Long Term Controls On Continental Scale Bedrock River Terrace de - 2018 - Sedime

Sedimentary Geology 364 (2018) 103–120
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Sedimentary Geology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo
Long-term controls on continental-scale bedrock river terrace deposition

from integrated clast and heavy mineral assemblage analysis: An
example from the lower Orange River, Namibia
Albertina N. Nakashole a,⁎, David M. Hodgson a, Robert J. Chapman a, Dan J. Morgan a, Roger J. Jacob b
a
School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK
b
Mineral Resources Department, NAMDEB Pty Ltd, P.O. Box 35, Oranjemund, Namibia
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Establishing relationships between the long-term landscape evolution of drainage basins and the fill of sedimen-
Received 8 July 2017 tary basins benefits from analysis of bedrock river terrace deposits. These fragmented detrital archives help to con-
Received in revised form 11 December 2017 strain changes in river system character and provenance during sediment transfer from continents (source) to
Accepted 12 December 2017
oceans (sink). Thick diamondiferous gravel terrace deposits along the lower Orange River, southern Namibia, pro-
Available online 14 December 2017
vide a rare opportunity to investigate controls on the incision history of a continental-scale bedrock river. Clast as-
Editor: Dr. J. Knight semblage and heavy mineral data from seven localities permit detailed characterisation of the lower Orange River
gravel terrace deposits. Two distinct fining-upward gravel terrace deposits are recognised, primarily based on
Keywords: mapped stratigraphic relationships (cross-cutting relationships) and strath and terrace top elevations, and second-
Heavy minerals arily on the proportion of exotic clasts, referred to as Proto Orange River deposits and Meso Orange River deposits.
Gravel terraces The older early to middle Miocene Proto Orange River gravels are thick (up to 50 m) and characterised by a dom-
Drainage basin inance of Karoo Supergroup shale and sandstone clasts, whereas the younger Plio-Pleistocene Meso Orange River
Source-to-sink gravels (6–23 m thick) are characterised by more banded iron formation clasts. Mapping of the downstepping ter-
Orange River
races indicates that the Proto gravels were deposited by a higher sinuosity river, and are strongly discordant to the
Clast assemblage
modern Orange River course, whereas the Meso deposits were deposited by a lower sinuosity river. The heavy
minerals present in both units comprise magnetite, garnet, amphibole, epidote and ilmenite, with rare titanite
and zircon grains. The concentration of amphibole-epidote in the heavy minerals fraction increases from the
Proto to the Meso deposits. The decrease in incision depths, recorded by deposit thicknesses above strath terraces,
and the differences in clast character (size and roundness) and type between the two units, are ascribed to a more
powerful river system during Proto-Orange River time, rather than reworking of older deposits, changes in prov-
enance or climatic variations. In addition, from Proto- to Meso-Orange River times there was an increase in the pro-
portion of sediments supplied from local bedrock sources, including amphibole-epidote in the heavy mineral
assemblages derived from the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex. This integrated study demonstrates that clast as-
semblages are not a proxy for the character of the matrix, and vice versa, because they are influenced by the inter-
play of different controls. Therefore, an integrated approach is needed to improve prediction of placer mineral
deposits in river gravels, and their distribution in coeval deposits downstream.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction to oceans (sink) through the sediment transfer zone (Romans et al.,
2016). Terrace deposits within bedrock river systems provide a
Constraining the dynamics of long-term landscape evolution re- fragmented archive of landscape evolution in the sediment transfer
quires analysis of the coeval downstream stratigraphic record zone (e.g., Bridgland and Westaway, 2008; Wegmann and Pazzaglia,
(e.g., Morton, 1991; Dickinson and Gehrels, 2003; Mange and Otvos, 2009). Therefore, improved understanding of these records in sites
2005; Bhattacharya et al., 2016; Romans et al., 2016). However, envi- dominated by erosion will help to constrain controls on long-term
ronmental signals (e.g., climate, tectonic uplift) and provenance signa- changes in ancient river system character and provenance, and to pre-
tures are modified during sediment transfer from continents (source) dict and unravel the downstream depositional record of quasi-
contemporaneous marine sediments (Pazzaglia and Gardner, 1993;
⁎ Corresponding author. Aalto et al., 2008; Marsaglia et al., 2010; Kuehl et al., 2016). Analysis of
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.N. Nakashole). clast assemblages is the most common approach used to investigate
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2017.12.010
0037-0738/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
104 A.N. Nakashole et al. / Sedimentary Geology 364 (2018) 103–120
changes in provenance of fluvial gravels and to establish the denudation River, southern Namibia, was chosen because it is a rare example of a
and evolution of drainage basins (Gibbard, 1979; Green et al., 1982; continental-scale bedrock river with a well-constrained drainage basin
Bridgland, 1999). An alternative technique is the use of heavy minerals, geology, and accessible, extensive, and unlithified gravel terrace de-
because they are more physically and chemically resilient than many posits owing to the arid climate and active mining operations (Fig. 1).
clasts, and may survive multiple phases of weathering and transport Furthermore, the gravel terrace deposits represent multiple cycles of
(Hassan, 1976; Morton, 1984, 1991; Goodbred et al., 2014). degradation and aggradation, allowing investigation into changing con-
Most drainage reconstruction studies have either used clast assem- trols through time. Finally, the coeval marine gravels offshore southern
blage analysis (Gibbard, 1979; Dowdeswell et al., 1985; Bridgland, Namibia host economic diamond deposits, and therefore an improved
1999; Jones, 2000; Mikesell et al., 2010) or heavy mineral assemblages understanding of the drainage history of the lower Orange River can
(Uddin et al., 2007; Morton et al., 2011). Both techniques are problematic. feed into revised offshore exploration strategies. Specific objectives are
Clasts derived from mechanically or chemically unstable bedrock might i) to reconstruct the drainage history of the lower Orange River using
be preferentially degraded owing to abrasion during transport or chemi- two river terrace deposits, ii) to investigate extrinsic and intrinsic
cally weathered post deposition (Green et al., 1980), which hinders accu- controls on the clast assemblage and heavy minerals assemblage, and
rate fingerprinting of source areas. Heavy mineral studies also contain iii) to evaluate the value of a combined approach to understanding
inherent weaknesses (Smale and Morton, 1987; Dill, 1994; Morton and continental-scale bedrock river evolution.
