PROJECTION

1. Orthographic Projection:
It is a parallel projection in which the projectors are
perpendicular to the plane of projection

If the object P [ x y z 1 ] is projected orthographically onto z=0 plane, then image of the object
P is P ' [ x y 0 1 ].
Thus, the transformation matrix for orthographic projection onto z=0 plane is,

[ ]
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
P z=
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1

Similarly, if the object P [ x y z 1 ] is projected orthographically onto x=0 plane, then image of
the object P is P ' [ 0 y z 1 ].
Thus, the transformation matrix for orthographic projection onto z=0 plane is,

[ ]
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
P x=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

If the object P [ x y z 1 ] is projected orthographically onto y=0 plane, then image of the object
P is P ' [ x 0 z 1 ].
Thus, the transformation matrix for orthographic projection onto y=0 plane is,

[ ]
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
P y=
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Types of Orthographic Projection:

Sr. no View Rotation Concatenated

Transformation
Matrix
1 Front - T =[ P z ]

2 Top Rotation about x – axis through θ=90° T =[ R x ][ P z ]

3 Bottom Rotation about x – axis through θ=−90° T =[ R x ][ P z ]
4 Left Rotation about y – axis through θ=90° T = [ R y ] [ Pz ]
5 Right Rotation about y – axis through θ=−90° T = [ R y ] [ Pz ]
6 Rear Rotation about x – axis through θ=180° T =[ R x ][ P z ]

Axonometric Projection:
Axonometric projection are orthographic projections in which
we apply rotations or translation in such a way that at least three adjacent faces are seen from
the front side and then orthographic projection is applied onto z=0 plane.
In axonometric projection first rotation or translation is applied which preserves the length of
the vectors. Then orthographic projection is applied where all the projectors are perpendicular
to the plane of projection, hence the length of the vectors are shortened.
The standard transformation matrix for axonometric projection is,

[ ]
x 11 x12 0 1
[ T ] = x 21 x22 0 1
x 31 x32 0 1
l m 0 1

Foreshortening Factor:
It is the ratio of the projected length of line to its actual length, i.e.,
if P ' Q' is the projected length of the actual line PQ then the foreshortening factor is given
|P ' Q '|
by .
|PQ|
Principal Foreshortening Factor:
Let OA , OB , OC be unit vectors along x , y , z axes respectively.

[][ ]
A 1 0 0 1
∴ [ X ]= B = 0 1 0 1
C 0 0 1 1
O 0 0 0 1

Let [ T ] be the transformation, for an axonometric projection.

 [ ]
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
Then [ X ' ]= [ X ][ T ] = [T ]
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1

[ ][ ]
1 0 0 1 x11 x 12 0 1
¿ 0 1 0 1 x 21 x 22 0 1
0 0 1 1 x31 x 32 0 1
0 0 0 1 l m 0 1

[ ]
x 11 +l x 12+m 0 1
x + l x 22+m 0 1
¿ 21
x 31+ l x 32+m 0 1
l m 0 1

Types of Axonometric Projection:

1. Trimetric Projection: It is formed by first rotation about y – axis through an
angle ∅ and then rotation about x – axis through an angle θ followed by orthographic
projection on z=0 plane.
Thus the combined trimetric projection is given by
[ T ] =[ R y ] [ R x ] [ P z ]

[ ][ ][ ]
cos ϕ 0 sin ϕ 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 cos θ sin θ 0 0 1 0 0
¿
sin ϕ 0 cos ϕ 0 0 −sin θ cos θ 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

[ ]
cos ϕ sin ϕ sinθ 0 0
0 cos θ 0 0
¿
sin ϕ −cos ϕ sin θ 0 0
0 0 0 1

Thus the foreshortening factors along

i. x−axis=f x = √cos 2 ϕ+sin 2 ϕ sin2 θ

ii. y−axis=f y =cos θ
iii. z−axis=f z =√ sin2 ϕ+ cos2 ϕ sin 2 θ
2. Dimetric Projection:
A dimetric projection is a trimetric projection with any two of the three
foreshortening factors are equal and the third is arbitrary.
It is formed by first rotation about y – axis through an angle ∅ and then rotation about
x – axis through an angle θ followed by orthographic projection on z=0 plane.
Thus the combined Dimetric projection is given by
[ T ] =[ R y ] [ R x ] [ P z ]

[ ][ ][ ]
cos ϕ 0 sin ϕ 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 cos θ sin θ 0 0 1 0 0
¿
sin ϕ 0 cos ϕ 0 0 −sin θ cos θ 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
 [ ]
cos ϕ sin ϕ sinθ 0 0
0 cos θ 0 0
¿
sin ϕ −cos ϕ sin θ 0 0
0 0 0 1

Here foreshortening factors are

2 2 2 2
f x =cos ϕ+ sin ϕ sin θ ………………. (1)
2 2
f y =cos θ ……………….. (2)
2 2 2 2
f z =sin ϕ +cos ϕ sin θ ……………….. (3)
f x =f y ……………….. (4)
From eq. (1) and (2)
2 2 2 2
cos ϕ+sin ϕ sin θ=cos θ
2 2 2 2
1−sin ϕ+sin ϕ sin θ=1−sin θ
sin2 ϕ ( sin2 θ−1 ) =−sin2 θ
2
2 sin θ
sin ϕ= 2 ………………… (5)
1−sin θ
From eq. (3)
2 2 2 2
f z =sin ϕ +cos ϕ sin θ
2 2 2
¿ sin ϕ +(1−sin ϕ)sin θ
2 2 2 2
¿ sin ϕ +sin θ−sin ϕsin θ

