Hashemian 2020
Hashemian 2020
Hashemian 2020
Computer-Aided Design
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cad
article info a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper presents a novel jerk minimization algorithm in the context of multi-axis flank CNC ma-
Received 3 April 2020 chining. The toolpath of the milling axis in a flank milling process, a ruled surface, is reparameterized
Received in revised form 18 April 2020 by a B-spline function, whose control points and knot vector are unknowns in an optimization-based
Accepted 25 April 2020
framework. The total jerk of the tool’s motion is minimized, implying the tool is moving as smooth
Keywords: as possible, without changing the geometry of the given toolpath. Our initialization stage stems from
Jerk-minimized toolpath measuring the ruling distance metric (RDM) of the ruled surface. We show on several examples that
B-spline reparameterization this initialization reliably finds close initial guesses of jerk-minimizers and is also computationally
Ruled surface efficient. The applicability of the presented approach is illustrated by some practical case studies.
Ruling distance metric (RDM) © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Multi-axis flank CNC milling
1. Introduction lowers deviation of the machined surface from its (ideal) designed
state. Moreover, high values of jerk (as the time derivative of ac-
Multi-axis computer numerically controlled (CNC) machining celeration) are closely related to sudden changes of drive torques
is the leading subtractive manufacturing technology, especially which induce undesirable vibrations [3]. Last but not least, small
for hard materials such as titanium or steel–nickel alloys. The jerk reduces the dynamic cutting forces that, in a consequence,
machining process has typically three stages: (i) roughing, that leads to lower energy consumption of the whole milling process.
quickly removes the waste material, e.g. using a large ripper cut-
ter, and generates a rough shape, (ii) semi-finishing, that is mostly 1.1. Previous work
realized by end milling with a smaller cutter than for roughing,
and (iii) finishing, that aims at finalizing the shape of the object, Most of research on jerk minimization relates to contour ma-
reaching fine machining tolerances (e.g. for engine/aeronautical chining [4–7]. Zhang et al. [4] use a G4 -continuous B-spline curve
components a few micrometers for objects of the size of tens of for the toolpath and employ a jerk-smooth feedrate scheduling
centimeters). Our research focuses on this final (finishing) stage of process in order to obtain a smooth jerk profile along the tool-
machining. In particular, we consider 5-axis flank milling where path. By using an optimal control problem formulation, Bosetti
the milling cutter (aka tool) and the to-be-manufactured object and Bertolazzi [5] present an algorithm for CNC kernels that
touch along a whole curve (i.e., grazing curve) [1], in contrast to aims at solving the axes interpolation problem. They assume a
(i) and (ii) where the tool has (theoretically) a single-point contact predefined path tracking tolerance and apply constraints on the
with the material block. kinematic specifications of the machine axes to calculate the
There are many factors that influence quality of a machined trajectory that satisfies the given constraints.
product: from geometric accuracy of the path-planning algo- Jahanpour and Alizadeh [6] present an adaptive acceleration-
rithms, over analysis of cutting forces and calibration of the actual jerk-limited NURBS interpolation method based on an optimized
machine, up to the error associated to the tool wear. In this work, S-shaped C 2 quintic feedrate planning scheme. They modify the
we discuss the kinematic part of the path planning process that feedrate profile for each sharp corner to minimize the total execu-
deals with the physics (velocities, acceleration, and jerks) of the tion time. Using a piecewise constant approximation of the third
tool [2]. Having a smooth and jerk-minimized profile in multi-axis derivative of the path, Zhang et al. [7] perform a time-optimal tool
machining is fundamental as it affects tracking performance and trajectory generation for CNC manufacturing systems. In their
approach, the axis jerk constraints are also introduced into the
∗ Corresponding author. problem where the desired smoothness of the path could be
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Hashemian). accomplished by adjusting the values of constraints.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cad.2020.102868
0010-4485/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 A. Hashemian, P. Bo and M. Bartoň / Computer-Aided Design 127 (2020) 102868
Fig. 4. Reparameterization. Left: A boundary curve in the typical and (arbitrarily) reparameterized forms. Red circles show the typical linear transformation between
u and t upon which equal time steps lead to equal steps on the parameter space, while green squares illustrate the parameters created by reparameterization upon
which the parameter step-lengths are governed by the transfer function u = f (t). Right: The respective linear (red) and general (green) transfer functions. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
where optimal smooth toolpath (noting that, herein and in the following,
∂ nr
n ∂ r −1 the optimality criterion is to reach a jerk-minimized toolpath).
