Wildlife Ped i at r i c s

Ernesto Dominguez-Villegas, DVM, DACVPM, CWR

KEYWORDS
 Pediatrics  Wildlife  Orphan  Rehabilitation  Hand-rearing  Nutrition  Release

KEY POINTS
 Neonate wildlife medicine follows the same principles for all other species.
 Hydration, heat support, and adequate nutrition are critical during the initial care of
neonate wildlife.
 Some specific knowledge of the ecology, biology, and specific problems encountered by
the various species is necessary, to provide adequate care to wildlife.
 Drug use in wild animals is considered extra-label and as such drug residues are a poten-
tial public health risk.
 The goal of wildlife neonate medicine is to provide temporary care, husbandry, and nutri-
tion, to restore the health of the individuals to be released back into the wild.

INTRODUCTION

It has been estimated that tens of thousands of wild animals are injured attributable to
human causes daily on the United States.1 In spring and summer months, wildlife res-
cuers will experience an increase in calls, most of which will involve young animals. A
young wild animal stands a greater chance of surviving as an adult and leading a
normal life if raised by a wild parent. From wild parents, young learn where to forage
and hunt, what to eat, what to be afraid of, and where to find shelter. By growing up in
the wild, they will also acquire valuable and necessary social skills.1
Several misconceptions about wildlife often lead to unnecessary human intervention
or disturbance. For example, handling wildlife expands on the myth that infant animals
will be immediately abandoned by their parents once touched by humans. Although it is
true that wild infants should not be handled more than is necessary, casual handling of a
baby will not result in parental abandonment. Wildlife displays a high degree of fidelity to
their offspring, sometimes to the extreme of aggressive defense. Certain species, such
as Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus
virginianus), have a distinct strategy of distant parental attention. This method keeps
adults distant so as not to attract attention to the concealed rabbit nest or the cryptic
coloration of a young fawn during daylight hours. Often the public views infrequent
nest visitation of Eastern cottontails as nest abandonment or neglect when the nest,

Southwest Virginia Wildlife Center, 5985 Coleman Road, Roanoke, VA 24018, USA
E-mail address: [email protected]

Vet Clin Exot Anim - (2023) -–-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvex.2023.11.014 vetexotic.theclinics.com
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2 Dominguez-Villegas

in fact, is being properly attended by the mother. If nests in groomed yards are uncov-
ered by mowing or other activities, most infants can be successfully renested by place-
ment in the same area, covering the nest with natural vegetation and keeping domestic
pets restrained. Second, there is the misconception that human rearing of wild infants is
an acceptable alternative to parent animals raising its own offspring. Humans make very
inadequate surrogate parents for wild infants despite their ability to properly nourish
them. There is far more parental investment in young than merely feeding. Species
recognition, sibling interaction and rivalry, and learning wild food sources are only a
few of the critical skills necessary for successful survival. Artificial hand-rearing should
only be attempted when every possible attempt to return the wild infant to its proper par-
ents has been exhausted. In the process of hand-rearing, wild infants often become
habituated to the presence of humans and domestic pets. These young lose their nat-
ural protective survival skills, one of which is aversive fear of humans. Birds are known to
experience a process termed imprinting, where during a specific critical time period
they fix their species recognition and future social and courtship behaviors on the
largest object in their immediate area. In addition, male white-tailed deer raised in the
presence of humans have been known to seek human sparring partners during the
fall rutting season, leading to human fatalities.2
Human–wildlife conflict are difficult to measure, but the analysis of records from
wildlife rehabilitation facilities has shown potential as a technique for characterizing
human impacts on wildlife.3
Juvenile animals feature heavily in admissions to wildlife centers.4 The International
Wildlife Rehabilitation Council defines wildlife rehabilitation as the “treatment and tem-
porary care of injured, diseased, orphan, and displaced indigenous animals, and the
subsequent release of healthy animals to appropriate habitats in the wild.”5
In wildlife rehabilitation, it is necessary to be able to determine what kind of care is
needed to restore a wild patient to good health and for return to the wild, not just to
save its life. It is also critical to realistically assess and understand who has the training
and resources to provide what level of care. An awareness of both the kind of care that
is required and the capacity of available care providers is essential in the realistic
triage of patients and development of a treatment plan that is workable in a wildlife
rehabilitation setting. A good working relationship between the veterinarian and the
cooperating wildlife rehabilitators will greatly improve decision-making and increase
the potential for successful outcome for wild patients.6
The process of rehabilitation is inherently stressful for wildlife, and maintaining the in-
dividual animal’s welfare at the center of the rehabilitation process requires deliberate,
timely, and humane decision-making. The welfare of wild animals can be improved by
preventing human-related causes of admission, providing much-needed resources
and support for those animals in rehabilitation, further developing evidence-based wild-
life rehabilitation methods and welfare measures, increasing engagement of the veter-
inary profession, harmonizing regulatory oversight with standards of care, training, and
accountability, and raising public awareness regarding the steps that can be taken to
mitigate the number of wild animals in need of rehabilitation.6,7
Some veterinarians will allow clients, members of the public, local animal control officers,
animal welfare organizations, or the wildlife rehabilitators themselves to drop off wild ani-
mal patients needing care so they can be seen when time permits throughout the day.
Veterinary first aid provision during triage follows the same basic principles as do-
mestic species. Where treatment is carried out, it is essential that the long-term future
of the casualty animal is continually considered where release remains the only goal.
Some specific knowledge of the ecology, biology, and specific problems encountered
by the various species is necessary.4
 Wildlife Pediatrics 3

