BBR 3303 LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Key concept
Training, development, learning and education

Hierarchical Relationship between Education, Training, Learning And Development

DEVELOPMENT

LEARNING

TRAINING

EDUCATION

Global context of L&D

Many organizations now operate in knowledge economy that is networked, digital, virtual,
fast –moving, global and uncertain. In such environment , managers utilize their internal core
competencies which are rare, cost-to-imitate , and valuable.
Hamel and Prahalad (1994) characterize core competencies as,
a. Provide benefits to customers

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 b. Is not product specific
c. Is competitively unique
d. Represent an opportunity or gate way to opportunities
Organizations that use L&D as their core strategic competence can be recognized by their
 External face- this reflects a sensitivity to the changes that are occurring in the
organizations operating environment , and the capability to be agile in response to any
such changes
 Internal facer – this displays quality of reflections , inquiry and sharing which
underpins the individual and collective learning of the organizations members about
new knowledge leading to new or better products and services (Sugarman , 2001)

L&D Framework

The 70:20:10 framework suggests that a majority of the learning happens on the job.

 Employees pick up 70% of their skills through their daily jobs, especially for
young professionals entering the workforce.

 Employees obtain 20% of their skills and knowledge through their peers and
colleagues. ensured through right placement in teams, and assigning right
managers/supervisors to mentor

 10% of all learning happens through formal training sessions eg classrooms,

seminars and workshops

Objectives of L&D

1. Business performance
Learning and development objectives pertaining to business performance include:
 Increase in the volume of work completed within a stipulated time
 Rise in customer satisfaction scores as a result of better employee performance
 The ability to gain from emerging opportunities, due to new skills available in
the organization
 Business sustainability through a period of dynamic changes (regulatory shifts,
economic upheavals, digital transformation, etc.)

2. Employee satisfaction
Learning and development objectives pertaining to employee satisfaction include:
 Increase in employee retention rates
 Reduced turnovers
 Lowering of employee stress

3. Employer branding

Learning and development objectives pertaining to employer branding include:

 Shorter time to fill for new job roles

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  Increase in the quality of hire
 Reduction in recruitment marketing costs
 Increased unsolicited/inbound applicants

4. Individual self-actualization

Employees value the holistic aspects of a job as much as its tangible components like benefits
or compensation. As a result, L&D becomes a means of self-actualization and fulfillment,
allowing employees to tap into their full potential. This is linked both to business
performance as well as employee satisfaction.

Development and learning objectives pertaining to individual self-actualization include:

 The ability to reach personal improvement targets
 Enhanced work-life balance enabled by robust skill sets
 Increased employability, driving greater job security
 Realization of hidden potential such as leadership skills

L&D Strategies
L&D strategy should be aligned to the organization’s business strategy and goals with the
aim of developing the workforce’s capability and driving business results.
L&D solutions are driven by the goals of the business to close gaps, enhance performance,
and adapt to the changing needs of the organization. (Brandon Carson,2020 )
1 Vision: This is an aspirational declaration of where you want to go. L&D team activities
be aligned to organization’s vision.
2. Mission: Establish a mission statement to guide decision making. This statement defines
L&D function in the organization
3. Assess the internal Business Landscape:
-Conduct a strategic needs analysis in the organization to identify key focus
areas and skills gaps.
-Assess needs from senior leaders, mid-level managers, and employees
4. Assess the Learning Team’s Capabilities and resources
- ascertain skills available in the L&D teams to accomplish the goals.
-identify processes to add or modify existing processes eg design standards, content
strategy, development guidelines.
-inventory tools and systems - Ensure employees have the proper technology and
tools they need to deliver your learning solutions.

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 5. Examine Employee Engagement Programs: Consider the role L&D team in overall
employee engagement by examining recruiting and onboarding programs, career
pathing, and employee feedback and satisfaction outlets
6. Promote Lifelong Learning: Facilitate continuous learning for employees. Identify
opportunities for programs to develop personal skills and lifelong learning that
promotes retention and promotability.
7. Create Short Term and Long Term Strategy
- restructure L&D strategies based on business needs,
-gain visibility with key business leaders,
invest in technology learning and development ,
-establish a governance process to consistently re-evaluate the effectiveness of L&d

Essential skills for L&D teams

L&D teams in organizations require both soft and hard skills to in order to deliver result

Soft skills

1. Business acumen. L&D professionals should have business insight, internally and
externally
2. Superior communication skills

-Learning experts communicate with various stakeholders across the organization

to pinpoint upskilling requirements, obtain buy-in, and eliminate bottlenecks.

-Need to adapt to different attitudes, perspectives, and approaches when

communicating with others.

3. Teamwork and conflict resolution

-Have ability to resolve conflicts or find common ground with stakeholders with
conflicting interests.

4. Innovation/change readiness

-The field of learning and development is rapidly evolving, and experts are
expected to keep up.

-The priorities and perspectives of adult learners have changed from just job-related
training to cross-disciplinary skills to strengthen their employability.

- learning and development professional must understand organizations through

change waves, maximizing the outcome from each new opportunity.