B (u) = B n−1 (u) In the proposed method, along with the B-spline representa-
∂ ur i ui+n − ui ∂ ur −1 i
tion of the ruled surface, the reparameterization function u = f (t)
n ∂ r −1 n−1 is also introduced as a B-spline curve in terms of time variable.
− B (u) . (11)
ui+n+1 − ui+1 ∂ ur −1 i+1 B-spline formulation offers sufficient flexibility (e.g., arbitrary
The kinematic specifications of boundary curves provided by order of continuity in the function and its derivatives) for our jerk
Eqs. (7)–(9) will then be used to measure and optimize the minimization purpose. Hence, we recall Eq. (1) to define the TF
smoothness of the tool’s motion. as an m-th degree B-spline function with M + 1 control points
(i.e., coefficients) q0 , q1 , . . . , qM spanned over the knot vector t
2.3. B-spline reparameterization of the toolpath as follows:
M
∑
When the flank milling toolpath is parametrically given by a u = f (t) := Bim (t) qi , (12)
B-spline ruled surface, the G-code command lines are typically i=0
generated from a dense set of points sampled along the bound-
ary curves (or alternatively one boundary curve and the ruling t = [0, 0, . . . , 0, tm+1 , tm+2 , . . . , tM , τ , τ , . . . , τ ] . (13)
direction at each point). The procedure of developing command
lines in CNC programmers (e.g., Siemens NX) generally considers m+1 m+1
equal time steps for tool motion between sampled points. An It should be noted that since the curve parameter u is sup-
important point to mention is that these sampling points are also posed to be in [0,1], the first and last control points of f (t) are
obtained by uniform parameter increments in most occasions. As q0 = 0 and qM = 1, respectively. All other qi s must lie within
a result, the execution system time domain t ∈ [0, τ ] is linearly the interval [0,1] and be monotone (i.e., qi > qi−1 ). The control
transferred to the motion parameter space u ∈ [0, 1] by means points and knot sequence of TF play crucial roles in smoothing
of a constant scaling coefficient (i.e., u = t /τ ). In this way, all the kinematic specifications of the toolpath. In the next section,
time derivatives of the trajectory are scaled by the powers of we will present an optimization-based framework that looks for
1/τ . However, a constant scaling cannot always guarantee a kine- the control points qi s and the knots tj s of the TF to minimize the
matically smooth motion especially at the start and end of the jerk of the toolpath.
path (see, e.g., [25]). Therefore, finding an optimal transformation
between t and u, which results in a smooth motion, is essential. 3. Toolpath jerk minimization
In this research, we propose utilizing the reparameterization
technique upon which the motion path parameter u on both 3.1. Optimization problem
boundary curves ck (u) is related to the time variable t by means
of a strictly increasing transfer function u = f (t) where f (0) = 0
As stated in the Introduction, the jerk minimization is taken
and f (τ ) = 1. Fig. 4 shows an original parameterization and its
into consideration in this research as a significant optimality cri-
reparameterized variant of a 3D curve. In the context of flank
terion in smoothing toolpaths of multi-axis flank CNC machining.
