CHAPTER 4

VECTOR SPACES
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR
✓ Geometrically, a standard vector in a plane is represented as s directed line
segment.

✓ Its length is called the length or magnitude of the vector.

✓ Its direction is called the direction of the vector.

✓ Examples of vector notations

a Boldfaced letter

𝑎⃗ or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 Letter with arrow over it

𝑎 Line underneath it

GEOMETRIC VECTORS
Vectors with the same length and direction, are said to be equivalent.

Let A and B be two points (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) and (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 ). Then 𝑢

⃗ is a vector,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝑣 = 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑏1 − 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 )

4.1.1 VECTOR IN 𝑹𝒏

𝑛 −space ̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 )
𝒖
𝑣1
𝑣2
̅=(⋮)
𝒗
𝑣𝑛

2 −space ̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 )
𝒖
𝑣1
̅ = (𝑣 )
𝒗
2

3 −space ̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 )
𝒖
𝑣1
̅ = (𝑣2 )
𝒗
𝑣3

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 1

4.1.1 BASIC OPERATIONS ON VECTORS IN A PLANE

i) 𝑢̅ ± 𝑣̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ) ± (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 )
= (𝑢1 ± 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 ± 𝑣2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ± 𝑣𝑛 )

ii) 𝑐𝑢̅ = 𝑐 (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 )

= (𝑐𝑢1 , 𝑐𝑢2 , … , 𝑐𝑢𝑛 )

Example 1

If 𝒖 = (2, −1, 8) and 𝒗 = (−1, 3, 2), find 𝒖 + 𝒗 and 2𝒖 − 𝒗.

Solution:

𝒖 + 𝒗 = (2, −1, 8) + (−1, 3, 2)

= (1,2, 10)
2𝒖 − 𝒗 = 2(2, −1, 8) − (−1, 3, 2)
= (4, −2, 16) − (−1, 3, 2)
= (5, −5, 14)

4.1.2 PROPERTIES OF BASIC VECTOR OPERATIONS

𝑢̅ , 𝑣̅ and 𝑤
̅ are vectors in 𝑅𝑛 , if 𝑘 and 𝑐 are scalars, then

i. 𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ = 𝑣̅ + 𝑢̅

ii. (𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ ) + 𝑤
̅ = 𝑢̅ + (𝑣̅ + 𝑤
̅)

iii. 𝑢̅ + 0̅ = 0̅ + 𝑢̅

iv. 𝑢̅ + (−𝑢̅) = 0̅

v. 𝑘 (𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ ) = 𝑘𝑢̅ + 𝑘𝑣̅

vi. (𝑘 + 𝑐 )(𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ ) = 𝑘𝑢̅ + 𝑘𝑣̅

vii. 𝑘 (𝑐𝑢̅) = (𝑘𝑐 )𝑢̅

viii. 1𝑢̅ = 𝑢̅

1. MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR ||u|| If 𝒖 = (1, −2,4), 𝒗 = (−3,2, −3),

𝒘 = (3, −7,0), find the following
Let 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ,…, 𝑢𝑛 ) then magnitude
of a vector a) ‖w‖

‖𝒖‖ = √𝑢1 2 + 𝑢2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 2

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 2

 2. UNIT VECTOR ‖𝒖
̂‖ = 𝟏 b. the unit vector that is the
opposite direction to vector u.
1
̂=
𝒖 𝒖
‖𝒖‖

3. DOT PRODUCT c. the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗

Let 𝑢̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) and 𝑣̅ = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 )

𝑢̅ ∙ 𝑣̅ = |𝑢̅||𝑣̅ | cos 𝜃

𝑢̅ ∙ 𝑣̅ = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3

If 𝑢̅ and 𝑣̅ are orthogonal then 𝒖

̅∙𝒗
̅ = 𝟎.

