Agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture
Learning outcomes
1. Compares physical features of various cattle breeds
2. Selects suitable cattle breeds for animal husbandry zones in Sri Lanka
3. Describes rearing systems of cattle
4. Describe the type of cattle houses
5. Explains the importance of cattle houses
Compare the disparities between dairy cattle of Indian origin and dairy cattle of European origin
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Back of the body is round in shape The back of the body is not round
More sweat glands in a unit area of the skin Less sweat glands in a unit area of the skin
European cattle
Jersey
The Jersey cattle are relatively a smaller-sized dairy cattle breed. Their body color is usually
slightly red, deep brown or mixed. They have relatively long-sized heads, and they typically
have no hunchback.
Fresian
Breed of large dairy cattle originating in northern Holland and Friesland. Its chief characteristics
are its large size and black and white spotted markings, sharply defined rather than blended.
Ayrshire
Ayrshires are red and white in colour. The red colour is a reddish-brown mahogany that varies in
shade from very light to very dark.Ayrshires are medium-sized cattle and weigh approximately
over 1200 pounds at maturity. They are strong, rugged cattle that adapt to all management
systems including group handling on dairy farms with free stalls and milking parlors.
Indian cattles
Red Sindhi
● This breed is otherwise called as Red Karachi and Sindhi.
● This breed mostly found in Karachi and Hyderabad district of Pakistan.
● Colour is red with shades varying from dark red to light, strips of white.
● Milk yield ranges from 1100-2600 kgs.
● Widely used in crossbreeding programmes.
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
● Age at first calving 39-50 months and inter calving period from 425-540 days.
Sahiwal
● Originated in Montgomery district in present Pakistan.
● This breed otherwise known as Lola (loose skin), Lambi Bar, Montgomery, Multani, Teli.
● The colour is reddish dun or pale red, sometimes flashed with white patches.
● The average milk yield of this breed is between 2,725 and 3,175 kgs in lactation period of
300 days
-Australian Milking Zebu-AMZ and Australian Fresian Sahiwal-AFS are produced by crossing the
breeds Sahiwal and Sindhi of Indian origin with Jersey of European origin.
-AMZ is mostly reared in central and southern wet zones, in dry zone and the coconut triangle.
● Murrah
● Surti
● Nili Ravi
● Local breeds
Murrah
● It is the most important breed of buffaloes whose home is Rohtak, Hisar and Jind of
Haryana, Nabha and Patiala districts of Punjab and southern parts of Delhi state.
● This is otherwise called as Delhi, Kundi and Kali.
● The colour is usually jet black with white markings on tail and face and extremities
sometimes found.
● The tightly curved horn is an important character of this breed.
● The buffalo cows of this breed are one of the most efficient milk and butter fat producers in
India.
● Butter fat content is 7%. Average lactation yield is varying from 1500-2500 kgs and the
average milk yield is 6.8 kgs /day.
● It is also used for the grading up of inferior local buffaloes.
Surti
● The breeding tract of this breed is Kaira and Baroda district of Gujarat.
● Coat colour varies from rusty brown to silver-grey. Skin is black or brown.
3
A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Nili Ravi
● This breed is found in Sutlej valley in Ferozpur district of Punjab and in the Sahiwal district of
Pakistan. (Bred around Ravi river).
● The peculiarity of the breed is the wall eyes.
● The milk yield is 1500-1850 kgs per lactation.
● The intercalving period is 500-550 days and age at first calving is 45-50 months.
● Free-range
● Semi intensive
● Intensive
In a free-range cattle rearing system, cattle are allowed to graze and roam freely in open
pastures or natural landscapes. This system is characterized by minimal human intervention
and management. Cattle rely on natural forage and water sources for their sustenance. This
system is generally less intensive in terms of labor and resources because it takes advantage of
the cattle's ability to find their own food. However, it might lead to lower productivity and slower
growth rates due to the reliance on sometimes limited natural resources (Foods, Water and
minerals)
The semi-intensive cattle rearing system strikes a balance between free-range and intensive
systems. In this system, cattle are provided with access to both natural grazing areas and
supplementary feed, often in the form of grains, forage crops, or other formulated feeds. While
cattle are allowed to graze in open areas, they are also kept in enclosures or pens to control
their movement and provide better care. This system aims to enhance productivity by offering
controlled feeding and management while still partially relying on natural resources.
Intensive System
In an intensive cattle rearing system, cattle are kept in confinement for most of their lives. This
system involves providing controlled environments, strict feeding regimes, and veterinary care to
maximize productivity. Cattle in intensive systems are usually raised in enclosed barns or
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
feedlots where their nutrition, health, and growth can be closely monitored and managed. This
system tends to result in faster growth rates and higher yields compared to free-range and
semi-intensive systems. However, it requires significant investments in infrastructure, labor, and
feed resources.
