NEW SCHOOL .

YSICS
for Senior Secondary Schools

This ~016 Revised Edition of the New School Physics for Senior
Secondary Schools provides a comprehensive and coherent
treatment of the principles of Physics. As with the other· editions
th e presentation is excellent and simple for the average student. I~
covers the current examination syllabus of the West African
Examinations Council (WAEC), National Examinations Council
(NECO) and that of the United Tertiary Matriculation Examinations
(UTME). This makes it invaluable for students who desire to make
excellent results in the Senior Secondary School Examination and
entrance examinations into the Universities, Polytechnics and
Colleges of Education.

This 2 0 1 6 Revised Edition has chapters that begin with a list of

objectives to let the stude,r its know what to expect. Each chapter is
then developed from the simplest to the more complex aspects of
the topic treated. This makes it easy-flowing, and the chapter ends
with a summary of the essential concepts. Some objective and
essay type questions are given at the end of each chapter to test
the student's understanding of the topics, provide opportunity for
developing problem-solving · skills, and also serve as a revision
guide. This 2016 Revised Edition provides several grad~d ~orked
r
examples to demonstrate and illustrate_ the . apphcat1on _of
mathematics in the text. It is also lavishly illustrated with
well-labelled coloured diagrams and photographs. ·
j
I
'· ·, f
koha is an author of high repute who has
Professor M.W• Anya - Ph ·
·
written many exce llent secondary school and tertiary ysrcs texts. I

~ -- AFRICANA F.l~~T PUBLISHER S PLC ISBN 978 - 978 - 175 • 711 • 2

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M. W. ANYAKOHA, Ph.D
Professor of Physics
Nnamdi Azikiwe University
Awka

~ PUBIJSHERS PLC
 CONTENTS

Preface

BOOK 1
{;nits and Measurements 3
1 3
1.1 Fundamental and derived units
Measurements 4
1.2
l.2.1 Length 4
1.2.2 Volume 7
1.2.3 Mass and weight 8
1.2.4 Time 10
Summary 11

2 10.,on 13
2.1 Types of motion 13
2.2 Relative motion 14
2.3 Position, distance and displacements, speed, velocity, acceleration, graphs of motion 15
2.4 Cause of motion: Force, types of force 19
2.5 Friction 20
2.6 Simple idea of circular motion 24
Summary 28

3 I 01 ~ !:nen•, and Power 31

3. 1 Work 31
3.2 Energy 32
3.3 Power 34
3.4 Transformation and conservation of mechanical energy 34
3.5 World Energy Resources 36
Summary 36

4 Heat l nerg_11 38
4.1 Concept of heat and temperature 38
4.2 Effects of hut 38
4.3 Kinetic molecular theory 38
4.4 Thennal expansivity 39
4.5 Change of state 48
4.6 Transfer of heat: conduction, convection and radiation 48
Summary 54

5 Electric Charges 58
5.1 Production of charges 58
5.2 Types of charges 58
S.3 Ways of producing charges 62
5.4 Distribution of charges 65
5.5 Storage of charges 66
Summary 67
6 De\cription and Property of Fields 69
6 -1 Concept of fields 69
6·2 Gravitational field 69
6·3 Magnetism and magnetic field 70
Summary 72
, ,. • g

74
7 Electric Field
7.1 Electric lines of force 74
7.2 Potential difference and electric current 75
7.3 Production of electric current 77
7.4 Principle of production of electricity from a Dam 79
80
7.5 Electric circuit
7.6 Electric conduction through materials; Ohm's law 81
7.7 Electrical work done in a given circuit 83
Summary 86

8 Particle Nature of Matter 89

8. I Structure of matter 89
8.2 Molecules 90
8.3 States of matter 92
Summary 93

9 Elastic Properties of Solids 95

9. 1 Hooke's law 95
9.2 Work done in springs and elastic string 98
Summary 99

1 0 Crystal Structure 101

10.1 Crystals 101
10.2 Non-crystalline or amorphous substances 102
Summary 103
11 Fluids at Rest and in Motion 104
1I. I Surface tension 104
11.2 Capillarity 105
11.3 Viscosity 107
Summary 108

12 Havesting of Solar Energy - Solar Collector 110

12.l Production of Solar Energy l 10
12.2 Solar Collectors or Solar Panels 110
12.3 Application of Solar Panels 111
Summary 112
BOOK 2
J \calars and Vectors 115
I.I a. Concept of scalars 115
I. I b. Concept of vectors 115
1.2 Vector representation 115
1.3 Addition of vectors 116
1.4 Resolution of vectors, components 120
1.5 Resultant of more than two vectors 121
Summary 122
2 Motion
125
2.1 Velocity-time graph 125
2.2 Equations of uniformly accelerated motion 127
2.3 Motion under gravity - free fall 130
Summary
131
 CONTENTS
Preface

BOOK 1

1 Units and Measurements 3

1.1 Fundamental and derived units 3
1.2 Measurements 4
1.2.1 Length 4
1.2.2 Volume 7
1.2.3 Mass and weight 8
1.2.4 Time 10
Summary 11

