Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to

harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System,
only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surface is made up
of the ocean, dwarfing Earth's polar ice, lakes, and rivers. The remaining 29% of
Earth's surface is land, consisting of continents and islands. Earth's surface
layer is formed of several slowly moving tectonic plates, interacting to produce
mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth's liquid outer core generates
the magnetic field that shapes the magnetosphere of the Earth, deflecting
destructive solar winds.
The atmosphere of the Earth consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere like carbon dioxide (CO2) trap a part of the energy from
the Sun close to the surface. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere and
forms clouds that cover most of the planet. More solar energy is received by
tropical regions than polar regions and is redistributed by atmospheric and ocean
circulation. A region's climate is governed by latitude, but also by elevation and
proximity to moderating oceans. In most areas severe weather, such as tropical
cyclones, thunderstorms, and heatwaves, occurs and greatly impacts life.
Earth is an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 km. It is the densest
planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most
massive. Earth is about eight light minutes away from the Sun and orbits it, taking
a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. Earth rotates around its own
axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes). Earth's axis
of rotation is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around
the Sun, producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite,
the Moon, which orbits Earth at 380,000 km (1.3 light seconds) and is roughly a
quarter as wide as Earth. The Moon always faces the Earth with the same side
through tidal locking and causes tides, stabilizes Earth's axis, and gradually
slows its rotation.
Earth, like most other Solar System bodies formed 4.5 billion years ago from gas of
the early Solar System. During the first billion years of Earth's history the ocean
formed and then life developed within it. Life spread globally and began to affect
Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the Great Oxidation Event two billion
years ago. Humans emerged 300,000 years ago, and have reached a population of 8
billion today. Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their
survival, but have increasingly impacted Earth's environment. Today, humanity's
impact on Earth's climate, soils, waters, and ecosystems is unsustainable,
threatening people's lives and causing widespread extinction of other life.

== Etymology ==
The Modern English word Earth developed, via Middle English, from an Old English
noun most often spelled eorðe. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and
their ancestral root has been reconstructed as *erþō. In its earliest attestation,
the word eorðe was already being used to translate the many senses of Latin terra
and Greek γῆ gē: the ground, its soil, dry land, the human world, the surface of
the world (including the sea), and the globe itself. As with Roman Terra/Tellūs and
Greek Gaia, Earth may have been a personified goddess in Germanic paganism: late
Norse mythology included Jörð ('Earth'), a giantess often given as the mother of
Thor.Historically, earth has been written in lowercase. From early Middle English,
its definite sense as "the globe" was expressed as the earth. By the era of Early
Modern English, capitalization of nouns began to prevail, and the earth was also
written the Earth, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies.
More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as Earth, by analogy with the
names of the other planets, though earth and forms with the remain common. House
styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common,
with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes
"Earth" when appearing as a name (for example, "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it
in lowercase when preceded by the (for example, "the atmosphere of the earth"). It
almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth
are you doing?"Occasionally, the name Terra is used in scientific writing and
especially in science fiction to distinguish humanity's inhabited planet from
others, while in poetry Tellus has been used to denote personification of the
Earth. Terra is also the name of the planet in some Romance languages (languages
that evolved from Latin) like Italian and Portuguese, while in other Romance
languages the word gave rise to names with slightly altered spellings (like the
Spanish Tierra and the French Terre). The Latinate form Gæa or Gaea (English: ) of
the Greek poetic name Gaia (Γαῖα; Ancient Greek: [ɡâi̯.a] or [ɡâj.ja]) is rare,
though the alternative spelling Gaia has become common due to the Gaia hypothesis,
in which case its pronunciation is rather than the more classical English .There
are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth. From Earth itself comes earthly.
From the Latin Terra comes terran , terrestrial , and (via French) terrene , and
from the Latin Tellus comes tellurian and telluric.

== Chronology ==

=== Formation ===

The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5682+0.0002−0.0004 Ga

(billion years) ago. By 4.54±0.04 Ga the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in
the Solar System formed and evolved with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula
partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which
begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out
of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and dust (including
primordial nuclides). According to nebular theory, planetesimals formed by
accretion, with the primordial Earth being estimated as likely taking anywhere from
70 to 100 million years to form.Estimates of the age of the Moon range from 4.5 Ga
to significantly younger. A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion
from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object with about 10% of Earth's
mass, named Theia, collided with Earth. It hit Earth with a glancing blow and some
of its mass merged with Earth. Between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 Ga, numerous
asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to
the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth.