In most states and provinces, there are wildlife-specific guidelines, requirements,

and prohibitions related to the captive care of wild species, including housing require-
ments for specific animal groups, prohibition of exposure of wild patients to domestic
animals or the public, and certain occupational health and safety requirements, espe-
cially related to zoonotic diseases, such as rabies. Veterinarians should be aware of
the local, state, and/or national/federal laws that are required to provide care for wild-
life animals, including juvenile animals.

LEGAL ASPECTS OF TREATING WILDLIFE

In virtually all instances, licensed veterinarians can lawfully admit and treat a wild animal
that requires medical attention.5,6,8–10 However, once an animal has been medically
treated and stabilized, further steps should be taken to transfer the animal to a licensed
or permitted wildlife rehabilitation facility. Regulations may vary around the world, but in
the United States, every state has its own set of regulations that govern the wildlife
native to that state, but all contain a general provision that prohibits the temporary or
permanent possession of almost all species of native wild animals. As mentioned
earlier, most state wildlife rehabilitation regulations are silent on any prohibition of a
veterinarian rendering immediate, emergency medical assistance to a wild animal in
need. Some public health or wildlife agencies have reporting and surveillance require-
ments for cases of various diseases observed or suspected. Those of public health
importance may include rabies, plague, tularemia, or hantavirus, and state wildlife
agencies may request information on cases of parvovirus, white-nose syndrome,
West Nile virus, highly pathogenic influenza virus, and Newcastle’s disease virus. Those
agencies should be contacted in advance for their reporting, and surveillance require-
ments and the information should be maintained in a readily accessible location.8–13
Veterinary practitioners should report injuries caused by illegal activities such as gun-
shot wounds to nongame species to local, state, or federal wildlife authorities.12
Drug use in wild animals is considered extra-label and as such is regulated by the
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) through the Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarifica-
tion Act. This act is divided into food-producing animals and non-food-producing an-
imals. Drug residues in game animals are a potential public health risk to those who
consume the meat. Game animals are defined by the FDA as “an animal, the products
of which are food that is not classified as livestock, sheep, swine, goat, horse, mule or
other equine, or as poultry or fish.” Game animals include mammals such as deer, an-
telope, rabbit, squirrel, opossum, raccoon, nutria, or muskrat and nonaquatic reptiles
such as land snakes. The FDA classifies wild game birds as “poultry” and includes
“migratory waterfowl or game birds, pheasant, partridge, quail, grouse, or pigeon.”
Practitioners need to be aware of potential meat withdrawal times (ie, the time be-
tween drug administration and when the meat can safely be consumed by a human)
when administering drugs to game species during or just before established hunting
and trapping seasons. There are very few established withdrawal times for wildlife,
and practitioners should check the Food Animal Residue Avoidance Database for
guidance on drug administration in game species that could be consumed.12

GENERAL CARE OF ORPHANED WILDLIFE

Orphaned neonatal wildlife accounts for one of the largest causes of admissions to
wildlife rehabilitation centers and highlights an opportunity for conservation education
regarding when wildlife is truly orphaned and requires professional intervention.3
All presentations of orphaned wildlife should be considered emergencies. Juvenile
animals have limited fluid and energy stores, and after a short period of time (ie, hours),
4 Dominguez-Villegas