- learning and development professional must embrace innovation-readiness that

aids in problem-solving and help formulate out-of-the-box learning strategies.
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 5. A Shoshin mindset

-Shoshin is a soft skill derived from Zen Buddhism that could prove instrumental
for your learning and development career. The word Shoshin essentially means “the
beginner’s mind,” indicating one’s openness to new ideas and possibilities.

-Equipped with a Shoshin mindset, you will be able to identify compelling

solutions, articulate clearly why specific learning solutions might be ineffective, and
listen carefully to the voice of the employee.

- Shoshin is particularly useful when adopting new technologies or strategies as it

ensures that learners begin with a blank slate, without any attitudinal impediments
or past dependencies.
6. Strategic vision and foresight
- This is among the top soft skill requirements for any professional today, critical for
learning and development careers.

-Foresight help in assessing past patterns and predict learning strategies. It will
allow you to anticipate roadblocks on the way and deploy preventive/corrective
actions if required.

b) Hard skills
1. Agility. The ability to continually adapt and harness new approaches, and frontiers
2. Design thinking. Design thinking is an effective approach to tackle learning
challenges, consider the user experience, and quick start projects that need pilots and
rapid prototyping.
3. Evaluation- Ability to measure, analyze and validate the value of programs to
business leaders.
4. Instructional design

-Instructional design is the ability to conceptualize, create, and deliver

products/experiences that inform the learner. This hard skill includes instructional
videos, infographics, PowerPoint presentations, animations, etc

- Instructional design is a foundational requirement for aspiring learning and

development professionals.

5. Adult learning technologies

-Adult learning technology is a rapidly growing market essential for

upskilling/reskilling their workforces in organization within a short period

-Some of the most popular adult learning technologies in use today include open-
source/paid LMS, blended learning (which has a human element), etc. Learning
experts must know all about these possibilities and shape the best-fit technology
roadmap for workforce development.

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6. Human behavioural science

-Employee learning and development is determined heavily by behavioral science.

Traits such as attention span, memory formation, and personal habits play a critical
role in how human beings imbibe and retain knowledge. By applying behavioral
science theory, L&D team can help employees overcome the forgetting curve and
make sure that your learning investments yield the desired results.

7. Learning KPI management

-Learning KPI management is a branch of business analysis and basic data science,
which equips learning professionals to monitor, measure, and track key performance
indicators (KPIs).

-Hard skills in learning data management and KPI analysis will help to pinpoint the
most relevant indices to measure learning progress.

- KPI skills are a useful tool in learning and development career, as you can use KPI
dashboards to steer learning strategies in the right direction and obtain buy-in from
senior leadership.

-KPIs convey the benefits of learning to non-HR business leaders in a tangible

format, clearly demonstrating its role in the overall organizational pathway.

Learning Curve

The learning curve concept was first introduced by T.P. Wright (Wright, 1936)
through his pioneering empirical study on the productivity trends of the production
of aircraft. Since that time, and the learning curve concept has been extensively
researched and applied in numerous settings

- In business, learning curve is used to measure productivity of employees over a

period of time especially for new employees or after new learning

-Initial period, amount invested will be greater than the return, but after the learning
curve has been overcome, the return should be greater than the investment.

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 Source: Mulholland. B (2017).

Advantages

 Strategic planning to improve the output of employees or even whole departments

 Motivating company staff by creating a culture of ongoing learning and progress-
tracking
 Identifying trends that can be used for more accurate forecasting and better business
decisions

Disadvantages

 Learning progress is influenced by a number of variables, including time, previous

experience, quality of training and so on. As a result, tracking only one of these
variables might give you misleading data.
 Some performance or progress is difficult to quantify and measure. If there is no
specific deliverable, such as a product or a sale, it can be hard to define a single unit
of output for the purpose of measuring progress.

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TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT CYCLE

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TRAINING NEED ANALYSIS
Steps in Training Needs Analysis
The following the conventional steps used in determining training needs of the members of
an organization

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Methods of analyzing and determining training needs
From research, organizations use various methods in determining needs for training by the
employees (Personnel policy forum, 1965, USA)
1) Observation and analysis of job performance
2) Management /staff recommendation/Supervisor recommendation
3) Analysis of job requirement
4) Consideration for future changes
5) Survey and reports - government, industry
6) Interviews
7) Case study
8) Review of relevant literature
9) Use of expert opinions/consultants
10) Focus groups discussion - FGD
11) The Delphi Technique
The Delphi technique - is a group decision-making technique designed to provide
group members with each other’s ideas and feedback, while avoiding some of the
problems associated with interacting groups. The group members are asked to respond
to a questionnaire and send their responses to a coordinator. Once all the
questionnaires have been received from the members the coordinator then sends them
to every member for review. Each member is allowed to comment and analyses the
others comments and then participants either vote for the best solution or the
coordinator comes up with a consensus of opinion based on all comments received
from the participants. This technique is time consuming but it is a good qualitative
data gathering information which can be used to make relevant decisions with regard
to training needed in an organization.

