CHAPTER I

Basic Concept

Forensic ballistics is one among the major fields of Criminalistics that can help criminal
investigators identify bullets fired from guns. Researches have shown that every gun leaves
certain marks on every bullet that it fires and that these marks differ from those made by any
other gun. Hence, ballistics experts can examine these marks and determine whether a
particular bullet was fired from a particular gun and eventually the person who fired the gun.

Crimes involving the use of firearms represent a significant area of police investigation.
Pieces of firearms evidence often exist in crimes such as murder, homicide, assault, rape,
infanticide and other violent crimes. To arrive at the truth concerning these crimes, questions
may be answered by means of the proper use of firearms evidence.

Among the more important parts of gun that is very useful to firearm examiners is the
rifling. Rifling characteristics is one of the significant bases in identifying firearms. A particular
firearm leaves its unique marks on every bullet that it fires because of its rifling.

The importance of rifling was recognized by gunsmiths as early as 18th century when
they discovered that putting spiral grooves in the bore which consist the rifling would impart a
spin to the bullet that can improve accuracy. Originally, the spiraling grooves at the bore were
designed to reduce the problem of fouling from unburned powder residue.

Today, all modern guns have rifling in their barrels which is slightly different in every
firearm. This rifling imparts different mark patterns on fired bullets which can be used by the
forensic scientist in identifying the particular weapon used in a crime

Studies have shown that no two firearms, even those of the same make and model, will
produce the same unique marks on fired bullets and cartridge cases. Manufacturing processes,
use, and abuse leave surface characteristics within the firearm that cannot be exactly
reproduced in other firearms (Doyle, 2005).

The first interesting case related to forensic ballistics was in 1835 when Henry Goddard
in London solved a case of murder whereby a shoemaker was shot to death. Goddard recovered
the projectile and found on it a small raised spot in the metal. Using the process of elimination,
he was able to identify the firearm used in the shooting. He found the mold from which the
bullet was cast, a pin-hole in the mold coincided with the raise spot on the bullet upon
comparison (Hamby, 1999).

One milestone in the development of firearms identification was when Philip Gravelle,
John Fisher and Calvin Goddard adapted the Comparison Bullet Microscope in examining fired
bullets and cartridge cases. This led to the invention of the first bullet comparison microscope.
Immediately thereafter, in April 1925, the first office that exclusively dealt with forensic
ballistics was established in New York by these three experts thus creating the Bureau of

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Forensic Ballistics. This bureau was formed to provide firearms identification services
throughout the United States since few law enforcement agencies at that time had the capability
to provide this type of crime-lab service (Hamby, 1999).

DEFINITION

 BALLISTICS – the science of the motion of projectiles.

Science – refers to the systematic body of knowledge.

Motion – refers to movement or mobility.

These kinds of motions studied in ballistics are distinguished as follows:

1. Direct motion is the forward movement of the projectile inside the gun barrel resulting
from the expanding force of gases produced after combustion of the gunpowder.
2. Rotary motion refers to the rapid spinning motion of the projectile in its axis. This is true
particularly to elongated projectiles such as bullets or slugs. While a bullet is passing
through a rifled gun barrel, it is revolving either to the right or to the left direction.
Translational motion is the movement of a projectile in a straight line so that
every part of the projectile follows a parallel path and no rotation takes place. It
may include the action of bullet once it hits a resistance surface and subsequently
ricocheted

Projectiles – refers to the metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearm.

Firearms Identification

 Often confused with the term ballistics

 Ballistics is the study of a projectile in motion.

 Inside the firearm

 After it leaves the firearm

 When it impacts the target

 The term BALLISTIC itself was derived from the Greek word “Ballo” or “Ballein” which literally
means to “to throw’.

 Its root was also said to have derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called
“BALLISTA”- a gigantic blow or catapult which was used to hurl missiles or large objects such as
stones at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.

Technical Definition

 BALLISTICS – refers to the science of “firearm identification” which involves the scientific
examination of ballistics exhibits-fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters-used in
crimes.

The following are accepted definitions of ballistics based on different point-of-views.

1. Ballistics basically means an activity that involves throwing. (Etymological definition).

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 2. In the broadest sense, ballistics refers to the study of projectiles, firearms and
ammunitions, including the characteristics of firearm that affect the way projectiles are
fired.

3. In a technical sense, ballistics is the science of projectiles in motion from the moment of
firing until impact at the target. It covers the scientific study of the propulsion (driving
force), flight, and impact (destructive action) of projectiles.

4. Ballistics is a branch of engineering that deals with the motion and behavior of
projectiles such as bullets, rockets, bombs, and guided missiles. Ordinarily, ballistics is
concerned with projectiles fired from small arms and cannons, but it may be concerned
also with the free flight of bombs and rockets. (World Book Encyclopedia, 2002).

➢ Today, the word ballistic is frequently used synonymously in the press and in
police parlance to “firearms investigation and identification”.

➢ The term “BALLISTICS”, “FORENSIC BALLISTICS” and “FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION”, have come to mean one and the same thing in the minds of the
public, and they can be used interchangeably.

FORENSIC – As applied to ballistics, or any other subject, suggests a relationship to courts of

justice and legal proceeding.

➢ The term FORENSIC was derived from the Latin word “Forum”, meaning a market
place, where the people gather for “public disputation” or “public discussion”.

➢ The term originated from the Latin word “forum” meaning the market place because
this is where judicial trials were carried out in Roman times, or it means debatable,
argumentation in relation to the court of justice.

