CHAPTER II

PETROLEUM
Petroleum, also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like coal and natural gas, petroleum was
formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as plants, algae, and bacteria. Over
millions of years of intense heat and pressure, these organic remains (fossils) transformed into
carbon-rich substances we rely on as raw materials for fuel and a wide variety of products.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. Determine the basic concepts of petroleum and its history.
2. Discuss the origin of petroleum.
3. Explain the elements and processes of petroleum system.
4. Determine the properties of reservoir rock.

What is petroleum?
Petroleum is a complex mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbon compounds found in
rock which has been formed over thousands of years by heat and pressure turning organic matter
to oil and gas. Impurities such as sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen are common in petroleum. There
is also considerable variation in colour, odour, sulphur content and viscosity in petroleum from
different areas.
Oil, petroleum, natural gas, hydrocarbons and crude are terms we commonly hear. If
we are going to study the oil industry, we must first become familiar with the "lingo". Appendix
I provides a glossary, but it will be useful at this point to introduce you to the some of the key
terms. There are many kinds of oils. We have “oils” that are used for cooking and sun tanning.
Some of these oils come from different types of plants (such as vegetable oil) and animals (cod
liver oil). The oil we are concerned with here is derived from rocks within the earth. It is called
petroleum, a name taken from the Latin words meaning "rock oil". Throughout this text when we
speak of oil, we will always mean petroleum.
The term hydrocarbons refers to the chemical makeup of petroleum. Hydrocarbons can
combine in various ways to form many different compounds. They can form solids, such as the
asphalt that is used to pave roads; liquids such as conventional liquid petroleum, and gases such
as natural gas (not to be confused with gasoline). Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons that
are in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure.
It consists mostly of methane, but also contains ethane, propane, butane and pentane,
which are the simplest and lightest hydrocarbons. The different properties of hydrocarbon
compounds are determined by differences in the number and arrangement of hydrogen and carbon
atoms they contain. Carbon is much heavier than hydrogen and thus the weight of the hydrocarbon
molecule is predominantly determined by the number of carbon atoms. Natural gas molecules will
contain only a few carbon atoms per molecule while a heavy petroleum such as tar or asphalt may
contain a great number of carbon atoms per molecule. Petroleum may also contain certain
impurities such as nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen.
The term crude oil refers to oil in its "crude" or unrefined state; that is to say oil as it
comes out of the ground. This crude oil must be transported to a refinery to be separated into
constituents such as gasoline, aviation fuel, fuel oil, etc. before it can be used by the consumer.

Why is Oil so Important in Today’s World?

The answer to this question may already be obvious to you but let's try and see how big a
role oil plays in your daily life. When you got out of bed this morning, the electricity you used to
cook breakfast may have been generated from an oil-burning generating station; or perhaps your
family uses a natural gas-burning stove. You were able to enjoy breakfast in comfort and warmth
because of the oil-burning furnace in your basement. Next you may have taken a gasoline or diesel
powered car (or bus) to school. So, as you can see, before you even started your school day you
already used a certain amount of petroleum. Many of us tend to take these conveniences for
granted. Try and imagine how your life might change if we suddenly lost our supply of oil.

A Source of Energy
Oil's primary importance lies in the fact that it is a very versatile and powerful source of
energy. There are many other energy sources that we routinely use, including firewood, coal, and
hydroelectric and nuclear generating stations. All of these sources have their advantages and
disadvantages. A clean and renewable source of energy would certainly be the most desirable.
Oil is a non-renewable source of energy. What this means is that our natural sources of oil
are finite; there will come a time when we have used them up. The reason that oil has such
importance is that it provides the fuel that runs the internal combustion engine. The internal
combustion engine was invented by Karl Benz in 1885-86. Gotlieb Daimler improved on this
invention and eight years later Rudolph Diesel created the engine that bears his name. These types
of engines are still used today in all kinds of machinery including automobiles, ships, tractors,
generators and tanks. Oil is also the raw material for the fuels that are used in jet engines and in
some cases to fuel rocket engines to propel spacecraft into outer space.
It should now be obvious why oil plays such a dominant role in today's world. If oil
supplies were to be cut off, cars, boats and planes would grind to a halt. We would have to find
alternate means of heating many of our homes and generating sufficient electricity. Our personal
security would also be threatened because our military forces and police forces would be largely
immobilized. Oil’s principal importance derives from the fact that it fuels the machines of our
industrialized society.

