Primary function of Provide oxygen to the blood

Respiratory System

Secondary function of Sound protection in the larynx

Respiratory System

Proximal conducting system ● Nose

● Pharynx
● Larynx
● Trachea
● Bronchi of diminishing caliber
● Bronchioles

Nose ● Framework of bone and cartilage covered by

connective tissue and skin
● Pathway for inspired air

Vascularity of nose Warms the air

Mucus Entraps dust particles

Carries dust particles to the pharynx

Nasal septum Divides the right and left nasal cavities

Number of conchaes 6

Right and Left nasal cavities Open anteriorly at the nares

Posteriorly at pharynx

Conchae Increase surface area of nasal or nasal septum

Interior of the nose Lined by 4 types of epithelium

Stratified Squamous From skin

Through nares
Into vestibule

Non-ciliated Few mm into the vestibule

cuboidal/columnar

Ciliated pseudostratified Remained of nasal cavity

columnar

Sensory olfactory epithelium Small area in dorsal wall

Nasal epithelium Ciliated columnar cells

Goblet cells
Basal cells (stem cells)
Number of goblet cells increase from anterior to posterior
Nasal epithelium Secrets mucus and a thin latter of fluid between mucus and
epithelium
Thick lamina propria with submucosal glands (mucous and
serous cells)
Plasma cells
Mast cells
Aggregates of lymphoid tissue

Olfactory epithelium Where receptors for sense of smell are located

Tall pseudostratified

3 kinds of cells in Olfactory Sustentacular

Epithelium Basal
Olfactory

Olfactory cells Bipolar Neurons

Apical portion ends in a Olfactory bulb/knob which contains the basal bodies of 6-8
terminal expansion olfactory cilia (nonmotile)

BAsak portion tapers down Form fascicles of unmyelinated axons surrounded by

and passes through basal Schwann cells
lamina into underlying Assemble into fila olfactoria that enter and synapse in
connective tissue to join olfactory bulb of the brain
others

Sustentacular cells Tall columnar

Minly closely packed microvilli
Pale-staining nucleus
Apical cytoplasm

Apical cytoplasm Pigment granules

Yellow-brown color of olfactory epithelium

Basal cells Small deeply basophilic cells

Between bases of olfactory and supporting cells
Can differentiate into either olfactory of supporting cells

Lamina propria Pigment cells

Lymphoid cells
Blood Capillaries

Deeper Plexus of large veins and numerous lymphatics

Olfactory glands of Bowman Branched tubuloalveolar glands

Pyramidal serous cells with pale secretory granules
Continuously secrete watery fluid for solubilization of airborne
odorants

Larynx Another organ of the proximal conducting system of

respiratory tree
Size of Larynx Hollow organ
42 x 40 mm

Location of Larynx Between pharynx (above)

Trachea (below)

Function of Larynx Designed to produce sound and to close trachea during

swallowing

Wall of Larynx Made of thyroid and cricoid hyaline cartilages

Epiglottis Portion of wall of larynx

Thin leaf of fibroelastic cartilage
Pressed forward by base of tongue during swallowing

Trachea Tubular organ

Size of Trachea 11 cm long

2 cm in diameter

Wall of trachea 16-20 c-shaped hyaline cartilages on ventral and lateral sides

Cartilaginous rings Separated by spaces bridged by fibroelastic

CT Allow great pliability for the trachea

Rings resist external forces

Posterior wall No cartilage

Thick band of smooth muscle

Epithelium of trachea Respiratory type

Pseudostratified columnar
Thick basal lamina

6 cell types of the epithelium 1. Goblet Cells

of trachea 2. Ciliated cells
3. Brush Cell
4. Serous Cell
5. Basal Cells
6. Bronchial Kulchitsky Cells

Goblet cells Numerous

Similar in structure and function to those in nasal epithelium

Ciliated cells Microvillous border

Brush cell Slender columnar cell

No secretory granules
With glycogen aggregates in cytoplasm

Serous cell Produce secretion of lower viscosity than that of mucous cells
Basal cells Between bases of columnar cells
Reserve or stem cell