2 10110n 13
2.1 Types of motion 13
2.2 Relative motion 14
2.3 Position, distance and displacements, speed. velocity, acceleration, graphs of motion 15
2.4 Cause of motion: Force, types of force 19
2.5 Friction 20
2.6 Simple idea of circular motion 24
Summary 28

3 1
•ork 2nergJ and Power 31
3.1 Work 31
3.2 F.nergy 32
3.3 Power 34
3.4 Transformation and conservation of mechanical energy 34
3.5 World Energy Resources 36
Summary 36

4 fa.1t l nergy 38
4.1 Concept of heat and temperature 38
4.2 Effccts of heat 38
4.3 Kinetic molecular theory 38
4.4 Thermal expansivity 39
4.5 Change of state 48
4.6 Transfer of heat: conduction, convection and radiation 48
Summary 54

5 Electric Charges 58
5.1 Production of charges 58
5.2 Types of charges 58
5.3 Ways of producing charges 62
5.4 Distribution of charges 65
5.5 Storage of charges 66
Summary 67

6 Description and Property of Fields 69

6.1 Concept of fields 69
6.2 GravitationaJ field 69
6-3 Magnetism and magnetic field 70
Summary 72
--~ • i

Electric Field 74
7 74
7. I Electric lines of force
12 Potential difference and electric current 75
7:3 Production of elec~c current 77
7.4 Principle ?f P!oduct1on of electricity from a Dam 79
7_5 Electnc c1rcu1t 80
76 Electric conduction through materials; Ohm's law 81
7:7 E lectrical work done in a given circuit 83
Summary 86

8 Particle Nature of Matter 89

8.1 Structure of matter 89
8.2 Molecules 90
8.3 States of matter 92
Summary 93

9 Elastic Properties of Solids 95

9. 1 Hooke's law 95
9.2 Work done in springs and elastic string 98
Summary 99

10 Crystal Structure 101

10.1 Crystals 101
10.2 Non-crystalline or amorphous substances 102
Summary 103
11 Fluids at Rest and !n Motion 104
11.1 Surface tension 104
11.2 Capillarity 105
11.3 Viscosity 107
Summary 108
12 Havesting of Solar Energ) - Solar Collector 110
12.l Production of Solar Energy I IO
12.2 Solar Collectors or Solar Panels 110
12.3 Application of Solar Panels 111
Summary 112
BOOK 2
I '-tca htr, rnd Ve-ctors 115
I. I a. Concept of scalars 115
1.1 b. Concept of vectors 115
1.2 Vector representation 115
1.3 AddiLion of vectors 116
1.4 Resolution of vectors, components 120
l .5 Resultant of more than two vectors 121
Summary 122
2 Motion
2.1
125
Velocity-time graph 125
2.2
2.3
Equations of unifonnly accelerated motion 127
Motion under gravity - free fall 130
Summary 131
 3 Projectiles
3.1 Concept of proJcculc,
J .2 Motion of a pr0Ject1le
Summ.lt)
4 Equilibrium of For«S
1◄1
4.1 Concept of eqwhonum 141
4.2 Resulunt lnd equilibr:mt ci ftV".:-c,
I41 i
4.3 Equil1bnum of th.~ forces scun~ at a~ r.t
I◄
4.4
4.S
4.6
Moment of a fNCc
Condition of equihhnum ur:Jcr the
Con<htion of equ1hb..:.im ui:cc the .C!J
•~uo., ,"'{ pr.; d \7",~
d cc- ~ d '-Of .a...-uz
,
-~~ fo:--c-c"
l,'lf\"('.\
,..,
144

149
4. 7 Centre of gra,it) ISO
4.8 Subilit) of obJecb
153
4 .9 Equilibriuo of :xidres 1r. .• ~
ISS
4.10 Aoaution
156
4.11 Der:.slt) ~d :-el!i,-:c ~-( l)
157
4.12 H}droolccer 161
Sumnut)
162
S Simple Harmonic Molioo (SB.\i) 168
5.1 DefiniMr. of simple lh.2...- • ~ .riOtl~:. Sr~!
168
5. 2 Simple h.a.-n:o:uc ~ou, - ::-- =i ::::........ r =."Cl:.r - 169
5.3 Speed and a-alenao., oi Sill.~ 170
5.4 Energy of SHM 174
5.S Forced vib:a::on a;,d i'C:$0n?.."'lCC
176
Summar) 177
6 Linear )fomen tum
6.1
6.2
Impulse and momentwn
Newton's Jaws of mOlton
,.,
180
IIO
6.3 Conservation of lmear moz,entum Ill
6.4 Collisions 115
6.5 Applications of NeY.1on s a.'Kf con3-er.,z.oar1of rnrnncr: tum la N£ 116
6.6 lneruaJ mass and weight I
Summary 119
7 ; o<"li ~ ,. I ..:.. '\t:rg) 191
7.1 Wodc 191
7 .2 MechanicaJ energy 192
7 .3 Conservation of mechanical energy 19J
7.4 Machines 195
7.5 Types of machine 196
Summary CM
8 Heat Energ-,. TempLr.i tur~ and its 1\1 ur rn, n
8.1 Heat and temperature
8.2 201
Methods of measuring temperature 01
8.3 Fixed temperature and temperature scales of thermometen
8.4
OI
Types of thennorneters 210
8..5 Molecular explanation of temperature 214
Summary
21•
9 Me.asurement or
Heat Energy
9· I Specilic heat
211
9 ·2 217
Change of state; latent heat
9.3 Evaporation 222
9.4 BojJing 228
230
 {I ~ Rcll!JYC f :Jrl Ni ,, vJd ~ pt; I
Sumrr try