DIFFERENT BETWEEN FORENSIC BALLISTICS AND FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION
➢ Forensic ballistics is the application of ballistics principles to legal matters. Law
enforcers and criminal investigators encounter cases that require them to apply their
knowledge in ballistics and resolve legal issues regarding a shooting incident.
➢ Forensic specialists need to investigate the propulsion, motion and impact of bullets
to discover the truth about what happened in a criminal case involving discharge of
firearm.
➢ According to Scott Doyle (2005), firearms identification refers to the examination of
fired bullets, cartridge cases, or other ammunition components to identify the gun
where they came from. Firearms identification is actually a form of tool-mark
identification where the firearm acts as a tool that leaves impressed and/or striated
marks on the various ammunition components.
➢ Firearms identification is the science of identifying the imperfections or
irregularities of firearms and matching the marks they put on bullets and cartridge
cases fired through them. Thus, it is sometimes called ballistic fingerprinting. Others
prefer to use alternative descriptions such as ballistic matching and tool-mark
analysis.

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 Chapter II

Branches of Ballistics

➢ INTERIOR BALLISTIC
➢ EXTERIOR BALLISTIC
➢ TERMINAL BALLISTIC
➢ FORENSIC BALLISTIC

Other Branches:

➢ Shots Ballistics
➢ Wound Ballistics

1. Interior Ballistic

➢ Refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile (bullet) while still inside the gun. This
extends from the “breech” to the “muzzle” of the gun.

➢ It involves all reactions that take place while the bullet is still in the gun.

These includes the ff:

 Firing pin hitting the primer

 Ignition of the priming mixture

 Combustion of the gun powder

 Expansion of the heated gas

 Pressure developed

 Energy generated

 Recoil of the gun

 Velocity of the bullet in the barrel

 Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

2. Exterior Ballistic

➢ Refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left the gun muzzle
This branch involves the following:

❖ MUZZLE BLAST – the noise created at the muzzle of the gun due to the sudden
escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding
atmosphere at the muzzle point
❖ Muzzle flash- the light or flame associated with the round being fired
❖ MUZZLE ENERGY – energy generated at the muzzle point.
❖ TRAJECTORY – the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun
muzzle to the target.

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 Stages of trajectory

1. Straight horizontal line

2. Parabola like flight
3. Vertical drop

❖ RANGE – the straight distance between muzzle and target.

▪ Accurate (effective) Range - the distance within which the shooter has control
of his shots, meaning he can place his shot at the desired spots.
- the maximum distance at which the projectile can be expected to be
lethal.
▪ Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from
a firearm.
- the greatest distance a projectile can travel when fired at the optimum angle
of elevation of the barrel.

❖ VELOCITY – rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

▪ Velocity- the speed of bullet measured in ft/seconds.
▪ Energy- The fatal equivalent of bullet.
▪ Yaw- This is the unstable rotating motion of the bullet
▪ Pull of gravity – the downward movement of the bullet.
▪ Air resistance – encountered by the bullet in flight.

Division:

a. Bow resistance – due to the air pressure at the head of the projectile.

b. Skin friction – caused by the friction of air moving along the middle
portion of the body.

c. Base Drag – due to the under pressure and disturbance of the air
behind the base.

▪ Gyroscopic action- this refers to the stillness of it’s rotating motion and attain
its highest momentum for stability in flight penetrating power.
▪ PENETRATION – this refers to the depth of entry of the bullet on the target.

❖ AIR RESISTANCE – resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

❖ PULL OF GRAVITY – downward reaction of the bullet toward the earth center due
to its weight.
❖ PENETRATION – depth of entry of the bullet in the target.

MOVEMENT OF BULLET WHILE ON ITS FLIGHT

1. FORWARD MOVEMENT – the velocity depends upon the propulsion created by

the ignition of the propellant.
2. SPINNING MOVEMENT – this is due to the passage of the bullet at the spiral
landings and grooving of the barrel.
3. TUMBLING MOVEMENT (end over end rotation) – the bullet may be rotating on
the long axis of its flight while the nose and the base are alternating ahead in its
flight.
4. WOBBLING MOVEMENT – the real end of the bullet aside from spinning may also
vibrate vertically or sidewise in its flight.
5. DOWNWARD MOVEMENT – as the bullet is moving forward, it gradually goes
downward on account of the pull of gravity.

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3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS- It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the
projectile on the target. They are important to both sportsmen and military.

It involves the following:

1. Terminal Accuracy- Refers to the grouping of bullet on the target.

- size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal Energy- energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also striking
energy.

- Refers to the result of the target when hit by the projectile.

3. Terminal Penetration- This refers to the depth of entry of the bullet on the target.
4. Terminal Velocity- Refers to the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

Impact studies consider the mechanical impulse delivered by a solid projectile striking a
target and the resulting internal forces, motions, and deformations affecting the two bodies.
Traditional types of solid projectiles designed to achieve high penetration include steel-jacketed
rifle bullets and armor-piercing bullets.

When a projectile hits its target, terminal ballistics phenomenon that occurs may be one
or a combination of the following:

1. Indentation
2. Penetration
3. Perforation
4. Ricochet
5. Fragmentation
6. Detonation and other related blast phenomena
7. Combustion and Incendiary effects

INDENTATION, PENETRATION & PERFORATION : The projectile may strike into a

target to some depth, leaving an indentation, or crater, or it may create an opening all the way
through the target; a crater is said to result from a partial penetration, while a face-to-face
opening is called a perforation.

