7.

3: Biogeochemical Cycles
Biogeochemical cycles, also known as nutrient cycles, describe the movement of chemical
elements through different media, such as the atmosphere, soil, rocks, bodies of water, and
organisms. Biogeochemical cycles keep essential elements available to plants and other
organisms.

Energy flows directionally through ecosystems, entering as sunlight (or inorganic molecules for
chemoautotrophs) and leaving as heat during energy transformation between trophic levels.
Rather than flowing through an ecosystem, the matter that makes up organisms is conserved and
recycled. The law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor
destroyed. For example, after a chemical reaction, the mass of the products (ending molecules)
will be the same as the mass of the reactants (starting molecules). The same is true in an
ecosystem. Matter moves through different media, and atoms may react to form new molecules,
but the amount of matter remains constant.

The biogeochemical cycles of four elements—carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur—are

discussed below. The cycling of these elements is interconnected with the water cycle. For
example, the movement of water is critical for the leaching of sulfur and phosphorus into rivers,
lakes, and oceans. Today, anthropogenic (human) activities are altering all major ecosystems
and the biogeochemical cycles they drive.

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basic building block of all organic materials, and therefore, of living organisms.
The carbon cycle is actually comprised of several interconnected cycles: one dealing with rapid
carbon exchange among living organisms and the other dealing with the long-term cycling of
carbon through geologic processes (figure 7.3.a). The overall effect is that carbon is constantly
recycled in the dynamic processes taking place in the atmosphere, at the surface and in the crust
of the earth. The vast majority of carbon resides as inorganic minerals in crustal rocks.
Other reservoirs of carbon, places where carbon accumulates, include the oceans and
atmosphere. Some of the carbon atoms in your body today may long ago have resided in a
dinosaur's body, or perhaps were once buried deep in the Earth's crust as carbonate rock
minerals.
Figure 7.3.: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is converted to organic carbon through
photosynthesis by terrestrial organisms (like trees) and marine organisms (like algae).
Respiration by terrestrial organisms (like trees and deer) and marine organisms (like algae and
fish) release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Additionally, microbes that decompose
dead organisms release carbon dioxide through respiration. Weathering of terrestrial rocks also
brings carbon into the soil. Carbon in the soil enters the water through leaching and runoff. It can
accumulate into ocean sediments and reenter land through uplifting. Long-term storage of
organic carbon occurs when matter from living organisms is buried deep underground and
becomes fossilized. Volcanic activity and, more recently, human emissions stored carbon back
into the carbon cycle. Modified from John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS
using tree and deer (both public domain).

Carbon Cycles Slowly between Land and the Ocean

On land, carbon is stored in soil as organic carbon in the form of decomposing organisms or
terrestrial rocks. Decomposed plants and algae are sometimes buried and compressed between
layers of sediments. After millions of years fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas are
formed. The weathering of terrestrial rock and minerals release carbon into the soil.
Carbon-containing compounds in the soil can be washed into bodies of water
through leaching. This water eventually enters the ocean. Atmospheric carbon dioxide also
dissolves in the ocean, reacting with water molecules to form carbonate ions (CO32-). Some of
these ions combine with calcium ions in the seawater to form calcium carbonate (CaCO 3), a
major component of the shells of marine organisms. These organisms eventually die and their
shells form sediments on the ocean floor. Over geologic time, the calcium carbonate forms
limestone, which comprises the largest carbon reservoir on Earth.

Carbonate also precipitates in sediments, forming carbonate rocks, such as limestone. Carbon
sediments from the ocean floor are taken deep within Earth by the process of subduction: the
movement of one tectonic plate beneath another. The ocean sediments are subducted by the
actions of plate tectonics, melted and then returned to the surface during volcanic activity. Plate
tectonics can also cause uplifting, returning ocean sediments to land.