they may develop negative energy balance and dehydration.10 Veterinary care during
the admission and triage of orphaned wildlife follows the same basic principles as that
of domestic species. Where treatment is carried out, it is essential that the long-term
future of the casualty animal is continually considered where release remains the ulti-
mate goal. Specific knowledge of the ecology, biology, and specific problems encoun-
tered by the various species is necessary.4,14,15
A good working relationship between the veterinarian and the cooperating wildlife
rehabilitators will greatly improve decision-making and increase the potential for a
successful outcome for wild patients.6 Veterinary practices are usually unsuitable pla-
ces to hand raise young wild animals. Many species require frequent feeding over
much of each 24-hour period, as often as every 20 minutes in some species, which
may be a strain on clinic staffing.16
The most important assessment is to determine if the young animal is truly
orphaned. Well-intentioned individuals may assume an animal is orphaned when it
is not. If uninjured, chicks may be returned to nests and young mammals reunited
with their parents. To reduce the number of unnecessary admissions into human
care, veterinarians and wildlife rehabilitators should actively attempt to reunite wild
healthy offspring with their parents.10,16
Restraint and handling procedures are stressful for wildlife. Before handling any
wildlife, one should set out a clear checklist of procedures that need to be performed
on the animal, as well as all equipment or medications that are needed.17
Hydration, temperature and heat support, and adequate nutrition are critical during
the initial care of neonate wildlife. Neonates are usually hypothermic and unable to
thermoregulate on arrival. Generally, the younger the animal, the more supplemental
heat must be provided, and as the animal matures, less supplemental heat is needed.
Infants should be warmed to normal body temperature before completing the physical
examination, administering fluids, or feeding.1,10,12,13,16–20 Assume most wildlife pa-
tients are 10% dehydrated on admission. Once infants are at normal body tempera-
ture, weigh them, and administer warm fluids to correct hydration deficits. Routes
of administration include oral (PO), subcutaneous (SC), intraosseous (IO), and intrave-
nous (IV). Maintaining humidity at 50% to 70% in housing helps prevent ongoing
dehydration.10,12,16,17
On admission, neonatal mammals and precocial birds are frequently hypoglycemic.
Young animals have higher glucose requirements than do most adults of their species.
This increased requirement is a result of the high level of energy needed for maintaining
metabolic function, growth, and normal blood glucose levels. Once the infant is warmed
and well-hydrated, appropriate species-specific diets may be fed. Neonates of most spe-
cies have a stomach or crop capacity of w50 mL/kg. Often the first few feedings of or-
phans are slow. Aspiration often occurs as a result of poor feeding techniques.10,12,16,17
Aspiration pneumonia is a common reason for fatality in orphaned animals.12
Provide analgesia and anti-inflammatory medications if needed. Determine appro-
priate housing. The main goals are safety and to reduce stress on the animal by pre-
venting noise and visual stimulation. In general, minimize contact to people and
domestic animals.10,12,16,17,21

ORPHANED WILD BIRDS

There are two types of neonatal birds: altricial or precocial (Fig. 1). Most species are
altricial; that is, species hatched with few or no feathers, with their eyes closed and
entirely dependent on their parents for food and warmth. Conversely, precocial
 Wildlife Pediatrics 5

Fig. 1. Comparison between an altricial bird (left) and a precocial one (right).

species hatch with a good coat of down feathers and an ability to leave the nest imme-
diately and follow its parents.10,13,16,22
Correct identification of neonate birds can be difficult and challenging, when the
general practitioner does not work with wild bird species frequently (Fig. 2).16,23–25
Several resources are available which can aid on the identification on neonatal birds
such as https://sites.tufts.edu/babybirds/.26 It is challenging to provide a comprehen-
sive account of avian neonatology, because significant differences exist between the
medical conditions that altricial and precocial species are susceptible to. In addition,
great variations are found in the husbandry and rearing methods for the different avian
groups.22
Newly arrived altricial chicks that are too young or too debilitated to stand must be
supplied with a comfortable nest (Fig. 3). Precocial young can be housed in boxes or
plastic containers like those for adults.10,13,16,22,25 Generally, orphaned chicks should
be kept in a temperature between 85 and 95 F (29 and 35 C). Ultimately, the tem-
perature selected should be based on the age and plumage of the animal. In general,
the highest temperatures are reserved for the hatchlings, moderate temperatures for
the nestlings, and lowest for the fledglings.10,13,15,22,25,27–29
Neonate birds should be weighed daily.10,13,16,22 Nutritional requirements of wild
species are not well known and are usually extrapolated from domestic spe-
cies.10,13,16,22 Avoid physical contact during the feedings whenever possible. Hatch-
ling birds are prone to imprint. Feeding the birds using a surrogate (eg, puppet
look-a-like) or by hiding behind a blanket or towel will ensure the animal does not
imprint onto humans. Placing a mirror in front of the animal so that its own reflection
is the only animal it can see may also be done. Feeding intervals for birds should be
consistent to promote regular gastrointestinal transit times. Comfortable, well-hydrat-
ed chicks will rest quietly in the nest between meals, eat enthusiastically when food is
offered, feel warm and fleshy to the touch, and produce well-formed droppings
approximately as often as fed.10,13,15,22,25,27–29
The most common medical conditions in orphaned birds are:10,16
 Hypothermia
 Dehydration
 Hypoglycemia
 Internal and external parasites
 Metabolic bone disease
 Other skeletal disorders
 Wounds and fractures
 Aspiration pneumonia
 Crop stasis
 Accidental crop burns
6 Dominguez-Villegas

Fig. 2. Nestling Eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis), which is commonly mistaken for American
robins (Turdus migratorius).

