fimpl
ementat
ionf
oll
owsthedesi
gn,resul
ti
ngsyst
em meet
sits
r
equi
rement
sandperfor
mancegoals,
conformancequal
i
tywil
lbehi
gh.
 Usersati
sfact
ion=compl
i
antpr
oduct
+goodqual
i
ty+del
i
ver
ywi
thi
n
budgetandschedule.
Qual
42. it
ycont
rol
:
 Qual
it
ycontr
oli
nvolvesser
iesofi
nspect
ions,
rev
iews,
test
sused
t
hroughoutt
heprocess.
I
tincl
udesaf
eedbackl
oopt
othepr
ocess.
 Akeyconceptofquali
tycont
rol
isthatal
lworkpr
oducthavedef
ined,
specif
icat
ionsar
ecomparedandfeedbackl
oopisessent
ialt
o
minimizethedef
ect
sproduced.
 Qual
43. it
yassur
ance:
 Qual
it
yassur
anceassesstheef
fect
ivenessandcompl
etenessof
qual
i
tycont
rolact
ivi
ti
es.
18

 Thegoal ofQuali
tyassuranceistoprovi
demanagementwi
ththedata
necessaryaboutproductquali
ty,
gaini
ngconf
idencet
hatpr
oductqual
it
y
i
smeet ingit
sgoal.
Ifnoti
tsmanagementsresponsi
bil
ityt
oaddresstheprobl
em and
applyt
henecessar
yresourcestoresol
vequali
tyi
ssues.

Costofqual
44. it
y:
I
tisdi
vi
dedi
nto:
Prev
ent
ioncost
-includesqual
i
typl
anni
ng,
for
mal
techni
cal
rev
iews,
test
equi
pmentandt
esting.
Appr
aisalcost
-incl
udespr
ocessi
nspect
ion,
equi
pmentcal
i
brat
ion,
mai
ntenance.
Fai
lur
ecost
-
Int
ernal
fail
urecost-whenwedetectadef
ecti
nourpr
oductpr
iort
o
shi
pment .I
tincl
udesrewor
k,r
epairet
c.
 Ext
ernalfai
lur
ecost-Defect
sfoundaftertheproducthasbeenshi
pped
tothecustomer.Iti
ncludesresol
uti
on,repl
acement ,hel
pli
nesuppor
t
andwarrantywork.
Sof
45. twar
eQual
i
tyAssur
ance-
SQA:
 Softwarequal
ityassuranceiscomposedofav ar
ietyoftasksassoci
ated
withtwodiff
erentaspectsthesof t
war eengineer
swhodot echni
calwork
andanSQAgr oupthathasr esponsibi
li
tyforQApl anni
ng,oversi
ght,
recordkeepi
ng,analysi
s,andr epor
ting.
 Soft
wareengineer
saddr essquali
ty(andperfor
m quali
tyassuranceand
qual
it
ycontrolact
ivi
ti
es)byapplyingsoli
dtechnical
met hodsand
measures,
conductingformaltechni
calrevi
ews,andperformingwell
-
pl
annedsoftwaretesti
ng.
Act
46. ivi
ti
esofSQA:
1)
Prepar
eanSQApl
anf
orapr
oject
:
Thepl
anisdev
elopeddur
ingpr
ojectpl
anni
ngandi
srev
iewedbyal
li
nter
est
ed
par
ti
es.
•Thepl
ani
dent
if
ies
>ev
aluat
ionst
obeper
for
med
>audi
tsandr
evi
ewst
obeper
for
med
>st
andar
dst
hatar
eappl
i
cabl
etot
hepr
oject