Carbon Cycles Quickly between Organisms and the Atmosphere

Carbon dioxide is converted into glucose, an energy-rich organic molecule

through photosynthesis by plants, algae, and some bacteria (figure 7.3.b7.3.�). They can
then produce other organic molecules like complex carbohydrates (such as starch), proteins and
lipids, which animals can eat. Most terrestrial autotrophs obtain their carbon dioxide directly
from the atmosphere, while marine autotrophs acquire it in the dissolved form (bicarbonate,
HCO3–).

Figure 7.3.b7.3.�: (a) Plants, (b) algae, and (c) certain bacteria, called cyanobacteria, are can
carry out photosynthesis. Algae can grow over enormous areas in water, at times completely
covering the surface. (credit a: Steve Hillebrand, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; credit b:
“eutrophication&hypoxia”/Flickr; credit c: NASA; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Plants, animals, and other organisms break down these organic molecules during the process
of aerobic cellular respiration, which consumes oxygen and releases energy, water and carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere during gaseous exchange. Another process
by which organic material is recycled is the decomposition of dead organisms. During this
process, bacteria and fungi break down the complex organic compounds. Decomposers may do
respiration, releasing carbon dioxide, or other processes that release methane (CH4).
Photosynthesis and respiration are actually reciprocal to one another with regard to the cycling of
carbon: photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and respiration returns it
(figure 7.3.c7.3.�). A significant disruption of one process can therefore affect the amount of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Fi
gure 7.3.c7.3.�: This equation means that six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO 2) combine with
six molecules of water (H2O) in the presence of sunlight. This produces one molecule of glucose
(C6H12O6) and six molecules of oxygen (O2).

Cellular respiration is only one process that releases carbon dioxide. Physical processes, such as
the eruption of volcanoes and release from hydrothermal vents (openings in the ocean floor)
add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Additionally, the combustion of wood and fossil fuels
releases carbon dioxide. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is greatly influenced by
the reservoir of carbon in the oceans. The exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and water
reservoirs influences how much carbon is found in each.

Importance of the Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is crucially important to the biosphere. If not for the recycling processes,
carbon might long ago have become completely sequestered in crustal rocks and sediments, and
life would no longer exist (figure 7.3.e7.3.�). Photosynthesis not only makes energy and
carbon available to higher trophic levels, but it also releases gaseous oxygen (O 2). Gaseous
oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration to occur. Photosynthetic bacteria were likely the first
organisms to perform photosynthesis, dating back 2-3 billion years ago. Thanks to their activity,
and a diversity of present-day photosynthesizing organisms, Earth’s atmosphere is currently
about 21% O2. Also, this O2 is vital for the creation of the ozone layer, which protects life from
harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun. Ozone (O 3) is created from the breakdown and
reassembly of O2.
 Figure 7.3.e7.3.�
: Decomposers will break down the organic compounds in this fallen tree at Cliffs of the Neuse
State Park in Wayne County, North Carolina, releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
Decomposition ensures that carbon dioxide will be available in the atmosphere for
photosynthetic organisms, which then provide carbon for consumers. Image by Gerry
Dincher (CC-BY-SA).

The global carbon cycle contributes substantially to the provisioning ecosystem services upon
which humans depend. We harvest approximately 25% of the total plant biomass that is
produced each year on the land surface to supply food, fuel wood and fiber from croplands,
pastures and forests. In addition, the global carbon cycle plays a key role in regulating ecosystem
services because it significantly influences climate via its effects on atmospheric
CO2 concentrations.