10
10 I
10 2
10 3
I() .i
10 ~ r
10 6

1 J Wuu
I I. I Wa,c ..,_
I 1.2 Prod~ of c :!:tt r :a.;i 'l •~ i
11.3 T rz-.sy cn,e ~ k:c.t~ ~ IIO'l~
11.4 Pr'l;-cr'Je, oi t;.'"Jlr'tl
SuC"~")

12 Rc.:n ,ct100 ·)f Light \\ IH-1

12 1 So.;."C"CS aft'°
12.2 Tnnm'~ o: t r:
12.3 Rc..: uhcer pn:;..tp!.tt ._
12..4 Reile.:u.xi a:"hft:• 111: ~ ~--e:i
12 5 Re!l(\7ti:IC ":hp·~~--~ r.::b.,:$
Summ.i..;

13 Rl'frndl n of L ht \ \ a
13. 1 lr.nt~ OCU,'!n. .'!:-f :!1-.-i::-.i
u.~
13 J
Rt>1r~--u,in throus"' re-.~....:.LT
fo<.t.l intmw rdk-..T-,'G
,:.w tl!,.."\:k

I J -l Rclni.~,'I\ ,'1 lti~t !h , ~ ~-i.w pm=.

I\ ' D1,~n1,m i.tl ._.. :-t IS!:'
Il f> R<' 1r ia.-t1i'<\ cl' l~t-.t i:t-~ lc"'.i< ,
Summ.s n

14 A11pl1ratlon or l 11M \\ a,n

Il I °'111,,;}(' k'ls C"amr:'11 ~ ~ ' :-<'l.°1\'W
14 :. !l'IC' h UllW\ f\T
14 \ M , 1n,,..~ 11C' ltd lrk,.::1.'t~
su11un1n
I 5 4-ound \\ aH.1
I'\ I 1'" 1dU: ,,on and 11•.im·u)~lQ(\ t'I wunJ
I 'i 2 C:'h11111 1rn,u~ t1J Mxind
I 'i I l'Of\ ('(I ,,m1111n\
I.S 4 \'1hflU('n\ 1n Mnn, j and r•rrs
I 'i ' ~pphcatmn tif ~ound '-'1l''Cl in music·al 1Mlruments
I~ h Ura rint: A1lh
Summll)

I 6 Pr~nur• In rtuldJ
Ib , I C(>ncepl or prtMW't'
16,2 Prusure in bquuh
16.3 Atmosphenc rre~~Wt'
16.4 Pascal's pnnc1.ple
16.5 Detenmnation of rel111ve density of hquids
Summary
BOOK 3
1 Electromagnetic Waves 371
1.1 Introduction 371
l.2 Types of radiation 372
1.3 Uses of electromagnetic waves 372
Summary 373

l Gravitational FieJd 374

2.1 Concept of gravitational field 374
2.2 Gravitational force between two masses 374
2.3 Relation between 'G' and 'g' 376
2.4 Gravitational potential 377
2.5 Kepler's laws 378
2.6 Natural and artificial satellites 378
2.7 Escape velocity 379
Summary 381

3 Eltctric Field I 383

3.1 Electric force between point charges: Coulombs law 383
3.2 Electric field intensity 384
3.3 Electric potential 386
3.4 Capacitors and capacitances 388
3.5 Energy stored in a capacitor 390
Summary 390

4 Electric Field II: Current Electricity 393

4.1 Production of continuous charges 393
4.2 Arrangement of cells and resistors 396
4.3 Resistivity and conductivity 400
4.4 Galvanometer conversions 401
4.5 Principle of a potentiometer 402
4.6 Measurement of resistance by ammeter-voltmeter method 405
Swnmary 406

5 EJt.ctc·t !·1~lc , . • ·. t - r , -1 n, , 'l ulds and G 'it: 410

5.1 Conduction through liquids; electrolysis 410
5.2 Dynamics of charged particles in electrolytes 410
5.3 Examples of electrolysis 411
5.4 Applications of electrolysis 412
5.5 Faraday's laws of electrolysis 413
5.6 Conduction of electricity through gases 415
5. 7 Hot cathode: Thermionic emission 417
Summary 420

6 Magnetic Field 423

6.1 Concept of magnetic field 423
6.2 Patterns of magnetic field 423
6.3 Methods of making magnets 425
6.4 Electromagnets and the application of electromagnetic field 427
6.5 The earth's magnetic field 429
6.6 Magnetic force on a charge moving in a magnetic field 431
Summary 432