Hallsworth, 1999, 2007; Faupl et al., 2007; Uddin et al., 2007; Tsikouras
et al., 2011; Wong et al., 2013; do Nascimento et al., 2015; Caracciolo 2. Geological setting and geomorphology
et al., 2016; Krippner et al., 2016). For example, the relatively high densi-
ty of heavy minerals may restrict their transport distance (Komar and 2.1. Geological setting
Wang, 1984; Komar, 2007). Maher et al. (2007) present a rare example
of combining clast assemblage and heavy minerals analysis to recon- The Orange River and its major tributary, the Vaal River, are the main
struct a drainage capture event of the Rio Alias, southeast Spain. bedrock confined rivers in a ~ 106 km2 catchment in southern Africa
In this study, we aim to integrate clast assemblage and heavy (Garzanti et al., 2014). The geology exposed in the catchment is highly
mineral signatures within a critical part of source-to-sink systems, the variable. In the east, geology comprises the Archaean Kaapvaal Craton
sediment transfer zone, where a depositional record is found within (de Wit et al., 1992) intruded by Cretaceous and older diamondiferous
sites dominated by erosion, to provide information on sediment trans- kimberlites (de Wit, 1999; Shirey et al., 2001; Moore and Moore,
port, bypass, deposition, and provenance controls. The lower Orange 2004). The upper Orange River traverses rocks of the extensively eroded
Fig. 1. Study area with distribution of gravel terrace deposits (grey colour) along the lower Orange River. Deposits analysed in this study are marked in bold. The boxed area with the
broken line represents the area shown in Fig. 3C. Modified from Jacob et al. (1999).
A.N. Nakashole et al. / Sedimentary Geology 364 (2018) 103–120 105
Permo-Carboniferous to Jurassic Karoo Supergroup (Visser, 1993; Table 1

Johnson et al., 1997; Catuneanu et al., 1998, 2005; Key et al., 1998; Mineralogy of the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex and Gariep Belt rocks.
Bangert et al., 1999). Between Noordoewer (300 km east of the Orange Source lithology Heavy minerals Other References
River mouth) and Oranjemund (Fig. 2), the lower Orange River cuts Density N 2.8 g/cm3 minerals
through the Mesoproterozoic Namaqua Metamorphic Complex Namaqua Garnet Plagioclase Botha and Grobler (1979)
(Thomas et al., 1994; Jacobs et al., 2008) before incising the Metamorphic Amphibole Feldspar Waters (1989)
Neoproterozoic Gariep Belt (Frimmel and Frank, 1998; Frimmel et al., Complex Epidote Biotite Robb et al. (1999)
Spinel Cordierite Diener et al. (2013)
2004) close to the river mouth on the Atlantic Ocean coast (Fig. 2).
Pyroxene Chlorite Bial et al. (2015)
The Namaqua Metamorphic Complex forms the basement of the area. Ilmenite
The Gariep Belt, which also extends into northwestern South Africa Magnetite
(Fig. 2), comprises mainly metamorphosed rocks, including chert, Sillimanite
quartzite, meta-greywacke, metapelite and metadiamictite (Frimmel Zoisite
Gariep Belt Amphibole Biotite Frimmel et al. (1996)
et al., 1996; Frimmel and Frank, 1998; Basei et al., 2005). The mineralo- Epidote Plagioclase Frimmel and Frank (1998)
gy of the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex rocks and Gariep Belt rocks is Ilmenite
summarised in Table 1. Around the Noordoewer area, the Ediacaran to Titanite
early Cambrian Nama Group, a foreland basin succession (DiBenedetto
and Grotzinger, 2005; Grotzinger et al., 2005; Grotzinger and Miller,
fossils, including Lopholistriodon moruoroti found in gravel terrace de-
2008) caps the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex basement (Fig. 2).
posits at Auchas and Arrisdrif of the lower Orange River (Corvinus and
These rocks are possible sources of sediment in the Orange River terrace
Hendey, 1978; Hendey, 1978; Pickford, 1987; Pickford and Senut, 2002)
deposits. Along the lower Orange River, three distinct terrace deposits
(Fig. 1). The Meso Orange River gravel suite has not been dated due to
are recognised based on terrace elevation, bedrock strath level and
lack of macrofauna fossils, but is inferred to be Plio-Pleistocene (2–
exotic clast suite, which Jacob (2005) informally termed, in stratigraphic
5 Ma) in age based on correlations with littoral beach gravel deposits
order, Pre-Proto Orange River, Proto Orange River, and Meso Orange
(Pether, 1986).
River deposits. This nomenclature has been adopted in the present
study. Here, we concentrate on Proto and Meso Orange River gravels
in terms of the clast assemblage and heavy minerals. 2.2. Geomorphology
Eocene marine gravel is the oldest Orange River-derived sediments on
the west coast of Namibia and is preserved at 160 m above present-day 2.2.1. Regional geomorphology
sea level (Stocken, 1978). However, no equivalent Eocene-age gravel is Over the last 66 Ma, the southern African landscape has been shaped
preserved in the lower Orange River. The age of Pre-Proto Orange River by tectonics, climate and geomorphic processes (Knight and Grab,
deposits remains unknown. Dating of coarse grained fluvial terraces is 2016a) although feedbacks produced by tectonics and climate are
challenging due to lack of continental biostratigraphy. The Proto Orange often difficult to isolate (Knight and Grab, 2016b). Periods of uplift
River suite has been dated as early to middle Miocene, using macrofauna and associated increased erosion in southern Africa include during the
Fig. 2. Simplified geology of the lower Orange River. Locations of Sendelingsdrif, Daberas, Auchas and Arrisdrif deposits are indicated for reference. Namibia GIS-based data obtained from
the Geological Survey of Namibia. South African data after de Villiers and Sohnge (1959).
late Cretaceous (de Wit, 1999; Stevenson and McMillan, 2004; also a possibility that the eastern subcontinent might have already been
Richardson et al., 2017), the Miocene and the Pliocene (Partridge and relatively more elevated than the western subcontinent prior to uplift
Maud, 2000; Green et al., 2017). Alternatively, van der Beek et al. (Roberts and White, 2010; Richardson et al., 2016). Apatite fission track
(2002) propose that the topography of the southeast African margin is studies have estimated 2.5 to 3.5 km of land surface erosion for the late
a result of a thin elastic lithosphere (~ 10 km). Evidence of major Cretaceous (Brown et al., 1999; Gallagher and Brown, 1999; Tinker
Cretaceous uplift is recorded offshore where sediment supply rates in et al., 2008b; Decker et al., 2013; Wildman et al., 2015; Green et al.,
the Orange Basin offshore Namibia and South Africa (Rust and 2017), and that the uplift events increased the erosive power of rivers
Summerfield, 1990; Aizawa et al., 2000; Rouby et al., 2009) and the in southern Africa.