Human Alteration of the Carbon Cycle

Atmospheric CO2 concentration increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) to 413 ppm between
the start of industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century and 2020. This reflected a new flux
in the global carbon cycle—anthropogenic CO 2 emissions—where humans release CO2 into the
atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and changing land use. Fossil fuel burning takes carbon from
coal, gas, and oil reserves, where it would be otherwise stored on very long time scales, and
introduces it into the active carbon cycle. Land use change releases carbon from soil and plant
biomass pools into the atmosphere, particularly through the process of deforestation for wood
extraction or conversion of land to agriculture. In 2018, the additional flux of carbon into the
atmosphere from anthropogenic sources was estimated to be 36.6 gigatons of carbon (GtC = 1
billion tons of carbon)—a significant disturbance to the natural carbon cycle that had been in
balance for several thousand years previously. High levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
cause warming that results in climate change. (See Threats to Biodiversity and Climate
Change for more details.)
The Nitrogen Cycle
All organisms require nitrogen because it is an important component of nucleic acids, proteins,
and other organic molecules. Getting nitrogen into living organisms is difficult. Plants and
algae are not equipped to incorporate nitrogen from the atmosphere (where it exists as tightly
bonded, triple covalent N2) although this molecule comprises approximately 78 percent of the
atmosphere. Because most of the nitrogen is stored in the atmosphere, the atmosphere is
considered a reservoir of nitrogen.

The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert. To break it apart so that its atoms can combine with
other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy. Nitrogen fixation is the process
of converting nitrogen gas into ammonia (NH 3), which spontaneously becomes ammonium
(NH4+). Ammonium is found in bodies of water and in the soil (figure 7.3.f7.3.�).

Figure 7.3.f7.3.�: In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or legume root
nodules convert nitrogen gas (N2) from the atmosphere to ammonium (NH4+). Nitrification occurs
when bacteria convert ammonium to nitrites (NO 2-) and then to nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates re-enter
the atmosphere as nitrogen gas through denitrification by bacteria. Plants assimilate ammonium
and nitrates, producing organic nitrogen, which is available to consumers. Decomposers,
including aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and fungi, break down organic nitrogen and release
ammonium through ammonification. (credit: “Nitrogen cycle” by Johann Dréo & Raeky is
licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0)

Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere. The first
is atmospheric fixation by lightning. The enormous energy of lightning breaks nitrogen
molecules and enables their atoms to combine with oxygen in the air forming nitrogen oxides.
These dissolve in rain, forming nitrates, that are carried to the earth. Atmospheric nitrogen
fixation probably contributes some 5-8% of the total nitrogen fixed. The second process
is industrial fixation. Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600°C (1112°F), and with the
use of a catalyst (which facilitates chemical reactions), atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen can
be combined to form ammonia (NH3). Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer, but most of
it is further processed to urea and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).

The third process is biological fixation by certain free-living or symbiotic bacteria. Some form a
symbiotic relationship with plants in the legume family, which includes beans, peas, soybeans,
alfalfa, and clovers (figure 7.3.g7.3.�). Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria even establish symbiotic
relationships with animals, e.g., termites and "shipworms" (wood-eating bivalves). Nitrogen-
fixing cyanobacteria are essential to maintaining the fertility of semi-aquatic environments like
rice paddies. Although the first stable product of the process is ammonia, this is quickly
incorporated into protein and other organic nitrogen compounds.

Figure 7.3.g7.3.�: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the spherical nodules of this soybean root.
Image by United Soybean Board (CC-BY).
Ammonium is converted by bacteria and archaea into nitrites (NO2−) and then nitrates (NO3−)
through the process of nitrification. Like ammonium, nitrites and nitrates are found in water and
the soil. Some nitrates are converted back into nitrogen gas, which is released into the
atmosphere. The process, called denitrification, is conducted by bacteria.

Plants and other producers directly use ammonium and nitrates to make organic molecules
through the process of assimilation. This nitrogen is now available to consumers. Organic
nitrogen is especially important to the study of ecosystem dynamics because many processes,
such as primary production, are limited by the available supply of nitrogen.

Consumers excrete organic nitrogen compounds that return to the environment. Additionally
dead organisms at each trophic level contain organic nitrogen. Microorganisms, such as bacteria
and fungi, decompose these wastes and dead tissues, ultimately producing ammonium through
the process of ammonification.