Bronchial Kulchitsky cells Basally located

Enterochromaffin cells Neuroendocrine function
Small cells
Dense secretory granules
Release content in response to hypoxia

Secretory content of Serotonin

Kulchitsky cells

Primary bronchi 2 main branches of the trachea

Mainstem Bronchi

Divide into lobar bronchi 2 - left

3 - right

Segmental bronchi 3 - Right Upper Lobe

2 - Right Medial Lobe
5 - Right Lower Lobe

5 - Left Upper Lobe

5 - Left Lower Lobe

Bronchopulmonary Segment 3o bronchi + smaller branches it supplies

Approximately 10% to 12% of each lung with its own
connective tissue capsule and blood supply

Primary bronchi Structure same with trachea up to entry into lungs

Once these will enter lungs, they will now be called
intrapulmonary bronchi

Intrapulmonary bronchi Cylindrical, cartilage distributed around the circumference

Cartilage disappears at the level of subsegmental bronchi 1
mm in diameter

Epithelium of bronchi Ciliated columnar

Many goblet cells and submucosal glands

Submucosal glands End at the level of bronchioles

Lamina Propria Loose CT with lymphocytes

Mast cells
Eosinophils

Bronchioles Segment of the respiratory tree

Size of bronchioles 0.3 - 0.5 mm in diameter

12th - 15th generations of branching of the bronchial tree
How to recognize a No cartilaginous plates
bronchiole No goblet cells
No glands in lamina propria
No lymph nodes
No goblet cells

Smooth Muscle Discrete bundles of varying orientation

Not circumferential
Relaxes during inspiration
Contracts at the end of expiration

Epithelium Ciliated
Non-ciliated cells (Clara cells)
Ciliated columnar with a swollen rounded apex
Found in major bronchi up to the terminal bronchioles

Bronchial Tree 2 main bronchi

Left and Right

Secondary (lobar) bronchi 3 on the right

2 on the left

Tertiary (segmental) bronchi 10 in each lung

Form the bronchopulmonary segment

Further branching of bronchi Lead as further deeper into the respiratory tree up to the level
of bronchioles

Bronchioles Terminal bronchioles

Respiratory bronchioles

Respiratory Bronchioles Signify the beginning of the respiratory portion of the

respiratory tree

Alveolar ducts Atria

Alveolar sacs Aveoli

Extrapulmonary bronchi Incomplete cartilage rings

Intrapulmonary bronchi Plates of hyaline cartilage

Surrounded by dense CT with elastic fibers

Submucosa of Lymphoid Tissue

Intrapulmonary bronchi Mucoserous and Mucous glands are found

Smooth muscle fibers Intermingle with elastic fibers

Mucosa Continuous with the mucosa of the trachea

Respiratory Epithelium of Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium

Bronchi
Size of Bronchioles Less than or equal to 1mm in diameter

ABSENT in the walls of Cartilage

bronchioles Glands
Lymph Nodes

Epithelium lining of Ciliated columnar with goblet cells

Bronchioles Bronchiolar (Clara) cells
Sensory brush cells, neuroendocrine cells
Macrophages in smallest bronchioles

Lamina Propria of Smooth muscle bundles

Bronchioles Elastic fibers

Cilia of Bronchioles Extend further down than goblet cells

Once reached the smallest bronchioles, macrophages will
then take over

Distal Respiratory Portion Respiratory bronchioles

Alveolar ducts
Alveoli

Respiratory Bronchioles Short branching tubes from terminal bronchioles

Size of Respiratory 1-4 mm long

Bronchioles Less than 0.5 mm in diameter

Alveoli Interrupt walls of the respiratory bronchioles

Epithelium of Respiratory Ciliated cuboidal

Bronchioles Simple cuboidal
Simple squamous

Lamina Propria of Smooth Muscle

Respiratory Bronchioles Elastic CT

Respiratory bronchioles Continue into alveolar ducts

Alveolar Ducts Cone-shaped thin-walled tubes

Lined by squamous epithelium beneath which is fibroelastic
CT

Alveolar ducts open into Alveoli

Alveolar Sacs

Terminate by Opening into the Atria

Atria Vestibules or spaces from which alveolar sacs and alveoli

diverge

Alveolar sacs Multilocular

Collection of Alveoli
Alveoli Polyhedral, hexagonal structure
Separated from its neighboring alveolus by interalveolar
septum