Targets are generally solid and are termed thick or thin according to the projectile
impact as influenced by underlying material. Penetration occurs when the stress intensities of
impact exceed the yield stress of the target. Penetration causes ductile and brittle failure in thin
targets and hydrodynamic flow of material in thick targets. The projectile may be subject to
similar failure during impact. Penetration completely through the target, as already described
above, is called perforation.

RICOCHET: If the target is resistant to the bullet, ricochet occurs more frequently as the
impact angle increases. For firings at a given speed, the angle at which one-half of the rounds
ricochet is called the ricochet angle. Experimental studies also indicate that the depth of
penetration increases with the projectile’s speed and its sectional density. Heavy, needle-shaped
projectiles penetrate better than light and blunt ones.

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 DETONATION AND FRAGMENTATION: The physical action of high explosives is
called detonation. Unlike propellants in which the chemical reaction proceeds relatively slowly,
the chemical reaction of high explosives can keep pace with the physical disturbance resulting
from the reaction. The resulting narrow-reaction zone is called a detonation wave and can move
in explosive materials at speeds as great as 6.3 km/sec (4mi/sec).

Take note that wound ballistics, which is closely associated with terminal ballistics, is
related to the principles of medical science. Wound ballistics is mainly concerned with the
mechanisms and medical implications of trauma caused by bullets and explosively driven
fragments.

Upon penetration, the momentum given to the surrounding tissues generates a large
temporary cavity. The extent of local injury is related to the size of the cavity. The wounding
potential of a bullet is thus increased by expanding or mushrooming upon impact. Further
injury is often caused by fast-moving fragments of impacted bone. Studies of body armor seek
to prevent projectile penetration and minimize injury. (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006).

4. FORENSIC BALLISTICS- This refers to the study of firearms identification by means of

ammunition fired from them.

Divisions:

1. Field Investigation- This refers to the work of an investigator in the field. It concerns
mostly with the collection, markings, preservation, packing and transportation or
transmission of firearms evidences. It includes the study of class characteristics of
firearms, shells and bullet.

2. Technical Examination- This refers to the work of the experts inside the crime
laboratory in processing or careful study of physical evidence submitted to them.

3. Legal proceedings / Court Trials – All Ballistics reports examinations are presented
in court and its allied justification to help on the prosecution of case.

5. SHOTS BALLISTICS- Refers to the science that deals with the study of smooth bore

firearms like shot gun and musket or those that propels pellets or balls.

Shotgun – A shoulder gun smoothbore primarily intended for firing multiple

small round projectiles.

Musket – A smooth bored firearm designed to propel single shot.

RANGE BETWEEN SHOTGUN AND THE TARGET:

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 1. 1-3 FEET- wound is about 1.5- 2 inches in diameter. Scorching, tattooing, singeing
maybe observed.

2. BEYOND 3 FEET- shot begins to spread out.

3. 4 FEET- wound will appear as a central hole with small perforations around.

4. BEYOND 4 FEET- shots continue to spread out and produces a mass of small
perforations with no central wound.

6. WOUND BALLISTICS- Refers to the study of projectile penetration on tissues. Entry of

wound are generally clean, round holes slightly smaller than the bullets which caused them; as
the bullet travels through the body it produces a shock wave which damages the tissue around
its path.

• Bullet wound Phenomenon

Entry wound is generally clean, round holes slightly smaller than the
bullets that caused them; as the bullet travels through the body it produces a shock wave, which
damages the tissue around its path. This is known as “TISSUE QUAKE”.

Gunshots Holes or Wounds Categories

1. Contact wound –

-The muzzle point is directly touching the target within an inch or two when the
gun was fired

2. Close Range
When the gun is fired, the muzzle point is near closely at the target a matter of 6” to 2 ft.
3. Distant
Over 2 or 3 feet or a vast range or gap between the muzzle and the target and brings
great problems to the analyst in determining the approximate muzzle to target distance

Chapter III

FIREARMS

Man is never satisfied with himself, he is always trying to improve himself and his
surroundings. He created some crude or primitive weapons, which were subsequently
developed into sophisticated firearms of modern times. The following are the stages of
development of man’s weapons:

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN’S WEAPON

• Stones Spears and darts Cross-bows

• Clubs Slingshots Guns
• Knives Bows and Arrows Missiles

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ORIGIN OF FIREARMS

✓ BERTHHOLD SCHWARTZ & ROGERS BACON, a German monk and English Monk
are both given credited for this invention.

✓ The development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in the Western

Europe in the 13th Century.
✓ One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in the warfare was an attack in Seville,
Spain in 1247.
✓ History was also showed was cannons were used by King Edward III of England in
Cresy in 1346.
✓ Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople in 1453 used
cannons.
✓ It was in 1350, when a portable arm which could be operated by a single person
appeared.