Intensive method, cattle are reared in permanent cattle house and the animals are fed in the houses
themselves.
● To protect the animals from unfavourable climatic conditions like heat, cold and wind
● To protect the animals from thieves or any external threats.
● To provide sufficient food and water
● To methodically and cleanly perform functions such as milking
● To facilitate waste management
5
A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Learning outcomes :
Animals aged one year since their birth are known as ''calves''.
● Ability to reduce death rates during the first two weeks after birth
● Ability to obtain healthy dairy cattle who reach sexual maturity with a suitable weight.
● Acquiring strong dairy cattle with longevity
● Acquiring well-grown dairy cattle who can consume a large quantity of roughages and
have a spacious body capacity
● Ability to impregnate early (obtaining offspring at the ages of 2-2.5 years due to reaching
sexual maturity at the right time)
● Obtaining high-quality products
● Neonatal
● Early stages up to 3 weeks of birth
● From 3 weeks of birth up to weanning (aged 8-12 weeks)
● Animals weaned after 12 weeks (up to 6 months)
Neonatal Stage:
Rearing Activities: The neonatal stage is the period right after the calf is born. During this stage,
important activities include ensuring colostrum intake (the first milk rich in antibodies), providing
a clean and dry environment, and monitoring the calf's health.
Importance: Colostrum intake is crucial for the calf's immune system development. A clean and
dry environment prevents disease transmission and helps the calf maintain body temperature.
Proper care during this stage sets the foundation for the calf's overall health and growth.
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Rearing Activities: During this period, activities include regular feeding of milk or milk replacer,
monitoring the calf's growth and health, and providing basic shelter.
Importance: Adequate nutrition and health monitoring are essential for the calf's proper growth
and immune system development. Proper feeding ensures the calf receives the necessary
nutrients for growth and energy.
Rearing Activities: Apart from continued milk feeding, introducing solid feed like calf starter,
offering clean water, ensuring proper vaccination, and monitoring for any health issues.
Importance: This stage prepares the calf's digestive system for the transition from a milk-based
diet to solid feed. The calf learns to eat and adapt to new foods, and proper vaccination helps
prevent diseases as the immune system matures.
Rearing Activities: Gradually transitioning the calf from milk to a balanced diet of solid feed,
providing adequate space and shelter, managing social interactions with other calves, and
continuing health care practices.
Importance: Weaning marks a significant transition in the calf's diet. A balanced diet during this
stage ensures proper growth and muscle development. Adequate space and social interactions
contribute to behavioral and psychological development.
Each growth stage is crucial for the calf's overall development, and proper rearing practices
during these stages have a lasting impact on the animal's health, growth, and productivity.
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Techniques that can be followed if the calf would be unable to gain colostrum due to
reasons such as the death of its mother.
Preparing colostrum
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
The liquid prepared by mixing the above ingredients should be provided in a quantity of
3-4kg a day for a European calf and 2-3kg for a day for an Iindian calf for about a week.
The manner one should follow in order to obtain a healthy calf with a correct weight by
nourishing them from birth till the age of weaning.
● Daily milk requirement - During the first month milk should be provided in a quantity
of 10% of the calf's body weight (3 kg of fresh milk per day).
- It is gradually reduced till weaning.
Provision of houses
The problems that could arise when the mother cow starts to live with other animals in the
herd and the importance of providing houses to calves.
● When the calves suck more milk the produce is lowerd. This situation can be
avoided by providing houses separately.
● It prevents calves from licking one another when they are reared in the group
method. This
● prevents the formation of fur balls in the rumen.
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Weaning is the process of transitioning a young animal, such as a calf, from a diet primarily
consisting of milk or milk replacer to one that includes solid feed. This transition is important for
the calf's growth, development, and eventual integration into the larger herd
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Growth stages of a dairy cow (Ex: infantal stage, weaning stage, growth stage/heifers,
matured stage)
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
● Fallopian tubes - Ovum fertilization, secretion of mucus during parturition and when
reaching the oestrous
● Uterus - Implantation of the embryo providing nourishment and protection for the
embryo
● Vagina - Depositing sperms during sexual intercourse, acting as a birth canal during
parturition
● Vulva - Secretion of mucus
It should be concerned about the oestrous cycle and heat signs when impregnating a
sexually matured dairy cow.
Heat signs reappear 21 days after one oestrous. Since it is periodic it is known as the
oestrous cycle. The oestrous cycle is the interval bertween the beginning of one oestrous
and the beginning of the other oestrous.
The oestrous cycle is mainly controlled by the internally secreted sexual hormones.
