DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

AND FRENCH, UMARU MUSA

YAR’ADAUA UNIVERSITY

NU ABDULLAHI
TOPIC: THE FOUR ENGLISH
LANGUAGE SKILLS

 THE FOUR ENGLISH LANGUAGE SKILLS

 READING

 WRITING

 LISTENING

 SPEAKING
INTRODUCTION

 English is an international language. In his

masterpiece Keys for Writers (2010) Ann Raimes
argues that the language is spoken by more than
380 million as their first language and more than
one billion speak English as their second
language across the globe. The four English
language skills are reading, writing, listening
and speaking
 Definitions of the Term
THE READING SKILL
 Reading is a psycholinguistic -guessing game. It involves the
interaction between language and thought
 Goodman (1967) - “Journal of the Reading Specialists”

 Reading is the process of perceiving, recognizing, interpreting

and understanding the meaning of words strung into a
meaningful grammatical units of language
 Desmond (1968).

- Reading is asking questions of printed text, and reading with

comprehension becomes matter of getting your questions
answered
 Smith (1997)- “Reading Without Nonsense”.

 Reading is a conscious and unconscious process

 - Mikulecky (2008)-”Teaching Reading in a Second Language”

TYPES OF READING /FORMS OF READING

 In her book The Art of Teaching Reading (2001)

Lucy Maccormick argues that there are several
types of reading. These include shared-reading,
independent- reading, guided-reading, close-
reading, slow-reading speed-reading, critical-
reading group-reading, reading-aloud-to-
students, critical reading etc.
 However, most of the above-mentioned forms of
reading are more common among mediate and
intermediate students partly undertaken by
them and partly by the teacher. Only critical
reading and closed-reading are more prevalent to
experienced or advanced readers mostly found in
institutions of higher learning
INTENSIVE READING

 According to Grellet (1988), intensive reading is

reading for detail.
 In this type of reading students read
comprehension and summary passages in class
with the aid/help of their teacher.
 They also patronize the library where they search
for information in books, journals, newspapers,
magazines, encyclopaedias, etc, which they use
either for writing their Continuous Assessment,
or in answering examination questions.
PROBLEMS STUDENTS FACE IN INTENSIVE
READING (ALDERSON 1984)

 Imperfect knowledge of the English language

 insufficient vocabulary

 inability to recognize sentence parts

 In ability to predict meaning

 Inability to remember previous cues

EXTENSIVE READING

 Extensive reading in the opinion of Carrel and

Carson (1997) is pleasurable reading. It is
otherwise known as reading for leisure.
 It is the reading of large quantities of materials
that interest the readers. In this type of reading,
the reader focuses on the gist, rather than the
language, yet, he/she acquires a lot of vocabulary
in the process.
 Here, effective reading can only be achieved if the
student reads faster. Faster reading promotes
reading words in thoughts units instead of one
word at a time. According Krashen (1988), the
best way to improve reading is by reading.
ADVANTAGES OF EXTENSIVE READING

 Extensive reading strengthens a reading culture or habit to

students
 It allows students to choose what they want to read
 Extensive reading exposes learners to different kind of
reading materials (novels, magazines, newspapers,
pamphlets)
 According to Day and Bamford(1998), Krashen (1993) and
Nation (1997), extensive reading enhances language
learning in areas such as speaking, vocabulary, grammar,
and text structure
 It increases the knowledge of the world by allowing the
students to read beyond their culture
 It provides greater enjoyment
 It improves reading and writing skills
 Extensive reading helps learners to read with their eyes
and acquire a large number of vocabulary without difficulty
READING STRATEGIES
 According to Duffy (1993), reading strategies can
be defined as plans for solving problems in
constructing meaning. Reading strategies are
numerous. Some of the important strategies that
will be useful to the student reader include:
 Scanning

 Skimming

 SQ3R Peter Mather & Rita Mccarthy ( 2009)

 Bottom-up Approach

 Top-down Approach (Rumelhart 1980)

SCANNING

 Scanning means to scan through the passage

quickly in order to look for particular information
in the text. So, when you take up a passage, scan
through it quickly so as to pick the key words
from various parts of the passage. Take in the
key words. Consider in your mind what the words
may be saying. Think about the possible message
of the writer.
SKIMMING

 In skimming, the reader searches for a general

information in the text after he/she reads the
passage twice or thrice and understands it fully.
SQ3R STRATEGY

 Survey
 To survey is to look for the general idea of the
passage/text. Is it a story about family, education, soccer,
oil exploration, mining, health, etc.
 Questions
 Form some questions in your mind
 Read
 Read actively, following the thought of the writer. In doing
so, you agree with him at one point and disagree with him
at another. You argue with him and try to fill in the
missing gaps.
 Recall
 To recall is to remember the most important points made.
 Review
 Read the passage twice so as to understand what you are
unable to understand on the first reading
BOTTOM-UP APPROACH &TOP-DOWN APPROACH

 Bottom-up Approach
 Bottom-up approach is more suitable for beginner
readers. In this approach, the student reader
focuses on every word in the text. It is the
writer’s vocabulary choice that will assist
him/her in discovering the meaning of the text.
 Top-down Approach