Outeniqua Basin, offshore South Africa (Tinker et al., 2008a; Sonibare The central part of southern Africa is marked by a low relief elevated
et al., 2015) show a significant increase. There is a general consensus central plateau (N1000 m above mean sea level) whereas the coastal
that erosion rates have decreased from the Cretaceous to the present margins along the Indian and Atlantic Oceans are characterised by a
(Richardson et al., 2017), as shown by apatite fission track denudation high relief low elevation coastal plain (Knight and Grab, 2016a). The
(Brown et al., 1999; Tinker et al., 2008b; Wildman et al., 2015) and two are separated from each other by the Great Escarpment
cosmogenic dating evidence (Fleming et al., 1999; Cockburn et al., (Gallagher and Brown, 1999), which occurs between 50 and 200 km in-
2000; Bierman et al., 2014). land from the coast (Partridge and Maud, 1987, 2000; Partridge et al.,
During the Miocene, southeastern Africa underwent a maximum up- 2010). In addition to uplift, rivers have also played an important role
lift of 250 m, almost twice that of the western subcontinent (150 m) in shaping the southern African landscape. The Orange River is one of
(Partridge and Maud, 2000). This is in agreement with Hanson et al. the major drainage systems in southern Africa, and with its many tribu-
(2009), who estimated high erosion rates for the Monastery kimberlite taries, has played a major role in shaping the landscape since the late
pipe (~1350 m) in eastern South Africa, relative to the Kimberley and Mesozoic. According to Jacob (2005), the Orange River deeply incised
Koffiefontein pipes (~850 m) in central South Africa. However, there is the landscape (between 600 and 1000 m deep) following Cretaceous
Fig. 3. (A) Proto Orange River and Meso Orange River profiles relative to the modern Orange River profile. (B) Google Earth image of the Proto terraces between Auchas Major and Daberas
(C) Proto Orange River, Meso Orange River and modern Orange River courses. Panels A and C modified from Jacob (2005).
uplift. However, contrasting views regarding the evolution and develop- and Boom River. From Noordoewer towards the river mouth, the palaeo-
ment of the Orange River fluvial system remain (Jubb, 1964; Dingle and Orange River (early to middle Miocene) valley widens from 550 m to
Hendey, 1984; Skelton, 1986; de Wit, 1999; de Wit et al., 2000). 2300 m, and its gradient decreases downstream (from 0.87 m/km to
0.38 m/km) with an average gradient of 0.69 m/km (Jacob, 2005)
(Fig. 3A).
2.2.2. Geomorphology of the lower Orange River
Outcrops of both Namaqua Metamorphic Complex and Gariep Belt
rocks together with the Orange River make up the main geomorphic fea- 3. Methods
tures in the study area. The area between Noordoewer and the Orange
River mouth is characterised by a low relief coastal plain and high relief 3.1. Terrace mapping, river profiles and gradients
inland area. High relief in the area is a product of the resistant lithologies
that comprise Namaqua Metamorphic Complex rocks (Fig. 2). Ephemeral Mapping flights of downward-stepping terrace surfaces on the
tributaries to the lower Orange River include the Gamkab River, Fish River northern and southern banks of the Orange River was performed
Fig. 4. (A) Representative photograph of the thick Proto Orange River terrace deposit at Auchas deposit. Photograph taken looking southeast. (B) and (C) Photograph of deep scours cut into
bedrock below the bedrock strath level at Auchas deposit. Note the smooth walls of the scours formed by abrasion.
Fig. 5. Imbricated clasts (marked by white lines) (A) and coarse cross bedding (B) as seen in Proto Orange River unit and above Meso Orange River unit, respectively. (C) Meso Orange River
gravel.
using a handheld Global Positioning System (GPS). In the field, two Fourteen and twelve samples were analysed from the Proto and
stratigraphically distinct fining-upward terrace deposits were differenti- Meso Orange River deposits, respectively. To avoid bias towards clasts
ated based on their bedrock strath terrace height and elevation of terrace that are resistant to surface weathering, the surface gravel was avoided.
deposit, the mapped palaeo-river course and overall geometry (Fig. 3), Sampling was completed by excavating a 2 m × 2 m area of gravel from
and where terrace deposits are in contact, their cross-cutting relation- the head of an in-channel bar deposit, which is the most stable part of a
ships. Given the bedrock river valley setting, the older and higher ter- gravel bar (Li et al., 2014). After excavation, the gravel was screened on
races (the Proto) are less continuous and more dissected than the site through stacked sieves, which split the clasts into + 300 mm,
younger terrace deposits (the Meso) that are lower in elevation (Jacob + 200 mm, + 90 mm, + 40 mm, + 25 mm, + 16 mm, + 8 mm and
et al., 1999). In general, this elevation difference is also recorded by the +3 mm. The clasts were split further with a sample splitter until the de-
height of the strath terrace, although deep scours on the Proto strath sired number of clasts was attained per size fraction. The size fraction
can be lower in elevation than nearby Meso strath terraces. Four plan- below 3 mm was retained for heavy mineral analysis. A minimum of
form types of terrace deposits are present in the study area: i) cut-off me- 50 clasts was inspected in the + 300 mm, + 200 mm, + 90 mm,
ander loops, ii) unpaired terraces, iii) terraces preserved downstream of + 40 mm and + 25 mm size fractions, and a minimum of 100 clasts
the tributary input points, and iv) paired terraces. The cut-off meander was analysed for the +16 mm, +8 mm and +3 mm size fractions.
