Vertebrate Animals

Vertebrates (subphylum Vertebrata) are chordates with a spinal column.
The name vertebrate

comes from the individual bony or cartilaginous segments, called vertebrae, that make up the
spine
Vertebrates have vertebrae, a distinct head, and other features
Vertebrates differ from the tunicates and lancelets in two important respects: Vertebral column.
In all vertebrates except the earliest diverging fishes, the notochord is replaced during embryonic
development by a vertebral column. The column is a series of bony or cartilaginous vertebrae
that enclose and protect the dorsal nerve cord like a sleeve. Head. Vertebrates have a distinct and
well-differentiated head with three pairs of well-developed sensory organs, and the brain is
encased within a protective box, the skull, made of bone or cartilage. In addition to these two key
characteristics, vertebrates differ from other chordates in other important respects. Neural crest.
A unique group of embryonic cells called the neural crest contributes to the development of
many vertebrate structures. These cells develop on the crest of the neural tube as it forms by
invagination and pinching together of the neural plate. Neural crest cells then migrate to various
locations in the developing embryo, where they participate in the development of many different
structures. Internal organs. Internal organs characteristic of vertebrates include a liver, kidneys,
and endocrine glands. The ductless endocrine glands secrete hormones that help regulate many
of the body’s functions. All vertebrates have a heart and a closed circulatory system. In both their
circulatory and their excretory functions, vertebrates differ markedly from other animals.
Endoskeleton. The endoskeleton of most vertebrates is made of cartilage or bone. Cartilage and
bone are specialized tissues containing fibers of the protein collagen compacted together. Bone
also contains crystals of a calcium phosphate salt.
Vertebrates evolved half a billion years ago: An overview
The first vertebrates evolved in the oceans about 545 mya, during the Cambrian period. Many of
them looked like a flattened hot dog, with a mouth at one end and a fin at the other. The
appearance
of a hinged jaw was a major advance, opening up new food gathering options, and jawed fishes
became the dominant creatures in the sea. Their descendants, the amphibians, invaded the land.
Amphibians, in turn, gave rise to the first reptiles about 300 mya. Within 50 million years,
reptiles, better suited to living out of water, replaced amphibians as the dominant land vertebrates
With the success of reptiles, vertebrates truly came to dominate the surface of the Earth. Many
kinds of reptiles evolved, ranging in size from smaller than a chicken to bigger than a bus, and
including some that flew and others that swam. Among them evolved reptiles that gave rise to
the two remaining great lines of terrestrial vertebrates: birds and mammals. Dinosaurs and
mammals appear at about the same time in the fossil record, 220 mya. For over 150 million
years, dinosaurs
dominated the face of the Earth. Over all these million-and-a-half centuries, the largest mammal
was no bigger than a medium-sized dog. Then, in the Cretaceous mass extinction, about 65 mya,
the dinosaurs and other types of reptiles abruptly disappeared. In their absence, mammals and
birds quickly took their place, becoming abundant and diverse. The history of vertebrates has
been a series of evolutionary advances that have allowed vertebrates to first invade the land and
then the air. In this chapter, we examine the key evolutionary advances that permitted vertebrates
to invade the land successfully. As you will see, this invasion was a staggering evolutionary
achievement, involving fundamental changes in many body systems. While considering
vertebrate evolution, keep in mind that two vertebrate groups—fish and reptiles—are
paraphyletic. Some fish are more closely related to other vertebrates than they are to some other
fish. Similarly, some reptiles are more closely related to birds than they are to other reptiles.
Biologists are currently divided about how to handle situations like this. For the time being, we
continue to use the traditional classification of vertebrates, bearing in mind the evolutionary
implications of the paraphyly of fish and reptiles.

Vertebrate Animals

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Vertebrates (subphylum Vertebrata) are chordates with a spinal column.

The name vertebrate

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