=== After formation ===

Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing.
Water vapor from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and
ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. Sufficient water to fill the oceans
may have been on Earth since it formed. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases
kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its
current luminosity. By 3.5 Ga, Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped
prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind.As the molten
outer layer of Earth cooled it formed the first solid crust, which is thought to
have been mafic in composition. The first continental crust, which was more felsic
in composition, formed by the partial melting of this mafic crust. The presence of
grains of the mineral zircon of Hadean age in Eoarchean sedimentary rocks suggests
that at least some felsic crust existed as early as 4.4 Ga, only 140 Ma after
Earth's formation. There are two main models of how this initial small volume of
continental crust evolved to reach its current abundance: (1) a relatively steady
growth up to the present day, which is supported by the radiometric dating of
continental crust globally and (2) an initial rapid growth in the volume of
continental crust during the Archean, forming the bulk of the continental crust
that now exists, which is supported by isotopic evidence from hafnium in zircons
and neodymium in sedimentary rocks. The two models and the data that support them
can be reconciled by large-scale recycling of the continental crust, particularly
during the early stages of Earth's history.New continental crust forms as a result
of plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from
Earth's interior. Over the period of hundreds of millions of years, tectonic forces
have caused areas of continental crust to group together to form supercontinents
that have subsequently broken apart. At approximately 750 Ma, one of the earliest
known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later
recombined to form Pannotia at 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which also began
to break apart at 180 Ma.The most recent pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma, and
then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. High- and middle-latitude
regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating
about every 21,000, 41,000 and 100,000 years. The Last Glacial Period, colloquially
called the "last ice age", covered large parts of the continents, up to the middle
latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago.

=== Origin of life and evolution ===

Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion
years ago. A half billion years later, the last common ancestor of all current life
arose. The evolution of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested
directly by life forms. The resultant molecular oxygen (O2) accumulated in the
atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a
protective ozone layer (O3) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller
cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called
eukaryotes. True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became
increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation
by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface. Among the earliest fossil
evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone
in Western Australia, biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old
metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland, and remains of biotic material found in
4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. The earliest direct evidence of
life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing
fossils of microorganisms.During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 539 Ma, much of Earth
might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth",
and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when
multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity. Following the
Cambrian explosion, 535 Ma, there have been at least five major mass extinctions
and many minor ones. Apart from the proposed current Holocene extinction event, the
most recent was 66 Ma, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the non-
avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but largely spared small animals such as
insects, mammals, lizards and birds. Mammalian life has diversified over the past
66 Mys, and several million years ago an African ape gained the ability to stand
upright. This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the
nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of
humans. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to humans having
an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that
continues to this day.

=== Future ===

Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next 1.1
billion years, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next 3.5 billion
years by 40%. Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic
carbon cycle, reducing CO2 concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm
for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100–900 million years. The lack of
vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life
impossible. Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean temperature may reach 100
°C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to
space, which may trigger a runaway greenhouse effect, within an estimated 1.6 to 3
billion years. Even if the Sun were stable, a fraction of the water in the modern
oceans will descend to the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean
ridges.The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models
predict that the Sun will expand to roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi),
about 250 times its present radius. Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the
Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move
to an orbit 1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the star
reaches its maximum radius, otherwise, with tidal effects, it may enter the Sun's
atmosphere and be vaporized.