loop terraces are the thickest, and are exclusive to the Proto Orange In total, 7700 and 6600 clasts were analysed for the Proto and Meso
River deposits, whereas paired terraces are only observed in the Meso deposits, respectively. A minimum of 50 clasts was analysed for the
Orange River deposits. The gradient of the Proto and Meso Orange coarse size fractions (N 25 mm) given the large volume of sample
River terrace profiles (Fig. 3A) was calculated using the strath terrace needed. Similar studies have used a minimum of 100 clasts although
height and terrace deposit height recorded in meters above sea level they have not indicated the size fractions analysed (Jones, 2000; de
(Fig. 3A). Overall, both the Proto and Meso Orange River terrace deposits Carvalho Faria Lima Lopes et al., 2016). Lithology, clast shape and
form downstream thickening and fining wedges (Jacob et al., 1999) coin- clast roundness were recorded for each individual clast. Clast round-
cident with the widening of the Orange River valley (Fig. 3C). ness, which is a proxy of distance travelled and lithology durability,
was visually estimated using the roundness chart developed by
Powers (1953).
3.2. Clast analysis
Clast analysis was performed on the Orange River gravel terrace de- 3.3. Heavy mineral analysis
posits flanking the modern lower Orange River on the Namibian side
of the river. These are the Proto Orange River deposits and the Heavy minerals were recovered from the smaller than 3 mm sand
stratigraphically younger Meso Orange River deposits. The clast samples. Fourteen and twelve samples were analysed for the Proto
assemblage analyses were undertaken in order to characterise the grav- and Meso Orange River deposits, respectively. To make the separation
el deposits of different ages according to the assemblages of exotic of heavy minerals from the light minerals and the rest of the sand
clasts. more effective, the bulk samples were first sieved into 2–4 mm, 1–
Fig. 6. Agate (A), Karoo sedimentary rocks (B) and banded iron formation (C) clasts that comprise the exotic clast suite of the Orange River derived gravels. (D) Fresh non-weathered
feldspar clasts from Proto Orange River gravel, Daberas deposit.
2 mm, 0.5–1.0 mm, 0.25–0.50 mm, 0.125–0.250 mm, 0.063–0.125 mm the terrace deposits varies between deposit sites, the Proto deposits
and below 0.063 mm size fractions using an automatic electrical sieve are thicker (up to 50 m thickness) than the Meso deposits (6–23 m)
shaker. (Fig. 3A). In the study area, the bedrock river valley widens downstream
Heavy minerals were separated from the rest of the sample material from 1300 m between Boom and Lorelei to 2340 m between
using a Met-Solve Analytical Table, a flowing film gravity separator Sendelingsdrif and the river mouth. The widening of the river valley in
which produced a heavy mineral concentrate. Only the 1–2 mm, 0.5– downstream reaches of the river has enhanced the preservation of ter-
1.0 mm and 0.25–0.50 mm size fractions were processed on the gravity race deposits (Fig. 1).
settling table for heavy mineral recovery because very few heavy miner- In terms of river courses, the Proto Orange River had a higher sinuos-
al particles were observed in the coarser fractions. The selected size frac- ity than the Meso Orange River, which had a course similar to that of the
tions were processed at 1° slope angle, 1.5 l/min water flow rate and 60 modern Orange River (Fig. 3). The higher sinuosity Proto Orange River
strokes/min deck rocking speed. The 1–2 mm size fraction was also course is supported by the preservation of cut-off meander loop terraces
processed at a slope angle of 1°, as opposed to the manufacturer recom- (Fig. 3). The depth of incision (Figs. 3A, 4B, C), size of imbricated clasts
mended steeper angle of 2° (Met-Solve, 2016) because even a slope
angle of 1.5° proved too steep for retention of sub-rounded and rounded
garnets, the dominant heavy mineral in this size fraction. A single con-
centrate was produced for each size fraction because the heavy minerals
recovered from the gravels have overlapping densities. The heavy min-
eral concentrates were dried and weighed.
Heavy mineral proportions were determined by counting a mini-
mum of 300 grains per size fraction per sample under a binocular micro-
scope following the methodology of Dill (1998), Faupl et al. (2007),
Scheneiderman and Chen (2007), Garzanti et al. (2015) and Krippner
et al. (2016). The sample was reduced in volume by coning and quarter-
ing to generate a sub-sample of 300 grains per sample. This equates to a
total of 4200 and 3600 grains analysed for Proto and Meso samples, re-
spectively. Magnetite was removed using a hand magnet, and grain
counts according to mineral type were undertaken on the remaining
sub-sample. Minerals that could not be identified visually on the micro-
scope were mounted on polished epoxy blocks (n = 10, 16, 2, 4, 1, for
garnet, amphibole, epidote, titanite and zircon, respectively) and identi-
fied using the EDS facility of FEI Quanta FEG 650 Scanning Electron Mi-
croscope (SEM), at the University of Leeds using a 20 kV accelerating
voltage and 5 nm spot size. Representative heavy mineral grains of gar-
net, magnetite and epidote were mounted on double sided adhesive
tape attached to a metal plate for grain surface texture analysis. The
grains were coated with a thin layer of iridium (~ 2 nm). The grains
were examined in secondary image mode using the same SEM. Garnet
composition was analysed with JEOL JXA8230 electron microprobe at
the University of Leeds under operating parameters of 20 kV accelerat-
ing voltage, 30 nA beam current, 30 seconds on-peak count time and
15 seconds off-peak count time.