7 I ' 436
Concept of electromagnetic field 436
 7.2 Interaction between magnetic field and current 436
7.3 Force between conductors carrying current 438
7.4 Motion of a current-carrymg loop or coil in a magnetic field 438
7.5 Applications of electromagnetic field 439
7.6 Electromagnetic inductJon 441
7.7 Induced e.m.f. in a straight conductor 443
7.8 Laws of electromagneuc induction 443
7.9 Eddy currents 444
7.10 ElectricaJ devices using electromagnetic induction 445
7.11 Transformer 449
7. 12 Power transmission 453
7.13 Induction coil 453
Summary 454

8 Simple A.C. Circuits 458

8.1 Nomenclature in A.C. circwts 458
8.2 Peak, and r.m.s. value of A.C. 458
8.3 a. Resistance in A. C. c1rcuit 459
b. Capacitance in A. C. circuit 459
C. Induction in A. C. circwt 460
8.4 Series circuit containing Resistance., Inductance and Capacitance 461
8.5 Phase relation between / and Vin an A.C. circuit 462
8.6 Power in an A.C. circuit 464
8.7 Resonance in RLC Series circuit 465
Summary 466

9 Models of the \tom 470

9.1 Various models of the atom 470
9.2 Atomic structure and chemical beba,iour 473
Summary 474
10 Nucleus, Radioacthtit), Nuclear Reactions 476
10.1 Radioactivity - natural and artificiJ.l 476
10.2 Nuclear energy, nuclear reactions 480
Summnry 482
11 ti: nl'rJ:} Quuntt, athm 484
11.1 Atomic energy levels 484
11.2 Franck-Hertz experiment 485
11.3 Atomic sp¢ctra; colour and light frequency 486
11.4 'The photoelectric effect 487
11.5 X-rays 489
Summary 490
12 \\ .1n -p11rth;k I' u ,do~
494
12.1 Wave nature of matter 494
12.2 Particle nature of matter 494
12.3 Wave-particle duality 495
12.4 Uncertainty principle 495
Summary 496
13 Basic Electronics
4Q1
13.1 Semiconductors
497
13.2 Modes of conduction in semiconductors - electrons and holes
13.3 49"'
Types of semiconductors
498
 13.4 P-n junction diode 499
Summary 500

14 Rockets and Satellites 502

14.1 Introduction 502
14.2 Component parts of rockets 502
14.3 Launching a multistage rocket 503
14.4 Functions od rockets 504
14.5 Uses of rockets 504
14.6 Rocket Propulsion 505
14.7 Satellites 505
14.8 Component parts of a satellite 506
14.9 Uses of satellite 506

15 Nigerian Satellites 508

15.1 Introduction 508
15.2 Nigeria Sat-1 508
15.3 General features of Nigerian Sat- I 508
15.4 Operation of Nigerian Sat-I 509
15.5 Uses of Nigerian Sat- I 509
15.6 NigCom-Sat- 1 510

16 Energy and Society 512

16.1 Sources of energy 512
16.2 Renewable and non-renewable energy 513
16.3 Uses of energy 514
16.4 Environmental impact of energy use 514
16.5 Energy crisis 515
Summary 515

Answers 517
 ·J
Measurement is a very im~~t asP_&t of Physics Fundamental quantities arc the basic quantities
d other sciences. No fact m science 1s accepted, no that are independent of others and cannot be
~w js established, unless it can be exactly measured defined in terms of other quantities or derived from
a:d quantified. As Physics is based on e~act them. They are the basic quantities upon which
measurements, every such measurement requires most (though not all) quantities depend.
two things; first a number or quantity, and secondly a
unit, e.g. 10 metres as the length of a room. Fundamental units are the basic units upon
Measurements are basically a means of which other units depend. They are the units of the
communication and are used by scientists and fundamental quantities.
engineers for understanding natural phenomenon,
by the society for transacting business, and by the Examples of fundamental quantities and their units
engineers for practical ends. are as in Table 1.1
A unit or standard of measurement should be such
that (a) it must be possible to define it unambiguously. Table 1.1: Fundamental qua~s and units
(b) It is easily reproducible. (c) It does not vary with
Quantity Unit Unit
time and place. (d) It should be possible to multiply
abbreviation
or divide each one of the standard.
There are different instruments used by physicists Length metre m
for measuring physical quantities and different units Time second s
in which these quantities are expressed. There are Mass kilogram kg
also relationships between quantities and some Electric current ampere A
uncertainties associated with the measuring devices. Temperature kelvin K
Amount of
At the end of this chapter the student should be
substance mole mol.
able to:
1 Distinguish between fundamental and derived
The units in the above table are in the SI (Systcme
quantities and units. International) units. The S/ is the most important
2 List and handle various measuring instruments system today. It used to be called the MKS (mctre-
common in a good senior secondary school kilogramme-second) system. The SI unit is based on
physics laboratory, and used for the measurement the metre as the unit of length, the kilogramme as the
of length, mass and time. unit of mass, the second as the unit of time, ampere as
3 Estimate the uncertainties associated with these the unit of electric current and the kelvin as the unit
instruments. of temperature. Another metric system is the c.g.s.
4 Be familiar with the concept and use of significant system in which the centimetre, gram and second are
figures. the standard units of length, mass, and time.
The SJ units are the principal system of units
used in scientific work today.
1.1 Fundamental and Derived
Units 2. Units used in Industries
The three most important basic quantities in physics Units used in industry and business sometimes
are length, mass and time. differ from those used in laboratory, because. in these
Length may be defined as the extent of space or areas, the quantities involved are very large. For
distance extended. example, power measured in watts in the laboratory
may be measured in horsepower in industry. One
Mass is commonly defined as the quantity of
horsepower (lhp) equals 0.746 killoWatts. In oil
matter or material substance.
industries, the barrel is used as a unit of measurement;
Time is defined as that in which events are I barrel of oil is equal to between 120 and 159 litres.
distinguishable with reference to before or after. Oil prices are usually quoted in dollars per barrel. An
Length, Mass and Time are three of the most hectare is a unit for measuring the area of land. An
fundamental quantities. hectare (h) equals 10,000 square metres.
 ,
. I l If S ri--. U ·S Table 1.3
Derived quantities and units are those obtained Submu ltiples Examp le
- ~~
by some simple combina tion of the fundamental decimetre = I 0- 1 m
0. 1 or 10- 1 deci- (d)
quantities and units. They are thus dependent on centimet re = l o-2 m
0.01 or 10-2 centi- (c)
the fundamental quantities and units. Examples of millimetre = I 0-3 m
0.001 or 10- 3 m!lli- (rn)
derived quantities , their derivation and their units 6
are summari zed in Table 1.2. 0.00000 l or I o-6 micro-farad = 10 F micro(µ)
Multip le
101 decametre = 10 1 m deca (da)
Table 1.2 : Derived quantities and units
102 hectomet re = l 0 2 m hecto (h)
Derived Derived I 000 ( l 0 3) kilometre = 103 m kilo (k)
6
quantity Derivation unit 1,000,00 0 or 106 megawatts = I0 W Mega (M)