== Geophysical characteristics ==

=== Size and shape ===

The shape of Earth is nearly spherical, with an average diameter of 12,742

kilometers (7,918 mi), making it the fourth largest of the Solar System's planetary
sized objects and largest among its terrestrial ones. Due to Earth's rotation its
shape is bulged around the Equator and slightly flattened at the poles, resulting
in a 43 kilometers (27 mi) larger diameter at the equator than at the poles.
Earth's shape therefore is more accurately described as an oblate spheroid.
Earth's shape furthermore has local topographic variations. Though the largest
variations, like the Mariana Trench (10,925 meters or 35,843 feet below local sea
level), only shortens Earth's average radius by 0.17% and Mount Everest (8,848
meters or 29,029 feet above local sea level) lengthens it by only 0.14%. Earth's
surface is farthest out from Earth's center of mass at its equatorial bulge, making
the summit of the Chimborazo volcano in Ecuador (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) the
farthest point.
Parallel to the rigid land topography the Ocean exhibits a more dynamic
topography.To measure the local variation of Earth's topography, geodesy employs an
idealized Earth producing a shape called a geoid. Such a geoid shape is gained if
the ocean is idealized, covering Earth completely and without any perturbations
such as tides and winds. The result is a smooth but gravitational irregular geoid
surface, providing a mean sea level (MSL) as a reference level for topographic
measurements.

=== Surface ===

The total surface area of Earth is about 510 million km2 (197 million sq mi).
Earth's surface can be divided into two hemispheres, such as into the Northern and
Southern Hemisphere, or the Western and Eastern Hemisphere.
Most of the surface is made of water, in liquid form or in smaller amounts as ice.
70.8% (361.13 million km2 (139.43 million sq mi)) of the Earth's surface consists
of the interconnected ocean, making it Earth's global ocean or world ocean. This
makes Earth, along with its vibrant hydrosphere a water world or ocean world,
particularly in Earth's early history when the ocean is thought to have possibly
covered Earth completely. The world ocean is commonly divided into the Pacific
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean, from largest
to smallest. Below the ocean's surface are the continental shelf, mountains,
volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus, abyssal plains,
and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system.
In contrast, Earth's land makes 29.2%, or 148.94 million km2 (57.51 million sq mi)
of Earth's surface area. Earth's land consists of many islands around the globe,
but mainly of four continental landmasses, which are from largest to smallest:
Afroeurasia,America, Antarctica and Australia. These landmasses are further broken
down and grouped into the continents. The terrain varies greatly and consists of
mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. The elevation of the
land surface varies from the low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to a
maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean
height of land above sea level is about 797 m (2,615 ft).The continental crust
consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks granite and andesite.
Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of
the ocean floors. Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that
becomes buried and compacted together. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are
covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust. The third
form of rock material found on Earth is metamorphic rock, which is created from the
transformation of pre-existing rock types through high pressures, high
temperatures, or both. The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth's surface
include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica, pyroxene and olivine. Common carbonate
minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and dolomite.Erosion and tectonics,
volcanic eruptions, flooding, weathering, glaciation, the growth of coral reefs,
and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's
surface over geological time. The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's
continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation
processes. The total arable land is 10.9% of the land surface, with 1.3% being
permanent cropland. Close to 40% of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture,
or an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million
km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.

=== Tectonic plates ===

Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic
plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of
three boundaries types: at convergent boundaries, two plates come together; at
divergent boundaries, two plates are pulled apart; and at transform boundaries, two
plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, earthquakes,
volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur. The
tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part
of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates.As the tectonic
plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at
convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at
divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes
recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the
ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the
Western Pacific and is estimated to be 200 Ma old. By comparison, the oldest dated
continental crust is 4,030 Ma, although zircons have been found preserved as clasts
within Eoarchean sedimentary rocks that give ages up to 4,400 Ma, indicating that
at least some continental crust existed at that time.The seven major plates are the
Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, and South
American. Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the
Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the
southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between
50 and 55 Ma. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos
Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/a (3.0 in/year) and the Pacific Plate moving 52–
69 mm/a (2.0–2.7 in/year). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the
South American Plate, progressing at a typical rate of 10.6 mm/a (0.42 in/year).

=== Internal structure ===

Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into
layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer is a
chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous
solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić
discontinuity. The thickness of the crust varies from about 6 kilometers (3.7 mi)
under the oceans to 30–50 km (19–31 mi) for the continents. The crust and the cold,
rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, which is
divided into independently moving tectonic plates.Beneath the lithosphere is the
asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides.
Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 km
(250 and 410 mi) below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the
upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer
core lies above a solid inner core. Earth's inner core may be rotating at a
slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by
0.1–0.5° per year, although both somewhat higher and much lower rates have also
been proposed. The radius of the inner core is about one-fifth of that of Earth.
Density increases with depth, as described in the table on the right.
Among the Solar System's planetary sized objects Earth is the object with the
highest density.