4. Results
4.1. Stratigraphic relationship and gravel terrace characterisation
Fluvial gravel terrace successions, such as those deposited on bed-

rock flanking the lower Orange River (Fig. 1) form during a cycle of in-
cision then aggradation (e.g., Bridgland and Westaway, 2008). During
incisional phases, the palaeo-Orange River cut into the bedrock, locally
forming deep scours (10–30 m) below the bedrock strath terrace level
(Figs. 3A, 4). Gravel deposition above strath terraces occurs during ag-
gradational phases that are driven by the combined effects of decreased
stream power and increased sediment supply (e.g., Blum and Törnqvist,
2000). The location of scours are coincident with the outside of meander
bends, changes in bedrock lithology, structural features (e.g., joints),
and tributary input points. The scours underlying the Proto Orange
River deposits are deeper (average depth 10–30 m), than those beneath
the younger Meso Orange River deposits, and have a maximum depth of
40–50 m (Fig. 3A). For the Meso Orange River deposits, their underlying
scours show varying depths but have a maximum depth of 35–40 m
(Fig. 3A). Some scours that underlie Meso deposits might have been
formed during earlier phases of incision given that the Orange River is
a superimposed river. Multiple cycles of bedrock incision and aggrada- Fig. 7. Clast assemblage of Proto and Meso Orange River gravels for size fractions (A) 16–
tion resulted in flights of downward-stepping strath surfaces and dis- 25 mm, (B) 8–16 mm and (C) 3–8 mm for different locations along the river. Data from
sected overlying terrace deposits (Fig. 4A). Although the thickness of Jacob (2005).
(Fig. 5A) and height of coarse grained cross bedding (Fig. 5B) suggest a 4.3. Heavy mineral assemblages of the Proto Orange River and Meso Orange
high energy river system during the Proto incision and aggradation River gravels
cycle than during the Meso (e.g., Dott and Bourgeois, 1982).
The heavy minerals present in the Proto and Meso Orange River
gravels are magnetite, garnet, amphibole, epidote and ilmenite. Titanite,
4.2. Gravel characterisation and zircon are present in trace amounts. Figs. 9 and 10 illustrate the rel-
ative abundance of individual heavy minerals within the overall heavy
The overall makeup of the gravel is a combination of both exotic and fraction according to locality and gravel stratigraphy. In plotting the
locally derived clasts, with the large cobble size fractions (N25 mm) heavy mineral assemblages, the lower density minerals amphibole
dominated by quartzite clasts. Exotic clasts include agate (Fig. 6A), (2.97–3.13 g/cm3) and epidote (3.3–3.6 g/cm3) have been grouped to-
Karoo Supergroup shales and sandstones (Fig. 6B), Karoo Supergroup gether, because they have similar chemical stabilities (Morton and
basalt and banded iron formation (BIF) (Fig. 6C). These clasts are de- Hallsworth, 2007; Andò et al., 2012). These are referred to as
rived from the Orange River catchment area. The relative abundance amphibole-epidote throughout.
of each clast in a given gravel deposit is related to the timing and geo- The Proto Orange River gravel shows relatively higher magnetite
morphic evolution of the Orange River drainage basin. and ilmenite contents than the Meso Orange River gravel for the 0.5–
1.0 mm and 0.25–0.50 mm size fractions (Figs. 9, 10). Most of the gar-
4.2.1. Clast assemblage nets in the Proto Orange River gravel are in the coarsest size fraction
Size fractions 16–25 mm, 8–16 mm and 3–8 mm are reported such that garnet abundance decrease by more than half from the coarse
(Fig. 7) because these contain prominent distinctions between the (1–2 mm) to the fine size fraction (0.25–0.50 mm) (Fig. 9). In contrast,
stratigraphically-distinct Proto and Meso Orange River gravels in in the Meso Orange River deposits, garnet reduces gradually from the
terms of key exotic clasts. The Proto Orange River gravel terrace coarse to the fine size fraction (Fig. 9). For example, at Arrisdrif, garnet
signature is characterised by a dominance of Karoo Supergroup shales content reduces from an average of 89% of the total heavy mineral in
and sandstones among the exotic clasts (Figs. 6B, 7). The exotic clast the 1–2 mm size fraction to 30% in the 0.25–0.50 mm, whereas in the
suite of Meso Orange River gravels is dominated by BIF relative to Meso Orange River gravel it changes from 34% to 26%, respectively
other exotic clasts (Figs. 6C, 7). For example, in the 16–25 mm size frac- (Fig. 9).
tion, Karoo Supergroup sedimentary rock clasts constitute 22% and 7% of The Meso Orange River samples are characterised by a relative higher
the Proto Orange River and Meso Orange River gravels, respectively, and abundance of amphibole-epidote than the Proto Orange River samples
BIF is 6% in the Proto Orange River gravel and 10% in the Meso Orange (Figs. 9, 10). The distinction between the Proto and Meso Orange River
River gravel (Fig. 7). At Auchas Major, the Meso Orange River gravel deposits in terms of amphibole-epidote content is clear at Arrisdrif,
has an uncharacteristic abundance of Karoo shales and sandstones Auchas Lower, Daberas, Lorelei and Boom (Figs. 9, 10). However, at
(Fig. 7). Auchas Major and Sendelingsdrif, the Meso Orange River samples have
Another feature of Meso Orange River gravel is the presence of Karoo low amphibole-epidote content that is similar to the Proto Orange
Supergroup basalt clasts (Fig. 7), sourced from the early Jurassic (190– River samples (Figs. 9, 10). In the Meso Orange River gravel,
183 Ma) Drakensberg Flood Basalts (Duncan et al., 1997; Marsh et al., amphibole-epidote content increases downstream from Boom to
1997; Jacob, 2005; Jourdan et al., 2007), but these are rare in the older Arrisdrif, whereas magnetite decreases downstream most especially for
gravels (Fig. 7). Feldspar clasts were recorded in the small size fractions the 0.5–1.0 mm size fraction (Fig. 10B). However, neither trend is ob-
(8–16 mm and 3–8 mm) in both Proto and Meso Orange River gravels served in the Proto Orange River gravel (Fig. 10). At Boom, for example,
(Figs. 6D, 7). the average amphibole-epidote:magnetite ratio of the Meso Orange
River sample is 0.3 in the 0.5–1.0 mm size fraction, whereas farther
downstream at Arrisdrif it is 0.96 in the same size fraction (Fig. 10B).
