POWER AND STATENICCOLO MACHIAVELLI

(1469-1527)
1.1 OBJECTIVES
 To learn about powerful state and
 To understand Machiavelli‟s thought of power and state
1.2 INTRODUCTION
From Greek philosophy to Renaissance all philosophers and thinkers dealt with the end of the
state. They thought that the political power of the state would be used as a means to achieve
further end. All political thinkers from Plato, Aristotle to the Middle age (till 16th century) had
concerned itself with the central question of the end of the state and had considered state-power
as a means to a higher end conceived in moral terms. But Machiavelli adopted a quite different
line. To him the power of the state is the end of the state. i.e. Every state must aim at maximizing
its power. The failure of the state it this enterprise will throw it into great turmoil. Consequently
he confined his attention to the means best suited to the acquisition, retention and expansion of
power.
1.3 MACHIAVELLI‟S THEORY OF POLITICAL POWER
State is highest form of human association. It is indispensable for the promotion of human
welfare. State is to be worshipped even by sacrificing the individual for the interest of the state.
A ruler must remember that whatever brings success is due to power. For acquiring political
power he can use any type of means. Political statesman plays important role in organizing state,
and providing it with safety and security. Hence the major theme of the „Prince‟ is the process of
acquiring power. Modern power politics cannot be thought of without any reference to
Machiavelli and his book „The Prince`.
1.4 WHY MACHIAVELLI JUSTIFIED FOR A POWERFUL STATE
1) He acquired practical experience of politics of his time. He was born in Florence, Italy in 1469
in a well-to-do family, when Prince Medici was at the height of his power. At the age of 25, he
entered the government service as a clerk chancery. Within a very short period he was appointed
as an ambassador, After that he became secretary of the king. Thus he acquired practical
experience of politics. His administrative and political experience determined his views about
politics.
2) Machiavelli lived in Renaissance Italy and was greatly influenced by the new spirit of
Renaissance. The intellectual awakening injected rational scientific approach in every sphere of
human life, renaissance replaced the faith by reason. Italy was the leader of Renaissance, the
most modern and urbanized country of Europe. But in Italy the wealth, intellect and artistic
achievements were accompanied by moral degradation and political chaos. The worst aspect of
the period during which Machiavelli lived was the rampant corruption and selfishness among the
Italian rulers and the church officials Machiavelli represents the culture which was undergoing a
period of deep political crisis. Italy consisted of a very large number of small but independent
states. Some of these states like Florence and Venice were republics, while others were ruled by
despots. Internally these states were the home of fierce political rivalries and personal ambition
and externally they were involved in a constant struggle with one another. This political divisio n
of Italy and the struggle between the states made the country weak and a prey for the ambitions
of the powerful neighbouring states of France, Prussia and Spain. France invaded Italy and
defeated the Medici rulers. Machiavelli was witness to this tragedy. It was out of this traumatic
experience, that made Machiavelli conclude that unless Italy was united under a strong central
government, the country would always remain under the threat of conquest and annexation by
neighbouring countries.
3. Suggested remedies on the plight of Italy Machiavelli was a true partriot, thinking on the
plight of Italy and to find remedies for this. He suggested a strong and unscrupulous prince for
the Italy. He did not recommend the republican form of government for Italy, as it presupposes
virtuous, honest and patriotic citizens, whereas the sixteenth century Italians were corrupt and
selfish. Hence Machiavelli suggested a strong and powerful ruler for Italy.
4. Machiavelli was not interested in idealistic conception of the state. His chief interest was
concentrated in the unity of body politic and power. He adopted an empirical method. He
seriously studied the past-from 4th century to 15th century of the medieval age. This age was
characterized by the Feudal state. In this order king divided his dominions into many parts. Each
part granted to a noble or tenant chief. There were no common laws and central authority. In
short feudal system was a confusion. Out of this confusion church emerged as the superior
authority. Result was continuous conflict between the spiritual and temporal authorities. Pope
claimed superiority over all the princes. State (civil authority) was merely the police department
of the church. Thus a true national life could not grow in such a system. He X-rayed the entire
Italian society. The feudalism and the church not only destroyed the identity and importance of
the state, but the state was considered sub-ordinate. But Machiavelli completely divorced
religion from politics. He broke the medieval tradition that the political authority is under the
control of church. He made the state totally independent of the church by saying that the state has
its own rules of conduct to follow, state is highest, supreme and autonomous. He said the state is
superior to all associations in the human society. He rejected the feudal system and propounded
all powerful central authority, who is supreme over all institutions.