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Types of Training Needs Analysis

1. Performance Analysis

In practice managers can use various sources of performance data for analysis,

1. Performance Appraisals
2. Quotas met (un-met)/Performance Measures
3. Turnovers
4. Absenteeism
5. Changes in rate of production/day/week etc
6. Returns from clients
7. Customer Complaints
8. Operational issue - Work/ Task Analysis ,leakage/ Losses, Spoilage/reworks

2. Competence based analysis – (Knowledge, Skills and Attitude - KSA)

Modern day workplace requires employees to be independent thinkers responsible for making
competent decisions based on limited information. This kind of responsibility require training
to equip the employees with relevant competencies. This includes,

Knowledge
1) Business Knowledge/Acumen – operations
2) Business resource management - Fiscal , human, materials etc
3) Global Perspective
4) Risk Management

Skills
1) Analytical Skills
2) Decision Making skills
3) Communication skills
4) Interpersonal Skills
5) Leadership skills
6) Negotiation - Persuasion and Influence skills
7) Planning skills
8) Problem Solving
9) Technological skills

Attitude
1) Adaptability/flexibility
2) Passion for success
3) Coaching/Employee Development culture
4) Customer relationship orientation
5) Innovation focus
6) Results Orientation

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 7) Self- Management
8) Teamwork culture

3. Technical analysis
There is need for technical of training needs.
a) Organizational Analysis. eg strategies, goals, and objectives
b) Content Analysis. Analysis of documents, laws, procedures used on the job.
c) Training Suitability Analysis. Analysis of whether training is the desired solution to
the challenges at hand
d) Cost-Benefit Analysis. Analysis of the return on investment (ROI) of training
e) Industrial relation issues - Grievances of staff, Accidents/Safety Incidents

Commonly used techniques

a) OOMs model
i. Organization analysis – this includes analysis of,
 Organizational culture,
 Organizational structure
 Organizational philosophy,
 Organizational vision, mission and values
 Strategic intents

ii. Operation analysis – this includes analysis of organizational operations such as ,

 Levels of efficiencies, desired performance standards
 Defects/reworks
 Job environments – both physical and human
 Resource optimization - both human and non-human
 Customer management

iii. Man analysis: - this includes analysis of capabilities to do the job arising from,
Knowledge,
 Skills
 Attitude
 Personal values
 Motivation
 relationships

iv. Task description analysis – this consist of the following steps,

 list duties and responsibilities of a job as per job description
 list the desired performance standards of the job
 list actual performance of the employee in the job
 compare the desired standards against the actual performances
 locate areas of improvement from the variance
 determine training need for the particular employee to overcome the
weakness

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 v. Ad hoc analysis – This is a method of analyzing specific training need for a particular
area or section of an organization occasioned by e.g
 Bottlenecks in Production,
 Delayed deliveries,
 Wastages in production

PLANNING FOR TRAINING PROGRAMME

Factors to be considered in planning for training are :
 Category of personnel
 Training methods
 Career plans
 Succession plans
 Training Aids
 Duration of training

Steps in planning for training session

A training session plan provides a useful guide for thinking about the activities and resources
required to deliver learning objectives

Step 1: Define Learning Objectives

a) What are the most important concepts or skills that trainees need to understand by the
end of the class?
b) Why are these concepts and skills important?
c) How will you know that they have understood these correctly?

ABCD Learning Objectives Model

 Audience - understand your eg interests, work culture, professions

 Behavior - define the behaviour needed at the end of the session,
 Conditions - specify the conditions under which knowledge will be used,
 Degree - determine the of knowledge needed by the trainees

Step 2: Clarify Key Topics and Related Concepts

 Highlight central ideas or skills to be imparted

Step 3: Organize Materials

 Draft a lesson outline - List all of the points to be covered

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Step 4: Plan Presentation Techniques

 Decide on the techniques to be used - lectures, demonstrations, discussions, online

learning, visuals, audios, case studies

Step 5: Include Evaluation

Plan how to evaluate the training before the start of the training

Step 6: Focus on Timing

Allow time for the trainees to internalize concepts and ideas

PREPARATION FOR TRAINING

Factors to be considered are:
1. Climate for training
 Create conducive learning environment
2. Consider individual differences
 Some learners have apprehensions
 Slow/fast learners
 Preferences in learning
3. Adult learning
 short sessions
 practical inclination
 more discussion and demonstrations
4. motivation
 learners must accept training program has viable benefits
 learners must feel that training is worth to him/her or the society
5. Group dynamics
o unionized staff vs non-unionized
o senior managers vs junior managers
o gender compositions

IMPLEMENTATION

Remember

What you hear - you forget

what you see - you remember
what you do - you can replicate

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The 70:20:10 Blended Learning Model states that 70% of adult learning takes place by
doing, or while on the job; 20% happens by working with others, and only 10% takes place as
the result of formal learning interventions like eLearning and instructor-led training.
Introduce the course and give:
a) Introductions
b) Ice-breakers
c) Describe importance of the course
d) Give outline
e) Set expectations
f) Familiarize tools for training
g) Invite opinions from the participants