4.2.2. Clast roundness There is no difference in the range of grain surface textures on gar-
The lithology of a clast and the distance it travels before deposition is nets between the Proto and Meso Orange River gravels. Conchoidal frac-
reflected in the degree of rounding (Lindsey et al., 2007; Miao et al., tures and etch pits were recorded on both units (Fig. 11A, B). Magnetite
2010). Proto Orange River gravels show a higher degree of rounding shows a much lower degree of dissolution textures compared to garnet
than the Meso Orange River gravels (Fig. 8). For size fractions smaller (Fig. 11C, D). Etch pits are present but rare. Epidote shows much more
than 40 mm, clast roundness decreases exponentially with decreasing extensive chemical etching relative to garnet and magnetite in both
clast size in both the Proto and Meso Orange River gravels (Fig. 8). the Proto and Meso Orange River deposits (Fig. 11E, F). Saw-tooth
Fig. 8. Clast roundness of the Proto and Meso Orange River gravels. Modern Orange River data is included for comparison. Size fraction are +300 mm, +200 mm, +90 mm, +40 mm,
+25 mm, +16 mm, +8 mm and +3 mm. All data from Jacob (2005).
terminations are present on Meso Orange River epidotes (Fig. 11F) but epidote content (Figs. 12, 13). The assemblage difference in the 3–
none was recorded in the Proto Orange River gravels. 25 mm size population between the Proto and Meso is significant (at
a 5% significance level). For example, there are 17 more Karoo shales
and sandstones clasts, and 9 less BIF clasts, in every 100 counted be-
4.4. Distinction between Proto and Meso Orange River deposits on basis of
tween the Proto to Meso (Fig. 13). Namaqua Metamorphic Complex
clast and heavy mineral assemblages
clasts are higher in the Meso Orange River gravels than the Proto Orange
River gravels (Figs. 7, 13).
There is a clear distinction between the Proto and Meso Orange River
Proto and Meso Orange River garnets show similar FeO composi-
gravels, at both clast and heavy mineral scales (Figs. 12, 13). The Proto
tions but with a very narrow range (Fig. 14B, D). However, a small num-
Orange River gravel is characterised by a high percentage of Karoo
ber of garnets from Proto Orange River deposits (n = 4) and Meso
shales and sandstones and low amphibole-epidote content, and the
Orange River deposits (n = 2) show slightly lower FeO than the rest
Meso Orange River gravel is characterised by high BIF and amphibole-
of the group (Fig. 14). When compared to the Namaqua Metamorphic
Complex garnets (Humphreys and Van Bever Donker, 1990; Diener
et al., 2013; Bial et al., 2015) the Orange River garnets are similar to
the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex garnets in both their FeO, MgO
and MnO contents (Fig. 14). An exception are the low FeO, low MgO gar-
nets that are different from the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex gar-
nets (Fig. 14). These are similar to the Gariep Belt garnets (Diener
et al., 2017) (Fig. 14B, D).
Fig. 9. Heavy mineral assemblage of Proto and Meso Orange River deposits for size Fig. 10. Downstream change in amphibole-epidote/magnetite ratio from Boom to Arrisdrif
fractions (A) 1–2 mm, (B) 0.5–1.0 mm and (C) 0.25–0.50 mm for different locations for the Proto Orange River gravel (orange symbols) and Meso Orange River gravel (black
along the river. symbols). (A) 1–2 mm, (B) 0.5–1.0 mm and (C) 0.25–0.50 mm size fractions.
5. Discussion et al., 1982; Bridgland, 1999; Roberts et al., 2008; Claude et al., 2017).
Clast provenance can vary through time due to changes in surface expo-
5.1. Controls on clast assemblage differences sure and availability of different rock types, or through drainage re-
organisation (e.g., Mather, 2000). Re-organisation of drainage basin net-
An interplay of provenance, palaeohydraulics, and reworking, influ- works can be caused by tectonism and volcanism (e.g., Maddy et al.,
ence clast assemblages in the different terrace successions. Provenance 2012; Richardson et al., 2016), or through drainage capture events
is widely invoked as a dominant control on compositional differences be- (e.g., Mather, 2000; Maher et al., 2007) during the evolution of
tween sediments on a regional to local scale (e.g., Gibbard, 1979; Green degradational landscapes. Periods of tectonic uplift, and increased
Fig. 11. SEM images of mineral grains from the Orange River. (A) Etch pits on conchoidally fractured surface (arrows) on garnet from Proto Orange River Sendelingsdrif deposit.
(B) Euhedral etch pits on garnet from Boom Meso Orange River deposit. (C) Honeycomb dissolution texture on magnetite (arrows) from Proto Orange River Arrisdrif deposit.
(D) Large dissolution pit (arrows) on magnetite from Meso Orange River Sendelingsdrif deposit. (E) Irregular etching on epidote from Proto Orange River Auchas Major deposit.
(F) Saw-tooth terminations on epidote from Meso Orange River Arrisdrif deposit.