Alveolar Pores Deficiencies found along interalveolar septum

Pores of Kohn

Supporting structures of Elastic fibers for expansion and contraction

Atria, Alveolar Sacs, and Reticular fibers important for overdistention
Alveoli

Interalveolar Septum Bridge in between alveoli

Main support of the Reticular

interalveolar septum Elastic Fibers

Zona diffusa Tissue space of interstitium itself

Contains the supporting connective tissue fibers along with
microfibrils
Limited by basal laminae beneath epithelium and covering
capillaries
In between: cells and fibers

Supporting connective tissue Elastic fibers

fibers Collagen fibrils

3 cell types Squamous alveolar (type I) cells

Surface epithelial cells
10% of cell population
95% total alveolar surface
From complete layer lining all alveolar spaces

Description of the Smooth surface

Interalveolar Septum Flat nuclei
Attenuated cytoplasm

Great Alveolar Cells (Type II) Septal cells

Dispensed as singly or in small groups or clusters
12% of the cell population
Cuboidal or bulging into alveolar spaces

Location of great alveolar Angles or corners of alveolar walls

cells

Description of Great Alveolar Have a vesicular nucleus

Cells (Type III) Vacuolated cytoplasm
Apical surface containing microvilli
Capable of mitosis

Endothelial cells Seen lining the capillaries found within the alveolar septa
Like type I, they have flat nuclei and an attenuated cytoplasm
 To distinguish between the two, endothelial cells are related
more to blood spaces

Dust Cells Alveolar macrophages

May be vacuolated
Principal phagocytes of the lungs
First line of defense against infection of the lungs
Have surface receptors for IgG and C3b
Release chemotactic factors for polymorphonuclear (PMNs)
cells, such as neutrophils

Location of dust cells Interstitium of the interalveolar septa

Free in alveolar spaces
Passing through alveolar wall

Dust cells contain Hemosiderin

Siderophage or heart failure cell

Cytoplasm of dust cells Vacuolated

Origin of dust cells Stem cells in the bone marrow

Recruited into the lungs

Secretion of dust cells Lysosomal hydrolases

PGs
Components of complement system

Alveolar Pores Holes seen in the interalveolar septa

Pores of Kohn Connect adjacent alveoli
Equalize pressure between alveoli to permit collateral
ventilation

Size of Alveolar Pores or 15 um in diameter

Pores of Kohn

Blood Air Barrier Hace 3 components usually 0.2 - 0.5 um thick

Pulmonary surface epithelium
Interstitial space
Capillary endothelium

Surfactant in the lungs Produced by Type II alveolar cells

Made up of phosphatidylcholine (dipalmitoyl lecithin)
Reduces surface tension of the alveolar fluid
Has anti-collapse effect
Secreted by developing fetus by 24 weeks age of gestation

Pleura Connective tissue made up of collagenous and elastic fibers,

cellular components like fibroblasts and macrophages

Covering of Pleura Covered by mesothelium (simple squamous epithelium)

Parietal Pleura Lines the thoracic cavity

Visceral Pleura Covers the lung surface

Circulatory system Pumps and directs blood cells and substances carried in
blood to all tissues of the body

Circulatory system includes Blood vascular system

Lymphatic system

Length of circulatory system 100 - 150 thousand kilometers

in adults

2 divisions of circulatory Pulmonary circulation

system Systemic circulation

Pulmonary circulation Blood is oxygenated in the lungs

Systemic circulation Blood brings nutrients and removes waste in tissues

throughout the body

Blood vascular system Heart

(cardiovascular system) Arteries
Capillaries
Microvasculature / Microvascular bed
Veins

Heart Propel blood throughout the system

Arteries Series of vessels

Efferent from the heart which will become smaller and will
carry oxygenated blood to various organs and tissues

Capillaries Smallest vessels

Site of exchange for oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient, and
waste product exchange between blood and tissue