19

>pr
ocedur
esf
orer
rorr
epor
ti
ngandt
racki
ng
>document
stobepr
oducedbyt
heSQAgr
oup
>amountoff
eedbackpr
ovi
dedt
othesof
twar
epr
ojectt
eam.
2)
Par
ti
cipat
eint
hedev
elopmentoft
hepr
oject
’ssof
twar
epr
ocessdescr
ipt
ion:
Thesof
twar
eteam sel
ect
sapr
ocessf
ort
hewor
ktobeper
for
med.
TheSQAgr ouprevi
ewsthepr
ocessdescr
ipt
ionf
orcompl
i
ancewi
th
organi
zat
ionalpol
i
cy,i
nter
nal
sof
twar
estandards,
ext
ernall
yimposedst
andar
ds(
e.g.
,I
SO-
9001)
,andot
her
par
tsoft
hesoftwarepr
ojectplan.
3)Revi
ewsoft
wareengi
neeri
ngact
ivi
ti
est
over
if
ycompl
iancewi
tht
he
defi
nedsof
twarepr
ocess.
•TheSQAgroupidenti
fi
es,document
s,andtracksdev
iat
ionsf
rom t
he
pr
ocessandver
if
iesthatcorr
ecti
onshavebeenmade.
4)Audi
tsar
edesi
gnedfors/wwor
kpr
oduct
stov
eri
fycompl
iancewi
tht
hose
defi
nedasapar
tofprocess.
•Ver
if
ythatcor
rect
ionshavebeenmadeandper
iodi
cal
l
yrepor
tst
he
r
esul
tsofi
tsworktotheproj
ectmanager
.
5) Ensur et
hatdeviati
onsinsoftwareworkandworkpr oductsare
documentedandhandl edaccordi
ngt oadocumentedprocedure.Deviat
ions
maybeencount er
edint heproj
ectplan,pr
ocessdescr
ipti
on,appli
cable
standar
ds,ort
echnicalworkproducts.
6) Recor dsanynoncompli
anceandrepor
tstoseni
ormanagement
.
Noncompl
ianceit
emsar et
rackedunt
ilt
heyarer
esolv
ed.
ConceptofSt
47. ati
sti
calSQA:
St
ati
sti
calSQAr ef
lect
sgrowi
ngtrendt
hroughouti
ndust
ryt
obecome
morequanti
tat
iveaboutqual
it
y.
1.I
nfor
mat
ionabouts/
wdef
ect
siscol
l
ect
edandcat
egor
ized.
2.Tr
acki
ngfundament
alcausesofdefect
s.(desi
gner
ror
,vi
olat
ionof
st
andar
d,poorcommunicat
ion,
inaccur
atedocument
ati
on)
3.useofparet
opr i
nci
ple.(
80%ofdef
ect
scanbet
racedt
o20%ofal
l
possi
blecauses)
4.Oncethecauseshavebeenident
if
ied,
mov
etocor
rectt
hepr
obl
em
t
hathavecausedthedefect
s.
 20

Qual
48. it
yEv
aluat
ionSt
andar
ds:
01. Si
xSi
gmaf
ors/
wengi
neer
ing.
02. I
SO:
9000f
orsof
twar
e
Si
01. xsi
gmaf
orsof
twar
e:
 SixSi
gmaisthemostwidel
yusedstrat
egyf
orstat
ist
ical
quali
ty
assur
ancei
nindust
ryt
oday.Ori
ginal
l
ypopul
ari
zedbyMot or
olaint
he
1980s.
 TheSixSigmast rat
egy-isar i
gorousanddiscipl
inedmethodol
ogyt
hat
usesdataandst ati
sti
calanaly
sistomeasureandi mprov
eacompany '
s
operat
ional
performancebyi denti
fyi
ngandel i
minati
ngdefect
sin
manufactur
ingandser vi
ce-rel
atedprocesses.
 Thet er
m SixSi
gmaisderi
vedfrom si
xstandar
ddevi
ati
onsinst
ances
(defect
s)permil
li
onoccur
rencesi
mpl y
inganextr
emelyhi
ghquali
ty
standard.