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Major hormones that regulate the oestrous cycle and the organs / structures
1. Follicle stimulation hormone - FSH (Secreted by the interior lobe of the pituitary gland)
2. Luteinizing hormone- LH (Secreted by the interior lobe of the pituitary gland)
3. Oestrogen - (Secreted by the developing graffian follicle)
4. Progesterone - (Secreted by the corpus luteum)
During the oestrus cycle a lot of physical changes in the uterus,vagina and ovary occur due
to the impact of these hormones and the oestrous cycle can be divided into four
stages according to those changes:
1. Pro-oestrous 2-3 days
2. Oestrous 18 hours
3. Met-oestrous 3-4 days
4. Die-oestrous 12-13 days
21 days
Hormonal activity :
Oestrogen secretion from the graffian follicle gradually increases. When the oestrogen
reaches a certain level, the FSH level in blood decreases, while the LH level increases.
Ovum is released in this stage (ovulation).
Met Oestrous- The stage in which oestrous ends is known as met oestrous.The physical
and behavioural changes occur with the oestrous subsides during this stage and return to
the normal state.
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
The progesterone hormone secreted by the corpus luteum formed after ovulation, prevents
animal's subjection to heat.
Ensuring the fixing of the embryo, nourishing embryo and growth of the memmory glands
are the other functions of the corpus luteum.The amount of oestrogen produced by the
ovary decreases during this stage.
Die oestrous- This is the end of the oestrous cycle. It is the interval between the end of the
oestrous to the beginning of the next oestrous cycle.
When the ovum fertilization does not occur, the growth of the corpus luteum stops and it
gradually gets reduced.This causes the progesterone level to decrease.
With that, the pituitary gland secretes the FSH hormone which stimulates, follicle growth,
starting another oestrous cycle.
Die Oestrous occurs only when impregnation does not occur.
Most convenient time to inseminate a cow is 12-18 hours after the oestrous begins.
-Animals showing heat signs in the morning hours should be inseminated in the evening of
the same day.
-Animals showing heat signs in the evening hours should be inseminated next morning the
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
following day.
Inseminating 6 hours before the oestrous period or 18 hours after showing heat signs
causes a low pregnancy rate.
Cattle insemination could be carried out in two methods:
1. Natural insemination
2. Artificial insemination
Natural insemination- Getting to a bull to sexually intercourse with a cow which shows heat
signs.
Artificial insemination - Depositing the semen produced by a selected stud bull with
advanced features through certain techniques after examining it. The semen is deposited in
the vagina (the end of the cervix) of a cow which shows heat signs.
2.Assessment of sperm
● Sperm samples are subjected to visual and microscopic observation.
● Visual observations- sperm colour, viscosity, volume, pH
● Microscopic observations- sperm mobility sperm concentration,abnormal sperm
percentage, dead and live sperm percentage and bacteria infections etc.
● Dilution and addition of preservatives
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
● Egg yolk citrate (Egg yolk and 2.9 % sodium citrate medium)
● Egg yolk phosphate
● Milk media
Sperm transportation
Strong containers that can maintain low temperatures should be used in sperm
transportation.
Damages caused to defreezed sperms transportation could be avoided by using containers
with liquid nitrogen .
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Insemination of cattle
1. First the external sexual organs of the animal on oestrous should be cleaned and
dried.
2. One hand is entered into the anus and the cervix situated at the inner end of the
vagina is touched.
3. After that, the sperms are deposited on the cervix by entering the pippette containing
sperms by the other hand.
4. Underscore the fact that the service of a professional versed in inseminating animals
is required for this.
Disadvantages
● Animals with an unsuitable heridity could be widely used for artificial insemination
when there's no proper selection method.
● Producers might not be able to select an animal suitable for their requirements.
● In-breeding could be increased due to the use of a small number of animals.
● A large amount of capital and proper organization is required to provide aftificial
insemination services.
● Professional technicians are essential .
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Cows which do not show heat signs 21-42 days after insemination are known as ''pregnant
cows''.
The gestation period of a dairy cow is 274 ± 10 days.
Importance of paying a attention to the dairy cows during their gestation period.
● To avoid slipping and congestion of cows in cattle houses and grasslands.
● To prevent infections from other animals.
● Gestation is a period when cows are more susceptible to metabolic disorders such as
hypocalcemia (milk fever), ketosis, and fatty liver. These conditions can have serious
consequences for the cow's health and subsequent milk production. Adequate nutrition
and management strategies can help prevent these disorders.
Importance of drying.
It makes possible the storing of nutrients essential for the growing embryo and the next lactation
period and also the repair of worn out tissues in the udder.
At this time grass should be provided while concentrates should be provided 10% more than the
usual quantity.
Water should be provided in sufficient quantity less.
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
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A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
Gestation period is 280 days and at the end of those 280 days, the pregnant cow gives
birth to a calf. This is called parturition.
Fact that from parturition symptoms it can be identified that the pregnent cow is about
to give birth to the calf.
20
A.M.Chamodi Thilanka Pilimathalawwa
BSc. (Hon) Agriculture, WUSL
● Washing the backside and the udder of the cow with soap
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