Physical Examination
Once warm and stable, each chick should receive a physical examination. Examina-
tions should be performed in a systematic manner to avoid missing injuries or medical
problems. Always be gentle.
A visual examination of the chick’s attitude, posture, droppings, signs of bleeding,
ectoparasites, and feeding response can be performed when the chick arrives in the
container. Determine if the animal is altricial or precocial, try to identify the species,
and evaluate if the eyes are opened or closed. Continue your examination in a system-
atic manner, to look for symmetry, wounds, evidence of hemorrhage or hematomas,
musculoskeletal abnormalities, feather condition, if the crop and ventriculus are full
or empty, and the conformation and integrity of the beak.16,23,30

Fig. 3. Red-headed woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) in a clean nest.

 Wildlife Pediatrics 7

Treatments
As mentioned before, the three most important aspects of the care and treatment of
orphaned chicks are to provide heat, keep them hydrated, and provide of adequate
nutrition.
Rehydration can be achieved orally or through SC routes. Human infant electrolyte
formulas, lactated Ringer’s solution, or Plasma-Lyte A are the author’s preferred
rehydrating solutions. The total amount of fluids should be divided and administered
several times a day. Although the average chick needs 50 mL/kg/day, small passer-
ines may need up to 300 mL/kg/day.16,23–25,28,29,31–33 Altricial birds that are gaping
can be orally hydrated until they defecate and urinate (Fig. 4). In larger birds, oral fluids
can be administered by a gavage tube. If the oral route is not feasible or the bird is
severely dehydrated, administer fluids two to three times a day.16,23–25,28,29,31–33
To treat for internal and external parasites, a herd or flock approach is preferred
versus an individual approach. The development of flock treatment plans should be
based on identification of the bird species and which parasites are commonly a prob-
lem for that species.16 Fecal flotation and centrifugation techniques are quick and ac-
curate to identify most gastrointestinal parasites. Empirical antiparasitic treatment is
recommended if any clinical signs consistent with parasitic diseases (diarrhea,
reduced average weight gain, and continuous dehydration).
Metabolic bone disease develops quickly in wild orphans fed inadequate diets, as
fast as a few days in rapidly growing species, and it is usually due to inadequate di-
etary calcium and phosphorus. Growing chicks require a dietary ratio of elemental cal-
cium to phosphorus of w2:1 by weight. Fractured limbs must be considered life-
threatening in wild chicks because they need to have fully functional limbs to qualify
for release. Advanced metabolic bone disease may be fatal or require euthanasia.
Treatment involves feeding an appropriately nutritious diet in adequate amounts
and frequency, providing supplemental calcium, exposing the animal to natural sun-
light, and maintaining adequate hydration.16,23,28,29 Owing to its low calcium concen-
tration, using calcium glubionate to correct dietary calcium requires unrealistically
large volumes to be fed. Calcium carbonate is a better alternative, as it provides
w400 mg elemental calcium per gram.16
Wounds should be cleaned, debrided, and closed primarily whenever possible.
Analgesia is always warranted before treatment. Judicious use of antibiotics should
be considered. The same principles of wound management in adult animals can be
applied to wounded wild chicks.1,10,16–18,20,23,25,27–29,31–41

Fig. 4. Oral hydration of a nestling American robin (Turdus migratorius) with a 1 mL syringe.
8 Dominguez-Villegas

Nutrition and Suggested Diets

High animal protein, moderate fat, and low-carbohydrate diets are adequate for most
altricial birds, with some exceptions. Vitamins A, D, and E, calcium, and taurine are
likely deficient in almost all insect diets. Several commercial products intended for
raising parrots are inadequate for wild altricial chicks.14,16,24
Offer fledglings ample wild-type diet in a visually engaging presentation as soon as
they are old enough to stand and move about their enclosure.
Songbirds, swifts, and woodpeckers have high growth rates. Chicks generally eat
50 mL/kg per meal and should be fed repeatedly over the course of 12 to 14 hours
each day. Hatchlings should be fed every 15 to 30 minutes, nestlings every 20 to 45 mi-
nutes and older birds every hour until weaned. The latter species and corvids should
show strong feeding reflex and stop gaping when full (Fig. 5).16,23,24 Overfeeding may
cause crop distension with poor motility, yeast or bacterial overgrowth, and diarrhea.
Feeding down the esophagus or crop is safer than just offering food cranial to the
oropharynx. Chicks cannot breathe and are at risk of aspiration when the oral cavity
is full of food.14,16,23–25,28,34 Feed hatchlings a more dilute diet and fledglings a thicker
diet. Always clean birds during and after feeding.10
Hummingbird hatchlings may weigh as little as 0.25 g and must be fed every 10 to
20 minutes. Feeding hummingbird chicks commercial hummingbird nectars or sugar
water rapidly leads to malnutrition.16 In the author’s experience, a supportive diet for
hummingbird chicks can be prepared by diluting 5 to 7 g of Nektar-Plus (Nekton USA,
Arcata, CA) and 1 to 2 g of whey protein powder in 50 mL of distilled water. Administer
food when the bird is accepting it, verifying the crop’s size, and stop delivering food
when the crop feels full.
Pelican and cormorant chicks imprint on humans easily. These species should al-
ways be fed with puppets simulating the parents and conversation should not be
held around the chicks. Chicks may pick food up from the floor or may require feeding
pieces of fish with hemostats or tongs. Train the chick to learn to eat from a dish as
early as possible. Thiamine and vitamin E supplementation is critical in these
species.23,32
For raptors, follow the same imprinting guidelines as for pelicans, using puppets for
each feeding or methods to disguise the human face and body. Hatchlings and