A BRIEF PETROLEUM HISTORY

There are many places where oil seeps out of the ground. Bitumen produced from such
naturally occurring crude oil has been collected and used since ancient times, both for lighting and
medicine, and by the Greeks even for warfare. In Ancient Egypt petroleum products were used
as a liniment and in curative preparations for eye infections, while bitumen was used for
embalming practices.
In some places, for example Germany in the 1800s, small mines were dug to get at the oil.
Before 1859 oil was also recovered from coal for use in kerosene lamps. It was not until Edwin
Drake’s exploits in 1859 at Oil Creek near Titusville in West Pennsylvania that oil was recovered
in any quantity from boreholes. He drilled a well about 25 m (70 ft) deep which produced 8–10
bbl/day, a huge production rate compared with anything earlier. A few years later there were 74
wells round Oil Creek, and the USA’s annual production had risen to half a million barrels. Outside
the USA the calculated total production at that time was maximum 5,000 bbl. In 1870 production
had increased tenfold, with 5 million bbl from the USA, and 538,000 bbl from other countries.
In its infancy, oil exploration consisted largely of looking for oil seepage at the surface and
drilling in the vicinity, which did not require much geological knowledge. It was then realised that
oil and gas occur where layers of sedimentary rocks form domes or anticlinal structures since
petroleum is less dense than water and a low permeability (seal) layer is needed to prevent the oil
and gas from rising and escaping. This led to extensive geological mapping of anticlines and domes
visible at the surface, particularly in the USA. It was also found that oil fields had a tendency to
lie along structural trends defined by anticlines or faults and this “rule” was used in prospecting.
The USA maintained its position as the major world producer of oil and gas well into the
twentieth century. Americans thus became leaders in the development of oil technology, which
today is strongly reflected in the industry’s terminology. USA also rapidly became the world’s
greatest consumer of oil and gas, and now has to import at least 60% of its oil consumption despite
still having a large home production (8 million bbl/day). The US consumption (21 million bbl/day)
is a very large fraction of the total world consumption (90 million bbl/day)
It was first in the 1930–1940 period that the industry became aware of the vast oil resources
of the Middle East, which now account for about 60% of world reserves. Since then this region
has dominated oil production.
INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
Petroleum geology comprises those geological disciplines which are of greatest
significance for the finding and recovery of oil and gas. Since most of the obvious and “easy to
find” petroleum already has been discovered it is necessary to use sophisticated methods in the
exploration of sedimentary basins. These include advanced geophysical techniques and basin
modelling. There is also much more emphasis now on enhanced recovery from the producing
fields. Petroleum technology has made great progress and many new tools and modelling programs
have been developed, both in exploration and production.
Relationship of Petroleum Geology to Science
Petroleum geology is the application of geology (the study of rocks) to the exploration for
and production of oil and gas. Geology itself is firmly based on chemistry, physics, and biology,
involving the application of essentially abstract concepts to observed data. In the past, these data
were basically observational and subjective, but they are now increasingly physical and chemical,
and therefore more objective. Geology, in general, and petroleum geology, in particular, still rely
on value judgments based on experience and an assessment of validity among the data presented.
The preceding section showed how petroleum exploration had advanced over the years with the
development of various geological techniques. It is now appropriate to consider in more detail the
roles of chemistry, physics, and biology in petroleum exploration.
Chemistry and Petroleum Geology
The application of chemistry to the study of rocks (geochemistry) has many uses in
petroleum geology. Detailed knowledge of the mineralogical composition of rocks is important at
many levels. In the early stages of exploration, certain general conclusions as to the distribution
and quality of potential reservoirs could be made from their gross lithology. For example, the
porosity of sandstones tends to be facies related, whereas in carbonate rocks this is generally not
so. Detailed knowledge of the mineralogy of reservoirs enables estimates to be made of the rate at
which they may lose porosity during burial, and this detailed mineralogical information is essential
for the accurate interpretation of geophysical well logs through reservoirs. Knowledge of the
chemistry of pore fluids and their effect on the stability of minerals can be used to predict the
places where porosity may be destroyed by cementation, preserved in its original form, or
enhanced by the solution of minerals by formation waters. Organic chemistry is involved both in
the analysis of oil and gas and in the study of the diagenesis of plant and animal tissues in sediments
and the way in which the resultant organic compound, kerogen, generates petroleum.
Physics and Petroleum Geology
The application of physics to the study of rocks (geophysics) is very important in petroleum
geology. In its broadest application geophysics makes a major contribution to understanding the
earth’s crust and, especially through the application of modern plate tectonic theory, to the genesis
and petroleum potential of sedimentary basins. More specifically, physical concepts are required
to understand folds, faults, and diapirs, and hence their roles in petroleum entrapment. Modern
petroleum exploration is unthinkable without the aid of magnetic, gravity, and seismic surveys in
finding potential petroleum traps. Nor could any finds be evaluated effectively without geophysical
wireline well logs to measure the lithology, porosity, and petroleum content of a reservoir.

