Chapter 4 Vector Spaces - Part 1
Chapter 4 Vector Spaces - Part 1
Chapter 4 Vector Spaces - Part 1
VECTOR SPACES
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO VECTOR
✓ Geometrically, a standard vector in a plane is represented as s directed line
segment.
a Boldfaced letter
𝑎⃗ or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 Letter with arrow over it
𝑎 Line underneath it
GEOMETRIC VECTORS
Vectors with the same length and direction, are said to be equivalent.
4.1.1 VECTOR IN 𝑹𝒏
𝑛 −space ̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 )
𝒖
𝑣1
𝑣2
̅=(⋮)
𝒗
𝑣𝑛
2 −space ̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 )
𝒖
𝑣1
̅ = (𝑣 )
𝒗
2
3 −space ̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 )
𝒖
𝑣1
̅ = (𝑣2 )
𝒗
𝑣3
i) 𝑢̅ ± 𝑣̅ = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ) ± (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 )
= (𝑢1 ± 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 ± 𝑣2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ± 𝑣𝑛 )
Example 1
𝑢̅ , 𝑣̅ and 𝑤
̅ are vectors in 𝑅𝑛 , if 𝑘 and 𝑐 are scalars, then
i. 𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ = 𝑣̅ + 𝑢̅
ii. (𝑢̅ + 𝑣̅ ) + 𝑤
̅ = 𝑢̅ + (𝑣̅ + 𝑤
̅)
iii. 𝑢̅ + 0̅ = 0̅ + 𝑢̅
iv. 𝑢̅ + (−𝑢̅) = 0̅
viii. 1𝑢̅ = 𝑢̅
‖𝒖‖ = √𝑢1 2 + 𝑢2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 2
𝑢̅ ∙ 𝑣̅ = |𝑢̅||𝑣̅ | cos 𝜃
𝑢̅ ∙ 𝑣̅ = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3
1. 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝒗 .𝒖
2. (𝑐𝒖) ⋅ 𝒗 = 𝑐 (𝒖 ⋅ 𝒗) = 𝒖 ⋅ (𝑐𝒗)
3. (𝒖 + 𝒗 ) ⋅ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒘 + 𝒗 ⋅ 𝒘
4. ‖𝒖‖𝟐 = 𝒖 ⋅ 𝒖
Example 2
Given 𝒖 = (−4,0,2), 𝒗 = (2,0, −1) and 𝒘 = (𝑘, 1,1).
Solution:
𝒘 ∙ (𝐮 + 𝐯) = 0
𝒖 + 𝒗 = (−4, 0, 2) + (2, 0, −1)
= (−2, 0, 1)
𝒘 ∙ (𝐮 + 𝐯) = 0
(𝑘, 1,1) ∙ (−2, 0, 1) = 0
−2𝑘 + 0 + 1 = 0
1
𝑘=
2
−4(2) + 0 + 2(−1)
=
√20√5
−10
=
10
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (−1) = 1800
Example 3
b) |𝑢̅ − 𝑣̅ |
Solution:
= √225 = 15
̅.𝑣̅
𝑢
c) cos 𝜃 = |𝑢̅||𝑣̅|
Exercise 2
Axiom 1 : 𝒖 ⊕𝒗 ∈𝑽
Axiom 2 : 𝒖 ⊕𝒗=𝒗⊕𝒖
Axiom 3 : (𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗) ⊕ 𝒘 = 𝒖 ⊕ (𝒗 ⊕ 𝒘)
Axiom 4 : 𝟎 ∈ 𝑽,𝒖⊕𝟎 = 𝟎 ⊕𝒖 = 𝒖
Axiom 5 : −𝒖 ∈ 𝑽 and −𝒖 ⊕ 𝒖 = 𝟎
Axiom 6 : 𝛼⊗𝒖∈𝑽
Axiom 7 : 𝛼 ⊗ (𝒖 ⊕ 𝒗) = (𝛼 ⊗ 𝒖) ⊕ (𝛼 ⊗ 𝒗)
Axiom 8 : (𝛼 + 𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = (𝛼 ⊗ 𝒖) ⊕ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)
Axiom 9 : (𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)
Axiom 10 : 1⊗ 𝒖=𝒖
Remark : Any kind of object can be a vector and the operations ⊕ and ⊗ need not
be the same as standard vector operations.
Solution:
Example 5
Let 𝑽 = {(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 )| 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ and 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1} . Determine whether the following axioms
holds or fails.
i. 𝒖 ⨁𝒗 ∈ 𝑽
ii. 𝟎 ∈ 𝑽, 𝒖+𝟎=𝟎+𝒖=𝒖
iii. 𝛼⨂𝒖 ∈ 𝑽
Solution:
i. 𝒖 ⨁𝒗 ∈ 𝑽
𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) where 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 1
𝒗 = (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ) where 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 1
=1+1=2≠1
𝟎 = (0,0, 0) where 0 + 0 = 1
𝒖 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ) where 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 1
iii. 𝛼⨂𝒖 ∈ 𝑽
= 𝛼 (1) = 𝛼 ≠ 1
Let 𝑉 ∈ 𝑅2 where the addition and scalar multiplication are defined as follows:
𝒖⨁𝒗 = (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ) ⊕ (𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ) = (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 )
𝑘 ⊗ 𝒖 = (𝑘𝑢2 , 𝑢1 )
Determine whether the following axioms holds or fails.
i. 𝒖⊕𝒗=𝒗⊕𝒖
ii. (𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)
i. 𝒖⊕𝒗=𝒗⊕𝒖
Define 𝒖, 𝒗 : Suppose 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑽
ii. (𝛼𝛽 ) ⊗ 𝒖 = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖)
RHS : 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽 ⊗ 𝒖) = 𝛼 ⊗ (𝛽𝑢2 , 𝑢1 )
= (𝛼𝑢1 , 𝛽𝑢2 )
i) 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨
Solution:
i) Axiom : 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨
Define 𝑨 and 𝑩 : 𝑎 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏2
Let 𝑨 = ( 1 ) and 𝑩 = ( 2 ) where 𝑨, 𝑩 ∈ 𝑸
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2
𝑨 + 𝑩𝑩 + 𝑨
Define 𝑨 : 𝑎 𝑏1
Let 𝑨 = ( 1 ) and 𝑨 ∈ 𝑸
𝑐1 𝑑1
Example 8
Let 𝑃2 be a set of polynomials of degrees less than or equal to two with addition and
scalar multiplication defined as follows:
Determine whether 𝑃2 satisfies the following axioms for any scalar 𝑚 and 𝑛 and
polynomial 𝒑(𝑥 ) and 𝒒(𝑥 ).
i) 𝒑 (𝑥 ) + 𝒒 (𝑥 ) = 𝒒 (𝑥 ) + 𝒑 (𝑥 )
Solution:
i) Axiom: 𝒑 (𝑥 ) + 𝒒 (𝑥 ) = 𝒒 (𝑥 ) + 𝒑 (𝑥 )
= 𝑎𝑑 + (𝑏 + 𝑒)𝑥 − 𝑐 2 𝑥 2
= 𝑑𝑎 + (𝑒 + 𝑏)𝑥 − 𝑓 2 𝑥 2
Solution: