VIMANAS IN THE ART OF RAYALASEEMA

Thesis submitted to
SRI VENKATESWARA UNIVERSITY

For the award of degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY, CULTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGY

By
M. VENKATA PAVAN KUMAR

Research Supervisor
Prof. N.KRISHNA REDDY

DEPARTMENT OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY, CULTURE AND ARCHAEOLOGY

SRI VENKATESWARA UNIVERSITY
TIRUPATI-517 502 (A.P.), INDIA

JANUARY, 2021.
 Chapter-VI
SUMMARY AND
CONCLUSIONS
 CHAPTER-VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Rayalaseema is the name of the region comprising the districts of Anantapur, Kurnool,
Kadapa and Chittoor. The word Rayalaseema, as now generally used, does not mean the
country or territory of the Vijayanagara kings in general, because that territory would
comprise the entire Presidency of Madras. It is used only in restricted sense, as the country
proper of the last line of the Vijayanagara kings. In the/'word Rayalaseema, 'Rayalu' was the
title born by the kings of Vijayanagara. 'Seema'is the Telugu word which means territory or an
administrative division. The division which was ruled by the Rayas of Vijayanagara is called
Rayalaseema. This region was bordered by Karnataka state on the west, Telangana on the
north, the districts of Prakasam and Nellore on the north-east and east respectively and
Tamilnadu on the south.

Rayalaseema has a glorious history from very early period. A large number of pre-
historic sites have been discovered in many parts of Rayalaseema by the Archaeologists.
During the time of Mauryas it played an important role as evidenced by the Ashokan
inscriptions discovered from Erragudi and Rajulamandagiri in Kurnool district. From then
onwards it has a continuous history. Rayalaseema was ruled by many major royal dynasties
like the Chalukyas of Badami, the Rastrakutas, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kakatiyas and
the Vijayanagara rulers besides a number of minor dynasties like Renati Cholas, the
Nolambas, the Banas and Vaidumbas etc. in different parts of the region. During the rule of
these dynasties a large number of temples were constructed in this region and these temples
are of immense wealth for the study of temple art and architecture. Each temple has three
major parts viz. gopura, garbhagriha (sanctum) and vimana. Vimana is constructed above the
garbhagriha (sanctum). The garbhagriha is made to accomidate the main icon which is focus
of much ritual attention. From the 5th century C.E onwards, free standing temples emerged to
have a mountain similar to spire, which takes the shape of a curving sikhara (superstructure)
and a pyramidal tower called vimana in North India and South India respectively. vastu texts
like Manasara, Mayamata, Silparathna etc. elaborately discussed about the art and
architecture of the temples based on regions and styles like Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.

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 The origin of vimana is surrounded in darkness. Some scholars inclined to see in it a
foreign element, while some trace its origin to Egyptian pyramid and some find in it an
adoption of Chaldean ziggarets. Longhurst says that the stupi or vimana is called the corrupted
form of Sanskrit, stupa which signifies Buddhist shrine. It is originally a dome shaped
structure which was a development of the four sepulchral tumulus or mount of earth and stone
in which the bricks were substituted for earth, with a view to durability.

The vimana contains the most sacred shrine where in resides the image of the
presiding deity. Inside the vimana appears plain and square, whereas outside, it has profuse
decorations.

There are different views about the term vimana, some say that it refers to the sanctum
(garbhagriha) sanctorum, sikhara with its superstructure, while others opine that the entire
structure from the basement to the crown is a vimana. The latter one seems to be the accepted
one.

A careful examination of all the vimanas in South India reveals the existence of three
varieties of which the hut shaped vimanas considered as one. The two others are pyramidal
shaped but they differ from of each other with regard to their summits, one of them has a
dome shaped summit, where as the summit of the other has the form of a barrel. These verities
of vimanas have attracted attention long ago. The pyramidal vimana marks the final stage of
development of the primitive type of Dravidian architecture.

Vastusastra or "The Hindu Style of Architecture and Civil Engineering has its ambits
much beyond the "shelter for human" concept. According to Bhrgu- Samhita,Vastusastra) is
one of the ten branches of Silpasastra and, basically, deals with abodes of human beings, their
animals, their trees and the Divinity.

The rockcut temples such as those at Mahabalipuram were built only in the Pallava
period. In fact, they served as original models for all the temples constructed during the
periods that followed. But the Pallava period did not stop with these experimental rockcut
rathas. Other temples were built following the design and principles of these monolithic
rathas, the most important of them being the shore temples at Mahabalipuram and the

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Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. Both of them are in a good state of preservation. No
worship is being carried out in the shore temple at Mahabalipuram and it today remains only
as an archaeological monument of great interest.

The Chalukyan style originated in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal (all in Bagalkot
district of Karnataka). Chalukyan artists experimented with different styles, blended the Indo-
Aryan Nagara and Dravidian styles, and evolved their own distinctive style. One can see
magnificent examples of their earliest works in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal.

The Chola period the vimana assumed gigantic proportions. It is to this part of the
edifice the architects of the period gave all the care. The great vimanas of Tanjore and
Gangaikonda Cholapuram belong to this period. They are magnificently erected and rise
almost 190 feet high. In the following periods, vimanas get atrophied and finally reduced to
forms of only a few feet height.

In the temples prior to the later Chola period one finds only the embryo of gopuras.
The temple of Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram has only a miniature gopura. At the temple of
Tanjore, which belongs to the early Chola period, the gopura is already a little elevated. But at
the later Chola epoch we find grand and beautiful gopuras. The gopuras of Chidambaram and
Jambukeswaram are perfect examples of this period.

The Vijayanagara period saw still more immense vimanas and gopuras, it is evident,
that this part of the edifice was not much cared for. It was not upon this that the sculptor of the
period concentrated his efforts during the Vijayanagara epoch a new form of construction
appeared, the form of the mandapa or resting place.

Basically, Hindu Temples can be divided to North Indian Style and South Indian
Style. Malaysia has more South Indian Style Temples and all three temples chosen for the
case study are of South Indian origin as explained in The Setting.

Vimana means the tower sikhara, raised to its final height above the sanctum. The
southern texts describe the temples as sadvarga Devalaya. The sadvargas of a vimana are
Adistana, Pada, Prastara, Kanta, Sikhara and stupi. The vertical expansion of the sadvarga
developed into vimanas of dvitala (in two stages) and tritala (in three stages) structures.

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 According to Manasara, vimanas are of three sorts distinguished from one another
by the principal materials of which they are formed as suddha (pure), misra (mixed) and
sankirna (anomalous).

The term vimana used in the South Indian temple epigraphs refer to the entire structure
from upana to stupi. in the central shrine of the temple. The vimanas are different in one
region to another region and one period to another period and dynastic variations in their style.
Manasara accepted vimana upto twelve storeys of a temple. Kashyapasilpasastra describes
the sixteen storeys of a temple. The haras or row of miniature shrine composed of kutas and
Salas around each of the storeys form the most characteristic features of South Indian vimana.

Mayamata mentions the measurement and characteristic wise the vimana are classified
into four categories for four caste divisions of Hindu society. They are uttama, mathyama, and
athamam. Based on the shape of the vimana especially its sikhara and griva, the temples are
classified into Nagara, Dravida and Vesara style.

Temples are classified according to the size mahaprasada andalpa according to the
number of floors like bhumi or tala, ekatala, dvitala, and tritala etc., and according to their
shape and design, circular (vritta), square (chaturasra), rectangular (chaturasradirga), apsidal
(hasti-prshtha), elliptical (vrttayata), hexagonal (shatkona) and octagonal (ashtasra).

Nagara means square sikhara across the vimana, in Vesara vimana is crowned with a
circular sikhara spire above the neck, and in Dravida the plane is crowned with an octagonal
or hexagonal sikhara spire above the neck and an apsidal form is added in the Vesara and
Dravida styles by the Manasara.The Nagara style is typically characterized by the
architectural wonder, which ideally portrayed the craftsmanship of the artists. A study of the
temples of northern India reveals two distinct features. The projections in the plan are also
carried upwards to the top of the ridge, so that there is a strong preference for columns in
height.

Vesara is a type of Indian architecture primarily used in temples. Which is a

combination of Nagara and Dravida temple styles. According to the etymology, the term
Vesara is believed to have originated from the Sanskrit word, meaning an area for a long
walk. Viharas are the temples of Buddhist and Jain monks who left the urban areas to live in
cave temples. This is also in conformity with the prevalence of Vesara style of architecture in

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the Deccan and central parts of South Asia vis-a-vis Nagara style prevalent in North India and
Dravida style prevalent in South India.

Dravidian architecture is a structure that originated in the Indian subcontinent

thousands of years ago. They consist mainly of pyramid-shaped temples based on intricate
carved stone to form stages with statues of gods, warriors, kings and dancers. Most of the
existing temples are in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, South India.

The Pallava artists were to be sure the bosses of the specialty of stone. Colossal stone
parts cut out of rocks and stones are as yet an extraordinary part of South Indian temple
architecture, to the development of which Pallava artists have made a critical commitment. It
is their rathas like structures without wheels, which discover a reverberation in the Deccan
temples. The seven rathas of Mamallapuram have columns, rooftops, tightening tops and
tower like endings other than square of rectangular bases checking them as the trailblazers of
the contemporary temples.

The earliest among the Pallava structural temples were the shore temple at
Mamallapuram and the Kailasanath temple at Kanchipuram. These temples were built by
using sandstones. The vimana or tower of the Kailasanatha temple is shaped like hilly comb.
This temple is considered as the crown of Pallava architecture.

The Badami Chalukyan architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the
5th – 8th centuries C.E in the Malaprabha river basin, in present day Bagalkot district of
Karnataka state of India, under the Chalukya dynasty. This style is sometimes called the
Vesara style and Chalukya style, a term that also includes the much later Western Chalukya
architecture of the 11th and 12th centuries. Early Chalukya architecture, used by George
Michell and others, equates to Badami Chalukya.

The munificent patronage of the royalty fostered the growth of the Pasupatamatha and
consequently the religious art of Alampur. We do not have much inscriptional material
relating to the other temple centers like Mahanandi, Panyam, Satyavolu and Kudaveli. The
very few label inscriptions that are available suggest the prevalence of the pasupata sect.

A study of the ground plans of Nagara style of temples in Andhradesa reveals that the
Kumara Brahma is the earliest building at Alampur. The continuity of this layout is seen in the

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Veera Brahma and the Bala Brahma temples though the latter incorporates two parivara
shrines on the front. The lack of this feature in the temples at Aihole is significant.

The eave cornice moulding in the Kumara Brahma is quite like the kapota of the
southern tradition which has a highly drooping circular profile. Later temples at Alampur
show flat mouldings a feature peculiar to the temples of Nagara style.

The Sangamesvara temple at Kudaveli by employing certain new elements remains

distinguished from Alampur; these appear later at Mahanandi, but were not favoured either at
Satyavolu, Panyam in Andhra or at Aihole, Mahakut or Pattadakal. The topmost khanda and
the lowermost one of the first bhumi are made into a large sized recessed part carrying
shouldered arches.

The Chola period built temples like the Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur, the
Brihadeshwara Temple in Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Airavateshwara temple in
Darasuram and the Shiva temple in Thirubhuvanam. The Chola period built temples such as
the Brihadeshvara temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara temple of Gangaikonda
Cholapuram, the Airavatesvara temple of Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Siva) temple at
Thirubhuvanam. vimana are an important part of the temple architecture of the Cholas. In the
latter period the vimana continued to dominate solemnly.

During the Middle Chola period 985-1070 C.E., structural progress is visible in the
vimana portions mainly in the two temples, one of the Brihadeshvara temple at Tanjore and
another one is the Brihadeshvara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

The srivimana of the big temple raises to a grand height of 63.41mtrs from the floor of
the inner courtyard. The garbhagraha measures 30.18mtrs by 30.18mtrs at the base, according
to the latest measurement taken by the ASI.

The Brihadeeswara Temple is the tallest Dravidian plane with thirteen ranges.
Moreover, it is the most powerful temple structure in the South. Topping the floors of
srivimana is a single block of granite 7.77mtrs square, estimated to weigh eighty tones. It was
truly a masterpiece of the mastermind of the architecture of the Chola period.

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 The vimana of the Brihadisvara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram has nine
descending tiers. The decoration consists of square and rectangular pavilions project and
intermediaries come forward on each side beyond the arrangement of the kutas in the corner.
Thus the concave shape of the vimana, truly speak of its unique.

The Siddeshwara temple at Haveri, is chosen primarily for a typical representative of

Kalyani Chalukya period as an orthogonal plan typology. This small and exquisite temple is
one of the better known Kalyani Chalukya monuments and is often dated as 11th century C.E.
The vimana measures 4.65/5.15m. There are four talas. In the first tala a chadya is added and
this addition divided the vimana into a wall and a superstructure. The centre of each tala is
emphasized very much by an additional second panjara roof and by the heavy framing of
each panjara roof. The frames are decorated with scrolls, as are the sides of the tala ends.

The Galageswara temple of Galaganatha vimana is complete and consists of four talas
and of a closing vedika cum kuta roof. The superstructure consists entirely of undecorated
architectural components, with a giant crowning kuta roof received foliage and decorated
nasis. All kapotas are of the same type, flat with shallow flexures.

The Kakatiya temples are a row of miniature vimanas of brick found on the edges of
the roof. These are found in the Erakesvara and Namesvara shrines of Pillalamarri and the
triple shrine at Panagal. These rows of vimanas are similar to the series of Kuta. Panjara and
sala found in similar places in Pallava temples and the chunchu of the Vijayanagara times.

The vimanas of these temples are peculiar. They are not of the curvilinear variety of
the Early Chalukyan temples of northern Karnataka and Andhradesa. Nor do they have
horizontal rows of diminishing size containing the series kuta, sala and panjara as is the case
with the Pallava and Eastern Chalukyan temples. There are some other features characteristic
of the architectural style of the Kakatiya temples. Plank shelves in the walls of the
garbhagriha and finely carved canopies above the vedi containing the linga are features not
found in the temples of other styles.

The Vijayanagara temples represent the last great phase of dravidian style of
architecture. They are lofty and sumptuous in consumption and character. An attempt is made

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in the following pages to study the various types of vimanas that are found on the top of the
garbhagriha of the Vijayanagara temples. The vimana is that portion which is found on the
top of the Prasadawalls of the garbhagriha. This is one of the most distinctive features of a
temple. The vimana, apart from the gopuradvara, not only arrests the very attention of the
visitor from a distance, but also increases the loftiness of the edifice considerably.

The stepped pyramidalvimana is noticed on the top of the garbhagriha of the minor
shrines at Pushpagiri. Virupaksha temple at Hampi vimana, like the above referred one, is
square on plan and has tiers, diminishing in size as they proceed upwards. Every vimana
consists of eight stepped tiers, vedi, griva and chaturasra-sikhara. The Vijayanagara architects
profusely patronized this type of vimana. This type of vimana is generally styled as Dravidian
vimana.

The storeyed pyramidal vimanas that are found in the Veerabhadraswami temple
complex at Lepakshi represent an advanced type. They are built of bricks and chunam. Every
storey is composed of karnakoshthas, netra koshthas and bhadra koshthas.

In Anantapur district The Doddesvara temple is the best preserved and the biggest
among all the temples of the Nolambas at Hemavati and other places. At Nandi, the tower
above the garbhagriha vimana can be found surviving this must have been common in the
case of all the Nolamba temples.

The Mallikarjuna temple at Kambadur on the top of the garbagriha typical Kalyani
Chalukyan type of vimana structure. This vimana is in reseeding form like pyramidical type is
raised with seven tiers and above all a stone amalaka sikhara is erected on the top most point
on squire shaped stone. On the top the vimana a square shaped stone is decorated with a plain
spade (Kudu) motif design and maintain uniformity distance gaps and same design is applied
of the four quadrennial point‟s platform of sikhara.

Bugga Ramalingesara Temple at Tadipatri two storeyed vimana of brick is slender and
elegant, the talas are square on plan and the topmost tala does not possess the hara. It is
composed of kuta, panjara, sala, panjara and kuta. The Venkataramana swamy temple the
two storeyed vimana is built with brick. The first storey is square on plan, and it is relieved

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with projections and recesses. It is composed of a hara of kuta, sala and a panjara in between.
The same scheme is adopted in the second tala also.

The Veerabhadra swamy temple at Lepakshi vimana is pyramidal in shape. It is

normally composed of series of or tiers or storeys diminishing in size as they ascend. The
average angle of slope from vertical bottom section ranges 200 to 250, and the width at the
pruned apex is about half its base.

In Kurnool district The Mallikarjna swamy temple at Srisailam vimana model is a

square ekatala alpa vimana type (Chaturasra order) and is very likely that the
Vriddamallikarjuna temple was modeled at least partly after this miniature. It has a square
garbhagriha fronted by an ardhamandapa, more or less of equal size, in elevation, take the
upper storey. The griva is well defined and connected at the four cardinals by a kosta touching
the square sikhara which has a padmasila on top with stupi, kalasa and kumbha.

Mahanandiswara temple at Mahanandi vimana small in stature consists of four

bhumis. On plan it is dvianga showing a madhyalata, venukosa and suratara. The khandas in
madhyalata are carved with a simple box pattern with a candrasala in the centre. The
madhyalata shoots upto the level of pidhdnaphalaka. In the venukosa, in each bhumi, an
udgama is carved. The karnandakas are of a flattened variety and the ribs are closely shown.
A feature of note is the khanda following the karnandaka, carved with pilasters. The
balapanjaras form the decor of suratara. The skandha and pidhanahalaka are highly
separated. Over the griva rests an amalasaraka. Its ribs are highly separated. The sukanasa
reaches upto the second bhumi.