The dot product is NOT a vector; it is a

real number or scalar

4.1.3 PROPERTIES OF THE DOT PRODUCT

1. 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝒗 .𝒖

2. (𝑐𝒖) ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝑐 (𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗) = 𝒖 ⋅ (𝑐𝒗)

3. (𝒖 + 𝒗 ) ⋅ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘 + 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘

4. ‖𝒖‖𝟐 = 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒖

Example 2
Given 𝒖 = (−4,0,2), 𝒗 = (2,0, −1) and 𝒘 = (𝑘, 1,1).

i. Find the constant k such that w is orthogonal to 𝒖 + 𝒗.

ii. Find the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗.

Solution:

i. Find the constant k such that w is orthogonal to 𝒖 + 𝒗.

𝒘 ∙ (𝐮 + 𝐯) = 0
𝒖 + 𝒗 = (−4, 0, 2) + (2, 0, −1)
= (−2, 0, 1)
𝒘 ∙ (𝐮 + 𝐯) = 0
(𝑘, 1,1) ∙ (−2, 0, 1) = 0

−2𝑘 + 0 + 1 = 0
1
𝑘=
2

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 3

ii. Find the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗.

𝒖 = (−4,0,2), 𝒗 = (2,0, −1)

𝒖∙𝒗
cos 𝜃 =
|𝒖||𝒗|
(−4,0,2) ∙ (2,0, −1)
=
√(−4)2 + 02 + 22 √22 + 02 + (−1)2

−4(2) + 0 + 2(−1)
=
√20√5
−10
=
10
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−1) = 1800

Example 3

If 𝑢̅ = (3, −6, 6) and 𝑣̅ = (−2, 4, −4), find

a) the unit vector in the opposite direction to 𝑢̅.

b) |𝑢̅ − 𝑣̅ |

c) the angle between 𝑢̅ and 𝑣̅ . Interpret your answer

Solution:

a) the unit vector in the opposite direction to 𝑢̅.

𝑢̅
−𝑢̂ = −
|𝑢|
1
= − (3, −6, 6)
√32 + (−6)2 + 62
1 2 2
= (− , , − )
3 3 3

b) |𝑢̅ − 𝑣̅ | = |(3, −6, 6) − (−2, 4, −4)|

= |(5, −10, 10)|

= √52 + (−10)2 + 102

= √225 = 15

̅.𝑣̅
𝑢
c) cos 𝜃 = |𝑢̅||𝑣̅|

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 4

 (3, −6, 6). (−2, 4, −4)
cos 𝜃 =
√32 + (−6)2 + 62 √(−2)2 + 42 + (−4)2
−6 − 24 − 24
=
√81√36
−54
= = −1
54
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−1) = 1800

𝑢̅ and 𝑣̅ are in the opposite direction.

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 5

Exercise 1

Consider the vector 𝒖 = (8, 8, 6) and 𝒗 = (−4, −4, 3).

i) Find the angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗.

ii) Determine the type of angle between 𝒖 and 𝒗.

Solution:

Exercise 2

Given the vectors 𝒖 = (4, 2, −1) and 𝒗 = (−6, 𝑥, −2).

i) Find the value(s) of 𝑥 if 𝒖 and 𝒗 are orthogonal vectors.

ii) Find a vector with magnitude 5 in the same direction to vector 𝒖.

Solution:

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 6

4.2 REAL VECTOR SPACES
A vector is a member of a vector space. A vector space is a set of objects which can
be multiplied by regular numbers and added together via some rules called the vector
space axioms.
A vector space is a nonempty set V of objects, called vectors, on which are defined
two operations, called addition and multiplication by scalars (real numbers), subject
to the ten axioms (or rules) listed below. The axioms must hold for all vectors u, v,
and w in V and for all scalars  and β