Biology and Petroleum Geology

Biology is applied to geology in several ways, notably through the study of fossils
(paleontology), and is especially significant in establishing biostratigraphic zones for regional
stratigraphical correlation. The way in which oil exploration shifted the emphasis from the use of
macrofossils to microfossils for zonation has already been noted. Ecology, the study of the
relationship between living organisms and their environment, is also important in petroleum
geology. Carbonate sediments, in general, and reefs, in particular, can only be studied profitably
with the aid of detailed knowledge of the ecology of modern marine fauna and flora. Biology, and
especially biochemistry, is important in studying the transformation of plant and animal tissues
into kerogen during burial and the generation of oil or gas that may be caused by this
transformation.

ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM: ORGANIC OR INORGANIC

Millions of years ago, the earth was populated with plants and animals. Much of that life
was located in or adjacent to ancient rivers, lakes, and sea. As plants and animals died, their
remains settled to the bottom of these bodies of water. Ancient rivers carried mud and sand that
buried the organic material. As layers of organic material continued to build up, the oxygen supply
to the lower layers eventually was cut off and decomposition slowed down. The thickness of such
layers grew to 100s of feet over the time.

Inorganic or Abiotic origin

States that hydrogen and carbon came together under great temperature and pressure, far below
the earth’s surface and formed oil and gas where chemical reactions have occurred. The
javascript:void(0)oil and gas then seeped through porous rock to deposit in various natural
underground traps.It has also excluded the hypothesis that petroleum is a finite substance. There
are some different theories that describe the inorganic origin of petroleum which include: [3]</p>
Metal carbide theory
Developed by a Russian chemist and states that the deposition of petroleum is controlled by
tectonic activities that occurred during the life of sedimentary rock. To explain his observations,
he has put forth "metal carbide theory". Metal carbides deep in Earth reacted with water at high
pressure and temperature to form acetylene which condenses to heavier hydrocarbons.
Reaction equation is: Cac2+H2O= C2H2+Ca(OH)2
Volcanic theory
Involves outgassing of the mantle via volcanic activity or eruption.
Earthquake theory
Involves outgassing deep Earth's mantle via tectonic activities such as faults, and this is still
happening till now.
Serpentinization theory
States that hydrocarbon is a by-product that came from a metamorphic transformation of the green
dark Olivine mineral, which was found in Earth's mantle

Overwhelming evidences for inorganic origin of petroleum

• Geographical location: most of hydrocarbon producing regions are located close to belts
of tectonic activities.
• Stability with depth: Corresponding to what organic theory's supporters have admitted
themselves; petroleum is a fossil fuel, and there has never been a real fossil found below
16000 feet. Nowadays, there is drilling for oil reservoirs at 28000 feet or 30000 feet where
there is no a fossil remains