Area (A) length x breath m2

Volume (V) length x breath x m3 • !\1'.easu ren1e nt,
height Measure ments play a crucial role in physics, but
Density mass kg .m-3 they can never be perfectly precise. We usually note
volume the readtng accuracy of the measurin g instrument
Velocity (v) displacement and specify the measure ment only tn the correct
m.s-1
time number of significa nt figures.
In giving the result of a measurem ent, it is
Acceleration change in velocity m .s-2 good practice to state the precisio n or estimated
(a) time
uncenai nt)• m the measurement. For example, we
can wrtte the length of a wire as 51 .3 ± 0.1 cm,
where 0. 1 represents the estimate d uncertainty in
Derived
quantit y I Deriva tion
Derived
unit
the measure ment. This means that the length is
probably between 51 .2 and 51 4 cm.
The number of reliably known digits tn a
Force (F) Newton,
mass x acceleration
number is called the number of significa nt figures.
N
force x distance Joule They are usually taken as all the figures from the
Energy or
(Nm) first non-zero digit to the last non-zero digit
work (W)
J.s- 1 (or together with the final zeros tf they occur after the
Power(P ) work
watt, W) decimal points. Thus there are four significant
time
kg.m.s- 1; figures tn 51.35 and two in 0.053 cm. We specify
Moment um mass x velocity
Ns measure ments only m the correct number of
(p) significa nt figures. Thus the length of the wire is
N.m- 2
Pressure (P) force recorded as 51.3 cm not 51.30 cm . The figure
area (pascal,
Pa) 51.30 imphes an uncertai nty of 0 .01 cm.
ns d Significa nt figures indicate the precisio n with
Frequency (f) number of oscillatio persecon
time or s- 1 which a particular measurem ent has been made.
(hertz, Hz)
C 1 .2 l Lengt h
Electric
(coulomb ) In the secondary school physics laborator y, we c_an
charge
V (volt) measure length with a metre rule, callipers , vernier
Electric
potential callipers, and micrometer screw gauge.
difference
Electric Ohm a. T he ffil'lr c r uJ.-
nd
resistance The metre rule is graduate d in centimet res a
Electric farad (F) millimetres. The smallest graduati on of the m~irc:
111
capacitance rule ts I mm or 0.1 cm. This is its read K
10
accurac y. Measure ments can be estimate d up
We can always obtain multiple s or half this smallest graduati on, i.e. 0.5 mm or O.OS
submulti ples of the basic units using the following cm. This is the estimate d uncertai nty. Thus, we
prefixes (Table 1.3): · can record a length as 2 I .55 ± 0.05 cm.
 Callipers are used to measure lengths on solid
correct Incorrect

+
Incorrect objects that are in a cylindrical form. 1be jaws of

~
the callipers are adjusted until they touch the object
;( in the correct positions. The length between the
jaws is then measured on a graduated scale (fig.
I I 1.2b).