Fig. 5. Nestling birds gaping for food.

 Wildlife Pediatrics 9

nestlings must be fed with long forceps or tongs. When very young, they may require a
meal every 2 to 3 hours.28,29
Precocial species, if weak or stressed, might need to be stimulated to feed or to be
force fed. Once warm, hydrated, and safe, most species will eat on their own. Correct
species identification is needed as some species may require different foods (eg, live
prey) and protein levels during growth.16,25
In general, waterfowl have nutrient requirements different from other poultry spe-
cies, specifically an increased need for the B vitamins such as niacin, choline, and
biotin.16,25 One commercially available diet specifically designed for wild waterfowl
is commercially available (Mazuri, St Louis, MO, USA).
Pigeons and doves receive crop milk from their parents, and it is the primary food for
around 10 days. The composition of crop milk is like that found in mammals but lacks
carbohydrates; it contains water, fat, protein, and ash. Some formulas to mimic crop
milk have been reported, including mixing one hard-boiled egg yolk (mashed), 3 table-
spoons of mixed baby multi-cereal, 3 tablespoons of powdered oatmeal, and 3 table-
spoons of cornmeal.10

ORPHANED WILD MAMMALS

When found, injured, sick, or orphaned neonates are commonly dehydrated, hypo-
thermic, and hypoglycemic. All infant mammals should be warmed to their normal
temperature, before administering anything through the oral route. Orphaned mam-
mals that are dehydrated or hypothermic will reduce their caloric intake.
All orphaned mammals should be provided an enclosure that is dry and warm and
has appropriate nesting material. Excessive humidity often leads to the development
of severe dermatitis.1,2,4,10,12,16–20,30,33,35,38,42 Orphaned mammals do not need to be
bathed or washed. All feeding utensils should be cleaned or disinfected before being
used to limit the transfer of infectious diseases between patients. Orphans should be
weighed daily, and their diet modified if necessary.
Each species of mammal produces its own specific milk. It is impossible to replicate
these milks, but substitutes can be made up. Marsupial milk contains almost no
lactose, whereas in Eutherian species, lactose is the predominant
saccharide.10,14,16,30,43–52
Generally, once infant mammals are warm and hydrated, nutrition should start.
Gradual introduction of milk replacement formulas causes fewer gastrointestinal prob-
lems. A common practice is to follow these steps.
 Oral electrolytes and hydration on the first two feeds
 The third feed should be 75% oral electrolytes and 25% milk substitute
 The following feed 50% electrolyte and 50% milk replacer;
 The fifth feed 25% electrolytes and 75% milk substitute
 Finally, 100% of the ideal milk replacer for the species.
Administering oral electrolytes and milk replacement formulas can be chal-
lenging and there is always a risk of aspiration pneumonia. The use of small sy-
ringes and nipples makes it easier to control the flow of fluid (Fig. 6). Some
species benefit more from being gavage by orogastric tube, instead of syringe
or bottle fed.
Newborns will have to be fed as often as every 3 to 4 hours to get the nutrition and
calories they need.30,44,48–50,52 Infants should be fed in the prone position, stomach
down, with the chin raised so that the face is forward (Fig. 7). After each feeding, all
mammals that still have closed eyes should be stimulated to urinate and defecate.
10 Dominguez-Villegas

Fig. 6. Small syringe and small nipple or tip to feed small mammals.

Fecal and urinary output of each orphan should be monitored closely and at each
feeding. A reduction in output may suggest dehydration or decreased gastrointestinal
transit.
Common medical problems include:
 Hypothermia
 Dehydration
 Hypoglycemia
 Omphalitis, which should be treated locally and/or systemically as necessary
 Wounds and fractures

Fig. 7. Infant Eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) being fed in prone position, stom-
ach down, with the chin raised so that the face is forward.
 Wildlife Pediatrics 11

 External and internal parasites

 Septicemia, commonly caused by Escherichia coli, Clostridium spp, Salmonella
spp, and Pasteurella spp
 Digestive disorders
 Aspiration pneumonia
 Metabolic bone disease.