=== Chemical composition ===

Earth's mass is approximately 5.97×1024 kg (5,970 Yg). It is composed mostly of

iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%),
nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminum (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2%
consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to mass segregation, the core
region is estimated to be primarily composed of iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts
of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements.The most common
rock constituents of the crust are nearly all oxides: chlorine, sulfur, and
fluorine are the important exceptions to this and their total amount in any rock is
usually much less than 1%. Over 99% of the crust is composed of 11 oxides,
principally silica, alumina, iron oxides, lime, magnesia, potash, and soda.

=== Heat ===

The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and
thorium-232. At the center, the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C (10,830 °F), and
the pressure could reach 360 GPa (52 million psi). Because much of the heat is
provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history,
before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was
much higher. At approximately 3 Gyr, twice the present-day heat would have been
produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and
allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are
rarely formed today.The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW m−2, for a global heat
loss of 4.42×1013 W. A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward
the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of
higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More
of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling
associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through
conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans
because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents.

=== Gravitational field ===

The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the
distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration
is approximately 9.8 m/s2 (32 ft/s2). Local differences in topography, geology, and
deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad regional differences in Earth's
gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies.
=== Magnetic field ===

The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a
dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally
driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends
outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is,
approximately, a dipole. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's
geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength
at the surface is 3.05×10−5 T, with a magnetic dipole moment of 7.79×1022 Am2 at
epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century (although it still remains stronger
than its long time average). The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the
magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes secular
variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a
few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately
700,000 years ago.The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the
magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the
magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to
about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail.
Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves
propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the dayside
magnetosphere within the solar wind. Charged particles are contained within the
magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially
follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates. The ring current is defined by
medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with
paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the Van Allen radiation
belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but
contained in the magnetosphere.During magnetic storms and substorms, charged
particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the
magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric
atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the aurora.

== Orbit and rotation ==

=== Rotation ===

Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is 86,400 seconds of
mean solar time (86,400.0025 SI seconds). Because Earth's solar day is now slightly
longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal deceleration, each day
varies between 0 and 2 ms longer than the mean solar day.Earth's rotation period
relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth
Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.0989 seconds of mean solar
time (UT1), or 23h 56m 4.0989s. Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing
or moving mean March equinox (when the Sun is at 90° on the equator), is
86,164.0905 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.0905s). Thus the sidereal
day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.Apart from meteors within the
atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial
bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near
the celestial equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the
Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the
Moon are approximately the same.

=== Orbit ===

Earth orbits the Sun, making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of
the inner Solar System. Earth's average orbital distance is about 150 million km
(93 million mi), which is the basis for the Astronomical Unit and is equal to
roughly 8.3 light minutes or 380 times Earth's distance to the Moon.
Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. With an
apparent movement of the Sun in Earth's sky at a rate of about 1°/day eastward,
which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to this motion, on
average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about
its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian.
The orbital speed of Earth averages about 29.78 km/s (107,200 km/h; 66,600 mph),
which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about 12,742
km (7,918 mi), in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, 384,000 km (239,000
mi), in about 3.5 hours.The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32
days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth-Moon system's
common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new
moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the
Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage
point above the Sun and Earth's north poles, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise
direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned:
Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth-Sun
plane (the ecliptic), and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against
the Earth-Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks,
alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses.The Hill sphere, or the
sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) in
radius. This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is
stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within
this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the
Sun. Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way and orbits
about 28,000 light-years from its center. It is about 20 light-years above the
galactic plane in the Orion Arm.