The Lakshmi Narasimha swamy temple at Ahobilam Above the roof, the sikhara part
of the vimana superstructure is visible. Though vimana is of recent times, it reflects features of
the earlier components. The vimana is in two talas. The hara on the first consists of a
karnakuta, a panjara with an image in it, a sola, another panjara and another karnakuta. On
the second tala, the scheme is a sala flanked by karnakutas. There are a number of self
imaginative images. The stupi rises from a four petal led lotus.

The Soumyanatha Temple at Nandalur vimana is built with the stone and brick and is
two storeyed. Up to the third tala it is stone structure and above it is of brick. The square griva
and the square sikhara are the crowning members. The stupi is preserved with a kalasa. The

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stucco images in the talas are small and some are ruined. A Visnu image in the seated posture
is present on theeastern side. In the sala of the second tala on the south a four armedvaraha
image in the seated posture is present. In the southern griva kostha an image of
Lakshminarayana on is preserved. On the western side a seated Visnu image is present on the
tala and in the griva kostha the Narasimha image is present. On the northern side there are the
figures of seated Visnu in upper tala aid Vaikunthanatha in the griva.

The Chennakesava Swamy Temple at Pushpagiri vimana has a square griva and
sikhara. Highly faceted elements of kuta, sala, panjara dominate the first storey and reach
upto the kapota level. Above the second storey the kuta, sala panjara are coterminous with
the prati. The sala has a tall salakosthaprojection in the middle. The organisations of these
elements are different from the other vimanas in this complex

The Kodandarama swamy temple at Vontimitta vimana above the garbhagrha is two
storeyed. The aditala has short elements of kuta, panjara and sala and is highly abbreviated in
form. The second tala features the same elements but at panjara part the life size figures are
introduced obscuring the panjara recess. The sala has three stupis. These elements are almost
coterminous with the phalaka. A top the panjara the life size figures stand out planting their
right leg on the sala and kuta portions respectively. Over the phalaka the seated garuda figure
adorns the cardinal directions; two figures are preserved now. An octagonal sikhara with a
stupid is the crowning element. The griva part of the sikhara has on the east the Kurmavatara
of the Visnu. On the south the Varahavatara on the west the Nrsimhavatara and on the north
the Kurmavatara are represented.

In Chittoor District the Palliswara Mudaiya Manhadeva temple at Kalakada is tritala

vimana is square (samachaturasra) on plan. The adhisthana of the vimana carries the
mouldings of an upana, which is now covered by the soil debris, a high jagati, a tripatta-
kumuda, kantha with kampa on either side and divided into pilasters (galapadas) at distant
intervals, pattika and a bold prati upon which the bhiiti rises. On the north-side of the vimana,
the pattika carries a pranala, elliptical in section and having a semi-circular aperture cut at the
bottom level of the wall. It does not show any simhamukha at the point of its inception. It is
fitted into the level of the pattika unlike in some Chola specimens.

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 The Kalahastiswara Temple at Kalahasti vimana is cubical or the samachaturasra
garbhagriha has a dvitala vimana of the vesara (circular) type. It is square upto the second
tala. Each tala contains the sala and panjara series. Above the second tala is a plaque
containing nandis at the four corners. There is circular griva surmounted by a domelike
sikhara over the second tala. The four central sides of the griva are adorned with koshtas
surmounted by a prominent kirtimukha. On the sikhara is the kalasa. The vimana is
constructed with lime and brick.

The Venkateswara Swamy Temple at Tirumala vimana is holy tower over the
garbhagriha in Tirumala is known Anandanilaya vimanam therefore stands for the abode of
bliss. Tirumala temple is truly an abode of bliss. The Varahapurana says that when the Lord
Manifested himself near swarny pushkarini, it was in a divaya vimanam which arrived from
vaikuntam will be invisible to mortal eyes in kaliyuga and that man will construct separate
vimanam for God. The bhavisyotara purana says that the first vimana constructed by man was
by Tondaman, the Chola king, this vimanam has been gilded many times.

A careful examination of all the vimanas in South India reveals the existence of three
varieties of which the hat shaped vimana, just considered, is one. The two others are
pyramidal shaped; but they differ from each other with regard to their summits. One of them
has a dome-shaped summit, whereas the summit of the other has the form of a barrel. These
varieties of vimanas have attracted attention long ago, and the authorities on the subject are
inclined to trace their origin to foreign sources. It must be pointed out that the archetypes of
these two forms ore found in South India, in the sudalai-madan shrine and the dairy of the
Todas. There is, therefore, no need for supposing that they had been borrowed from outside.
We now close our study with the conclusion that every part of our temple had an indigenous
origin, and a careful perusal of history tells us how the unification of its various parts into a
single whole has been brought about.

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