Axiom 1 : 𝒖 ⊕𝒗 ∈𝑽
Axiom 2 : 𝒖 ⊕𝒗=𝒗⊕𝒖
Axiom 3 : (𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗) ⊕ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ⊕ (𝒗 ⊕ 𝒘)
Axiom 4 : 𝟎 ∈ 𝑽,𝒖⊕𝟎 = 𝟎 ⊕𝒖 = 𝒖
Axiom 5 : −𝒖 ∈ 𝑽 and −𝒖 ⊕ 𝒖 = 𝟎
Axiom 6 : 𝛼⊗𝒖∈𝑽
Axiom 7 : 𝛼 ⊗ (𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗) = (𝛼 ⊗ 𝒖) ⊕ (𝛼 ⊗ 𝒗)
Axiom 8 : (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = (𝛼 ⊗ 𝒖) ⊕ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)
Axiom 9 : (𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)
Axiom 10 : 1⊗ 𝒖=𝒖

Remark : Any kind of object can be a vector and the operations ⊕ and ⊗ need not
be the same as standard vector operations.

Important property of vector space (closure). Closure requires two properties :

i. given 𝑎⃗ ∈ 𝑉 and scalar 𝑘 then 𝑘𝑎⃗ ∈ 𝑉

ii. given 𝑎⃗ ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑏⃗⃗ ∈ 𝑉 then 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ ∈ 𝑉

These closure properties determine if V is a vector space !

𝒖, 𝒗 and 𝒘 in 𝑽 can be in three forms:

Rn 𝑢1
• R2  (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) , (𝑢 )
2
𝑢1
• R3  (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) , ( 2 )
𝑢
𝑢3

Matrix • Matrix of any size

Polynomial • 𝑃1  polynomial degree less than equal 1 : 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥

• 𝑃2  polynomial degree less than equal 2 : 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2
• 𝑃3  polynomial degree less than equal 3 : 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑥 3

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 7

Example 4 (standard operation)

Let 𝑽 = {(𝑥1 , 1)|𝑥1 𝜖 ℝ} . Determine whether V is a vector space.

Solution:

Check for Axiom 1 : 𝒖 ⊕𝒗 ∈𝑽

Define 𝒖, 𝒗 : Let 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 1) and 𝒗 = (𝑣1 , 1) where 𝑢1 , 𝑣1 ∈ ℝ ; 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑽

Perform the : 𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ = (𝑢1 , 1) + (𝑣1 , 1)

operation = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 2) ∉ 𝑽

Compare with 𝑉 : (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 2) ∉ 𝑽

(or check the condition)

Conclusion : Therefore, V is not a vector space.

Example 5
Let 𝑽 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 )| 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1} . Determine whether the following axioms
holds or fails.
i. 𝒖 ⨁𝒗 ∈ 𝑽

ii. 𝟎 ∈ 𝑽, 𝒖+𝟎=𝟎+𝒖=𝒖

iii. 𝛼⨂𝒖 ∈ 𝑽

Solution:

i. 𝒖 ⨁𝒗 ∈ 𝑽

Define 𝒖 and 𝒗 : Let 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑽

𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) where 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 1

𝒗 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ) where 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 1

Perform the : 𝒖 ⨁𝒗 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) ⨁(𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 )

operation
= (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 , 𝑢3 + 𝑣3 )

Check /Compare : (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) + (𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ) = (𝑢1 + 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣1 + 𝑣2 )

=1+1=2≠1

Conclusion : The axiom fails.

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 8

ii. 𝟎 ∈ 𝑽, 𝒖+𝟎=𝟎+𝒖=𝒖

Define 𝟎 and 𝒖 : Let 𝟎, 𝒖 ∈ 𝑽

𝟎 = (0,0, 0) where 0 + 0 = 1

𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) where 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 1

Perform the operation : LHS : (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) +(0,0, 0) = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) ⇒ 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 1

RHS : (0, 0, 0)+(𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) ⇒ 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 1

Check /Compare : 𝒖+𝟎=𝒖

𝟎+𝒖=𝒖

Conclusion : The axiom holds.

iii. 𝛼⨂𝒖 ∈ 𝑽

Define 𝒖 : Let 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢) where 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 1

Perform the operation : 𝛼⨁𝒖 = 𝛼 (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) = (𝛼𝑢1 , 𝛼𝑢2 , 𝛼𝑢3 )

Check /Compare : 𝛼𝑢1 + 𝛼𝑢2 = 𝛼(𝑢1 + 𝑢2 )

= 𝛼 (1) = 𝛼 ≠ 1

Conclusion : The axiom fails.