~ I b. The vernier callipers

, \ 10 I ; 'l. 12
These can measure lengths more accurately than the
metre rule. To measure small lengths, to the

1Z11 lJ:/1~,,tu nearest 0. 1 mm, e.g. the thickness of a metre rule,

the internal and external diameters of a tube, or the
diameter of a rod, we use the vernier callipers. Tiris
device gives a more accurate determination of such
Fig. 1.1 · Parallax error lengths.
The instrument has two sets of jaws and two
scales, tM main and the vernier scales. The vernier
Parallax error is the error in the reading from a
scale which slides on the main scale is a smaller
scale due to the eye being placed at the wrong
scale which enables us to measure a fraction of the
position wberr reading the scale.
smallest division on the main scale. The main scale
In measuring with a metre rule, a necessary is graduated in centimetres and millimetres. The
precaution is to avoid the error of parallax by vernier scale is constructed by dividing a 9 mm
looking vertically downwards on the markings length into IO equal intervals such that each vernier
instead of slantingly. division bas a length of 0.9 mm or 0.09 cm. The
Large distances such as length or width of a difference in length between a vernier scale division
football field can be measured with steel tapes and a main scale division is thus 0 .1 mm or 0.01
graduated in metres. cm.

The callipers

Cylinder

3.0cm 5cm
I

·~
I
I

I
2cm ., ,I
I I

Flg. 1.3 Vernier Calliper

Fig. 1.2 The callipers

 Cylinder

Internal

10
an

.---- Scale reading

Vernier scale pointer of coincidence

(22 mm+ 0.4 mm) = 22.4 mm
Fig. IA Main scale and vernier scale

For any measurement, the readings on both the c. The microme ter screw gauge
main and the vernier scales arc added together to For accurate measurements of still smaller lengths
obtain the total reading of the length. For example such as the diameter of a wire, the diameter of a
in fig. I.4 the reading is 2.24 cm. This is obtained small ba11 (e.g. a pendulum bob) or the thickness
by recording the reading on the main scale of a piece of paper, we use the micrometer screw
immediately preceding the zero mark on the vernier gauge. It can measure to an accuracy of 0.001 cm.
scale; we then record the number of the graduation Before any measurements are made with the
on the vernier which comes most directly in line screw gauge, its anvil and spindlt should be closed
with the graduation on the main scale. This gives 10 check for zero error.
the decimal place in milHmetres (mm) or the Like the vernier callipers, the micrometer
second decimal place in centimetres (cm). The two screw gauge has a main scale and a vernier scale.
readings are then added up (22 mm + 0.4 mm). The main scale is graduated in millimeters. The
The vernier callipers can usually measure to an circular vernier scale consists of SO equal divisions.
accuracy of 0.0 I cm. The necessary precaution in When the screw head carrying the circular vernier
using this instrument is always to note if it has scale is turned round once, it moves a distance of
any zero error. This is done by setting the zeros of 0.S mm along the main scale. Thus- one division
the main scale and the vernier to coincide. If mey
do not coincide, any difference is noted as the 'zero on the vernier scale equals ~g or 0.01 mm on the
error'. This is added or subtracted in all subsequent main scale.
readings as the case may be. To measure with the instrument, the object is
The reading accuracy of the vernier callipers is placed between the jaws (i.e. the anvil and the
O.OJ cm. spindle) which are then closed using the ratchet
until the object is finnly gripped by the jaws. The
main scale reading is then noted to the nearest.

-
 Anvil Thimble Ratchet
spindle s leeve _
70

7 .5

vernier scale
Vernier Main scale
scale

Main scale
Frame

Fig. 1.5 The micrometer screw gauge

graduation (7.5 mm in fig. 1.5a). We lben note the 1.2 .2 Measurement of volume
reading on the circular vernier scale (25 divisions in a. Rectangular block
fig. 1.5b, i.e. 0.25 mm). The read1rgs on the two We can obtain the volume of a rectangular block by
scales are then added giving 7.5 + 0.25 = 7.75 mm measuring its length (/), breadth (b) and height (h) .
or 0.775 cm. If the instrument has any zero error, The volume is then given by
this is then added or subtracted as the case may be. V = lxbxh Ll

Eureka

- i Volume
of - - - ......
- - object rJ••--llilli-
11111111..,..iiil,._
object

object

a
b Water displaced
by stopper

Measuring
cylinder
Fig. 1.6 Measuring the volume of an irregular solid

-
 • • 0 I I· S )li(l
The volum e of an irregul ar solid (e.g. a gla~s
stopper) is obtained by immersing it com~letely. m 70
a measur ing cylinde r containing a liquid m ~hi~h
60
p- wrong
the solid is insolub le. The volume of the hqu1d
displaced, gives the volume of the solid. correct

c \ sphere
wrong
We measur e the diamet er (d) with a micrometer
screw gauge and obtain the volume by
4
3m3
V= Fig. 1.7b Correct positi on of eye