5. The central theme of Machiavelli‟s political ideas is power. He highlighted power as an
essential ingredient of politics. According to him moral code of individual prescribed by the
church cannot provide guidelines to the ruler. According to Machiavelli a ruler must remember
that whatever brings success is due to power. For acquiring political power he can use any type
of Means. He said politics is a constant struggle for power. All politics is power politics.
6. For Machiavelli absolute state was the End; and for this Means was power. He said the sole
aim of the „Prince‟ was to make the country strong and united, establish peace and order and
expel the foreign invader. To achieve this end any means would be satisfactory.
1.5 ADVISE TO THE PRINCE ABOUT STATECRAFT
Thus from above reasons Machiavelli‟s “The Prince” is in the form of advice given to a ruler on
the state craft. Some significant aspects of the advise to the ruler are as follows:
1. Machiavelli elaborates the doctrine of „Raison D ‟Etat‟.
It means „Reason of state‟. It implies actions and policies promoting safety and security of the
state. Because the state must preserve itself before it promotes the welfare of its people. For
preserving and safeguarding itself all means adopted by the state are justified by Machiavelli.
According to him in politics, one is guided by the harsh realities of political life which is a
struggle for power and survival.
2. End justifies the Means.
It is a very famous statement of Machiavelli which he justified for the “Reason of state”. He
assumed that state is highest form of human association. State is to be worshipped like a deity
even by sacrificing the individual. A ruler must remember that whatever brings success and
power is virtuous even cunningness, shuredness is justified.
3. State is sovereign, autonomus and non-religious.
Machiavelli said the state is superior to all associations in the human society. It is sovereign and
is autonomous, Moral and religious considerations cannot bind the prince. He is above and
outside the morality. He can use religion to realize his ends. Religion cannot influence politics
and the church cannot control the state. In fact sovereign state enjoys absolute power over all
individuals and institutions. State is must necessary of all institutions. It stands on a wholly
different footing and therefore be judged by different standards. State power is the end and
religion is its organ and instrument. Nothing is unearthy in the state, State came into being to
satisfy material interests of the people. He divorced politics from theology and government from
religion. He did not view the state as having a moral end and purpose but gave importance to
man‟s worldly life. He said politics is an independent activity with its own principles and laws.
4. A prince must combine the qualities of a lion and a fox.
Machiavelli advised the prince he should imitate the qualities of fox and lion. The imitation of
the fox (cunningness, foresight) will enable him to visualize his goal and means to achieve it.
The imitation of the lion will give him necessary strength and force to achieve that goal. A fox
might have shrewdness and foresight, but he is powerless without necessary force of a lion.
Similarly a lion without shrewdness and prudence of a fox would be reckless. Hence a ruler who
wants to be very successful must combine in himself the qualities of both fox and lion. He must
possess bravery of lion and cunningness of fox, physical force is necessary when there is anarchy
and indiscipline. But law and morality is essential to check selfishness of people and to generate
civic virtues.
5. Use a double standard of morality.
One for the ruler and another for his subjects. He said morality is not necessary for the ruler. He
is creator of law and morality hence price is above the both. A ruler has primary duty of
preserving the state. For this purpose he may use instruments of lie, conspiracy, killings and
massacre etc. Because absolute morality is neither possible nor desirable in politics. He insisted
that morality is essential for people. Only moral citizens willingly obey laws of the state and
sacrifice their lives for their nation. It cultivate civic sense and patriotic spirit. Thus Machiavelli
prescribes double standard of morality.
6. Favour despotic rule.
Machiavelli did not recommend the republican form of Government, because republican form
requires virtuous, honest and patriotic citizens. He also advised the prince to convert his
monarchy into a republic. If his heirs are corrupt and misuse their power for evil purposes.
According to Machiavelli foundation of Government is the reason of state Government is not
created by God to punish men for their sin. Machiavelli says that the government is founded
upon the weakness and insufficient capacity of men.
7. Maintain strong army.
He recommended constant military preparedness for the preservation of the state. Prince should
organize a strong army to meet any internal and external threat to his power. Strong and regular
army was must for a state for its own defense. The state try to build up its own independent,
regular and faithful army. Such an army should consist of its own citizens and be prepared not
only to defend its national borders but also to expand. The citizens must be trained for army
service and there should be compulsory military training for all able persons.