5E Instructional Model

Use 5E instructional model to deliver training contents

Engage – introduce the task and connect it to past learning and experiences. The goal is to
spark their interest and involvement.
Explore -Learners to take part in 'hands on' activities that allow them to work with materials
that give them an experience of the phenomena being observed.
Simulations or models can be built so that learners acquire relevant experiences of the
phenomena.
Questioning, sharing and communication with other learners be encouraged during this stage.
Explain - The focus of this stage is analysis. The learner is encouraged to explain from
observations, questions, hypotheses and experiences from the previous stages into language.
Communication between learners and learner groups can spur the process.
Elaborate/Extend – based on the previous stage learners/trainees are encouraged to build
and expand gained knowledge.
Evaluate - Evaluation should be ongoing at all stages in order to determine that learning
objectives have been met and misconceptions avoided

Participatory (bottom-up training)

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Encourage trainees to express their opinions and get them to discuss the subject matter both
individually and in groups. Distribute learning resource to help engage the trainees.

Traditional Teaching Participatory Training

a) Trainer’s role is to tell trainees what a) Trainer’s role is to ask questions, and to
they need to know facilitate discussions

b) Trainer is more knowledgeable and b) Both trainers and trainees are knowledgeable
experienced than trainees and experienced

c) Trainer shares her/his knowledge c) Everyone must reflect on her/his own, then
with the trainees by lecturing share their ideas, experiences, and expertise

d) Trainees are passive, just listening d) Trainees are active and analytical, asking
and taking notes questions and exploring alternatives

e) Trainees learn the right answer from e) Trainees develop their own answers - indeed,
their trainers there may be many different answers

Factors to consider in methodology

Training methods to be used for any training programme depends on many factors
a) Resources – human, financial, technical
b) Objectives – desired outputs
c) Convenience – geographical,
d) Cadres of staff to be trained
e) Level of education
f) Social cultural environment

There are some common training methods

1) On the job/off the job
2) Conference/seminar
3) Simulation
4) Role plays
5) Experimentation/demonstration
6) Vestibules
7) Apprenticeship
8) Audio/video/film shows
9) Lecture
10) Assessment centers etc

Class Discussion
Identify common training methods for staff in managerial positions, justify your suggestions

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TRAINING EVALUATION

Purposes of Evaluation
Following are some of the main reasons to evaluate:
a) To determine whether the training achieves its objectives (outcomes)
b) To assess the value of training programs (ROI)
c) To identify areas of the program that need improvement.
d) To identify the appropriate audience for future programs.
e) To review and reinforce key program parts for participants
f) cost effectiveness,
g) desired output,
h) learners convenience of learning

Levels of Assessment of a Training Programmes

Training programmes can be assessed at different levels, targeting different goals.
The Kirkpatrick Model is probably the best known model for analyzing and evaluating the
results of training and learning programs.

This model was developed by Dr. Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959. It is regarded as a classic by
training practitioners. The model has 4-stage evaluations viz, reaction, learning, behavior and
results. Although all four levels of the model (reaction, learning, behavior, results) are
important, you may choose not to evaluate at all four levels. The model can be implemented
before (planning stage), mid-training (continuous assessment), and end of training (terminal)
to show the value of training to the business.

Four-Level Model for Evaluation

Studies show that a vast majority of organizations evaluate reaction (most), learning
(moderate), behaviuor (rarely) and result (least).

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Measuring Training Results

Levels What Who When How Why

Level 1 Reaction: Did Participants End of the “smile sheet” Determine level of
they like it? program customer
satisfaction; may
indicate need for
revision.

Level 2 Learning: Participants; During, Pre-test / post Identify whether

What trainer before / after test skills trainer has been
knowledge or programme application successful in
skills did they through role delivery of course
retain? plays, case content and
studies, achieving program
exercises objectives.

Level 3 Behaviour: Participants; 3 t0 6 months Surveys; Determine extent

How are they supervisors; after program interviews; to which
performing subordinates; completion observation; participants have
differently? peers, performance transferred what
appraisal they learned in the
session to the
actual work

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 situation

Level 4 Results: what Participants; After Cost/benefit Determine

is the impact control group completion of analysis; whether benefits
on the bottom level 3 tracking outweigh costs;
line? follow-up operational ascertain degree
data of contribution of
program to
organizational
goals

Reaction

The objective for this level is to evaluate how individuals react to the training model by
asking questions that establishes the trainees’ thoughts. Questions will figure out if the
participant enjoyed their experience and if they found the material in the program useful for
their work. This particular form of evaluation is typically referred to as a “smile
sheet.”(causal conversation immediately after the training ends). However, simple written
questions/checklists can be used to ascertain the levels of reactions.

The reaction stage commonly evaluates,

a) Training content

b) Materials

c) Trainer - facilitators

d) Environment - conference room, noise/disturbances, security

e) Logistics – movements,

f) Instructional methods

g) Feed backs
Resources and techniques for level one:

 Online assessment
 Interviews
 Comment forms
 Post-training program questionnaires.