Example 6 (non-standard operation)

Let 𝑉 ∈ 𝑅2 where the addition and scalar multiplication are defined as follows:
𝒖⨁𝒗 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) ⊕ (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )
𝑘 ⊗ 𝒖 = (𝑘𝑢2 , 𝑢1 )
Determine whether the following axioms holds or fails.

i. 𝒖⊕𝒗=𝒗⊕𝒖

ii. (𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 9

Solution:

i. 𝒖⊕𝒗=𝒗⊕𝒖

Define 𝒖, 𝒗 : Suppose 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑽

Let 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) , 𝒗 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )

Perform the operation : 𝒖⨁𝒗 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 )

= (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )
𝒗⨁𝒖 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) + (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 )
= (𝑣1 + 𝑢1 , 𝑣2 + 𝑢2 )

Check /Compare : ∴ 𝒖⨁𝒗 = 𝒗⨁𝒖

Conclusion : The axiom holds.

ii. (𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)

Define 𝒖, 𝒗 : Let 𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) , 𝒖 ∈ 𝑽

Perform the operation : LHS : (𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = (𝛼𝛽𝑢2 , 𝑢1 )

RHS : 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖) = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽𝑢2 , 𝑢1 )
= (𝛼𝑢1 , 𝛽𝑢2 )

Check /Compare : LHS  RHS

(𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖  𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)

Conclusion : The axiom fails.

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 10

Example 7

𝑸 is a set of all 2 × 2 matrices with vector addition and scalar multiplication

defined as follows:
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏2 𝑎 𝑏1 + 𝑏2
𝑨+𝑩= ( )+( 2 )=( 1 )
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑐2 0
𝑎 𝑏1 𝑘𝑎 1
𝑘𝑨 = 𝑘 ( 1 )=( 1 )
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑘𝑐1 1
Determine whether 𝑸 satisfies the following axioms for any scalar 𝑘, 𝑚 matrices 𝑨
and 𝑩.

i) 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨

ii) (𝑘𝑚)𝑨 = 𝑘 (𝑚𝑨)

Solution:

i) Axiom : 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨

Define 𝑨 and 𝑩 : 𝑎 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏2
Let 𝑨 = ( 1 ) and 𝑩 = ( 2 ) where 𝑨, 𝑩 ∈ 𝑸
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2

Perform the operation : 𝑎 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏2 𝑎 𝑏1 + 𝑏2

LHS :𝑨 + 𝑩 =( 1 )+( 2 )=( 1 )
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑐2 0
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏1 + 𝑏2
RHS : 𝑩 + 𝑨=( )+( 1 )=( 2 )
𝑐2 𝑑2 𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐1 0

Check /Compare : LHS  RHS

𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩 + 𝑨

Conclusion : The axiom fails.

ii) Axiom: (𝑘𝑚)𝑨 = 𝑘 (𝑚𝑨)

Define 𝑨 : 𝑎 𝑏1
Let 𝑨 = ( 1 ) and 𝑨 ∈ 𝑸
𝑐1 𝑑1

Perform the operation : 𝑎 𝑏1 𝑘𝑚𝑎1 1

LHS : (𝑘𝑚)𝑨 = (𝑘𝑚) ( 1 )=( )
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑘𝑚𝑐1 1
𝑎 𝑏1
RHS : 𝑘 (𝑚𝑨) = 𝑘 [𝑚 ( 1 )]
𝑐1 𝑑1
𝑚𝑎 1
= 𝑘 [( 1 )]
𝑚𝑐1 1
𝑘𝑚𝑎1 1
=( )
𝑘𝑚𝑐1 1

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 11

 Check /Compare : LHS = RHS
(𝑘𝑚)𝑨 = 𝑘 (𝑚𝑨)

Conclusion : The axiom holds.