8. Human nature is low and ungrateful, so Prince must consider this nature of man.
According to Machiavelli rational analysis of politics must begin with an account of human
nature, Machiavelli viewed the activities of man with special interest and explained human
nature. He viewed men to be a compound of weakness, ungradeful, fear, lust for power and
assumed all men are bad. Prominent traits of human nature are (1) there is no limit to human
desires. He is selfish and aggressive. Hence there is strife and competition. (2) The masses are
interested in security. They realize that only laws of the state can ensure security hence they co-
operate with the state and obey the laws. Hence a ruler who wants to be successful must ensure
security of life and protection of people. (3) People must be restrained by force because force
breeds fear. Only force and repression can keep control and check on the evil tendencies in man.
Hence the method of government should be force and not persuasion. (4) By nature every human
being is ambitious and remains unsatisfied. No human being in content with his position. He is
always after domination. The enmities and wars are the outcome of this desire.
9. should win the popularity of his people must not touch the property of the people.
Prince should try to win popularity, goodwill and affection of his people. He should keep his
subjects materially contented by not taxing them. The prince should not interfere in age old
customs and traditions of his people because by nature people are conservative. He should not
have craving for wealth and women of his own subjects. He should keep a watchful eye on his
dissidents.
10. A prince must have council of wise men and not of flatterers.
Powerful government and internal unity were essential for any state. Prince must choose wise
men in his council and should give them full liberty to speak the truth to him. He must ask them
about everything and hear their opinion and afterwards deliberate by himself in his own way.
11. Separate politics from religion.
Before Machiavelli medieval political philosophers believed that the religion was the basis of the
state. But Machiavelli emancipated the state completely from the control of the church. He
denied medieval philosophy of religion. He repudiates the theory of Aquinas that man needs the
guidance of the divine law. Machiavelli said that only end which man can place before himself is
the pursuit of his well being in his material values in life. He did not view the as having a moral
end and purpose but gave importance to man‟s worldly life. He believed that politics is an
independent activity with its own principles and laws. Moral and religions considerations cannot
bind the prince, state is above and outside the religion.
12. Remain free from emotions.
Prince should exploit emotions of his people for the purpose of the state. He should be cool,
calculating and opportunist. His suggestion is that a prince must know how to act as a beast.
 POWER AND STATETHOMOS HOBBES
2.1 OBJECTIVES
To study Hobbe‟s theory of powerful and absolute state.
2.2 INTRODUCTION
The theories regarding powerful state propounded by Machiavelli during the sixteenth century
were further elaborated by the English philosopher Thomas Hobbes during the seventeenth
century. Thomas Hobbes supported `the absolute state‟. The essence of the Hobbeian philosophy
is found in his book “Leviathan”, which was published in (1651).
2.3 WHY HOBBES JUSTIFIED AUTHORITARIAN STATE – REASONS
Why Hobbes justified all powerful state, reasons are as follows:
1) Childhood experiences:
He was born in 1588. It was the year of attack of the Spanish on England. The story goes that his
mother, fearing the invasion of their town by the Spanish, gave birth to Thomas, prematurely.
Later, Thomas wrote that he and terror were born twins. Thus Hobbes advocacy of peace can be
attributed to the circumstances of his birth.
2) English civil war and charges against Hobbes:
After graduation Hobbes became a tutor to Willian Cavendish. During this period he wrote the
„Elements of law‟ in which he advocated sovereignty of the king. It was the time when the
English civil war (1642-49) began and Hobbes was charged of being a royalist. He fled to France
and spent the next eleven years in France. During this period he wrote on the civic order and the
Leviathan. Thus Hobbes had witnessed the Civil War in England. He was distressed that the very
foundation of the state was shaken up during the civil war. The resultant chaos and anarchy
confirmed his faith in the absolute rule of the monarch.
3) Hobbes views on power:
According to Hobbes power is an instrument to obtain something in future. Men are moved by
the motive of power. Man is never satisfied with the present position. He tries to increase his
power. At the same time one is interested in his own preservation and this he cannot achieve
without any power. So he continuously fights to capture power.
2.4 HOBBEIAN SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF THE
STATE AND THE NATURE OF SOVEREIGN POWER
Thomas Hobbes is regarded as a „contractualist‟, who explains the origin of the state and nature
of sovereign power. It means he was the first who said origin of the state is manmade; and not
God-gifted.