CNC machining, one needs to consider two boundary curves
Hence, in order to find the jerk-minimized toolpath, we need to
reparameterized by single transfer function (TF). It is interesting
determine the optimal reparameterized form of the respective
to note that, in contrast to linear transformation between u and
ruled surface, i.e., s̃ (t , v). Since the optimized boundary curves
t upon which equal time steps lead to equal steps on the pa-
c̃k (t) need to share the same parameterization to preserve the
rameter space, applying this reparameterization means that the
projection rule of Eq. (6), we seek a transfer function u = f (t)
parameter step-lengths (and their respective mappings on bound-
to be applied to both curves. For this purpose, we perform an
ary curves) are governed by the transfer function f (t). We also
optimization process in the context of functional analysis, i.e., we
recall a well-known fact that reparameterization does not change
minimize the jerk magnitudes on both boundary curves consider-
the shape of boundary curves (and consequently the ruled sur-
ing the reparameterization function f (t), represented by control
face), but affects solely their derivatives. More precisely, for each
points qi s and knot values tj s in Eqs. (12) and (13), as the un-
boundary curve, the original form ck (u) and reparameterized one
knowns. The objective function is defined as a weighted sum of
c̃k (t) := ck (f (t)) are geometrically identical but parametrically dif-
ferent (see, e.g., [20,22,26]). A similar scenario can be expressed L2 -norms of jerks of the respective boundary curves as
τ τ
for the ruled surface, i.e., s (u, v) ≡ s̃ (t , v). Consequently, by find-
∫ ∫
ing an appropriate expression for f (t), we are able to reach an F := w1 ∥J1 (t)∥2 dt + w2 ∥J2 (t)∥2 dt , (14)
0 0
A. Hashemian, P. Bo and M. Bartoň / Computer-Aided Design 127 (2020) 102868 5
2 ⟨
where Jk (t) = Jk (t), Jk (t) is the square of Euclidean norm of
⟩
the jerk. The weights w1 and w2 in the above integral might
be set based on different considerations, e.g., due to conditions
imposed on the boundary curves or due to special type of the
tool or milling machine. The optimization problem can be further
written as:
i = 1, 2, . . . , M − 1
{ }
qi
Find which minimize F
tjj = m + 1, m + 2, . . . , M
⎧
1
⎨ qi − qi−1 ≥
⎪
subject to α (M − m + 1)
τ
⎩ tj − tj−1 ≥
⎪
β (M − m + 1)
(15)
Table 1
Accuracy assessment of global numerical integration of the objective function for the 3D curve shown in Fig. 5 with an
arbitrary (non-optimal) quintic TF with 15 control points (10 knot spans). Absolute and relative errors are obtained by
various numbers of Gauss points (# GPs) and the path is assumed to be traversed in τ = 1 min.
Analytical integration Global Gaussian quadrature Error
F (m2 /min6 ) # GPs F (m2 /min6 ) Absolute Relative
5 18239 17230 48.58%
10 39298 3828.4 10.79%
20 36528 643.0 2.99%
35470
30 34987 482.5 1.36%
40 35616 146.11 0.41%
50 35495 25.0 0.07%
Table 2
Accuracy assessment of local numerical integration of the objective function for the 3D curve example of Fig. 5 with arbitrary (non-optimal) quintic TFs with 7, 11,
and 15 control points (i.e., 2, 6, and 10 knot spans). Absolute and relative errors obtained by different numbers of Gauss points (# GPs) and the path is assumed to
be traversed in τ = 1 min.
#GPs 2 knot spans 6 knot spans 10 knot spans
F (m2 /min6 ) Error F (m2 /min6 ) Error F (m2 /min6 ) Error
Analytical Numerical Abs. Rel. Analytical Numerical Abs. Rel. Analytical Numerical Abs. Rel.
5 141830 84358 147% 37839 1552 4.28% 35797 327.72 0.92%
6 119950 62482 109% 35257 1030 2.84% 35321 148.91 0.42%
57472 36287 35470
7 87841 30370 52.8% 36618 331.7 0.91% 35507 37.35 0.11%
8 51604 5868 10.2% 36587 300.1 0.83% 35477 6.99 0.02%
The main goal of the first case study is to validate the correct-
ness of our proposed ruling distance metric (RDM) described in
Section 3.3 for the jerk minimization problem. For this purpose,
we explore the space of admissible transfer functions that should
be monotone and meet the conditions of u(0) = 0 and u(τ ) = 1.
∑M
Fig. 8. An example of the initial transfer function u = f (t) = m
i=0 Bi (t) qi for
We then sample a set of 5000 random initializations of u = f (t)
jerk-optimization process obtained by ruling distance metric. The function is for the optimization process and compare the results with that
fitted to equally-spaced parameters ûi corresponding to reoriented time values
obtained by the RDM metric. Fig. 9 demonstrates a toolpath of a
t̃i .
flank milling process on the turbine blisk benchmark workpiece.