Rodents and Lagomorphs

The mortality rate for young rodents is high, especially for smaller species such as
mice, rats, and squirrels. Owing to their higher metabolism, rodents and lagomorphs
require higher fluid and caloric rates compared with any other mammals. If dehy-
drated, the use of warm SC fluids at a rate of 60 to 100 mL/kg/day is indicated. If hy-
drated, start oral electrolytes at 4% of body weight.
Squirrels open their eyes between 4 and 5 weeks of age, and at that point, they can
urinate and defecate without stimulation. Milk replacement formulas with 16% protein
and 20% fat are optimal for individuals less than 50 g. Formulas with 10% protein and
25% fat are a reasonable option for squirrels more than 50 g. Feed 5% body weight
per feed initially, gradually increasing the amount as the squirrel grows. At 100 g,
feed about 7% body weight per feeding.16,47,51,53,54 A suggested feeding schedule
for three different species of squirrels is shown in Tables 1–3.
Eastern cottontail rabbits that are furred, with eyes open, ears erect and greater
than 5 inches (12.7 cm) long are likely old enough to survive on their own.16,55,56 Ne-
onates range from 15 to 25 g have no fur and tightly closed eyes and ears. By days 4 to
7, fur starts to develop, and the young are about 3 to 4 inches (7.6–10.1 cm) in length
and weight 25 to 35 g. By 7 to 10 days, the eyes and ears usually start to open, weights
range from 35 to 40 g, and the young are fully furred.
Rabbit mothers feed their infants only two to three times in a 24-hour period. The
infants hide in the nest and are left alone for the rest of the day. This feeding schedule
should be replicated in wildlife rehabilitation settings.13,16 The stomach capacity of an
infant rabbit is greater than that of most mammals of comparable size. When calcu-
lating formula amounts, use 8% to 10% of their body weight. There is much debate
about the best formula to feed orphaned juvenile cottontail rabbits. In general, for-
mulas with 30% to 40% protein and more than 40% fat are recommended.56 Infant
cottontails require stimulation of the anogenital region to urinate and defecate. Young

Table 1
Feeding schedule for Eastern gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis) based on age and weight

Feedings
Age Estimated Weights Amount per Feeding in mL per day
0–1 wk 15–35 g ½–1 61
2 wk 36–55 g 2–2 ½ 5
3 wk 56–78 g 3–5 4
4 wk 79–106 g 6–7 (begin mush bowl and soft snacks) 3
5 wk 107–125 g 8–10 3
6 wk 126–144 g 10–12 (introduce small dish of water) 2
7 wk 145–175 g 10–12 1
8 wk 176–199 g Mush bowl and post-wean diet 0

Adapted from Southwest Virginia Wildlife Center.

12 Dominguez-Villegas

Table 2
Feeding schedule for fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) based on age and weight

Amount per Feeding

Age Estimated Weights Feeding in mL per day
0–1 wk 18–35 g ½–2 6
2 wk 40–60 g 2–4 5
3 wk 60–90 g 4–6 5
4 wk 105–140 g 8–10 4
5 wk 140–165 g 9–12 3
6 wk 170–200 g 12–15 3
7 wk 210–250 g 15–18 (begin mush bowl 3
and soft snacks)
8 wk 220–290 g 18 (add natural foods) 2
9–10 wk release at 12– 300–500 g 18–20 1 wean
14 wk by 10 wk

Adapted from Southwest Virginia Wildlife Center.

rabbits may start to eat vegetation as early as day 10 and are usually weaned by about
day 15. A suggested feeding schedule for rabbits is shown in Table 4.

Marsupials
Infants weighing less than 30 g have a poor prognosis and should be euthanized,
particularly if they are cold to the touch when presented or with a history of being
attached to a dead jill. Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) longer than 6 inches
(15 cm) (not including the tail) are likely old enough to survive on their own.16,57 Hous-
ing juvenile opossums must take into consideration the unique environment the
mother’s pouch would normally provide. Opossums are generally orphaned in groups
and should be kept together for comfort and warmth.57
Opossum infants do not have the same suckling reflex that most mammals have,
nor do they possess the oral or extremity musculature to hold a teat. They are normally
attached to their mother’s teat constantly during the nursing period of several months.
The teat is long and thin and may reach the neonate’s stomach.13 Orogastric gavage is
the most recommended technique to feed opossums (Fig. 8).

Table 3
Feeding schedule for flying squirrels (Glaucomys spp.) based on age and weight

Feeding
Age Estimated Weights Amount per Feeding in mL per day
1
0–1 wk 6–8 g /4–½ 6
2 wk 9–12 g ½–3/4 5
3
3 wk 13–15 g /4–1 4
4 wk 16–20 g 1–2 (begin mush bowl and soft snacks) 3
5 wk 21–26 g 2–2 ½ (introduce small dish of water) 2
6 wk 27–35 g 2½ 3 1
7 wk 36–46g Mush bowl and post-wean diet. 0
8 wk 47–51 g FULLY WEANED NONE

Adapted from Southwest Virginia Wildlife Center.