=== Axial tilt and seasons ===

The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281° with the axis of its orbit
plane, always pointing towards the Celestial Poles. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the
amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course
of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with summer in the
Northern Hemisphere occurring when the Tropic of Cancer is facing the Sun, and in
the Southern Hemisphere when the Tropic of Capricorn faces the Sun. In each
instance, winter occurs simultaneously in the opposite hemisphere. During the
summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the
climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. Above the Arctic Circle and below the
Antarctic Circle there is no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a polar
night, and this night extends for several months at the poles themselves. These
same latitudes also experience a midnight sun, where the sun remains visible all
day.By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices
—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the
equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the
Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer
solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is
about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed,
with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox
dates swapped.The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long
periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion
with a main period of 18.6 years. The orientation (rather than the angle) of
Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over
each 25,800-year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a
sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by the varying
attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also
migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This polar motion has multiple,
cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In
addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called
the Chandler wobble. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known
as length-of-day variation.In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3
January, and its aphelion around 4 July. These dates change over time due to
precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as
Milankovitch cycles. The changing Earth-Sun distance causes an increase of about
6.8% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the
Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth
reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly
more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This
effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt,
and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the
Southern Hemisphere.

== Earth–Moon system ==

=== Moon ===

The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a

diameter about one-quarter of Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System
relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf
planet Pluto. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as
"moons", after Earth's. The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the
giant-impact hypothesis, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size
protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among
other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact
that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust.The gravitational
attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the
Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it
takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet.
As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun,
leading to the lunar phases. Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from
Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm/a (1.5 in/year). Over millions of years,
these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 µs/yr—add
up to significant changes. During the Ediacaran period, for example, (approximately
620 Ma) there were 400±7 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.9±0.4 hours.The
Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the
planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that
Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon. Some
theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the
Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be
chaotically unstable, exhibiting large changes over millions of years, as is the
case for Mars, though this is disputed.Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far
enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The angular
size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's
diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more
distant. This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth.

=== Asteroids and artificial satellites ===

Earth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites, objects with

a horseshoe orbit and trojans. There are at least five quasi-satellites, including
469219 Kamoʻoalewa. A trojan asteroid companion, 2010 TK7, is librating around the
leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun. The tiny
near-Earth asteroid 2006 RH120 makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system
roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief
periods of time.As of September 2021, there are 4,550 operational, human-made
satellites orbiting Earth. There are also inoperative satellites, including
Vanguard 1, the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of
tracked space debris. Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International
Space Station.

== Hydrosphere ==

Earth's hydrosphere consists chiefly of the oceans, but technically includes all
water surfaces in the world, including inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground
waters down to a depth of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). The mass of the oceans is
approximately 1.35×1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The
oceans cover an area of 361.8 million km2 (139.7 million sq mi) with a mean depth
of 3,682 m (12,080 ft), resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332 billion km3 (320
million cu mi). If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a
smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km (1.68
to 1.74 mi). About 97.5% of the water is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water.
Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers.In
Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and changes into ice. This
accumulated snow and ice eventually forms into glaciers, bodies of ice that flow
under the influence of their own gravity. Alpine glaciers form in mountainous
areas, whereas vast ice sheets form over land in polar regions. The flow of
glaciers erodes the surface changing it dramatically, with the formation of U-
shaped valleys and other landforms. Sea ice in the Arctic covers an area about as
big as the United States, although it is quickly retreating as a consequence of
climate change.The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per
kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic
activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of
dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic
life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the
oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature
distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño–Southern
Oscillation.The abundance of water on Earth's surface is a unique feature that
distinguishes it from other planets in the Solar System. Solar System planets with
considerable atmospheres do partly host atmospheric water vapor, but they lack
surface conditions for stable surface water. Despite some moons showing signs of
large reservoirs of extraterrestrial liquid water, with possibly even more volume
than Earth's ocean, all of them are large bodies of water under a kilometers thick
frozen surface layer.

== Atmosphere ==

The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi),
with a scale height of about 8.5 km (5.3 mi). A dry atmosphere is composed of
78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide
and other gaseous molecules. Water vapor content varies between 0.01% and 4% but
averages about 1%. Clouds cover around two thirds of Earth's surface, more so over
oceans than land. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging
between 8 km (5 mi) at the poles to 17 km (11 mi) at the equator, with some
variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors.Earth's biosphere has
significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya,
forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the
proliferation of aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone
layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O2 into O3. The ozone layer
blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric
functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful
gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and
moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is the greenhouse effect: trace
molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the
surface, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature
would be −18 °C (0 °F), in contrast to the current +15 °C (59 °F), and life on
Earth probably would not exist in its current form.