Example 8

Let 𝑃2 be a set of polynomials of degrees less than or equal to two with addition and
scalar multiplication defined as follows:

𝒑(𝑥 ) + 𝒒(𝑥 ) = (𝑎0 + 𝑏0 𝑥 + 𝑐0 𝑥 2 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑎0 𝑎1 + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 − 𝑐02 𝑥 2

𝑚𝒑(𝑥 ) = 𝑚(𝑎0 + 𝑏0 𝑥 + 𝑐0 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑚𝑎0 + (𝑚𝑏0 )𝑥 + (2𝑐0 )𝑥 2

Determine whether 𝑃2 satisfies the following axioms for any scalar 𝑚 and 𝑛 and
polynomial 𝒑(𝑥 ) and 𝒒(𝑥 ).

i) 𝒑 (𝑥 ) + 𝒒 (𝑥 ) = 𝒒 (𝑥 ) + 𝒑 (𝑥 )

ii) (𝑚𝑛)𝒑(𝑥 ) = 𝑚(𝑛𝒑(𝑥 ))

Solution:

i) Axiom: 𝒑 (𝑥 ) + 𝒒 (𝑥 ) = 𝒒 (𝑥 ) + 𝒑 (𝑥 )

Define 𝒑(𝑥 ) and 𝒒(𝑥 ) : Let 𝒑(𝑥 ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 and 𝒑(𝑥 ) = 𝑑 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓𝑥 2 where

𝒑(𝑥 ), 𝒒(𝑥 ) ∈ 𝑃2

Perform the operation : LHS : 𝒑(𝑥 ) + 𝒒(𝑥 ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 ) + (𝑑 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓𝑥 2 )

= 𝑎𝑑 + (𝑏 + 𝑒)𝑥 − 𝑐 2 𝑥 2

RHS : 𝒒(𝑥 ) + 𝒑(𝑥 ) = (𝑑 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓𝑥 2 ) + (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 )

= 𝑑𝑎 + (𝑒 + 𝑏)𝑥 − 𝑓 2 𝑥 2

Check /Compare : LHS  RHS

𝒑(𝑥 ) + 𝒒(𝑥 ) 𝒒(𝑥 ) + 𝒑(𝑥 )

Conclusion : The axiom fails.

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 12

ii) Axiom: (𝑚𝑛)𝒑(𝑥 ) = 𝑚(𝑛𝒑(𝑥 ))

Define 𝒑(𝑥 ) : Let 𝒑(𝑥 ) = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 where 𝒑(𝑥 ) ∈ 𝑃2

Perform the operation : LHS : (𝑚𝑛)𝒑(𝑥 ) = (𝑚𝑛)(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 )

= 𝑚𝑛𝑎 + 𝑚𝑛𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑐𝑥 2

RHS : 𝑚(𝑛𝒑(𝑥 )) = 𝑚(𝑛(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 2 ))

= 𝑚 (𝑛𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑐𝑥 2 )

= 𝑚𝑛𝑎 + 𝑚𝑛𝑏𝑥 + 4𝑐𝑥 2

Check /Compare : LHS  RHS

(𝑚𝑛)𝒑(𝑥 ) ≠ 𝑚(𝑛𝒑(𝑥 ))

Conclusion : The axiom fails.

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 13

Exercise 3

Solution:

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 14

TUTORIAL 4 : VECTOR SPACES

QUESTION 1 (423 JUNE 2019)

QUESTION 2 (263 JUNE 2019)

QUESTION 3 (263 2018)

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 15

QUESTION 4 (263 JAN 2018)

QUESTION 5 (263 MARCH 2017)

QUESTION 6 (263 JULY 2017)

MAT423 LINEAR ALGEBRA YUZAIMI YUNUS 16