Organic origin
It is the most widely accepted. The oil and gas are formed from remains of prehistoric
plants and animals. Remains of plants have been transformed to coal and animals to oil and
gas. These remains were settled into seas and accumulated at the ocean floor and buried under
several kilometers of sediments. Over a few milion years, the layers of the organic material were
compressed under the weight of the sediments above them. The increase in pressure and
temperature with the absence of oxygen changed the mud, sand, slit or sediments into rock and
organic matter into Kerogen. After further burial and heating, the kerogen transformed via
cracking into petroleum and natural gas.
Overwhelming evidences for inorganic origin of petroleum
• Geographical location: most of hydrocarbon producing regions are located close to belts
of tectonic activities.
• Stability with depth: Corresponding to what organic theory's supporters have admitted
themselves; petroleum is a fossil fuel, and there has never been a real fossil found below
16000 feet. Nowadays, there is drilling for oil reservoirs at 28000 feet or 30000 feet where
there is no a fossil remains.
FORMATION OF KEROGEN
Having now discussed the generation and preservation of organic matter at the earth’s
surface, it is appropriate to consider what happens to this organic matter when buried in a steadily
subsiding sedimentary basin. As time passes, burial depth increases, exposing the sediment to
increased temperature and pressure.
Tissot (1977) defined three major phases in the evolution of organic matter in response to
burial:
1. Diagenesis: This phase occurs in the shallow subsurface at near normal temperatures and
pressures. It includes both biogenic decay, aided by bacteria, and abiogenic reactions.
Methane, carbon dioxide, and water are given off by the organic matter, leaving a complex
hydrocarbon termed kerogen (to be discussed in much greater detail shortly). The net result
of the diagenesis of organic matter is the reduction of its oxygen content, ling the
hydrogen:carbon ratio largely unaltered.
2. Catagenesis: This phase occurs in the deeper subsurface as burial continues and
temperature and pressure increase. Petroleum is released from kerogen during catagenesis
first oil and later gas. The hydrogen:carbon ratio declines, with no significant change in the
oxygen:carbon ratio.
3. Metagenesis: This third phase occurs at high temperatures and pressures verging on
metamorphism. The last hydrocarbons, generally only methane, are expelled. The
hydrogen:carbon ratio declines until only carbon is left in the form of graphite. Porosity
and permeability are now negligible.

Figure 1: Graph of temperature against time of oil and gas formation

PETROLEUM MIGRATION
There are numerous factors controlling the hydrocarbon migration procsess like kerogen
expansion, increase in pressure and hydrocarbon expulsion out of source rock. The expulsion of
the oil out of the source rock is a dynamic process driven by the oil generation itself. As the organic
matter transforms into oil, this load-bearing kerogen turns into liquid. The fluid pressure of the oil
within the black shales can become high enough to produce microfractures in the rock. Once the
micro fractures form, the oil is squeezed out and the source rock collapses. So, primary migration
can be viewed as a second episode of compaction. Microfractures of this type can be seen in the
most productive source rocks and they are often filled with remnants of oil.
An important distinction is made between primary and secondary migration. Primary
migration is understood as the emigration of hydrocarbons from the source rock (clay or shale)
into permeable carrier beds (generally sands or limestones). Secondary migration refers to
subsequent movement of oil and gas within permeable carrier beds and reservoirs.

Figure 2. Hydrocarbon Migration

THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM
The petroleum system is defined as a hydrocarbon fluid system that encompasses a pod of active
source rock and all related oil and gas accumulations. It includes the essential elements (source
bed, reservoir rock, seal rock, and overburden rock) and processes (generation, migration,
accumulation, preservation, and entrapment) needed for oil and gas accumulations to exist.
 Figure 3. Aspects of a Petroleum System

The Petroleum System consists of a mature source rock, migration pathway,reservoir rock,
trap and seal. Appropriate relative timing of formation of these elements and the processes of
generation, migration and accumulation are necessary for hydrocarbons to accumulate and be
preserved. The components and critical timing relationships of a petroleum system can be
displayed in a chart that shows geologic time along the horizontal axis and the petroleum system
elements along the vertical axis.Exploration plays and prospects are typically developed in basins
or regions in which a complete petroleum system has some likelihood of existing.
 Figure 4. Elements of Hydrocarbon Accumulation

THE RESERVOIR
A reservoir rock is a subsurface volume of rock that has sufficient porosity and
permeability to permit the migration and accumulation of petroleum under adequate trap
conditions. Porosity is a measure in percentage of pore volume or size of holes or vugs per unit
volume of rock. For example, a well-sorted sand in a 300 ml container will hold about 100 ml of
water in its pore space, or a porosity of 33%. If petroleum is present, it can also occupy this pore
space. During burial of this sand, compaction reduces this porosity substantially to where only a
small percentage of porosity is left.

Permeability is a measure of the connectivity of pores in the subsurface. The sand in the
container has narrow pore throats between the large pores that allows fluid to pass from one pore
to another. Permeability is measured in millidarcies (md) or Darcy (1000 md) of these narrow
throats. Commonly, permeability in the range of 100 to 500 md are reasonable values for
a petroleum reservoir rock. Values over a Darcy are exceptional. Fractures have infinite
permeability.

Figure 5. Porosity
Figure 6. Porosity and Permeability