The ruled surface has quasi-parallel rulings (i.e., with slight ruling
rotations) and is constructed by two quintic boundary curves with
where t̃0 := 0, d0 := 0, and dj := d(ℓj−1 , ℓj ). To get a smooth ini-
∑M m N + 1 = 15 control points spanned over a uniformly-spaced knot
tial TF : u = f (t) = i=0 Bi (t) qi for the jerk-optimization pro- vector. The toolpath of this example, which is assumed to be
cess, we apply B-spline fitting on the (t̃i , ûi ) values. In particular, traversed in τ = 5 s, is taken from [23].
we follow the scheme proposed in [22] and initialize the (non- Starting with the case of 5000 random initializations, Fig. 10
uniform) knot vector t by applying the De Boor’s algorithm and depicts the optimized TFs obtained by the optimization process,
initialize the control points qi by minimizing the fitting error in where equal weights are considered for the objective function F
the least-squares sense. (i.e., the total L2 -norms of jerks on both endpoints of the tool’s
axis). In this figure, the color coding reflects the quality with
4. Case studies respect to the quality measure, i.e., the value of the objective
function Eq. (14). The red color indicates large values of F while
In this section, the applicability of the proposed method of dark blue signals vanishing F . Observe that not all initial guesses
this paper is demonstrated on several benchmark examples. We converge to the true minimizers and get stuck at some local min-
again emphasize that the objective of this work is to kinematically imum, including the linear transformation depicted as a dashed
smooth a toolpath obtained a priori by some toolpath design black line. Most of the initial guesses converge to a roughly
strategies. We also assume that the given toolpath already meets similar TFs highlighted as a blue cluster at the middle of the
the axes constraints of a particular milling machine. It is impor- graph. In this example, we considered a quintic TF : u = f (t) (see
tant for the smoothing procedure not to violate these constraints. Remark 2) with M + 1 = 15 control coefficients qi where the
8 A. Hashemian, P. Bo and M. Bartoň / Computer-Aided Design 127 (2020) 102868
Fig. 10. Optimal transfer functions u = f (t) for the first case study obtained
Fig. 11. Optimal transfer functions obtained by the proposed RDM metric with
by 5000 samples. The colormap shows how good the optimal TFs are with
different numbers of control points (# CPs) compared with that obtained by the
respect to the objective function value F (i.e., the total L2 -norms of jerks). The
random initializations. The respective values of the objective function (F ) and
black dashed diagonal line represents the linear parameter–time transformation
maximum jerk magnitudes are reported in Table 3.
(i.e., no reparameterization). (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 14. Two milling paths, (a,b) and (c,d), respectively, on a blade (gray) of an impeller (e). It is a simulation of 5-axis flank milling, data courtesy of [1], using
two distinct conical milling tools. The red positions of the tool are related the original (linear) parameterization, while the green positions show the motion after
jerk-minimized reparameterization. All positions are uniformly sampled in the time space. Similarly to Fig. 9, the reparameterized motion better captures distances
between particular positions of the tools, resulting in smoother motion (in terms of jerk). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
10 A. Hashemian, P. Bo and M. Bartoň / Computer-Aided Design 127 (2020) 102868
Table 3
Maximum jerk magnitudes on boundary curves and the objective function value (F ) for the first case study. Optimal TFs are obtained by the random initializations
and the proposed RDM metric, respectively. The effect of employing different numbers of control points (# CPs) for the transfer function is shown and the advantage
of implementing the RDM metric (in terms of computational cost) is highlighted.
Linear TF Optimal TF by 5K random initializations Optimal TF by proposed RDM metric
(non-optimal) (# CPs = 15) # CPs = 10 # CPs = 15 # CPs = 20
max(||J1 (t)||) (mm/s3 ) 31.2402 2.4308 2.5456 2.4303 2.4207
max(||J2 (t)||) (mm/s3 ) 78.0993 2.6108 2.3940 2.6133 2.6037
Objective function value F (mm2 /s6 ) 853.7908 12.1626 12.6436 12.1628 12.1195
Computational time (s) – 61.7a (average time per case) 14.8b 45.5 111.4
# Iterations – 73 (average # iterations per case) 31 39 44
a
The reported time for the case of 5000 random initializations, is the average of parallel runs on 50 CPUs (100 cases per run). The total time is 6171 s.
b
The reported time for the proposed method is obtained by a single run on one CPU.