In marine ecosystems, nitrogen compounds created by bacteria, or through decomposition,

collects in ocean floor sediments. It can then be moved to land in geologic time by uplift of
Earth’s crust and thereby incorporated into terrestrial rock. Although the movement of nitrogen
from rock directly into living systems has been traditionally seen as insignificant compared with
nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere, a recent study showed that this process may indeed be
significant and should be included in any study of the global nitrogen cycle.

Human activity can alter the nitrogen cycle by two primary means: the combustion of fossil
fuels, which releases different nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, and by the use of artificial
fertilizers in agriculture. Atmospheric nitrogen (other than N2) is associated with several effects
on Earth’s ecosystems. Nitrogen oxides (HNO3) can react in the atmosphere to form nitric acid, a
form of acid deposition, also known as acid rain. Acid deposition damages healthy trees,
destroys aquatic systems and erodes building materials such as marble and limestone. Like
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide (N2O) causes warming resulting in climate change.

Humans are primarily dependent on the nitrogen cycle as a supporting ecosystem service for
crop and forest productivity. Nitrogen fertilizers are added to enhance the growth of many crops
and plantations (figure 7.3.h7.3.ℎ). The enhanced use of fertilizers in agriculture was a key
feature of the green revolution that boosted global crop yields in the 1970s. The industrial
production of nitrogen-rich fertilizers has increased substantially over time and now matches
more than half of the input to the land from biological nitrogen fixation (90 megatons = 1 million
tons of nitrogen each year). If the nitrogen fixation from legume crops is included, then the
anthropogenic flux of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the land exceeds natural fluxes to the
land. Fertilizers are washed into lakes, streams, and rivers by surface runoff, resulting
in saltwater and freshwater eutrophication, a process whereby nutrient runoff causes the
overgrowth of algae, the depletion of oxygen, and death of aquatic fauna.
 Figu
re 7.3.h7.3.ℎ: Fertilizer containing nitrogen is conventionally applied at large scales in
agriculture. Image by Bob Nichols, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (public
domain).
The Phosphorus Cycle
Several forms of nitrogen (nitrogen gas, ammnoium, nitrates, etc.) were involved in the nitrogen
cycle, but phosphorus remains primarily in the form of the phosphate ion (PO 43-). Also in contrast
to the nitrogen cycle, there is no form of phosphorus in the atmosphere. Phosphorus is used to
make nucleic acids and the phospholipids that comprise biological membranes.

Rocks are a reservoir for phosphorus, and these rocks have their origins in the ocean. Phosphate-
containing ocean sediments form primarily from the bodies of ocean organisms and from their
excretions. However, volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust may also be significant phosphate
sources. This sediment then is moved to land over geologic time by the uplifting of Earth’s
surface (figure 7.3.i7.3.�). The movement of phosphate from the ocean to the land and through
the soil is extremely slow, with the average phosphate ion having an oceanic residence time
between 20,000 and 100,000 years.

Figure 7.3.i7.3.�: In nature, phosphorus exists as the phosphate ion (PO43-). Phosphate enters the
atmosphere from volcanic aerosols, which precipitate to Earth. Weathering of rocks also releases
phosphate into the soil and water, where it becomes available to terrestrial food webs. Some of
the phosphate from terrestrial food webs dissolves in streams and lakes, and the remainder enters
the soil. Phosphate enters the ocean via surface runoff, groundwater flow, and river flow, where
it becomes dissolved in ocean water or enters marine food webs. Some phosphate falls to the
ocean floor where it becomes sediment. If uplifting occurs, this sediment can return to land.
(credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard Perlman, USGS)

Marine birds play a unique role in the phosphorous cycle. These birds take up phosphorous from
ocean fish. Their droppings on land (guano) contain high levels of phosphorous and are
sometimes mined for commercial use. A 2020 study estimated that the ecosystem
services (natural processes and products that benefit humans) provided by guano are worth $470
million per year.