Microvasculature / Includes arterioles, venules, and capillaries

Microvascular bed Complex network of thin, anastomosing tubules

Veins Drains blood

Result from the convergence of venules into a system of
larger channels
Converge and enlarge as it approaches the heart
Carries the blood from the organ towards the heart for
oxygenation to be pumped again

Lymphatic capillaries thin -walled closed-ended tubules that carry lymph

Forms increasing caliber/size of lymphatic vessels

Largest lymph vessels Connect with the blood vascular system and empty into the
 large veins near the heart
Returns fluid from tissue spaces all over the body to the blood

Endothelium Blood vessels are lined internally by the endothelium

Lining cells of the internal surface of the blood vessels

Lined by Simple squamous epithelium

Selectively permeable

Interface between blood and Plays physiologic role

organs

Regulator of homeostasis Contains anti-thrombogenic or inhibitory to clotting formation

characteristics

Inflammation Inflammatory cells will squeeze in between the junctions of

endothelial cells

Secretory function Secrete variety of factors that are important for vessel
dilatation, vessel constriction, as well as growth of adjacent
cells

Myoelastic Layer Middle layer of smooth muscle fibers and connective tissue

Subendocardium Deep layer of connective tissue

Purkinje fibers can be found here

Purkinje fibers Branches of the heart’s impulse conducting system and are
made up of modified cardiac muscle fibers

Myocardium Made up of cardiac muscle (myocytes)

Involuntary striated muscle with intercalated disc
Thickest layer
Consist mainly of cardiac muscle cells and these muscle cells
are in fibers that are arranged spirally around each heart
chamber
Because strong force is required to pump blood through the
systemic and pulmonary circulation, the myocardium is much
thicker in the walls of ventricles particularly in the left ventricle
as compared to the atrial walls

Epicardium External layer of the wall of the heart

Epicardium is made up of Simple squamous epithelium

Supported by a layer of loose connective tissue containing
blood vessels and nerves
Visceral layer of the pericardium

Pericardium Visceral membrane that surrounds the heart

Double walled sac containing the heart and the roots of the
great vessels
Cardiac Skeleton Found within major layers of the heart
Important for the overall function of moving blood

Connective Tissue of Cardiac Dense fibrous connective tissue

Skeleton

Dense fibrous connective Found in the interventricular and interatrial septa

tissue of cardiac skeleton Surrounding all valves
Extending to valve cups and the chordae tendineae to which
they are attached

Heart valves Flaps of connective tissue anchored in the cardiac skeleton

Atrioventricular valves Fibrous connective tissue lined on both sides by endothelium

Tricuspid valve Right AV Valve

Formed by 3 interlocking cusps

Mitral Valve Left AV valve

Made up of two interlocking cusps
Prevents regurgitation of ventricular blood into the atria

Semilunar Valves Found in the pulmonary and aortic trunks

Lined by endothelium on both sides separated by sparse
strands of connective tissue

Functions of Cardiac Anchoring and supporting the heart valves

Skeleton Providing firm points of insertion for cardiac muscles
Helping coordinate the heartbeat by acting as electrical
insulation between atria and ventricle

Impulse Conducting System Generates and propagates waves of depolarization that

if the Heart spread through the myocardium to stimulate rhythmic
contractions

2 nodes of specialized Sinoatrial node (pacemaker)

myocardial tissue in the right Atrioventricular node (AV node)
atrium

Followed by AV Bundle of His

Subendocardial conducting network

Sinoatrial Node Located in the right atrial wall, near the superior vena cava
Mass of cardiac muscle cells

SA + AV node Initiate impulses that will move along the myocardial fibers of
both atria stimulating contractions

When impulses reach slightly Called bundle branches

smaller AV node Left and right bundle branches
At the apex of the heart Bundles will be subdivided into subendocardial conducting
network of fibers - PURKINJE FIBERS

Purkinje Fibers Pale staining fibers larger than adjacent contractile muscle
fibers
Have glycogen
Mingle DISTALLY with the contractile fibers of both ventricles
Trigger waves of contraction through both ventricles
simultaneously

Sympathetic Heart Upper thoracic levels of the spinal cord

Innervation Accelerates heart rate
Increases force of contraction
Dilates coronary vessels