Learning

Evaluation at this level is meant to gauge the participants,

 expertise,
 knowledge,
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  mind-set

Techniques vary from informal to formal tests and self-assessment to team assessment.
Strategies for assessment should be relevant to the goals of the training program.

A distinct clear scoring process needs to be determined in order to reduce the possibility of
inconsistent evaluation reports.

Tools and procedures to measure

1) Use a control group to compare (experimental)

2) Exams,
3) Interviews
4) Assessments of performance of trainees immediately after the training.
5) Observations by peers and instructors

Behaviuor

This level analyzes the differences in the participant’s behavior at work after completing the
program. Assessing the change makes it possible to figure out if the knowledge, mindset, or
skills the program imparted are being used at the workplace. This level starts 3–6 months
after training.

Behavior (outputs)
Purpose of behavioral evaluation is to follow-up is to,

• Measure lasting results of the training

• Identify areas in which trainees show greatest and least improvement
• Compare follow-up and end-of-program responses

Assessment resources and techniques

 Through observations and interviews.

 Surveys and close observation
 Examinations
 360-degree feedback
 Self-assessment can be handy, but only with an extensively designed set of guidelines.

Results (outcomes)

Commonly regarded as the primary goal of the program.

Level 4 evaluation determines the impact of the training on the organization. Ideally, it shows
how the training has contributed to accomplishing organizational goals and objectives—
business results. If an organization chooses to conduct a Level 4 evaluation, the area of
measurement must be the same as those identified in the needs assessment.
Level four determines the overall success of the training model by measuring factors such as,

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  lowered spending,
 higher returns on investments,
 improved quality of products,
 less accidents in the workplace,
 more efficient production times,
 higher quantity of sales
 improved customer satisfaction
 improved Quality standards
 lowered turnover rate
 reduced absenteeism

Types of assessment strategies and tools used for level four:

 It should be discussed with the participant exactly what is going to be measured

throughout and after the training program.
 Use a control group
 Allow enough time to measure / evaluate

Accountability for Training

Throughout the business world, accountability for all functions is increasing. Staff functions
such as training are expected to prove their contribution and value to the organization. Two
approaches to measuring the value of training are,
(1) cost/benefit analysis
(2) return on investment.

Cost/Benefit Analysis
The cost/benefit analysis looks at the total cost to produce a training program and attempts to
quantify the benefits. Cost includes everything from the needs assessment, through design,
development, delivery, and finally to follow-up. Both direct and indirect costs are used to
determine the total cost of the program. Total benefits of the program may be reduced costs
or increased revenues directly attributable to the training. In many cases, however, benefits
can only be estimated.
Subtract the total costs from the total benefits to find the net benefit of the training program.
The program is considered a financial success if the costs are lower than the
benefits.

Determining Training Costs

Direct Cost

People Facilities Materials

Design and Salaries, benefits, Marketing bronchures;

Development travel pay; course Participants materials;
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 development, clerical instructor manual; purchased
support or consultant resource materials;
fee and expenses

Delivery Salaries, benefits, Room rental, Stationery, flip charts,

travel for; trainer (s), conference handouts, LCDs, certificate,
participants facilities, books, articles reprints.
allowances, clerical equipment rental,
support, consultant refreshments
fees and expenses.

Evaluation Salaries, benefits, Surveys, questionnaires.

travel pay,
participants, clerical
support,

Indirect costs

Custodial services, utilities, postage, telephone, Computer time, equipment depreciation, equipment
maintenance/ repair, support services.

Return on Investment
The return on investment simply shows what the payback is for the training program. Return
on investment takes three to six months and even longer for operational results.

The formula for determining return on investment (ROI) = (net program benefits/program
costs) x 100. Stated simply, if training programs fail to show a reasonable return on the
company’s investment, future (or even current) training initiatives are at risk.

Evaluation methods
1. Four factor comparison method
Reaction learning behaviour result

2. Three factor comparison method

 Cost factor: cost involved in training rentals, salaries, stationeries
 Change factor: change of behaviour before and after the training
 Impact factor: impact of training on productivity, services delivery by the staff etc

3. Test –re-test method,

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4. Pre-post-performance test method,
5. Experiment –control group test method
Follow up
The objective of follow up is to ensure continuity of learning and provide back up, remedies
if necessary to reinforce the behaviour.

Principles of Adult learning

The Principles of adult learning include,
1) self-direction and motivation – They require less rigorous supervision to learn.
Adult learners must see immediate or tangible benefit in order to be motivated go
learn.
2) Transformation – they seek more meaningful changes as a result of instructional
inputs
3) Experience – they have significant experience in life that can be supplemented with
technical inputs by the trainers Content that draws from real-world examples,
relatable scenarios and builds on direct experience will lead to a more meaningful
understanding of the subject.
4) Mentorship – Adult learners focus on experienced role models that will help them in
their learning journey.
5) Mental orientation – adult learners seek specific benefits, not generalist
competencies. Adults enter the learning process focused on results. They need to
know how the information will help them achieve their goals, whether personal or
professional.
6) Readiness to learn - Adults are flexible when it comes to how they engage with
knowledge. They understand that it can be gained in a variety of different ways, and
are willing to try new formats.