=== Weather and climate ===

Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, gradually becoming thinner and fading
into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the
first 11 km (6.8 mi) of the surface; this lowest layer is called the troposphere.
Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of
the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-
density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and
climate through redistribution of thermal energy.The primary atmospheric
circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30°
latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°. Ocean heat
content and currents are also important factors in determining climate,
particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the
equatorial oceans to the polar regions.Earth receives 1361 W/m2 of solar
irradiance. The amount of solar energy that reaches the Earth's surface decreases
with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at
lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a
result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 °C (0.7
°F) per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into
specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the
equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical,
temperate and polar climates.Further factors that affect a location's climates are
its proximity to oceans, the oceanic and atmospheric circulation, and topology.
Places close to oceans typically have colder summers and warmer winters, due to the
fact that oceans can store large amounts of heat. The wind transports the cold or
the heat of the ocean to the land. Atmospheric circulation also plays an important
role: San Francisco and Washington DC are both coastal cities at about the same
latitude. San Francisco's climate is significantly more moderate as the prevailing
wind direction is from sea to land. Finally, temperatures decrease with height
causing mountainous areas to be colder than low-lying areas.Water vapor generated
through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the
atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this
water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation. Most of the water is
then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the
oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for
supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features
over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several
meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation,
topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average
precipitation that falls in each region.The commonly used Köppen climate
classification system has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle
latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more
specific subtypes. The Köppen system rates regions based on observed temperature
and precipitation. Surface air temperature can rise to around 55 °C (131 °F) in hot
deserts, such as Death Valley, and can fall as low as −89 °C (−128 °F) in
Antarctica.

=== Upper atmosphere ===

The upper atmosphere, the atmosphere above the troposphere, is usually divided into
the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each layer has a different lapse
rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the
exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact
with the solar wind. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that
partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life
on Earth. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km (62 mi) above Earth's surface, is a
working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space.Thermal
energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase
their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes
a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a
low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into
outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space
contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially
reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of
free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have
been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the
atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have
influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich
atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to
escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in
the upper atmosphere.

== Life on Earth ==

Earth is the only known place that is habitable and has hosted life. Earth's life
developed in Earth's early bodies of water some hundred million years after Earth
formed.
Earth's life has been shaping and inhabiting many particular ecosystems on Earth
and has eventually expanded globally forming an overarching biosphere. Therefore,
life has impacted Earth, significantly altering Earth's atmosphere and surface over
long periods of time, causing changes like the Great oxidation event.
Earth's life has over time greatly diversified, allowing the biosphere to have
different biomes, which are inhabited by comparatively similar plants and animals.
The different biomes develope at distinct elevations or water depths, planetary
temperature latitudes and on land also with different humidity. Earth's species
diversity and biomass reaches a peak in shallow waters and with forests,
particularly in equatorial, warm and humid conditions. While freezing polar regions
and high altitudes, or extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and
animal life.Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex organic
molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain a metabolism.
Plants and other organisms take up nutrients from water, soils and the atmosphere.
These nutrients are constantly recycled between different species.Extreme weather,
such as tropical cyclones (including hurricanes and typhoons), occurs over most of
Earth's surface and has a large impact on life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000,
these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year. Many places are
subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes,
blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and other calamities and disasters. Human
impact is felt in many areas due to pollution of the air and water, acid rain, loss
of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife,
species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion and erosion. Human activities
release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which cause global warming. This is
driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, a global rise in
average sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of
species to colder areas.
== Human geography ==