where r = ~ For greater accuracy, we obtain three 1.2.3 Mass and Weight
different values of the diameter and find the mean Mass is defined as the quantity of matter or 'stufr
value. contained in a body; while weight is the force or
pull with which the earth attracts the body towards
d. ( ylindr ical \\-ire the centre of the earth.
We measure the length( [) of the wire using a metre The mass of a body is measur ed with a balance
rule, and the diamet er (d) of the wire using a of which there are variou s types - a beam or
micrometer screw gauge. We measure the diameter chemical balance, a lever balanc e as shown in fig.
at differe nt points of the wire and calculate the 1.8.
mean diameter.
Different types of balanc e
The mass of a body is usually measur ed by
comparing it with standard' masses.
e. Liquid s To measure with a beam balanc e, the object is
The volume of a liquid can be measured with a placed on the left-ha nd scale pan and standard
measuring cylinder, a pipette or a burette. masses are placed on the right-h and scale pan.
When raised for weighing, the beam of the balance
should swing freely about a pivot in the centre of
the beam. Standa rd masses are added until the
pointer swings equal numbe r of divisio ns on each
side of the central mark or the pointe r balances on
the central mark of the scale. When this happens
the masses in the two scale pans are equal.
The mass of the object is then obtained by
adding the standard masses on the right scale pan.
The working of the beam balanc e is based on
the principle of moments' and its reading accuracy
Measu ring could be up to 0.00 l grams.
cylinde r
Precautions to be taken when using beam
Volumetric balance
flask
For more accura te results , the following
precautions should be observed:
a. forceps (not bare hands) are used for picking up
the standard masses,
Pipette
b. objects are wiped dry before being placed on
Fig. 1.7a Gradu ated glass contai ners the scale pan,
c. hot objects are allowe d to cool before
weighing,
The correct liquid level is read at the bottom of the
mtniscus (or curved surface of the liquid).
 Knife edge K

a l----7,jf'---'~- Plumbline C

Pointer ~ l - - - - - - - 1 1 - - 1 1
A dial spring balance
Scales ~~-------t, h,~~;:::,

Q
d

Graduated scale
A lever balance
Pointer

Fig. 1.8 Another type of beam balance

d known masses are not added or removed from

the scale pan while the beam is in the raised
position.
The weight of an object is found with a spring
balance. The balance is calibrated using Hooke's
law which states that the extension of the spring of
the balance is proponional to the applied force as
long as the elastic· limit of the spring is not
exceeded. The balance, therefore, has a unifonn
scale and measures the weight directly. Object
The object whose weight is required is A direct reading balance
suspended from the hook of the spring balance. The
weight causes the spring to stretch moving the
Fig. 1.9 The Spring balance
pointer which directly indicates the weight on the
graduated scale.
 r