THEORIES OF ADULT LEARNING

1. Andragogy
Malcolm Knowles (1980) popularized the concept of andragogy which is the “art and science
of helping adults learn”. Malcolm Knowles contrasted it with pedagogy, which is the art and
science of helping children learn. Andragogy theory states that
1) adult learners Want to know why they should learn something.
2) They need internal motivation.
3) They want to know how learning will help them specifically.
4) They bring prior knowledge and experience that form a foundation for their learning.
5) They are self-directed and want to take charge of their learning journey.
6) They find the most relevance from task-oriented learning that aligns with their own
realities.

2. Transformative learning.

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Jack Mezirow (1970) developed the transformative adult learning theory (sometimes called
transformational learning) is focused on changing the way learners think about the world
around them, and how they think about themselves. Their assumptions may change based on
what they learn. Sometimes transformative learning utilizes dilemmas and situations to
challenge your assumptions and principles. Learners then use critical thinking and
questioning to evaluate their underlying beliefs and assumptions, and learn from what they
realize about themselves in the process. Mezirow saw transformative learning as a rational
process, where learners challenge and discuss to expand their understanding.
There is criticism that transformative learning doesn’t account well for relationships, feelings,
and cultural contexts, making learners feel unsafe or nervous to share their thoughts with
teachers or other learners in an educational setting. There are ups and downs with
transformative learning, and many adult learners find that working to change their underlying
beliefs can be rewarding and demanding at the same time.
3. Self-directed learning.
Self-directed learning was formalized by Alan Tough (1970). It is used by teachers in a
variety of educational settings to help improve adult learning. Self directed learning
(sometimes called self-direction learning) is the process where individuals take initiative in
their learning—they plan, carry out, and evaluate their learning experiences without the help
of others. Learners set goals, determine their educational or training needs, implement a plan,
and more to enhance their own learning. Self-directed learning may happen outside the
classroom or inside of it, with students working by themselves or collaborating as part of
their self directed learning process.
Criticism for this self-directed approach say that some adult learners lack the confidence and
understanding to do self-directed learning well
4. Experiential learning.
David Kolb (1970) championed Experiential learning theory focusing on the idea that adults
are shaped by their experiences, and that the best learning comes from making sense of your
experiences. Instead of memorizing facts and figures, experiential learning is a more hands-
on and reflective learning style. Adult learners are able to utilize this theory and learn by
doing, instead of just hearing or reading about something. Role-play, hands on experiences,
are encouraged.
Critics of experiential learning say that there are many benefits to non-experiential learning
that can be overlooked with this theory. These critics suggest that there is great value on
goals, metrics, decision-making, and details that can be overlooked in experiential learning.
5. Project-based learning.
John Dewey (1900) postulated Project-based learning (sometimes called problem-based
learning) is similar to experiential and action learning in that the overall idea is to actually do
something to help you learn, instead of reading or hearing about it. Project-based learning
utilizes real-world scenarios and creates projects for students that they could encounter in a
job in the future. Students can choose their own projects and pursue things they are interested
in, which is a great option for adult learners who need real-world applications from their
learning.
The major criticism of project based learning is that the outcomes aren’t proven. There isn’t
enough evidence to show that project-based learning is as effective as other learning methods.

Performance Management
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Conceptualization of Performance Management:

Target

Performance

Plan Manage Appraise Monitor

Performance Management

Managerial skills, personal traits and values are crucial for success of performance
management. Some such skills, traits and values are:
a) Ability to get work done.
b) Setting challenging goals for self and employees
c) Good communication and feedback systems skills
d) Technically competent
e) Team builder
f) Loyal and supportive to management and employees
g) Have high values in life
h) Positive attitude to problem solving
i) Prepared to make sacrifices in career growth for ethics

Performance Management systems

Performance management is an organization strategy to foster excellence by continuously

improving employee’s performance by:
a) Defining, establishing and agreeing on performance criteria.
b) Evaluating actual performance with the objective of providing feedback
c) Developing and reinforcing motivation, commitment and competencies.

Performance management is a methodology and process of managing performance of an

organization and its business processes to achieve a commonly understood set of goals and
objectives. It seeks to inculcate and harness the following success factors among the HR of
the organization:

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 a) Adaptation
b) Innovation
c) Intrapreneurship
d) Performance improvement
e) Human resource development
f) Improving communication
g) Increasing employee involvement