Weathering of rocks releases phosphates into the soil and bodies of water. Plants can assimilate
phosphates in the soil and incorporate it into organic molecules, making phosphorus available to
consumers in terrestrial food webs. Waste and dead organisms are decomposed by fungi and
bacteria, releasing phosphates back into the soil. Some phosphate is leached from the soil,
entering into rivers, lakes, and the ocean. Primary producers in aquatic food webs, such as algae
and photosynthetic bacteria, assimilate phosphate, and organic phosphate is thus available to
consumers in aquatic food webs. Similar to terrestrial food webs, phosphorus is reciprocally
exchanged between phosphate dissolved in the ocean and organic phosphorus in marine
organisms.

The movement of phosphorus from rock to living organisms is normally a very slow process, but
some human activities speed up the process. Phosphate-bearing rock is often mined for use in the
manufacture of fertilizers and detergents. This commercial production greatly accelerates the
phosphorous cycle. In addition, runoff from agricultural land and the release of sewage into
water systems can cause a local overload of phosphate. The increased availability of phosphate
can cause overgrowth of algae. This reduces the oxygen level, causing eutrophication and the
destruction of other aquatic species.

Eutrophication and Dead Zones

Eutrophication occurs when excess phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizer runoff or sewage
causes excessive growth of algae. Algal blooms that block light and therefore kill aquatic plants
in rivers, lakes, and seas. The subsequent death and decay of these organisms depletes dissolved
oxygen, which leads to the death of aquatic organisms such as shellfish and fish. This process is
responsible for dead zones, large areas in lakes and oceans near the mouths of rivers that are
periodically depleted of their normal flora and fauna, and for massive fish kills, which often
occur during the summer months (figure 7.3.j7.3.�). There are more than 500 dead zones
worldwide. One of the worst dead zones is off the coast of the United States in the Gulf of
Mexico. Fertilizer runoff from the Mississippi River basin created a dead zone, which reached its
peak size of 8,776 square miles in 2017. Phosphate and nitrate runoff from fertilizers also
negatively affect several lake and bay ecosystems including the Chesapeake Bay in the eastern
United States.
Figure 7.3.j7.3.�: Dead zones occur when phosphorus and nitrogen from fertilizers cause
excessive growth of microorganisms, which depletes oxygen and kills fauna. This map shows
dead zones around the world in 2008. Worldwide, large dead zones are found in coastal areas of
high population density. (credit: NASA Earth Observator
The Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur is an essential element for the molecules of living things. As part of the amino acid
cysteine, it is critical to the three-dimensional shape of proteins. As shown in
Figure 7.3.l7.3.�, sulfur cycles among the oceans, land, and atmosphere. Atmospheric sulfur is
found in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2), which enters the atmosphere in three ways: first, from
the decomposition of organic molecules; second, from volcanic activity and geothermal vents;
and, third, from the burning of fossil fuels by humans.

Figure 7.3.l7.3.�: The sulfur cycle. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) from the atmosphere is dissolved in
precipitation as weak sulfuric acid or falls directly to Earth as fallout. This releases sulfates
(SO42-) into the soil and water. Soil sulfates can be carried as runoff into the water. Marine sulfate
can form pyrite, and this can break down to release soil sulfates. Organisms in terrestrial and
marine ecosystems assimilate sulfate, adding sulfur to organic molecules, such as proteins (not
shown). Decomposition of these organisms returns sulfates to the soil. Microorganisms can
convert sulfates to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and vice versa. Decomposition, volcanic eruptions,
and human activities (including burning fossil fuels) can release hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or sulfur
dioxide into the atmosphere. (credit: modification of work by John M. Evans and Howard
Perlman, USGS)

On land, sulfur is deposited in four major ways: precipitation, direct fallout from the atmosphere,
rock weathering, and geothermal vents. Atmospheric sulfur is found in the form of sulfur dioxide
(SO2), and as rain falls through the atmosphere, sulfur is dissolved in the form of weak sulfuric
acid (H2SO4). Sulfur can also fall directly from the atmosphere in a process called fallout. Also,
as sulfur-containing rocks weather, sulfur is released into the soil. These rocks originate from
ocean sediments that are moved to land by the geologic uplifting of ocean sediments. Terrestrial
ecosystems can then make use of these soil sulfates (SO 42-), which enter the food web by being
taken up by plant roots. When these plants decompose and die, sulfur is released back into the
atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas.