 Top-down approach is common with the advanced

readers or students. Here, the reader tries to get
the whole picture or the general idea of the text
through an intelligent guess work.
READING SKILLS (HARMER 1983, MUNBY
1978)

 Reading requires some skills if it is to be fluent. A Skilled reader is an active reader, while
an unskilled reader is a passive reader. Skilled reader does not see reading as a task, but
an enjoyable exercise
 - Prediction
 A skilled reader reads with prediction. He she tries to predict what the writer may confirm
at the end. By predicting what the meaning of a text may be, the reader makes reading “a
psychological-guessing game”. However, prediction depends on the reader’s general
knowledge of the subject-matter and the information drawn in the text.
 Extraction of Information
 Extraction of information is done through evaluation and recognition. When the reader
extracts information he tries to relate it to other writings in the topic. A skilled reader
looks for facts not insisting on understanding the whole text.
 Inference
 Inference helps the reader to find out what the writer’s hidden opinion or attitudes
 Recognition
 It is applied by the reader to recognize the writer’s style and use of language
 Deduction
 In deduction, the reader understands the text by guessing from the context of new words by
context, it means the background knowledge the reader brings to the reading task.
DILEMMAS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SECOND
LANGUAGE READING ABILITIES (GRABE 2000)
 Reading occupies an important position in second
language learning. Students read intensively or
extensively exposure to reading enhances
language acquisition. This is because the
learners learn the language better than in
natural setting. Intensive reading involves
reading for information usually to be used for
study purposes. CA, while extensive reading
involves reading for pleasure.
THE DILEMMAS

 There are many differences between native

speaker (Ns) and non-native-speaker (nns) in
reading. This is because extensive reading to a
native speaker differs from extensive reading to a
non-native speaker. As a result some problems
arise which are called dilemmas . A lot of
researches have been done on native speaker (L1)
and non-native-speaker (L2) reading.

MAJOR FINDING IN NATIVE SPEAKER OR L1
READING

 In native speaker classroom, learners are taught with the ways

letters sound in the language (letter-sound correspondences).
 For native speaker, reading with his/her eyes is important and the
complete processing of words in a text.
 For L1 fluent reading is achieved with large vocabulary
 Reading speed for native speaker learner is achieved by reading with
his her eyes and recognizes words.
 Knowing how to spell is very important in native speaker reading
 The value of extensive reading. Native speaker learners do not have
problems with breaking down of a text, explanation of characters,
sentences and plot. They are taught how to tackle extensive reading
 Literature in native speaker class-room is taught by dialogue
 Native speaker learners are strategic readers they exposed to depend
on themselves
 Learner 1learns reading through subjects such as geography, history,
education etc, content-based instruction.
 Native speaker learner learns reading with the influence of varying
societal context in the development of reading abilities (deal with the
environment or go beyond the environment).
MAJOR FINDINGS IN NON-NATIVE SPEAKER
READING (L2)

 Findings differ from that of learner 1

 Non-native speaker learner should know the structure of text very
well (discourse structure) and know different English styles according
to disciplines (graphic representation)
 Non-native speaker learner needs in the language to read fluently
 Learner 2 has to be sensitive to grammar in order to read effectively
 Learner 2 requires a high-level of language proficiency in English
ranging from 85-to 90% to tackle reading successfully
 Non-native speaker learner should have a background knowledge
BGK in reading (about the author, his style, and criticism)
 L2 needs to do extensive reading in order to be a fluent reader
 Non-native speaker should integrate reading and writing to succeed
in reading (when they read, they should also write)
 L2 should be taught reading with other subjects such as geography,
biology, history, agriculture, etc. (content-based instruction).
THE WRITING SKILL

 A Brief Overview/ Why Writing?

 Writing is a form of communication via/through
written words or symbols to share or exchange
ideas or information between individuals or
groups.
 We write daily at home, in school, place of work
for instance and for different purposes.
 This is why writing is of several forms, defending
on what the writer wants to write about and
what he/she hopes to achieve in the end.
DEFINITIONS

 Rebecca (1967)
 Of the four language skills, writing may truly be considered as the most sophisticated
 Nunan (1988)
 As the most difficult of the four language skills, writing takes sometimes to mature
 This is because for Rebecca:
 firstly, writing is a an activity that involves some processes which the writer has to know and master
 secondly, he/she must acquire sufficient vocabulary
 thirdly, he/she should know how to put the vocabulary into good use
 For Nunan writing takes sometimes to mature because it requires
 linguistic competence
 composing competence
 the use of the appropriate/suitable register
 frequent practice
 Other definitions
 Brooks and Warren (1949)
 Writing is both the expression of thought and an instrument of thought
 Widdowson (1984)
 Writing is a negotiation of meaning between the writer and the reader or between the student and the
teacher
 Raimes (1983/89)
 Writing is the making of meaning and the discovery of meaning
THE WRITING STAGES