Secondly to justify the absolute state Hobbes developed a social contract theory regarding
the origin and nature of the state. Social contract theory is based on following points:
 1) Human Nature
2) The state of Nature
3) Nature of contract
4) Sovereignty of the state
5) Advocacy of Absolutism
1) Men are as much driven by impulses as animals are; the only difference between animal and
man is that men have the faculties of speech and reason.
2) Man is Self-centered, egoistic and solitary Hobbes believes that the individual is always
obsessed with his personal pleasures and desires. The chief object of man‟s desire is self
preservation and a desire for power. He thus, becomes self-seeking, fearful, quarrelsome and
competitive.
3) Human nature is to wish to acquire unlimited power. Out of this nature men are continuously
involved in competition and conflicts.
4) By birth all men are equal in the faculties of body and mind. But there are differences in
strength and mental capacity. Hence when two men desire the same thing they become enemies.
5) Fear- as motive behind human actions- The fear is inseparable from human nature and
provides motivation for most of the human conduct. Such is the nature of man according to
Hobbes.
He argued that only the all powerful state can alone curb egoistic impulses of man and
hold them together. This picture of human nature is very much similar to that drawn by
Machiavelli.
2.5 THE STATE OF NATURE
Hobbes assumes the existence of state of nature and characterized it as the pre-social
phase of human nature.
He explained a very gloomy picture of the state of nature. He said.
1) The life of man in the state of nature was solitary, poor, brutish and short. It was a state of
constant warfare. It was „a war of every man against every man‟. There was constant fear and
danger of violent death.
2) In the state of nature might was the only right. The two factors which dominated men in that
state were fear and self-interest.
3) There could be no industry, no agriculture, no knowledge, no arts, no letters and no society. In
it there was no law, no justice and no property, no distinction between right and wrong good and
bad.
4) There were no common power to guide or control the activities or behaviour of man.
5) However, such a state of affairs could not continue because of two factors inherent in man i.e.
reason and fear of violent death. According to Hobbes, man wanted peace but his fear of others
his anxiety to retain what he already had, and his never ending desire for acquiring more, led him
to a continuous conflict with his neighbours. Thus the conditions in the state of nature were
terrible to continue perpetually and indefinitely. Men naturally desired peace and security.
Thus to escape from anarchy and come out of this sordid state of nature, man contracted
among themselves to form a civil society.
2.6 NATURE OF CONTRACT
1) People contracted among themselves to form a civil society. In the state of nature in the
absence of common authority and state; life of the people was miserable and brutish. Hence to
come out from this situation people form the state. It ends the State of Nature.
2) Motive- It means main motive behind the contract was man‟s desire of peace and security.
3) Birth of the state- After the contract state came into existence. Main role of civil society will
be to ensure security and certainty of life and property of the people.
4) Contract was social and mutual- In the contract individuals surrendered their natural rights to
some particular man or assembly of men. After that assembly became sovereign and those, who
gave up rights became the subjects people created common power for the common benefit.
5) Contract was binding- In this contract people agreed to surrender their natural rights to a
common superior and obey his command. The contract was of each with all and of all with each.
Sovereign was the product of the contract but he was not a party to the contract. But contract was
binding for the people.
6) Sovereign did not subject himself to any conditions- The sovereign derived complete authority
as a result of the contract. People had no right to protest. The authority of the sovereign was
unlimited, all embracing, final and irrevocable.
2.7 HOBBES VIEWS ON SOVEREIGNTY OF THE STATE
1) People contracted among themselves to form a civil society. In the state of nature in the
absence of common authority and state; life of the people was miserable and brutish. Hence to
come out from this situation people form the state. It ends the State of Nature.
2) Motive- It means main motive behind the contract was man‟s desire of peace and security.
3) Birth of the state- After the contract state came into existence. Main role of civil society will
be to ensure security and certainty of life and property of the people.
4) Contract was social and mutual- In the contract individuals surrendered their natural rights to
some particular man or assembly of men. After that assembly became sovereign and those, who
gave up rights became the subjects people created common power for the common benefit.
5) Contract was binding- In this contract people agreed to surrender their natural rights to a
common superior and obey his command. The contract was of each with all and of all with each.
Sovereign was the product of the contract but he was not a party to the contract. But contract was
binding for the people.
6) Sovereign did not subject himself to any conditions- The sovereign derived complete authority
as a result of the contract. People had no right to protest. The authority of the sovereign was
unlimited, all embracing, final and irrevocable.