DMAI
49. CandDMADV:
Si
xsi
gmamet
hodol
ogydef
inest
hreecor
est
eps:
Thesecoreandaddit
ionalstepsaresometi
mesr ef
err
edtoast
heDMAI
C
(Def
ine,
Measure,Analyze,
Improve,andContr
ol)method.
 Def
inecust
omerrequir
ementsanddel
iv
erabl
esandpr
ojectgoal
svi
awel
l
-
def
inedmethodsofcustomercommuni
cati
on.
 Measur
etheexi
sti
ngprocessandi
tsoutputtodet
ermi
necur
rent
qual
i
typer
for
mance(coll
ectdef
ectmetr
ics).
 Anal
yzedef
ectmet
ri
csanddet
ermi
net
hev
ital
fewcauses.
Ifanexi
sti
ngs/
wprocessi
sinplace,buti
mpr
ovementi
srequi
red,
sixsi
gmasuggestt
woaddi
tionalst
eps:-
I
mpr
ovet
hepr
ocessbyel
i
minat
ingt
her
ootcausesofdef
ect
s.
 Control
thepr
ocesstoensur
ethatf
utur
ewor
kdoesnotr
eint
roducet
he
causesofdef
ects.
I
fanorgani
zat
ionisdev
elopingasoft
wareprocess(r
athert
han
i
mprov
inganex i
sti
ngprocess)
,thest
epsareasfoll
ows:-
 Desi
gnt
hepr
ocesst
oav
oidt
her
ootcausesofdef
ect
sandt
omeet
 cust
omerr
equi
rement
.

21

 Verif
ythatt
hepr
ocessmodel
wil
lav
oiddef
ect
sandmeetcust
omer
requi
rement.
 Thevar
iat
ioni
ssomet
imescal
l
edasDMADV(
Def
ine,
Measur
e,Anal
yze,
Desi
gnandVeri
fymet
hod.
)
I
50.SO9000f
orsof
twar
e:
I
nter
nat
ional
setofst
andar
dsf
orqual
i
tymanagement
.
 Qual
i
tystandardsandpr
oceduresmustbedocument
edi
nan
or
ganizat
ional
quali
tymanual
 Anext
ernal
bodyisoft
enusedt
ocer
ti
fyt
hatt
hequal
i
tymanual
conf
orms
toI
SO9000standar
ds
 2

I
51.SOpr
inci
ples/
standar
dswi
thbenef
it
s:
1.Cust
omerf
ocus
2.Leader
shi
p
3.I
nvol
vementofPeopl
e.
4.Pr
ocessappr
oach5.Sy
stem appr
oach6.Cont
inual
impr
ovement
.
5.Fact
ual
appr
oacht
odeci
sionmaki
ng
6.Mut
ual
l
ybenef
ici
alsuppl
i
err
elat
ionshi
ps.
CMMI
52.
 Def
ini
ti
on-Capabi
li
tyMat
urit
yModelIntegrat
ion(CMMI)i
saprocess
i
mprovement appr
oach that hel
ps organi
zati
ons i
mprov
es thei
r
per
for
mance.
 CMMI( Capabi
li
ty Mat
uri
tyModelI nt
egrat
ion)is a pr
oven indust
ry
fr
ameworktoimproveproductqual
it
yanddev el
opmenteffi
ciencyfor
bothhar
dwareandsoft
ware.Obj
ecti
vesofCMMI :
Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives:
>Est
abl
i
shEst
imat
es
23