TIMELINE

✓ 1232: The Chinese invented gunpowder (black powder) first used it in a weapon –
gunpowder filled aka rockets.
✓ 1364: first recorded use of firearm – shooter lit wicks by hand that ignited gunpowder
that was loaded into gun barrel.
✓ 1400: Matchlock guns – first mechanically firing of guns. Wicks were now attached to a
clamp that sprang into gunpowder that was placed on a “flashpan”.
✓ 1509: Wheel Lock Guns – wicks were replaced by the wheel lock that generated a spark
for igniting the gunpowder.
✓ 1630: Flint Lock Guns – the flint lock did two things mechanically, it opened the lid of
the flash pan and provided an igniting spark.
✓ 1825: Percussion Cap Guns – invented by Reverend John Forsyth – firing mechanism no
longer used flash pan, a tube lead straight into the gun barrel, the tube has an explosive
cap on it that exploded when struck.
✓ 1835: Colt Revolver – first mass - produced, multi shot revolving firearms
✓ 1840: Pin-fire cartridges
✓ 1850: Shotguns
✓ 1861: Breech loaded guns
✓ 1869: Center-fire cartridges
✓ 1871: Cartridge revolver
✓ 1873: Wenchester rifle
✓ 1877: Double – action revolver
✓ 1892: Automatic handguns invented by Joseph Laumann
✓ 1903: First automatic rifle a Winchester
MEN BEHIND FIREARMS

1. Col Calvin H. Goddard

 Father of Modern Ballistics
2. Horace Smith
 Founded the great firm Smith and Wesson and pioneered the making of the
breech-loading rifles
3. Daniel B. Wesson
 An associate or partner of Smith in revolver making
4. John M. Browning
 Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breach-loading single shot rifle
5. John T. Thompson
 Pioneered the making of Thompson submachine gun
6. David “Carbine” Williams

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  Maker of the first known carbine
7. Alexander John Forsyth
 Father of the percussion ignition
8. Elisha King Root
 Designed the machinery for making Colt firearms
9. Eliphalet Remington
 One of the first rifle maker
10. John Mahlon Marlin
 Founder of Marlin Firearms Company
11. James Wolfe Ripley
 Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 rifle-musket
12. Samuel Colt
 Produced the first practical revolver
13. Henry Deringer
 He gave his name to a whole class of firearms (rifles and pistols)
14. John C. Garand
 Designed and invented the Semi-automatic US rifle, caliber .30, M1

15. Oliver F. Winchester

 One of the earliest rifles and pistols maker.
16. Benjamin Robins – The father of the modern Gunnery. The first to undergo

systematic series of experiments to determine the velocity of a firearm.

17. Hans Gross – a professor who coined the word Criminalistics and used in solving

Crimes.
18. Edmond Locard – one who said that in the commission of crime a suspect always

leaves a part of him on the victim and in the crime scene.

19. Alexandre Lacassagne – Prof. Univ. of Lyons, France – the first who try to

individualize bullets from a gun barrel… based simply on the land and groove
markings.
20. Paul Jeserich – the first to fire suspected gun in order to determine whether the same
was used in the commission of crime.

21. MICHAEL KALASHNIKOV- The Russian engineer and famous Gun designer, born in
November 10, 1919 working in the train depot as mechanics. The one who invented
the AK-47.

22. LT. COL. PATRICK FERGUSON – A British Army Rifle designer.

23. UZIEL GAL – The inventor of UZI Machine Gun in 1950’s and used by the Israeli Army
for the first time in 1956.

24. EUGENE STONER – The developer and designer of the known Philippine Army’s
Firearm, M16 Rifle.

The precise origin of firearms is unknown although they were in use by the early 14th
century and were fairly common in Europe by mid-14th century. Most historians agree that
firearm was invented because of the desire of man to increase the range of his weapons. It
started when man devised various types of “catapults” and “ballistae”. These are large slings

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capable of hurling stones, arrows, and other large objects to long range targets. Such effort led
to the discovery of gunpowder and then eventually firearms.

Perhaps, the earliest account about a weapon that used gunpowder as propellant was
the gun allegedly made by Berthold Schwartz, a German Monk in 1313. These weapons were
called ‘pots de fer’ and ‘vasi’ and they were manufactured in Ghent, Belgium. Most history
books, describe these firearms as the first cannons.

It was not until the closing years of the century that technology improved allowing the first
‘hand gonne’ to appear. Hand gonne was a development of the ‘ridaudequin’, which appeared
in about 1830. Hand gone consisted of a number of small caliber cannon barrels mountd on a
light cart.

The first firearms that were developed were small arms in the form of miniature artillery
weapons and were at first called ‘hand cannons’. Ancient hand cannons were hand-carried thus
they are better examples of small arms rather than artillery weapons.

1. The Hand Cannon: Seem to have appeared about 1350 and consisted of a simple iron
tube with a stock. The tube had a hole at the rear end, the touchhole, and a little extension or
pan to hold a small amount of powder, known as priming charge.

2. MATCHLOCK: This was introduced during the middle of 15th century as a type of
musket. This weapon was essentially the same as the firelock, except that the slow match was
clamped on top of a device called serpentine – an S-shaped piece of metal pivoted in the center.
Pulling with one finger on the bottom of the serpentine, moved the top with the attached slow
match into the priming pan, which contained the firing charge of gunpowder. Because only one
finger was needed to fire the weapon, the matchlock left one hand free to hold and aim the
firearm. A refinement in the shape of its stock to permit firing from the shoulder produced the
harquebus (or harquebus), a primitive portable firearm used in the 15th and 16th centuries
composed of a barrel fitted in a long bent stock.

The first innovation to the firing mechanism was to attach a slow-burning match to a
serpentine that was brought into contact with a small pan filled with gun powder (located
adjacent to the touch hole) by depressing a "trigger."

The fact that the charge was ignited by depressing or pulling a trigger (and thus did not
require visual guidance) permitted aiming the weapon and the appropriate use of a gun stock
to assist in aiming and to absorb the recoil.