Originating from earlier primates in eastern Africa 300,000 years ago humans have
since been migrating and with the advent of agriculture in the 10th millennium BC
increasingly settling Earth's land. In the 20th century Antarctica had been the
last continent to see a first and until today limited human presence.
Human population has since the 19th century grown exponentially to seven billion in
the early 2010s, and is projected to peak at around ten billion in the second half
of the 21st century. Most of the growth is expected to take place in sub-Saharan
Africa.Distribution and density of human population varies greatly around the world
with the majority living in south to eastern Asia and 90% inhabiting only the
Northern Hemisphere of Earth, partly due to the hemispherical predominance of the
world's land mass, with 68% of the world's land mass being in the Northern
Hemisphere. Furthermore, since the 19th century humans have increasingly converged
into urban areas with the majority living in urban areas by the 21st century.Beyond
Earth's surface humans have lived on a temporary basis, with only special purpose
deep underground and underwater presence, and a few space stations. Human
population virtually completely remains on Earth's surface, fully depending on
Earth and the environment it sustains. Humans have gone and temporarily stayed
beyond Earth with some hundreds of people, since the latter half of the 20th
century, and only a fraction of them reaching another celestial body, the
Moon.Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures, which have marked Earth
significantly. Earth has been the claim of extensive human sedetary, extractive and
political activity. Earth's land has been mostly territorially claimed since the
19th century by states, of which today more than 200 exist, with only Antarctica
and few areas remaining unclaimed. Most of these states together form the United
Nations, the leading worldwide intergovernmental organization, with international
governance having provided legal regimes extraterritorially, extanding human
governance over the ocean and Antarctica, and therefore all of Earth.

=== Natural resources and land use ===

Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans. Those termed non-renewable
resources, such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales.
Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of coal,
petroleum, and natural gas. These deposits are used by humans both for energy
production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also
been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis, resulting from
actions of magmatism, erosion, and plate tectonics. These metals and other elements
are extracted by mining, a process which often brings environmental and health
damage.Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans,
including food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of organic waste.
The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic
ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land. In 2019, 39
million km2 (15 million sq mi) of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and
woodlands, 12 million km2 (4.6 million sq mi) was shrub and grassland, 40 million
km2 (15 million sq mi) were used for animal feed production and grazing, and 11
million km2 (4.2 million sq mi) were cultivated as croplands. Of the 12–14% of ice-
free land that is used for croplands, 2 percentage points were irrigated in 2015.
Humans use building materials to construct shelters.

=== Humans and the environment ===

Human activities have impacted Earth's environments. Through activities such as the
burning of fossil fuels, humans have been increasing the amount of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, altering Earth's energy budget and climate. It is estimated that
global temperatures in the year 2020 were 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) warmer than the
preindustrial baseline. This increase in temperature, known as global warming, has
contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, increased risk of
drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas.The concept of
planetary boundaries was introduced to quantify humanity's impact on Earth. Of the
nine identified boundaries, five have been crossed: Biosphere integrity, climate
change, chemical pollution, destruction of wild habitats and the nitrogen cycle are
thought to have passed the safe threshold. As of 2018, no country meets the basic
needs of its population without transgressing planetary boundaries. It is thought
possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of
resource use.

== Cultural and historical viewpoint ==

Human cultures have developed many views of the planet. The standard astronomical
symbols of Earth are a quartered circle, , representing the four corners of the
world, and a globus cruciger, . Earth is sometimes personified as a deity. In many
cultures it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity. Creation
myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or
deities. The Gaia hypothesis, developed in the mid-20th century, compared Earth's
environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad
stabilization of the conditions of habitability.Images of Earth taken from space,
particularly during the Apollo program, have been credited with altering the way
that people viewed the planet that they lived on, called the overview effect,
emphasizing its beauty, uniqueness and apparent fragility. In particular, this
caused a realization of the scope of effects from human activity on Earth's
environment. Enabled by science, particularly Earth observation, humans have
started to take action on environmental issues globally, acknowledging the impact
of humans and the interconnectedness of Earth's environments.
Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts
in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually
displaced in Ancient Greece by the idea of a spherical Earth, which was attributed
to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides. Earth was generally believed to
be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first
concluded that it was a moving object, one of the planets of the Solar System.It
was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least
many millions of years. Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of
Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous
debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were
discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for
determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years
old.

== See also ==

== Notes ==

== References ==

== External links ==

Earth – Profile – Solar System Exploration – NASA

Earth Observatory – NASA
Earth – Videos – International Space Station:
Video (01:02) – Earth (time-lapse)
Video (00:27) – Earth and auroras (time-lapse)
Google Earth 3D, interactive map
Interactive 3D visualization of the Sun, Earth and Moon system
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