>Dev
elopaPr
ojectPl
an
>Obt
ainCommi
tmentt
othePl
an
Gener
icObj
ect
ives:
>Achi
eveSpeci
fi
cGoal
s
>I
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zeaManagedPr
ocess
>I
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zeaDef
inedPr
ocess
>I
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zeaQuant
it
ati
vel
y
ManagedPr
ocess
>I
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zeanOpt
imi
zi
ngPr
ocess
53.
CMMImat
uri
tyl
evel
s:
Level1:Ini
ti
al.
:Thesoftwarepr
ocessischar
act
eri
zedasadhocand
occasional
lyevenchaoti
c.Fewprocessesar
edefi
ned,
andsuccess
dependsoni ndi
vidual
effor
t.
Lev
el 2:Repeatabl
e.:Basicpr oj
ectmanagementprocessesareest
abli
shed
tot
rackcost,schedule,andf unct
ional
i
ty.Thenecessar
yprocessdisci
pli
ne
i
sinplacetorepeatearliersuccessesonproject
swithsimi
larappl
i
cations.
Level3: Def i
ned.:Thesof t
warepr ocessforbothmanagementand
engineeringact i
vit
iesisdocument ed,standardi
zed,andi
ntegrat
edint
oan
organizationwidesof twareprocess.Allproject
suseadocument edand
approvedv er
sionoft heorganizat
ion'sprocessfordevel
opingandsuppor
ti
ng
software.Thi sleveli
ncludesallcharact
erist
icsdefi
nedforlevel
2
Level4:Managed. :Detai
ledmeasuresofthesof
twareprocessandproduct
quali
tyar
ecol l
ected.Boththesoft
wareprocessandproductsare
quanti
tat
ivel
yunder st
oodandcont r
oll
edusingdetai
l
edmeasur es.Thi
slevel
i
ncludesallcharacter
isti
csdef
inedforl
evel3
Level5:Optimizi
ng.:Cont
inuousprocessimprovementisenabledby
quanti
tat
ivefeedbackfrom thepr
ocessandf r
om testi
nginnovati
veideas
andtechnologi
es.Thislev
el i
ncl
udesallchar
acteri
sti
csdefi
nedf orl
evel4.

24
 25

McCal
54. l’
sQual
it
yfact
ors:
Thefact
orsthataf
fectS/
W qual
it
ycanbecat
egor
izedi
ntwo
broadgr
oups:
 Fact
orsthatcanbedi
rect
lymeasur
ed(
def
ect
suncov
ered
duri
ngtest
ing)
 Factor
sthatcanbemeasuredonl
yindi
rect
ly
(Usabi
li
tyandmaint
ainabi
l
ity
)
 TheS/
W quali
tyf
act
orsshownabov
efocusont
hree
i
mport
antaspect
sofaS/W pr
oduct
:
1.I
tsoper
ati
onal
char
act
eri
sti
cs
2.I
tsabi
l
ityt
ounder
gochange
3.I
tsadapt
abi
l
ityt
onewenv
ironment
s
 26

Thev
55. ari
ousf
act
orsofqual
i
tyar
e:
(
1)Theextentt
owhichapr
ogram sat
isf
iesi
tsspecsand
f
ulf
il
lst
hecustomersmi
ssi
onobjecti
ves.
(
2)Rel
iabi
li
ty:Theext
enttowhichapr
ogr
am canbeexpect
edt
o
per
formitsint
endedfunct
ionwi
thr
equi
redpr
eci
sion.
(
3)Effi
ciency
:Theamountofcomput
ingr
esour
cesandcode
requi
redtoperf
ormi
sfuncti
on.
(
4)Int
egr
ity
:Theext
entt
owhichaccesstoS/W ordat
aby
unaut
hori
zedper
sonscanbecontr
oll
ed.
(
5)Usabil
it
y:Theeffor
trequi
redtolear
n,oper
ate,
prepar
einputf
or,
andint
erpretout
putofapr ogr
am.
(
6)Mai
ntai
nabil
it
y:Theef
for
trequi
redt
olocat
eandf
ixer
ror
s
i
naprogram.
(
7)Fl
exi
bil
it
y:Theef
for
trequi
redt
omodi
fyanoper
ati
onal
progr
am.
(
8)Testabi
li
ty:Theef
fortrequi
redtotestapr
ogr
am t
oensur
e
thati
tperf
or msi
tsintendedfunct
ion.
(
9)Port
abi
li
ty:Theeff
ortr
equir
edtotr
ansf
ertheprogr
am fr
om
onehar
dwar eand/
orsoft
waresyst
em env
ironmentto
anot
her
.
(
10) Reusabi l
ity:Theext entt
owhichapr ogram canber
eused
i
notherappl
ications-rel
atedtothepackagingandscopefthe
f
uncti
onsthatthepr ogram perf
orms.
(
11) I nt
eroper
abili
ty:Theef
for
trequi
redt
ocoupl
eone
sy
stem toanother
.