3. WHEEL-LOCK: The first firelock appeared about 1515. It has improved firing
mechanism compared to firelock and matchlock. The firing mechanism consisted of a spring
driven wheel. When the wheel is released by a trigger mechanism, it rotates and the hardened
steel rim rubs a lump of iron pyrites. Sparks are produced that ignite the black powder found in
the priming pan and thus firing the weapon. Wheel lock, however, was not generally accepted
because of its complicated and expensive mechanism. At approximately the same time as the
wheel lock, gunsmiths introduced rifled barrels.

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 4. FLINTLOCK: The final development of the flint-ignition firearm was the flintlock. It
resembled the snaphance, except that the striker plate is L-shaped. The bottom limb of the L is
used as a cover for the priming pan, to protect the powder from moisture until the upper limb is
struck by the flint of the hammer. This action produced sparks when the powder in the pan is
uncovered.

The flintlock was the prevailing type of small-arms weapons from the end of the 17th
century to the middle of the 19th century. Smoothbore flintlock muskets were the primary
military weapon for the armies of the principal European powers.

5. PERCUSSION MUZZLE LOADING RIFLE PATTERN

- Invented by Reverend Alexander John Forsyth - firing mechanism no longer uses
flash pan, a tube lead straight into the gun barrel, the tube had an explosive cap on it
that exploded when struck.
- THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION
- In 1807, the Scottish clergyman named Alexander John Forsyth invented the
percussion-ignition system that led to the development of the first effective
breech-loading firearm. Breech-loading firearms are those loaded through
the rear of the barrel rather than through the muzzle.
-
- During the early 20th century, before World War I, rifles were invented that
used the forces of recoil or the pressure of the propellant gases to operate the
reloading mechanism. Some of these improved weapons fed with continuous
belts of cartridges were called machine guns. The first known true
machinegun was the Maxim gun developed by an American inventor named
Hiram Stevens Maxim. Other weapons capable of rapid fire that are fed from
large clips of cartridges or magazines were called automatic rifles. Automatic
rifles continue firing until their magazine is exhausted as long as the trigger is
pressed.
-
- The earlier versions of automatic rifles are called semiautomatic because they
reload and re-cock automatically after each shot, and require release and
another pull of the trigger to fire each succeeding shot. One of the more
popular semiautomatic rifles that were used during the 2nd World War was
the caliber 30 M1 Garand rifle developed by John C. Garand. This rifle was
officially adopted by the US military in January 9, 1936 as the first automatic
rifle to be the standard weapon of the infantry.
-
- It was during the 2nd World War that military troops such as artillerymen,
engineers, and signalmen were armed with the M1 Carbine. The first known
carbine was developed by David Williams a.k.a. Carbine. M1 Carbine was
considerably lighter and has shorter range compared to rifle thus it is more
suited to occasional use for defense.
-
- Late in World War II, the M1 Carbine was modified to permit full automatic
as well as semiautomatic fire. The carbine operates by means of gas since a
small port near the muzzle passes sufficient gas to propel a rod that operates
the breech mechanism, ejecting the fired cartridge case and loading a fresh
round from an 8-shot magazine. In 1957, the M14 rifle was adopted by the US
Army to replace the M1 Carbine. The M16 rifle, which permits full or semi-
automatic fire, was introduced in 1966, during the Vietnam War.

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 DEFINITION OF TECHNICAL TERMS

Aside from forensic ballistics, firearms identification and firearms forensics, there are
other key terms such as projectile, firearms, ammunition, propellant, rifling, etc. These terms
must be clarified because of their extensive use in this course.

1. FIREARM:
Basically termed as gun, a firearm is a portable weapon such as pistol or rifle that
discharges ammunition. Technically, it is weapon consisting essentially of a metal tube that fires
a projectile by using the force of explosive propellant. Based on the FBI Manual on Firearms
Identification, a firearm is an instrument used for propelling projectiles by means of the
expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.

Legally speaking, firearms or arms include rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols,
revolvers, and other deadly weapons from which bullets, balls, shots, shells, or other missiles
maybe discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. This term also includes air rifles
except those of small caliber and of limited range that are used as toys. The barrel of any firearm
is considered a complete firearm for all purposes under the Revised Administrative Code.
(Section 877, Act # 2711 as amended).

Under RA 10591(Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition Regulation Act), Firearm

refers to any handheld or portable weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot,
slug, missile or any projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive force of gases from
burning gunpowder or other form of combustion or any similar instrument or implement.

Barrel and frame/receiver is considered a firearm( RA10591)

2. PROJECTILE:
This refers to an object that can be fired or launched, such as bullet, artillery shell, or
rocket (Microsoft Encarta, 2003). It could be a metallic or non-metallic object propelled from a
firearm. It could also be in the form of bullets, shotgun pellets, artillery shells, rockets, bombs,
and guided missiles.

This term is also sometimes term us Bullets, Slugs, Balls and Pellets, the term balls and
pellets is for Shotguns or smoothbore firearms while projectiles, slugs and bullets is for rifled
bore firearms.

3. AMMUNITION:
This is the general term applied to metallic cartridges and shot shells used in firearms.
Ammunition means any unfired assembly of primer, powder and ball which might be used in a
firearm. The word is generally used when describing a supply of assembled cartridges in bulk,
as in boxes or cases. However, ammunition is often used to refer the supply a person might be
carrying in his pockets, although the term ‘cartridges’ is equally applied. The term ‘round’ is
often used especially by the military, but it refers today to a single cartridge.