Parasympathetic Heart Vagus nerve

Innervation Slows heart rate
Reduces force of contraction
Constricts coronary vessels

Ganglionic nerve cells and Regions close to SA and AV nodes

nerve fibers of the heart Affects heart rate and rhythm

Afferent free nerve ending Register pain (angina pectoris)

Hormones produced by the Atrial natriuretic peptide

heart B-type natriuretic peptide
Increase Na secretion
Increase water by the kidney
Inhibit renin release
Decreases blood pressure

Amount and arrangement of Mechanical factors - Blood pressure

tissues in the vessels are Metabolic factors
influenced by

Basic Components of Blood 1. Endothelium

Vessels 2. Smooth muscle
3. Connective tissue
4. Tunica Intima
5. Tunica Media
6. Tunica Adventitia/Tunica Externa

ENDOTHELIUM Innermost portion of blood vessel

Semipermeable barrier between 2 major internal
compartments
Separates blood from interstitial tissue fluid

2 major internal 1. Blood

compartments 2. Interstitial fluid
Blood Within blood vessel

Interstitial fluid Outside blood vessel

Specialized epithelium of the Squamous cells

Endothelium Polygonal, elongated
Long axis is in the direction of the blood flow

Functions of the Endothelium 1. Non thrombogenic surface

2. Regulation of local vascular tone and blood flow by
secreting ENDOTHELIN and ACE, NO
3. Inflammation an local immune responses
4. Secretion of various growth factors

Thrombosis Inappropriate clotting

Endothelium actively secrete 1. Heparin

agents that control clot 2. TPA (Tissue Plasminogen Activator)
formation 3. vWF (von Willebrand factor)

Endothelin Stimulate smooth muscle contraction

Vessel constriction

ACE Angiotensin converting Stimulate smooth muscle relaxation

enzyme Vessel dilatation
NO Nitric Oxide

Inflammation and local Induce WBC to undergo transendothelial migration

immune responses (diapedesis) so WBC will go to the site of injury

1. P Selectin
2. Weibal-Palade bodies
3. Interleukins

P Selectin Lumen surface of WBC

Weibal - Palade bodies Fuse with cell membrane causing expression of the P selectin

SMOOTH MUSCLE Occur in all vessels larger than capillaries

NO SMOOTH MUSCLE IN CAPILLARIES
Arranged helically in layers

Arterioles and Small Arteries Smooth muscle cells are connected by many more gap
junctions and permit vasoconstriction and vasodilation
It is where regulation of blood pressure takes place

CONNECTIVE TISSUE Collagen fibers

Elastic fibers

Collagen Fibers Subendothelial layer

Between smooth muscles in the outer covering
Elastic Fibers Provide resiliency required for the vascular wall to expand
under pressure
Large arteries

Elastin Major component of large arteries where it forms parallel

lamellae that is regularly distributed in between the muscle
layers

Variation in amount and Contribute to the physical and metabolic properties of the
composition of these wall, affecting blood vessel permeability
substances
Proteoglycans and hyaluronate also contribute

TUNICA INTIMA Innermost layer

Endothelium
Thin subendothelial layer of loose connective tissue
Few smooth muscle fibers

Tunica Intima in Arteries Includes a thin layer of internal elastic lamina composed of
elastin, has holes that allow better diffusion of substances
from the blood vessel deeper into the wall

TUNICA MEDIA Middle layer

Concentric layers
Helically arranged smooth muscle cells
Elastic fibers
Lamellae
Reticular fibers
proteoglycans

Tunica Media in Arteries Internal elastic lamina

External elastic lamina

TUNICA Outermost layer

ADVENTITIA/TUNICA Type I collagen
EXTERNA Elastic fibers
Continuous and bound to the stroma of the organ through
which the blood vessel runs

Adventitia of larger vessels Contain network of unmyelinated autonomic nerve fibers

(vasomotor nerves) which release norepinephrine -
vasoconstrictor

VASA VASORUM Vessels of the vessel

Vessels that supply blood to the blood vessels

Composition of Vasa Arterioles

Vasorum Capillaries
Venules