OBJECTIVES OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

Performance management is a key organizational strategy for improving competitiveness of
the organization in a market place characterized by cut throat competition. It seeks to attain
the following objectives in the organizational context:
a) Formulate strategy determining what the objectives of the organization are and how
the organization plans to achieve them.
b) Manage the strategy implementation process by examining whether an intended
strategy is being put into practice as planned
c) Challenge assumptions by focusing not only on the implementation of an intended
strategy, but also on making sure that its content is still valid
d) Sustain excellence in performance by motivating employees to setting goals that align
with an organizational strategies
e) Check position by monitoring whether the expected performance results are being
achieved
f) Comply with the non-negotiable parameters, by making sure that the organization is
achieving the minimum standards needed, if it is to survive (e.g. legal requirements,
environmental parameters, etc)
g) Communicate direction to the rest of the employees, by passing on information about
what are the strategic goals individuals are expected to achieve.
h) Communicate with external stakeholders
i) Provide feedback by reporting to employees how they are, their group, and the
organization as a whole is performing against the expected goals.
j) Evaluate and reward behaviour in order to focus the employee’s attention on strategic
priorities; and to motivate them to take actions and make decisions, which are
consistent with organizational objectives and strategy
k) Benchmark the performance of different organizations, plants, departments, teams and
individuals

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 l) Develop a dynamic work culture by assimilating people’s thoughts, actions and
consequences.
m) It provides for an effective and contextual management of external environment for
overcoming obstacles and impediments in the way of effective managerial
performance
n) It is more of a developmental task rather than administration of financial rewards

BENEFITS OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

Some of the major benefits of performance management are enlisted below:
a) Helps in aligning individual performance expectations with the organization’s mission
and strategy for effective goal achievement
b) Provides clear and measurable performance expectations making the process
transparent for employees to set up goals that align with the organization’s strategies
c) Helps employees in evaluating their competencies and the resources and support
required to successfully achieve the performance expectations
d) Strengthens team work in the organization
e) Demonstrates the management’s commitment towards HR development
f) Helps in delivering negative feedback to increase performance being a participative
process
g) Helps in integrating the organization’s ethics into an individual’s inherent value
system through reinforcement and counseling methods
h) Promotes fair, equitable, and impartial treatment of employees
i) Transparency and measurability against set performance criteria enables managers to
address conflicts and diversities quickly and the workplace is free from discrimination
j) Provides opportunities for learning and development as well as for other employment
or advancement by identifying competencies required for high performance
k) Allows creation of career path and gives employees and managers ownership of their
career development
l) Automates mentoring process for setting up a mentor/ protégé match

CHALLENGES TO PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

Performance management faces the following challenges:
1. Linking reward system to performance management
2. Measuring organizational and employee results

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 3. Using competencies in a performance management system
4. Using performance management tools to improve organizational effectiveness
5. Supporting organizational culture with performance management
6. Developing and implementing performance management
7. Aligning employees with organizational objectives and strategy

1. 360-degree appraisal methods

360-degree Feedback, or multi-rater feedback, is used by 90% of Fortune 500 companies

around the world. It is generally believed to be a highly effective performance evaluation
tool. 360-degree method incorporates feedback from the worker, his/her peers, superiors,
subordinates, and customers. Results of these confidential surveys are tabulated and shared
with the worker, usually by a manager. The primary reason to use this full circle of
confidential reviews is to provide the worker with information about his/her performance
from multiple perspectives. From this feedback, the worker is able to set goals for self-
development which will advance their career and benefit the organization. With 360-degree
feedback, the worker is central to the evaluation process and the ultimate goal is to improve
individual performance within the organization.

Success Factors

Organizations who experience success with the 360-degree feedback methods have many
environmental attributes present viz:

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 1) Organizational climate fosters individual growth
2) Criticisms are seen as opportunities for improvement (Randel, A., 2004)
3) Proper framing of feedback method by management
4) Assurance that feedback will be kept confidential
5) Development of feedback tool based on organizational goals and values
6) Feedback tool includes area for comments (Hoffmanner, A., 2004)
7) Briefing of workers, evaluators and supervisors about purpose, uses of data and
methods of survey prior to distribution of tool
8) Train workers in appropriate methods to give and receive feedback
9) Support feedback with back-up services or customized coaching

Failure Factors

Many organizations have rushed into 360-degree feedback without laying the foundation for
success. Typical errors include:

a) Feedback tied to merit pay or promotions

b) Comments traced to individuals causing resentment between workers
c) Feedback not linked to organizational goals or values
d) Use of the feedback tool as a stand-alone without follow-up
e) Poor implementation of 360-degree tool negatively affects motivation
f) Excessive number of surveys are required for each worker (Clark, S., Whittall, A.,
2003)

CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Career development has two major perspectives:

1. Organizational perspective
 Offers successful succession plan to occupy key organization positions
 Potential managers are monitored over long period using management
information system
 Potential key position holders are counseled, trained and guided in preparation for
higher assiugnments

2. Individual perspective:
 individual identify their career path and organization assist them to practice within
their area of specialization
 focus on individual need
 helps minorities and women rise to the helm of the organization
 Individuals acquire anticipated/desire skills knowledge and competencies

Objectives of career planning and development are,

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  Empowerment of employees
 Reduce frustration of employees
 Improve competitive advantage of the organization
 Acquisition and retention of talented hands (persons)
 Equity and fairness to disadvantaged section of the society