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 Legally speaking, ammunition refers to any loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, revolvers, and pistols, from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missile may be
fired by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air
rifles, except those that are loaded in toy rifles that have small caliber and limited range.
(Section 877 of Act # 2711 as amended).

4. PROPELLANT / GUNPOWDER: This refers to the chemical substances of various

compositions, particle sizes, shapes and colors that on ignition, serve as a propellant.
It is also an explosive charge that projects a bullet from a gun. It is the gunpowder loaded in a
cartridge or shotgun shell which, when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under
high pressure and launches a projectile through the barrel and on to the target.

5. RIFLING: The technical description of the set of lands and grooves that spiral along the
bore of the gun barrel. The function of rifling in ballistics is to provide gyroscopic action (rapid
spinning motion) to the bullet while passing through the gun barrel. In firearms identification,
the rifling is responsible in imparting unique marks on the bullet’s surface while being forced to
slide through the barrel.
5.1 Lands: The raised portion of the rifling that is responsible in engraving marks
(striations) to the bullet, slugs or projectiles.

5.2 Grooves: is the opposite of the lands or the depressed portion of the rifling.

MAIN TYPES OF FIREARMS

According to the caliber of projectiles propelled, the two main types of firearms are
artillery and small arms.

1. ARTILLERY: These are large-caliber guns that propel projectiles with diameter of
more than one inch such as mortars, bazookas and howitzers, including cannons. However,
there are cannons classified as artillery weapons while there are others that are classified as
small arms. Some cannons have caliber greater than 0.8 in. (20mm) but not more than 1 inch.

The largest gun ever built was the "Gustav Gun" built in Essen, Germany in 1941 by the
firm of Friedrich Krupp A.G. Upholding a tradition of naming heavy cannon after family
members, the Gustav Gun was named after the invalid head of the Krupp family - Gustav
Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The strategic weapon of its day, the Gustav Gun was built at
the direct order of Adolf Hitler for the express purpose of crushing Maginot Line forts
protecting the French frontier.

The artillery gun with the biggest caliber that was ever used in combat was the Gustav
gun made by the Krupp Company in 1941. The Gustav gun had 80 cm (31.5 inch) bore diameter
and capable of launching a 10,500-pound. He projectile or a 16,500-pound concrete piercing
projectile.

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 The 10,500 –pound HE projectile can create a 30 feet wide and 30 feet deep crater. The
16,500-pound concrete projectile can penetrate a 264-ft reinforced concrete. The typical powder
charge was about 3,000 pounds. The range was 23 to 29 miles and the muzzle velocity was
about 2,700 fps. The gun weighed 1,344 tons and required a crew of 500 men. It was actually
used by the Germans during the siege at Sevastopol in April 1942. (Dalilis, 2003).

During the flintlock era, a number of heavy guns were developed that can fire several
bullets either serially or in volley. But it was not until the mid-19th century, with the spread of
center-fire cartridge ammunition and better manufacturing techniques, that such weapons
could be put to effective military use.

The best known were the Gatling gun invented by Richard J. Gatling and the
mitrailleuse produced by the Belgian firm called Christopher and Montigny.

The first Gatling Gun had six barrels that revolved around a central shaft. The gun used
the expensive .58 caliber paper cartridges. A barrel were loaded when it reached the top of it's
rotation. At the top, a bullet was dropped into it. When it reached the bottom of it's rotation, the
bullet was fired. By 1865, I had changed the gun so it fired a unitary cartridge, also known as a
metal cartridge.

2. SMALL ARMS: The portable weapons that developed from artillery and cannons are
called small arms. Since the dividing line between small arms and artillery weapons is so vague,
various national military services have set arbitrary maximums on the caliber of weapons
regarded as small arms.

Machine guns using the same ammunition as military rifles are classified as small arms.
(Microsoft Encarta, 2006).

Small arms are usually distinguished by caliber (the distance two opposite lands in the
gun barrel). Weapons up to 0.60 caliber (0.6-in/15.24-mm bore) and all gauges of shotgun are
classified as small arms. Thus, it is safe to say that small arms firearms that propel projectiles
with diameter less than one inch and they can be handled or operated by one man.

TYPES OF SMALL ARMS

Small arms maybe classified according to barrel length. Small arms could either have
long or short barrels. Long-barreled weapons are designed for long-range shooting while
short-barreled guns are accurate only at relatively short ranges. All shoulder firearms and high
caliber machineguns fall under long-barreled weapons. On the other hand, pistols, revolvers
and submachine guns are classified as short-barreled weapons.

Small arms can be categorized also according to general use and design. Based on this,
small arms can be classified as handguns, shoulder firearms, machine guns, and sub-machine
guns. Discussions on these types of firearms are provided in the next sections of this lesson.