 Wildlife Pediatrics 13

Table 4
Feeding schedule for Eastern cotton tails (Sylvilagus floridanus) based on age and weight

Estimated Feedings
Age in d Weights Amount of Formula per Feeding per day
0–8 25–59 g 10% body weight (BW) 2
9–10 60–65 g 10% BW 2
11–14 66–70 g 10% BW 2
15–18 71–85 g 10% BW (offer fresh tender greens and hay) 1
19–20 86–95 g 5% BW (offer fresh tender greens and hay) 1
21–23 96–100 g Just offer fresh greens, hay, and rabbit pellet food 0
24 >105 g Ready for release 0

Adapted from Southwest Virginia Wildlife Center.

Milk replacer formulas with 25% to 30% of protein and 30% to 40% fat are
adequate for hand raising opossums. Weaning occurs around 95 days of age.43,57
The proposed feeding schedule is shown in Table 5.
Opossums are nocturnal, so they are very efficient at producing endogenous
vitamin D without exposure to sunlight and require little UVB light or vitamin D supple-
mentation. However, they are susceptible to nutritional secondary hyperparathyroid-
ism if fed a diet with an inappropriate calcium:phosporus (Ca:P) ratio. Internal and
external parasites can often be a serious problem.
Pyrantel (10 mg/kg) is a safe empirical choice for a dewormer. Fleas are often a
serious problem, causing life-threatening anemia in older haired babies. Selamectin
(6–10 mg/kg) is safe for haired babies more than 50 g and is often used prophylacti-
cally on initial presentation. A common syndrome in young opossums is dermal septic
necrosis, also known as “crispy-ear syndrome.” Amoxicillin-clavulanic acid is a good
empirical choice to treat this condition.57

Raccoons and Skunks

Always wear personal protective equipment when handling racoons and skunks.
These species are common hosts for rabies virus and Baylisascaris procyonis. People

Fig. 8. Infant Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) being tube fed with orogastric tube.
14 Dominguez-Villegas

Table 5
Feeding schedule for Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) based on weight

Estimated Weights Amount per Feeding in mL Feeding per day

21–30 g 1 5
31–40 g 1 1/4 1 3/4 4
41–54 g 1 1/4 2 (begin to offer mush bowl) 3
55–74 g 2 ½–3 ½ cc (add soft foods and dish of water) 2
75–100 g 4–5 (introduce small mouse pieces) 1
101–200 g Juvenile meal (see menu) and a mouse. NONE

Adapted from Southwest Virginia Wildlife Center.

working with raccoons should have rabies preexposure inoculations and biennial titer
checks.
Newborns weigh 60 to 75 g with eyes and ears sealed. Young raccoons and skunks
may be bottle-fed or fed via orogastric tube. Feed 5% by volume of body weight. Milk
replacer formulas with 40% of protein and 25% fat are adequate for hand raising ra-
coons and skunks.16,58 Neonates should start to defecate and urinate without stimu-
lation at 4 to 6 weeks of age. To prevent future wildlife human conflicts, preventing
imprinting in these species is of high importance.

Mustelids
Infant mustelids are born with eyes and ears closed, covered with a very fine hair coat,
and are totally dependent on their mother for care. Several commercial formulas are
available and have been used successfully. Fox Valley Animal Nutrition, Inc (Lake Zur-
ich, IL, USA) and Zoologic Milk Matrix (PetAg, Hampshire, IL, USA) offer several milk
replacer formulas that can be adapted to the specific needs of the species. The esti-
mated gastric capacity is 5% to 7% of body weight.
The following feeding schedule can be used for North American river otters (Lontra
canadensis):59
 0 to 2 weeks: feed every 2 to 3 hours (including overnight)
 3 to 4 weeks: feed 5 to 6 times per day, every 3 hours (no overnight feeds)
 5 to 6 weeks: feed 5 times per day, every 3 to 4 hours
 7 to 8 weeks: feed 4 to 5 times per day, every 4 hours (introduce fish)
 9 to 10 weeks: feed 4 times per day (decreasing formula with weaning).

Carnivores
Young wild canids should never be raised alone; they are highly social and it is essen-
tial that they are raised with conspecifics. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) kits weigh about 85
to 110 g at birth and measure 6 to 8 inches (15–20 cm) in length. Pups are weaned at
about 5 weeks of age, and the food provided should replicate what is available in the
wild.60
Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) kits are altricial and average 85 g at birth with a
body length of 3 to 5 inches (7–13 cm). At birth, the neonates do not seem foxlike. Gray
fox pups are weaned at 7 to 8 weeks of age when they weigh on average 1 kg.
Newborn coyotes (Canis latrans) weigh approximately 300 to 350 g. By 4 weeks of
age, after weaning has occurred, the social hierarchy has been established.
 Wildlife Pediatrics 15

Fig. 9. Comparison between a dehydrated bat pup and one euhydrated.