Sulfur enters the ocean in runoff from land, from atmospheric fallout, and from hydrothermal
vents. Some ecosystems rely on microorganisms using sulfur as a biological energy source (in
contrast to ecosystems with photosynthetic producers). This sulfur then supports marine
ecosystems in the form of sulfates.

Human activities have played a major role in altering the balance of the global sulfur cycle. The
burning of large quantities of fossil fuels, especially from coal, releases sulfur dioxide, which
reacts with the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid. Like nitric acid, sulfuric acid contributes to acid
deposition.

 Biogeochemical Cycles, Energy, and Energy Enters Ecosystems Through

Photosynthesis from Environmental Biology by Matthew R. Fisher (licensed under CC-
BY)
 Carbon Cycle and Nitrogen Cycle from Biology by John W. Kimball (licensed under CC-
BY)
 Energy Flow through Ecosystems from General Biology by OpenStax (licensed
under CC-BY)
 Soil and Sustainability and Biogeochemical Cycles and the Flow of Energy in the Earth
System from Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation by Tom Theis and Jonathan
Tomkin, Editors (licensed under CC-BY). Download for free at CNX.
 Cycling of Matter from AP Environmental Science by University of California College
Prep, University of California (licensed under CC-BY). Download for free at CNX.
 Nutrient Cycles from Life Sciences Grade 10 by Siyavula (CC-BY)

.
WATER CYCLE
Water is one of the key ingredients to life on Earth. About 75 percent of our planet is
covered by water or ice. The water cycle is the endless process that connects all of that
water. It joins the Earth’s oceans, land, and atmosphere.

The Earth’s water cycle began about 3.8 billion years ago when rain fell on a cooling
Earth, forming the oceans. The rain came from water vapor that escaped the magma in
the Earth’s molten core into the atmosphere. Energy from the sun helped power
the water cycle and Earth’s gravity kept water in the atmosphere from leaving the
planet.

The oceans hold about 97 percent of the water on Earth. About 1.7 percent of Earth’s
water is stored in polar ice caps and glaciers. Rivers, lakes, and soil hold approximately
1.7 percent. A tiny fraction—just 0.001 percent—exists in the Earth’s atmosphere as
water vapor.

When molecules of water vapor return to liquid or solid form, they create cloud droplets
that can fall back to Earth as rain or snow—a process called condensation. Most
precipitation lands in the oceans. Precipitation that falls onto land flows into rivers,
streams, and lakes. Some of it seeps into the soil where it is held underground as
groundwater.

When warmed by the sun, water on the surface of oceans and freshwater bodies
evaporates, forming a vapor. Water vapor rises into the atmosphere, where it
condenses, forming clouds. It then falls back to the ground as precipitation. Moisture
can also enter the atmosphere directly from ice or snow. In a process
called sublimation, solid water, such as ice or snow, can transform directly into water
vapor without first becoming a liquid.

condensation
Noun
process by which water vapor becomes liquid.

Evaporation- Noun
process by which liquid water becomes water vapor.

Sublimation-Noun
the process by which snow or ice becomes water vapor without first melting and
passing through the liquid phase.

water cycle
Noun
movement of water between atmosphere, land, and ocean.
water vapor-Noun
molecules of liquid water suspended in the air.

The water or hydrologic cycle refers to the continuous circulation of moisture on

earth, particularly between the atmosphere and the earth’s surface. Solar radiation
provides the energy for the water cycle. Water changes between gaseous and liquid
states through the processes of transpiration, evaporation, and precipitation.
Transpiration is the loss of water vapor by plant parts (mostly through tiny pores,
known as stomata). Only a small amount of water is involved in a chemical process
that occurs during photosynthesis (hydrogen and oxygen are split).
All living things require water.