Prepared by: JOEY CAIN R. MENESES, R,Crimgst

 Another basis in classifying small arms is the mechanical construction of the loading
and firing mechanism. The types of firearms according to mechanical construction are as
follows:

1. Single-shot firearms: These are guns designed to fire only one shot for every
loading.
Ex. single shot pistol, rifle, and shotgun

2. Bolt-action type: Firearms of this type are usually classified also as single-shot types.
Reloading is done by manual manipulation of the bolt. The bolt of the gun is directly
pulled to the rear by using the bolt handle (also called charging handle). This action
opens the breech and exposes the chamber for feeding with a round of ammunition.
3. Repeating firearms: These are weapons that are capable of firing several shots in one
loading since they are equipped with semi-automatic firing mechanism.
Ex. Automatic pistols, rifles, revolvers, shotguns

4. Automatic-loading type: These are rapid-fire weapons since they are equipped with
full-automatic firing mechanism. After the first shot, the chamber is automatically
fed with new cartridge. Automatic guns are capable of continuous firing in one
squeeze of the trigger provided that it is constantly pressed and the gun is loaded
with a magazine of ammunition.
5. Slide-action type: Firearms of this type are capable of feeding the chamber by the
backward-forward manipulation of the gun’s fore-end.
6. Lever-type: The loading takes place by applying lever action on the gun’s stock. This
group of firearms is also called break-type. The name comes from the manner of
manipulating the stock and/or the barrel. Loading is done by applying lever action
to open the breech and expose the chamber.

HANDGUNS

Handguns are small short-range firearms that are intended to be fired with one hand.
The first gun operated with one hand was the matchlock gun, which appeared in the 1400s.
Later on in the early 1500s, another handgun called wheel-lock was invented. The next
handguns that came out during the mid-1500s were the snaphance pistols which were easier to
operate than the wheel lock. In the 1600s and 1700s, many kinds of gunlocks were developed,
including the flintlock.

1. PISTOL- Refers to the magazine feed firearm. It came from a word Pistoia – meaning
a town in Italy were it was invented or discovered.

KOLIBRI – Known as the smallest pistol, an auto pistol, caliber 2.7 mm made in 1914.

After Alexander Forsyth introduced the percussion system in 1807, percussion-system

pistols began to be introduced. These were loaded from the muzzle, with a sliding can of
priming powder on the breech. Small handguns called derringers developed from percussion-

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system pistols, but are breech loaded. They are named for Henry Deringer, Jr., a US pistol
maker of the 1800s.

From the very start, handguns were designed as compact weapons for self-defense.
Until today, some handguns are specifically designed for target competition or hunting.
However, most are still designed with defense in mind. Thus, handguns are designed to be
easily carried and concealed. This becomes a part of the legal definition of handguns since they
are considered concealable and therefore deemed dangerous. (Klatt, 2004).

In early firearm history, all handguns were generally called pistols. There were three
early classes of pistols:

1. Single-shot pistols: Handguns of this type are operated by pressing a lever causing
the barrel to be unlatched and tipped upward. While the breech of the barrel is
exposed, the cartridge is inserted to the chamber and locked. Its hammer is pulled
back and cocked, ready to be fired.
2. Semi-automatic pistols: These are handguns that are popular today. The semi-
automatic pistol is a more recent development than the revolver, originating in the
19th century, mostly through the efforts of John Browning who is regarded as the
wizard of modern firearms.

Almost every semi-automatic handgun available today is a copy of the two most
famous designs of Browning: the Colt model 1911A .45 government issue and the
Browning Hi-power 9mm.

3. Revolvers: These are handguns that have rotating cylinder containing chambers
designed to position a cartridge ready for firing. Revolvers have rifled barrel and
capable of carrying up to 8 rounds in its cylinder in one loading. The revolving
cylinder presents each cartridge to the striker for every pull of the trigger.

Samuel Colt of Hartford, Connecticut made the first practical revolver in 1835. He made
the Colt 1837 revolver model which became the first standard army handgun issue. Innovations
led to the development of Colt .45 revolvers which replaced the Colt 1837 revolver as standard
sidearm issue of the army.

According to mechanical construction for loading and unloading, there are three (3)
classes of revolvers:

1. Ejection-rod type: This is the oldest type of revolver. This type is loaded by pulling a
rod under the barrel that will allow the cylinder to be removed at the left side and
expose the chambers. Once the chambers are exposed, fresh cartridges are loaded
one at a time while rotating the cylinder.
2. Swing-out type: This was more popularly produced in the United States. Also
known as solid-frame revolver, this type is loaded by pressing the ejector that
unlocks the cylinder from the frame and eventually swings to the left side.
3. Break-top type: This was more popularly produced in United Kingdom. This type of
revolver has a barrel and cylinder hinged with a latch holding the barrel in place
while in firing position. Loading is done by swinging down the barrel to expose the
chambers.
4. Solid frame (Samuel Colt 1835)
Another way to classify revolver is according to mechanical firing action. Based on
this, revolvers can be classified either as single-action and double-action type.

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 1. Single-action type: Single-action revolvers need manual cocking of the hammer
before squeezing the trigger. This kind of revolvers remains popular for its historical
appeal, reliable design, and uncanny balance. For some reasons, a single-action Colt
.45 revolver is easier to shoot from the hip than a modern revolver, and is used
almost exclusively in trick shooting.
2. Double-action type: Double-action revolvers are those that do not need manual
cocking. Pressing the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer causing a more
rapid manner of firing.
3. SHOULDER WEAPONS
4.
5. Small arms under this category are those normally fired at shoulder level
using both hands. This group of firearms includes the following: musket,
rifles, carbines, and shotguns. Muskets are ancient muzzle loading
shoulder weapons designed to fire single round lead ball for every
loading. Muskets have long barrel with smooth bore.