Precautions to be taken when using 1. 3 Dimensions of Physical quantities

spring balance Any quantity which can be measured in Unit
For accurate results, we should observe the lengths is said to have the dimension, of length s(t
following precautions: So also any quantity which can be measured in u .).
a. The balance is held still and vertically while of time is said to have a dimension of Time CT) nits
taking the reading. It is better to suspend it any quantity which can be measured In unit of rnand
from a firm support or hook. is said to have a dimension of Mass (M). ass
b. The spring is stretched lightly with hand and In Physics, the word dimens_ion has a special meanin
released before taking readings. This is to It usually denotes the physical nature of a quantity g.
remove possible kinks in the spring. The symbols that are used to s~ify length, mass ~d
c. The eye is placed horizontally with the pointer time are [L], [M], [T], respectively. They are usua])
while taking reading. This is to avoid the error enclosed in bracket. Y
due to parallax. The dimension of velocity (V) are written
[Length] [L]
1.2 .4 Time V ---=-
We define time as that in which events are [Time] [T]
distinguishable with reference to before and after. Or V = [L][T" l]
The most natural time unit is the solar day which Dimension for area, A = length x breadth
is manifested by the passing of day and night. It = [L] x [L] = [L2]
takes the earth 0ne solar day to complete one
revolution about its axis. For astronomical For volume, V = [L] x [L] x [L] = [L3]
purposes, a different time scale known as sidereal Example
time is used. This is the time interval between two Deduce the dimension of (a) force (b) pressure (c)
successive passages of a star over the meridian. At work
the present period, the essential mechanisms of the
devices used for marking the passage of time are Solution
masses so mounted or suspended that when set in (a) Force = mass x acceleration
motion under the influence of forces, they repeat Dimension of Force = Dimension of Mass x
with great regularity fixed cycles of their motion. Dimension of Acceleration
The pendulum of a clock and the balance wheel of a = [MJ X [LT"2]
watch are two of such mechanisms. = [MLT" 2]
Hence nowadays we measure and indicate time
with clocks. In the laboratory, time is measured (b) Pressure = Force = Dimension of Force
with a stop-clock or stop-watch. Area Dimension of Area
. . if [MLT"2] [u-Ir2]
D 1menswn o Presure = - - - = "'
Stop Clock [L2]
(c) Dimension of Work= Dimension of Force X
Dimension of distance
2
[MLr-2] x (L] = [ML2T ]
We can use the method of dimension or dimension~
1
analysis to verify whether a physical equation ;
correct or not. For example consider the formula, f
' 'deO
Fig. 1.10 = u + at - The dimension of each term on each 51
The stop-clock or stop-watch can be started or the equation must be the same.
stopped with the use of a knob. The knob can be u = [L] = [LT"l]
pressed or pushed. The stop watch enables us to [T]
measure small intervals of time very accurately.
Stop watches can measure time to 0.1 second. a =_Ql_= [Lr-2]
The unit of time is the second with its [T2]
multiple units as t = T
60 seconds = 1 minute hence,
60 minutes = I hour v=u+at
24 hours = I day [L, l] = [L, l] + [L,2] x [TJ
1bc most accurate clocks of all are the quartz = [L,l] + [L,l]
crystal clock and the atomic clock. Therefore, the equation is correct dirnensionallY
 3 Which of the units of the following physical
Summary . .. quantities are derived?
1 Fundamental quantities are the basic quantities I Area 2 Thrust
that are not dependent upon others and cannot be 4 Mass (SSCE)
3 Pressure
defined in terms of other quantities. Their units 4 What are the best Instruments for measuring
are fundamental units. . a. length of a simple pendulum
2 Derived quantities and units are those obtamed
b. diameter of a metal rod
by some simple combination of the fundamental c. thickness of the central portion of a thin
quantities and units. converging lens
3 We measure lengths by the metre-rule, diameters d. internal diameter of test-tube
by vernier callipers and micrometer screw ga~ge, e. diameter of a spherical metal bob?
mass by beam or chemical balance, weight 5 Name the instruments you would use to make
by spring balance and time by stop clocks or measurements on a given length of wire in order
watches. to calculate the volume of the wire. Which of the
measurements should be repeated several times in
Activities
1 Use a metre rule to measure out a string of length order to make the calculation very accurate, and
six metres. Use this six-metre string to measure why? (SC/GCE)
the length and breath of your school's assembly 6 How many seconds are there in a
hall, football field, and your dormitory. 1 year 2 day 3 month of march?
2 Use a stopwatch to measure the number of beats 7 Distinguish between fundamental and derived
your pulse makes in 'a minute. Collect such quantities. Give two examples of each.
number of beats for 10 students in your class. 8 Distinguish between mass and weight. Name the
Find the average pulse rate for the 11 of you. instruments for measuring each.
Ask the students to jump up and down twenty 9
times. Repeat the experiment and compare their
pulse rates with their previous values. Obtain the
new average pulse rate.
3 Use a metre-rule to cut out a length of string 90
cm. Tie a piece of pebble to one end of the string
and suspend the other end from a firm support. Fig.1.11
Displace the pebble and string from their rest
position. Using a stopwatch, find the time it takes The diagram above represents a portion of a
the pebble to move to and fro, thirty times . vernier calliper. What is its reading?
Repeat the experiment using strings of length 70 A 7.10cm B 7.09em C 6.90em
cm, 50 cm and 40 cm. Compare the times for thirty D 634 em E 6.29 cm. (SSCE)
complete movements of the string and pebble. IO The internationally agreed system of units (Sl)
This is the simple pendulum experiment, the for physical measurements are
theory of which will be discussed in a later (a) lb, ft, sec (b) g, m, sec (c) kg, m, sec
chapter. (d) cm, g, sec (e) kg, cm, sec (Jamb)
4 Suspend a spring balance from a firm support. 11 Which of the following is NOT a fundamental S l
Suspend 109, 20 g, 30 g, and 50 g slots of weight Unit?
from its hook and note the extension produced for (a) Metre (b) Ampere (c) Kelvin
each slot of weight. Remove the weights in turn (d) Second (e) Radian (Jamb)
and note the new positions of the pointer, and the 12 Which of the following is a fundamental unit?
new extensions corresponding to each weight. (a) Newton (b) Watt (c) Joule
Compare the extensions for load increasing with (d) Second (Jamb)
those for load decreasing . 13 Which of the following statements about a
spring balance and/or a chemical balance is NOT
Exercise 1 corrects?
I Which of the following are fundamental units? (a) The Chemical balance operates on the
A kg B kg .m-3 C s principal of Moments
D m3 E Nm-2.
(b) The spring balance operates on Hooke's law.
2 What are the reading accuracies of (c) Either may be used to measure the weight of a
A metre rule B vernier callipers substance
C micrometer screw gauge D stopwatch. (d) The reading of a spring balance changes
 17 Which of the following is
14 Which of the following statements about mass quantity? a fundatncn1a1
and weight are correct? A Speed 8 Density
(i) Weight is the force of gravity on a body. C Length
D Impulse
(ii) The mass of a body is the quantity of matter E Energy
in the body. 18 Which of the following is a derived un·
(iii) The weight of a body is greatest at the A Ampere B . it?
Kilo&ram
equator. C Second D Ohm
(iv) The mass ofa body is greatest at the poles. E Kelvin
A (i) and (ii) only B (i) and (iii) only 19 A sphere of radius r moving with
. . a velocity
C (ii) and (iv) only D (iii) and (iv) only under streamline conditions in a v· v
1scous o'd
E (i) and (ii) and (iii) only experiences a retarding force, F, given b ui
15 What are the S.I. units of K so that the equation Krv where K is a constant. YF~
Velocity = K x density is dimensionally correct? Derive the S.I. units of K in tcnns of th b
• C a.st
Give your answer in terms of the basic units. umts.
(Kg- 1m45-1)
16 Which of the following is a fundamental
quantity?
A Heat capacity B Electric current
C Torque D Reactance
E Density