erosion and sediment flux in southern Africa, that could have influenced Karoo Supergroup, the youngest member of the Karoo Supergroup
the clast assemblage of the Proto and Meso Orange River deposits in- (Duncan et al., 1997; Marsh et al., 1997; Jourdan et al., 2007; Hanson
clude during the Cretaceous (de Wit, 1999; Stevenson and McMillan, et al., 2009), which could be expected to have been eroded relatively
2004; Tinker et al., 2008b; Guillocheau et al., 2012; Richardson et al., early in the erosional history of the drainage basin. There are two possi-
2016, 2017), and the Miocene and Pliocene (Partridge and Maud, 2000; ble explanations for this difference. Firstly, a wetter and more humid cli-
Green et al., 2017). A Pliocene period of uplift, which occurred after de- mate both before and during the Proto Orange River period may have
position of the Proto Orange River gravel, could be invoked to have driv- eliminated basalt preferentially through chemical weathering (Amiotte
en drainage re-organisation and influenced clast assemblage differences Suchet and Probst, 1993; Louvat and Allègre, 1997; Dessert et al., 2001;
between the Proto and Meso Orange River gravels. However, there is nei- Malvoisin et al., 2012; Cox et al., 2016). Secondly, the majority of the ba-
ther a diagnostic clast lithology in either Proto Orange River or Meso salt clasts might have been mechanically broken down during transport
Orange River gravels, nor geomorphological evidence for drainage re- in the Proto Orange River period, which would explain their presence
organisation reported for the Orange River catchment during this period. mostly in the smaller size fractions of 3–8 mm (Fig. 7C). The presence
Only the relative dominance of exotic clasts distinguishes the clast of unweathered feldspar clasts, in the Proto Orange River gravel
assemblages between the stratigraphically distinct Proto and Meso (Fig. 6D), does not support the hypothesis of climate induced chemical
Orange River successions in the Orange River gravel deposits (Figs. 7, weathering of basalt (Pellant, 2000; Maddy et al., 2012; Tan et al.,
12, 13). This suggests that there has not been a major change in sedi- 2017). In addition, Bluck et al. (2007) and Miller (2008) reported that
ment provenance available to the Orange River between the Proto and arid conditions in the region were prevalent in the Eocene, based on
Meso periods of terrace deposition, although different lithologies have the occurrence of thick (18 m) aeolian sandstone overlying basal marine
been eroded and transported during different periods. For example,
the proportions of Karoo shales and sandstones suggest that the major-
ity of the Karoo Supergroup sediments within the Orange River drainage
basin were entrained by the end of Proto-Orange River times and were
less available to the Orange River in Meso-Orange River times. The
opposite is true for the BIF (Figs. 7, 12, 13). Although the erosion rates,
and associated sedimentation rates, of the southern African landscape
remain highly debated (Hawthorne, 1975; Brown et al., 1999;
Gallagher and Brown, 1999; Tinker et al., 2008b; Hanson et al., 2009;
Richardson et al., 2017), sedimentation rates in the Orange Basin off-
shore Namibia and South Africa (Rust and Summerfield, 1990; Aizawa
et al., 2000; Rouby et al., 2009) and Outeniqua Basin, offshore South
Africa (Tinker et al., 2008a), suggest that sediment production and de-
position continued to decrease after the Cretaceous uplift event. The
Proto and Meso Orange River deposits are younger than the Cretaceous,
therefore tectonic uplift may have not directly influenced the clast as-
semblage between the two sets of deposits. However, tectonic uplift
may have influenced the rate at which Karoo rocks were eroded such
that most of the Karoo shales and sandstone were eroded during the
Proto Orange River period and were less extensively exposed and avail-
able for transport in the Meso Orange River period. In summary, changes
in the availability of rocks exposed in the drainage basin were a more sig-
nificant control on differences between the Proto and Meso Orange River
deposits clast assemblages than drainage re-organisation, as evidenced
by decreasing Karoo shale and sandstones rock clasts and increasing
BIF from the Proto Orange River deposits to the Meso Orange River de-
posits (Fig. 7).
Rivers vary in their discharge capacity and power through time due
to changes in channel dimensions, drainage basin area, gradient, and
climate (Schumm and Lichty, 1965; Bull, 1979; Charlton, 2008;
Hamers et al., 2015). This impacts their ability to erode and transport
sediment of different calibre (size and density), and the clast character
(Charlton, 2008). The higher degree of clast roundness in the Proto
Orange River gravel relative to the Meso Orange River gravel (Fig. 8)
suggests a higher sediment load and/or a higher supply of relatively
abrasive quartzite (Lindsey et al., 2007; Miao et al., 2010). The thicker,
and volumetrically larger Proto Orange River gravel terrace deposits
(up to 50 m thick) (Figs. 3, 4A) provide evidence for a more powerful
river, with higher sediment loads, during the incisional phase compared
to the Meso Orange River incisional phase with thinner gravel terrace
deposits (6–23 m thick) (Fig. 3A). Within the study area, there is a
steeper river gradient of the Proto age Orange River (0.69 m/km) com-
pared to the Meso age Orange River (0.60 m/km) (Fig. 3A). A steeper
surface gradient would increase the power and carrying capacity of
the Proto age Orange River, despite its more sinuous planform (Fig. 3C).
Fig. 12. Clast assemblage and heavy mineral assemblage variations between Proto Orange
There is a paucity of Karoo Supergroup basalt clasts in the Proto Or- River and Meso Orange River gravel. Heavy mineral assemblage data is from 0.5–1.0 mm
ange River gravel (1%) relative to the Meso Orange River gravel (3%) size fraction whereas clast assemblage data is for (A) 16–25 mm, (B) 8–16 mm and (C) 3–
(Figs. 7, 13) even though they are both derived from the Drakensburg 8 mm size fractions.
gravel at Buntfeldschuh, an Eocene outcrop of shoreline deposits about suggests minimal reworking and downstream redeposition of older de-
130 km north of the Orange River mouth. Therefore, the Proto and posits within the study area (Fig. 8).
Meso deposits were exposed to similar arid conditions. Evidence from in-
cision rates and clast roundness suggests that the Proto-Orange River 5.2. Controls on mineralogy of heavy mineral assemblages
was a higher energy environment than the Meso-Orange River sedimen-
tary system, and one in which basalt clasts would be preferentially me- Physical sorting, mechanical breakdown, and dissolution by chemi-
chanically degraded (Figs. 3A, 8). However, the garnet composition cal weathering influence the preservation of heavy mineral assemblages
data suggest that the heavy minerals are sourced locally from the (Morton and Hallsworth, 2007; Weibel and Friis, 2007). The distance a
Namaqua Metamorphic Complex and Gariep Belt (Fig. 14). Therefore heavy mineral grain travels before deposition depends both on its den-
the heavy mineral anomalies that have been liberated from the mechan- sity and size (Komar and Wang, 1984).
ical disintegration of catchment area derived Karoo basalts could not be Amphibole-epidote shows significant changes in proportion be-
established. However, this does not exclude that some heavy minerals tween the Proto and Meso Orange River deposits (Figs. 9, 10, 12, 13).