¿ sin2 ϕ ( 1−sin2 θ ) +sin 2 θ

( )
2
sin θ (
1−sin θ ) +sin θ
2 2
¿ 2
1−sin θ
2 2
¿ sin θ+sin θ
2
¿ 2 sin θ
2
2 fz
sin θ= ……………………… (6)
2
2
fz
2
2 2 fz
From eq. (5) sin ϕ= 2
= 2 ………… (7)
f z 2−f z
1−
2

Therefore, θ=sin
−1
(√ )
±f z
2

ϕ=sin
−1
( ±f z
√ 2−f z )
Thus, there are four possible dimetric projections for the following angles:
(i) θ> 0 , ϕ> 0
(ii) θ> 0 , ϕ< 0
(iii) θ< 0 , ϕ> 0
(iv) θ< 0 , ϕ< 0
 3. Isometric Projection:
An isometric projection is also a trimetric projection with all the three
foreshortening factors equal.
In dimetric projection eq. (6) and (2) are:
2
2 fz 2 2
sin θ= ⟹ f z=2sin θ
2
2 2
f z =cos θ since in isometric projection f x =f y =f z
2 2
2 sin θ=cos θ
2 2
2 sin θ=1−sin θ
2
3 sin θ=1
1
sin θ=±
√3

θ=sin−1
( ±√31 )=± 35.26 °
Again in dimetric projection, eq. (5) is
2
2 sin θ
sin ϕ= 2
1−sin θ
1
3
sin2 ϕ=
1
1−
3

ϕ=sin−1
( ±1√ 2 )=± 45 °
Oblique Projection:
An oblique projection is a parallel projection with projectors from the centre of
projection at infinity that intersects the plane of projection at an oblique angle.
There may be enlarging or shortening of the lengths of the vector. If the vector is parallel to
the plane of projection, then the length of the vector remains the same.
The standard transformation matrix for oblique projection is,

[ ]
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
[ T ]=
−f cos α −f sin α 0 0
0 0 0 1

Types of Oblique Projections:

1. Cavalier Projection: In cavalier projection f =1
 1
2. Cabinet Projection: In cabinet projection f =
2
Problems:
i. Find the cabinet projection of the object represented by the following position vector
matrix [ X ] with a horizontal inclination α =25° .

[ ]
1 2 1
[ X ]= 3 4 −1
−1 −2 1
2 1 1
ii. Obtain the transformation matrix for a cavalier projection for α =45°.

Perspective Projection:
The perspective transformation is the transformation from three – dimensional space to
three – dimensional space.

In perspective projection the centre of projection is at a finite point and the projectors are
concurrent lines originating from the centre of projection.

Transformation Matrix for perspective Projection

Let z c be the centre of projection and z=0 be the plane of projection. Let A [ x y z 1 ] be any
arbitrary point in space. The projector z c A meets z=0 plane at A ' [ x ' y ' 01 ].

With reference to the above figure,

∆ z c NM ≈ ∆ z c OM '

Since, the two triangles are similar the corresponding sides are proportional,

|OM ' | |O z c| |M ' z c|

∴ = =
|NM | |N zc| |M z c|

x' zc
∴ =
x z c−z
x' 1
=
x z
1−
zc

x
x '=
z …………………. (i)
1−
zc

Also, ∆ AM z c ≈ ∆ A ' M ' z c

| A ' M '| |M ' z c|

∴ =
| AM| |M z c|

| A ' M '| |O z c|
=
| AM| |N z c|

y' zc
∴ =
y z c −z
y' 1
=
y z
1−
zc

y
y '=
z …………………. (ii)
1−
zc

−1
Let r =
zc

x y
∴ x' = '
,y =
1+rz 1+rz

∴ A ' [ x ' y ' 0 1 ]= A ' [ x y

1+rz 1+ rz
01
]
A = [ A ][ T ]
'

[ ]
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
¿[ x y z 1]
0 0 0 r
0 0 0 1
 ¿[ x y 0 rz +1 ]

¿ [ x
rz +1
y
rz +1
0 1
]
Thus, if the centre of projection is on z – axis i.e., [ 0 0 z c 1 ] and the plane of projection is
z=0 plane then the corresponding transformation matrix is,

[ ]
1 0 0 0
−1
[ T ]= 0 1 0 0
, wherer =
0 0 0 r zc
0 0 0 1

Similarly, if the centre of projection is on the x – axis i.e., [ x c 0 0 1 ] and the plane of
projection is x¿ 0 plane then the corresponding transformation matrix is,

[ ]
1 0 0 p
−1
[ T ]= 0 1 0 0
, where p=
0 0 0 0 xc
0 0 0 1

If the centre of projection is on the y – axis i.e., [ 0 y c 0 1 ] and the plane of projection is y
¿ 0 plane then the corresponding transformation matrix is,

[ ]
1 0 0 0
−1
[ T ]= 0 1 0 q
, where q=
0 0 0 0 yc
0 0 0 1

These projections are called as Single Point Perspective projections.