6. Rifles are weapons designed or intended to be operated from the

shoulder using energy of explosive contained in a metallic cartridge to fire
only a single projectile through a rifled bore for each pull of trigger (US
Federal Firearms Act). Rifles are originally designed for targets at a longer
distance in single shot manner. They differ from handguns as to length of
the barrel (more than 22 inches in length) and the presence of a butt stock.
They are harder to carry and more difficult to conceal but they are much
more accurate and shoot more powerful cartridges than handguns. The
two basic types of this group of small arms are single-shot rifles and
repeating rifles.
7. Repeating rifles are loaded with several cartridges at one time since they
are stored in an ammunition clip or magazine. They have a loading
mechanism that carries the cartridge automatically into the chamber ready
to be fired. There are three types of repeating rifles: bolt-action type, lever-
action type ad slide-action type.
8. Carbines are classified as light, short-barreled weapons originally
designed for the convenient use of cavalrymen. Carbines are more
versatile than rifles because of their short barrel. They fire a single
projectile through a rifled bore either in semi-automatic or full-automatic
for every press of the trigger. The maker of the first known carbine was
David Williams a.k.a. Carbine.
9. The Carbine is essentially the same as the rifle, but has a shorter barrel
(not longer than 22 inches), a generally smaller caliber, and a more
limited range. The carbine was formerly carried only by mounted cavalry
troops, but during World War II the M2 Carbine was substituted for the
.45 –caliber handgun as the personal weapon of artillery personnel and
service troops. Carbines were also modified for semiautomatic firing, but
they were replaced officially by the M14 rifle in the early 1960s.

10. Shotguns are smoothbore and breech-loading shoulder weapons

designed to fire a number of pellets or shots in one charge. Shotgun
barrels usually have 25-30 inches in length. The common types of
shotguns based on their mechanical design are as follows: slide or pump
type, break type, bolt type, lever type, auto-loading type, single-barrel
type, and double barrel type.

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 11. Shotguns are primarily intended for firing multiple small-round
projectiles, buck shots (larger pellets), pumpkin balls (single round balls),
and slugs. Although most shotguns are designed with smoothbore, some
shotguns have rifling to give better accuracy with slugs or greater pattern
spread to birdshots. The paradox gun is a special type of shotgun that
has rifling at the last few inches in its barrel. The unique barrel design
provides a spin to a slug that is specially designed for this type of
shotgun.

Another way to classify firearms is according to gun barrel internal

construction. Basing on interior construction of the barrel, the two general
types of firearms are:

1. Smooth- bore firearms- This refers to the firearms that have no rifling
(lands and grooves).
2. Rifled- bore firearms- This refers to the firearms that have rifling inside
the gun barrel.

Other type:
3. Polygonal riflings – Refers to lands and grooves that have no sharply
rifling instead only smooth transition seen. Ex. Austria glock pistols by
Hecher and Koch.

MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FIREARMS

1. Paltik- these are unusual kind of firearms and usually homemade out of
disintegrated parts of firearms and other materials.
2. Air Guns: These are firearms which use pneumatic pressure to fire projectiles. One
group of air guns is generally known as BB guns, which are usually operated in this
manner.
First, air is pumped into a pressure chamber reservoir and released by trigger
pull. Next, a spring compression system is used to drive a piston to compress air (most
“toys” are of this variety). And finally, a pressurized, carbon dioxide filled cartridge is
attached.

3. Home-Made Firearms: Even though cheap guns are readily available, youths and
youth gang members may attempt to build their own firearms. Typically, homemade
guns are crude, and adapted to fire available ammunition. In one study, homemade
guns caused unusual muzzle imprints, intensive soot deposits at the entrance
wounds and on the hands, intensive co-effects, burns, and even laceration of the
hand holding the weapon. The bullets showed a reduced penetration depth, and
characteristic firing marks were mission.

4. Sawed-Off Rifles: This is a new group of weapons for hunting big game and long
range target competition. Firearms of this kind are actually single shot rifles with
shortened barrels and no stock. These shooting rifles are loaded with hybrid rifle
cartridges and deliver rifle energies.

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 5. Cell-Phone Guns: These special types of guns are changing the rules of engagement
in relation to law-enforcement and anti-terrorism operations. At first sight, they look
like regular cell-phones. They have the same size, shape and overall appearance. But
beneath the digital face, a .22 cal pistol is intricately concealed. A cell-phone gun is
capable of firing four rounds in quick succession by simply pressing a series of
numbers in the keypad. Earlier versions of cell-phone guns are called Freakish guns,
such as cane guns and knife pistols.

6. Flare Guns: These are designed to launch tracer missiles or flares and send signals
about specific locations.

7. Paradox Gun: This is a special type of shotgun that has rifling at the last few inches
of the barrel near the muzzle.

Classification of firearm As to Wounding Power:

a. LOW VELOCITY FIREARM – these are firearms with muzzle velocity of not more
than 1, 400 feet per second. Ex. Revolver

b. HIGH POWER FIREARM – these are firearms with muzzle velocity of more than
1, 400 feet per second. The usual muzzle velocity is 2,200 to 2, 500 feet per
second or more. Ex. Military Rifle

Types of Small Firearms which are of medico-legal interest

✓ RIFLE – A rifle is a firearm with a long barrel and butt. It may be a military rifle or a
miniature rifle.
• Muzzle Velocity is of 2, 500 feet per second.
✓ SHOTGUN – is a firearm whose projectile is a collection of lead pellets which varies in
sizes with the type of cartridge applied.

Prepared by: JOEY CAIN R. MENESES, R,Crimgst