 According to Obah (2006) writing is a three-stage process. These are pre-writing, writing and re-writing
 Pre-writing
 Pre-writing stage is the beginning stage of the writing process. It is in this stage that the writer makes all
the necessary preparations before he/she begins to write/compose the first draft of his/her writing. He/she
takes interrelated steps which enables him/her to organize his/her material in the most effective way to suit
his/her topic. It also shows the direction his/her writing will take. The interrelated steps are:
 selecting a topic
 forming a point of view
 searching for facts
 analyzing and arranging the facts
 drawing up an outline
 Pre-writing
 Pre-writing stage is the beginning stage of the writing process. It is in this stage that the writer makes all
the necessary preparations before he/she begins to write/compose the first draft of his/her writing. He/she
takes interrelated steps which enables him/her to organize his/her material in the most effective way to suit
his/her topic. It also shows the direction his/her writing will take. The interrelated steps are:
 selecting a topic
 forming a point of view
 searching for facts
 analyzing and arranging the facts
 drawing up an outline
SELECTING A TOPIC
 The writer should find a topic or choose a topic.
Sometimes, the topic may be given to him/her by
his/her teacher or supervisor. At any rate, chose a
topic that you know something about or a topic
you can handle adequately
FORMING A POINT OF VIEW

 The writer should form some ideas about the

topic. In other words, he should decide on what
he wants to say about the topic
SEARCHING FOR FACTS
 Then the writer begins to search for information
or supporting facts about the chosen or given
topic.
 There are two sources from which a writer can
search for facts or information.
 These are public and private sources. Private
source is the writer’s direct experience about the
topic,
 while public sources include books, journals,
encyclopaedia, newspapers, magazines, essays for
example all of which are accessible at the library.
ANALYSING AND ARRANGING THE
FACTS
 The writer should analyse the facts gathered.
 In the process, he/she separates the chaff from
the grain by discarding the irrelevant facts.
 The writer should analyse the facts gathered. In
the process, he/she separates the chaff from the
grain by discarding the irrelevant facts.
 He/she must scrutinize and arrange the ideas in
order of preference. I.e. major ideas, secondary
ideas and minor ideas.
DRAWING UP AN OUTLINE
 The next step is the writer to draw up an outline.
 The outline is the map of the writer.

 Consequently, he/she must indicate how the

essay will be from the beginning until the end by
listing the ideas under the headings that will
make up the number of the paragraphs in his/her
essay.
THE WRITING STAGE

 In the writing stage, the writer begins to write

his/her essay.
 He/she must divide the essay into three
segments: introduction, the body and the
conclusion.
 He/she should note that the major headings of
his/her outlines should correspond with his/her
paragraphs in the essay.
 The paragraphs must be clear, united and
coherent
RE-WRITING STAGE
 After writing his/her essay, the writer must
proof-read it.
 In the process, he becomes his/her own reader
and critic.
 He/she must check so many things to polish the
essay. Are his/her ideas clearly stated?
 Does he/she uses the suitable approach to the
topic?
 Other things he/she must also check are
sentences, tenses, punctuation marks and
paragraphing.
 The writer re-writes the essay again to produce
the final draft of his/her essay
THE LISTENING SKILL
 According to Lucas (2004) listening can be
defined as paying close attention to, and making
sense of what we hear.
 Listening differs from hearing.

 This is because unlike listening, hearing is the

vibration of sound waves on the eardrums and
the firing of the electrochemical impulses in the
brain.
FORMS OF LISTENING
 There are four types of listening. These are
appreciative listening, empathic listening,
comprehensive listening, and critical listening.
APPRECIATIVE LISTENING
 Appreciative listening is for pleasure or
enjoyment. For example, listening to music,
drama, or an entertaining speech
EMPATHIC LISTENING
 Empathic listening is listening that provides
emotional support for a speaker.
 For example, a doctor listens to a patient or a
friend listens to a friend who is in trouble or
difficulty
COMPREHENSIVE LISTENING

 Comprehensive listening is listening to

understand the message of a speaker.
 For example, students listening to their teacher
or lecturer during lecture or when you listen to
someone that directs you to unknown place
CRITICAL LISTENING

 Critical listening is a kind of listening in which

the listener evaluates a message for the purposes
of accepting or rejecting it.
 For example, when you listen to the campaign
speech of a politician
THE SPEAKING SKILL
 According to Brown (1994) speaking can be
defined as an interactive process of constructing
meaning that involves producing , receiving and
processing of information
 There are three major speaking situations.

 These include the interactive speaking situation,

the partially interactive speaking situation, and
the non-interactive speaking situation
THE INTERACTIVE SPEAKING
SITUATION
 The interactive speaking situation is one in
which the speaker speaks and listens to the
person he/she speaks to while waiting for his/her
turn to speak again.
 In this speaking situation, the speaker has a
chance of asking for clarification from his/her
listener.
THE PARTIALLY INTERACTIVE
SPEAKING SITUATION
 In partially interactive speaking situation, the
speaker speaks throughout without being
interrupted by his/her listener(s). He/she can find
out as to whether he/she is understood by
studying the faces of his/her listener(s).
THE NON-INTERACTIVE SPEAKING
SITUATION

 The non-interactive speaking situation is a kind

of speaking situation in which the speaker does
not interact with his/her audience.