The ability of pups and kits to swallow does not fully develop until about 3 weeks of
age. Foxes and coyotes should be fed around 5% of their body weight every
4 hours.60,61
Before working with wild bears, veterinarians should ensure that state laws permit
veterinary care and rehabilitation.62–65 Black bears have one to six cubs (average 2–
3) weighing approximately 200 to 450 g are born in January or early February. The
eyes are initially closed and open around day 25. The cubs emerge from the den in
April or May when the cubs weigh approximately 2 to 5 kg. Bear milk contains high
concentrations of protein, fat, and minerals but low concentrations of carbohydrates.
Milk from American black bears (Ursus americanus) consist of approximately 44.5%
total solids, 24.5% fat, 0.4% lactose, 8.8% casein, 5.7% whey protein, 1.8% ash,
0.41% calcium, and 0.28% phosphorus.63–67 Following rehydration, some bear care
facilities choose to start feeding full-strength formula, whereas others gradually in-
crease the percentage of formula to rehydrating solution in stepwise daily increments.
The volume of food delivered at each meal is approximately 10% of the bear’s body
weight divided into 2 to 6 feedings per day.

Bats
Always wear personal protective equipment when handling bats. They are hosts for
rabies virus. Bat pups are born during the summer and are quite large in relation to
the adult (as much as 30%–40% of the mother’s body weight). Most species are
born naked with closed eyes. Eyes generally open within days after birth. Hypothermia
and dehydration are quite common in orphaned pups and should be addressed imme-
diately (Fig. 9).68 Once the pup is warm to the touch, it may be hydrated with electro-
lytes using SC or oral routes, depending on the degree of dehydration. A small-tipped
cannula or plastic catheter tip on a 1 mL feeding syringe can facilitate oral feedings for
mildly dehydrated neonates. After rehydrating, food may be introduced via a commer-
cial milk replacer such as Esbilac (Pet-Ag, Inc, Hampshire, IL 60140), KMR (Pet-Ag,
Inc), or Fox Valley 32/40 (Fox Valley Animal Nutrition, Inc, Lakemoor, IL 60051). Neo-
nates can succumb quickly to aspiration pneumonia. Care must be taken to prevent
aspiration during feedings.

Cervids
Birth weight of white-tailed deer averages between 2.5 and 4.0 kg (5.5–17.6 lbs.).
Fawns triple their weight in their first month of life and are weaned between 8 and
12 weeks of age. Their spotted hair coat remains until autumn when their first molt
occurs.69
Fawns readily imprint on caregivers and inappropriate interactions may impact their
chances for release. Fawns should be raised in groups with minimal human contact.16
16 Dominguez-Villegas

Table 6
Feeding schedule for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) based on weight

Amount per Feeding

Age Estimated Weights Feeding in Oz per day
0–1 wk 0.45–1.36 kg 12 oz AM 3
8 oz noon
12 oz PM
1–2 wk 1.36–4.54 kg 12 oz 2
3–5 wk 4.54–6.81 kg 16 oz 2
6–7 wk 6.81–9.09 kg 16 oz AM 2
12 oz PM

Adapted from Southwest Virginia Wildlife Center.

Mildly dehydrated fawns should get 30 to 50 mL/kg SC on admission. If moderately to

severely dehydrated, place an IV catheter and give 90 mL/kg/day IV.16,69
Newborn to 2-day-old fawns require colostrum for the first 24 to 48 hours. Commer-
cial goat colostrum formulas are a replacement option. Milk replacement formulas that
have a content of 30% protein and 40% fat, or goat and lamb’s milk, are adequate for
most cervids. Fawns may be fed by hand initially but as soon as they are suckling
consistently, the bottles should be offered in a rack feeder. A proposed feeding
schedule is shown in Table 6. Fawns will require stimulation to urinate and defecate
until at least 16 days of age.
Neonatal cervids are susceptible to hypoglycemia, which can be secondary to diar-
rhea, sepsis, or malnutrition. Treatment for hypoglycemia is recommended when
blood glucose levels are less than 3.3 mmol/L (60 mg/dL) in white-tailed deer or
black-tailed or mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus).69

SUMMARY

The principles of triage, evaluation, and care of neonate wildlife are universal and
applicable as they are to other domestic, zoologic, or exotic species. Hydration, tem-
perature and heat support, and adequate nutrition are critical during the initial care of
neonate wildlife. A few modifications are needed to provide adequate care to wildlife,
with the goal to be released back into the wild.

DISCLOSURE

The author has nothing to disclose.

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