2.8 HOBBES VIEWS ON SOVEREIGNTY OF THE STATE
1) Sovereignty is a necessary attribute of the state- As a result of the social contract, the state
came into being. It possessed absolute and unlimited sovereign powers. In civil society
sovereignty must exist. Hobbes believes that without the sovereign power, law, order peace and
security could not be maintained in society and without these, individuals cannot survive.
2) Sovereignty means‟ the all powerful authority within the state – It is absolute, irrevocable,
unlimited, non-transferable and inalienable.
It is absolute- It means the power of the sovereign is not limited by any authority. There is no
rival or coordinate authority in the state besides the sovereign. All the subjects surrender their
rights to him. He has no obligations towards them.
Irrevocable- It means sovereign‟s power will be final. He will be the sole law making agency.
Sovereign is the source of law and also their sole interpreter.
Unlimited- Sovereign is not bound by any constitutional law. There will be no restrictions upon
the authority of the sovereign. The law of god also does not constitute any check upon him for he
is its sole interpreter. Ruler is not subject to moral restraints. In this way Hobbes brushes aside
all the limitations and restrictions upon sovereignty. He propounds the theory of absolute and
unlimited sovereignty.
Non-transferable – Hobbes concentrates full executive, legislative and judicial power in the
sovereign. The theories of separation of powers and checks and balances have no place in his
system.
Inalienable- Hobbes visualized three kinds of sovereignty. According to him “the difference of
state consists in the difference of all sovereign or the person representative of all and every one
of the multitude and it is manifest, there can be three kinds of commonwealth. If the
representative is one man, the commonwealth will be known as monarchy, when the
representative is an assembly of all that come together, then it is a democracy. When the
representative is an assembly, then it is called aristocracy. To Hobbes the difference between
these three kinds of state consists not in the difference of power but in the difference of
convenience.
Above morality- According to Hobbes sovereign himself is above morality. No action of his can
be described as immoral or unjust. In the state of nature, there can be no distinctions between
right and wrong, just and unjust, moral and immoral and no property rights. These distinctions
first come into existence with the establishment of state and the setting up of the sovereign
authority. Whatever is in conformity with the laws made by sovereign is just and right; what ever
is contrary to them is unjust and wrong.
Creator of property- The sovereign is also the creator of property. What people have in the
natural state is mere possession which confers no rights. Legal property rights with their
protection by society come into existence only with the establishment of sovereign authority.
Since property is the creation of the sovereign, he can take it away whenever he likes in the
interest of the state. Taxation does not require the consent of the people.
2.9 Hobbes state is Authoritarian not Totalitarian:
`Leviathan‟ is an important work of Hobbes. In this book he shows that all individuals surrender
their natural rights to a sovereign. The surrender was total and unconditional. The sovereign
derived full authority as a result of contract. The contract was perpetual (final). Hence the
authority of the sovereign cannot be cancelled. Powers, once conferred on sovereign cannot be
withdrawn. The sovereign‟s power which is the result of contract is legal, inalienable, absolute,
indivisible. Such powers creates a draconian state like the Leviathan.
1) Foundation of Government: Hobbes Government is set up by a contract and was based on
the consent of the people. Totalitarians do not accept such type of Government.
2) Justify Individualism: Hobbes prescribed certain duties to the sovereign i.e. security and
safety to the people. It means Hobbes authoritarian state was for the benefit of the people.
Hobbes justified individualism also. Totalitarian state do not care for the individual.
3) Hobbes recognizes equality of all men: Before law all will be equal in Hobbean state. No
special treatment to the rich and mighty. Totalitarian state is based on the theory of superman
and super race, one cannot imagine equality in a totalitarian state.
4) Supreme only in political matters: Hobbes sovereign is supreme but only in political
matters. Totalitarians controls all aspects of human life.
5) Not glorification of war: Hobbes always speaks for defensive war. In his views there was no
glorification of war. Totalitarians like Fascist glorify war to such an extent that they go to the
length of saying that war is must for the health of a nation.
6) Hobbes sovereign does not have any control over the personal life of the people:
Totalitarian state controls the thoughts and feelings of he individual.
7) Hobbes state recognizes equality and liberty: He said all are equal before law. People are
free to do anything that law does not prohibit. It means Hobbes was not antiindividual but he
advocated Hobbian absolutism and Individualism are complementary to each other.