Stages of Career Development

Exploration
- formation of self image
- Introspection: finding own strength and weakness
- Ambitions and target fixing
Establishment
- anxiety and stress due to job limiting
- cultural shock of new work cultures
- insecurity and crisis of confidence
- working strategy to become successful
- looking for mentor
- frustrations due to failure

Mid – career
- self assessment and introspection
- goal setting and ambition to fly high
- better feeling of security and relaxation and possible stagnation
- Threat from more ambitious and energetic colleagues

Late career
- mentally prepared for retirement
- reduced enthusiasm and energy
- looking for alternate avenues for self – actualization

CAREER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES

Career development can be approached from different perspectives
1. Based an organization perspectives
1. Challenging initial tasks
2. Assessment centers
3. Information dissemination- available career paths and opportunities
4. Career counseling

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 5. mid-career correction seminar/w/shops
6. T&D (functional )
7. Job rotational
8. Deputation
9. Long leave - to relax and recuperate their energies and rejuvenate their spirit

2. Based on individual perspectives

“The more you sweat in peace the less you bleed in war”
 Identify strength and weakness
 Develop specific goals
 Identify opportunities and threats
 Academic career – enhance skills where necessary
 Professional career – make correction to failures in career progress experienced
earlier

MANAGEMENT/EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT
The objectives of management/executive development are in 5 folds:
1. Objectives based on attributes
i) To gain expertise in managerial functions
ii) To build and maintain abilities in leadership, adaptive, and adjustment
iii) Develop decision-making abilities etc and delegation
iv) Develop expertise in specialized areas like finance, production ,
marketing, HR etc
v) improve professionalism like trade-off consideration, conflicts and interest
management
2. Objectives based on abilities
-leadership abilities, follower abilities, common abilities etc
3. Objectives based on skills development.
-Technical skills – OR, fin, HR and human relations skills – interpersonal
relationship, supervision and coordination
4. Conceptual skills – ability to predict long term perspective paths and plans, develop long
term vision and mission etc
5. Skills to sustain competitive advantage
-Product design, Product mix, Production methods, Sales, storage and distribution,
Production, HR, operations etc

Executive Development Process

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 Objectives

Strength and weakness (Gap analysis)

Long-term plan eg 5yrs ahead

T&D Programme – to prepare the officer for higher responsibility

Implementation – undertake development programmes

Evaluation – assess mainly behavioural & impact changes

T&D techniques/methods
Management trainings are basically in form of ,
- On the job
- Off the job
- Off the organization

Methods/techniques

On the job programme

- Coaching
- Job rotational
- Committee assignments
Off the job
- lecture/classroom instructions
- sensitivity training
- transactional analysis
- simulation exercise
- Seminar/workshops
- Self-study
Off the organization programme
- Inter-establishment training
- project team work
- courses in management studies
- exchange programme
- assessment centres

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Emerging Issues: Key Issues In Learning And Development (L&D),
1. Re-skilling, Up-skilling and Cross-Skilling
- With digital transformation comes the need for reskilling your existing workforce on how to
use new digital processes and tools. Changes in global business environment require
employees to upskill themselves for relevance. upskilling may be required for the following
areas :

1) Company Culture Training

2) Leadership & Management Training
3) Diversity & Inclusion Training
4) Role or Industry-Specific Training
5) Compliance Training

2. Content Repurposing
With the rise of eLearning has come the need for corporate L&D teams to continuously
create, monitor, and update their learning content. repurposing means converting existing
training content into multi-modal learning content – ie. the same L&D course content being
reformatted across video, audio, reading, and visual content.

3. Knowledge-Sharing Ecosystem
Knowledge management is the concept of creating, curating, organizing, and sharing
important organizational knowledge for employees to access and find important information.
it connects employees to the right resources for any internal questions they may have.

The benefits of KM range from a more productive workforce, better employee training and
onboarding, and easier knowledge transfer in the event of losing an employee to another
company or key leadership retirements.

4. Behavioral Data
L&D teams collect data across different factors of their employee training and development
strategy. Data collected allows L&D teams to:

1) Monitor the progress of L&D content across their employee training and onboarding.
2) Measure training effectiveness on different courses, between different teams, and on
different types of employee training.
3) Continuously improve overall L&D content and strategies.
4) Report the impact and influence the L&D strategies have on the development and
overall success of an organization a

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5. Emphasizing ROI – training and development are investment, thus real and tangible
returns are required

6. Flexible Working – flexi-timing is providing opportunity for balance between work and
family demands, allows for professional development etc
7. Emphasis on Soft Skills – sustainable competitive edges are found in management using
soft skills eg interpersonal relationships, teams, projects etc
8. Increased Focus on Diversity, Equality & Inclusion - Many training and development
programmes predicted a trend in diversity, equality, and inclusion in training for 2020 and
beyond. Globalization, gender responsiveness and democratization of work places is fueling
this agenda

CASE STUDY: The industrial training Act: Provisions of industrial training; training levy,
technical and vocational training, NITA, Training schemes and facilities provided by NITA.

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