Fig. 15. Jerk minimization of the 1st toolpath of the impeller workpiece (Figs. 14a and b). (a) Optimal vs. linear TFs compared to the RDM-based initial TF. (b)
Velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles over time obtained by linear and optimal TFs on boundary curves c1 and
c2 .(c), (d), and (e) Contours of velocity, acceleration,
and jerk on the ruled surface obtained by linear and optimal TFs where the values of ∥Vm (t)∥, ∥Am (t)∥, and Jm (t) are the means of respective values on boundary
curves in (b). Note we changed our view to be in accordance with global xyz coordinate system.
in the context of ball-end milling and there it makes sense to freedom. We experimented with a higher number of control
minimize the jerk of the whole tool by prioritizing the weight on coefficients of the transfer function to increase the number of
the side closer to the contact point. This can be easily controlled degrees of freedom which increased the computational cost and
by changing the weights in Eq. (14). improved the jerk only negligibly (as reported in Sections 3.2 and
Considerations on the transfer functions. We initialize the 4.1). After these experiments, we set the degree to 5 and the
transfer function using a quintic B-spline to meet the mini- number of the control points to 15 in our implementation.
mum requirement of having a C 1 -continuous jerk–time profile G-code input. In the case when the toolpaths are given in
(see Remark 2). One can eventually experiment with higher de- terms of discrete data points or in terms of a G-code, our algo-
grees in situations where the initial data of the transfer function rithm can be applied as well. We just need to know the directions
(obtained by the RDM metric) would indicate more degrees of and length of the rulings that can be easily extracted from motion
A. Hashemian, P. Bo and M. Bartoň / Computer-Aided Design 127 (2020) 102868 11
Fig. 16. Jerk minimization of the 2nd toolpath of the impeller workpiece (Figs. 14c and d). (a) Optimal vs. linear TFs compared to the RDM-based initial TF. (b)
Velocity, acceleration, and jerk profiles over time obtained by linear and optimal TFs on boundary curves c1 and
c2 .(c), (d), and (e) Contours of velocity, acceleration,
and jerk on the ruled surface obtained by linear and optimal TFs where the values of ∥Vm (t)∥, ∥Am (t)∥, and Jm (t) are the means of respective values on boundary
curves in (b). Note we changed our view to be in accordance with global xyz coordinate system.
path goto files or from G-codes. Our experiments were applied to 5. Conclusions
a smooth (B-spline) input, see e.g. Fig. 9, however, our follow-up
project that deals with physical validations will deal directly with We have introduced a new jerk-minimizing algorithm for
G-codes. multi-axis machining. The algorithm looks for a reparameteri-
Kinematic limits and smooth motions on machine drives. zation of the milling motion such that the jerk is globally min-
In this work, we focus on the jerk values of the tool motion that imized. In our initialization–optimization based framework, we
are derived from the geometry of the toolpath. Hence, the opti- use the ruling distance metric that measures the distance be-
mization objective is evaluated with reference to the workpiece tween two finite lines in 3D-space. We have shown that this
coordinate system (WCS). From the practical point of view, it is metric can be used for the initialization of the motion reparam-
more relevant to optimize the jerk values on machine drives, eterization as it reliably captures changes of the milling tool’s
i.e., X, Y, Z, B and C in 5-axis machining, which are referred to axis. We have validated our algorithm on several case studies
as the machine coordinate system (MCS). Note that the currently and have shown that the proposed method quickly decreases the
smoothed toolpath in WCS may result in a non-smooth motion jerk, resulting in smooth milling motions. Our follow-up research
in MCS. Such an approach, requires to consider a particular ma- aims at physical validations of the proposed methodology, and
chine (and the limits on its drives) as a part of the optimization
incorporating other physical entities such as kinematic limits
algorithm. However, optimization in MCS would require a differ-
on machine drives, tool vibration and/or cutting forces into the
ent metric since the current RDM measures distances between
optimization loop.
the rulings and does not correspond to an equal distribution of
the motion in MCS, considering each drive may have different
kinematic limits. Then, with such a metric at hand, fixing the Declaration of competing interest
workpiece setup and going through the inverse kinematic trans-
formation (IKT) to convert the optimization objective from WCS The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
to its counterpart in MCS is an interesting topic for a follow-up cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
project. to influence the work reported in this paper.
12 A. Hashemian, P. Bo and M. Bartoň / Computer-Aided Design 127 (2020) 102868
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