could be derived from higher in the catchment. Amphibole-epidotes are sourced from the local Namaqua Metamorphic
The Proto Orange River and older deposits were incised by the Meso Complex rocks (Botha and Grobler, 1979; Bailie et al., 2010) (Table 1) on
Orange River system, and were available to be reworked and incorpo- the basis that high amphibole-epidote proportions coincide with high
rated into the Meso Orange River deposits. Locally, downstream amounts of Namaqua Metamorphic Complex clasts (Fig. 13). In addi-
reworking of older deposits can be an important process as suggested tion, the similarity in composition of the detrital Orange River garnets
by the uncharacteristic abundance of Karoo Supergroup shales and and the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex garnets, and to a lesser extent
sandstones in the Auchas Major Meso deposit (Fig. 7). However, in gen- the Gariep Belt garnets, constrain the provenance of the majority of the
eral, the absence of significant reworking of the Proto Orange River de- detrital heavy minerals in the Orange River gravels to these rocks
posits is striking (Fig. 7). The lack of evidence for extensive reworking is (Fig. 14). Among the trace minerals in the Orange River gravels (titanite
possibly because the Orange River evolved to a straighter planform dur- and zircon), titanite has been reported in the Gariep Belt rocks (Frimmel
ing the Meso period (Fig. 3C), such that the Proto Orange River gravel et al., 1996; Frimmel and Frank, 1998) (Table 1) but not in Namaqua
terraces are well preserved because they are largely situated outside Metamorphic Complex rocks. Therefore, titanite provides evidence for
the influence of the Meso Orange River course. The decrease in clast a contribution of Gariep Belt rocks to the lower Orange River gravels.
roundness from the Proto to the Meso Orange River deposits also Commonly, amphibole is absent in buried sediment owing to its chem-
ical instability at depths N600 m (Morton, 1984; von Eynatten and
Fig. 13. Clast assemblage (inset) and heavy mineral assemblage of Proto and Meso Orange River deposits. Size fractions are 3–25 mm and 0.25–0.50 mm for clast and heavy mineral
assemblage data, respectively. Clast assemblage and elevation data after Jacob (2005) and Jarvis et al. (2008), respectively.
Fig. 14. Comparison of Orange River garnets with garnet composition of Namaqua Metamorphic Complex and Gariep Belt. (A) Garnet compositions in MgO versus FeO from the Namaqua
Metamorphic Complex (Humphreys and Van Bever Donker, 1990; Cornell et al., 1992; Diener et al., 2013; Bial et al., 2015) and Gariep Belt garnets (Diener et al., 2017). (B) Data for Proto
and Meso Orange River garnets. (C) MgO versus FeO from the Namaqua Metamorphic Complex and Gariep Belt (D) Data for Proto and Meso Orange River garnets.
Gaupp, 1999; Mange and Morton, 2007). Epidote also has similar diage- (Pellant, 2000) where more magnetite is retained in the upstream de-
netic stability to amphibole persisting only to 1100 m (Morton and posits. This trend also suggests that there is no further addition of
Hallsworth, 2007). However, loss of amphibole and epidote due to dis- Namaqua Metamorphic Complex material to the Orange River down-
solution alone cannot explain their relatively low abundance in the stream of Boom. The low abundance of amphibole-epidote in the
Proto Orange River deposits that have a maximum thickness of 50 m Auchas Major Meso Orange River sample (Figs. 9, 13) coincides with a
(Jacob, 2005) (Fig. 3A) and a thin sand cover (b2 m). Furthermore, high abundance of Karoo Supergroup shale and sandstone (Fig. 7),
chemical weathering is considered unlikely given the presence of un- which are characteristic features of the Proto Orange River deposits.
weathered feldspar (Fig. 6D). The increase of amphibole-epidote con- This suggests that reworking of the Proto Orange River gravel affected
tent from the Proto to Meso Orange River deposits (Figs. 9, 10, 13) the clast and heavy mineral assemblages by diluting the amphibole-
could be influenced by the interpreted decrease in river energy that in- epidote content of the sand sized fractions at this location. The lack of
creased the preservation potential of mechanically weaker and softer reworking of the older Proto Orange River deposits is also evident in
minerals, such as amphibole and epidote. This is supported by garnet mineral surface textures, because the magnitude of chemical dissolution
showing conchoidal fractures that are produced by mechanical process- (e.g., etch pits) increases with decreasing mineral stability from magne-
es (Velbel et al., 2007), although conchoidal fractures are also present on tite and garnet to epidote in both the older and younger deposits. A
garnets from the Meso Orange River deposits (Fig. 11A). Therefore, the large percentage of the garnets in the Proto Orange River gravel are rel-
dominant control on the increase in the proportion of amphibole- atively coarse (1–2 mm) (Fig. 9A) whereas the fine grained garnets
epidote (Figs. 9, 10, 13) is interpreted to be a consequence of the larger (0.5–1.0 mm and 0.25–0.50 mm) appear to be much less common
influx of Namaqua Metamorphic Complex-derived material (Fig. 15). (Fig. 9B, C), presumably removed by higher water energy in the Proto
The downstream decrease of magnetite and increase of amphibole- period and transported offshore. Imbricated clasts in the Proto Orange
epidote between Boom and Arrisdrif in the Meso Orange River gravel River gravel attest to a high energy bedload-dominated river system
(Fig. 10) coincides with the downstream decrease in gravel grain size (e.g., Ashley et al., 1988; Wittenberg, 2002) (Fig. 5A).
and increase in sand content for both Proto and Meso Orange River de- This study has established that the Proto and Meso Orange River de-
posits. Given that both magnetite and amphibole-epidote were liberat- posits are not only distinguishable from each other at clast scale, but
ed from Namaqua Metamorphic Complex and Gariep Belt rocks also at a heavy mineral scale (Figs. 7, 9, 13). The integrated clast and
(Fig. 14), their different downstream changes in concentrations may heavy mineral assemblage of the Orange River deposits can therefore
be controlled by density, of 5.2 g/cm3 and 2.97–3.13 g/cm3, respectively be used to understand the distribution and timing of the deposition of
Fig. 15. Synthesis on major changes in clast and heavy mineral assemblage of the Orange River deposits, and the interpreted controls. Yellow, brown and green arrows point in the direction
of increase.
the coeval marine gravels in response to the evolving depositional and globally. The sand size fraction and the clasts can be derived from differ-
erosional phases of the Orange River. A good understanding of the strat- ent sources such that they carry different provenance signatures and re-
igraphic record of the gravels, in terms of age of deposition and sedi- flect different transport histories. This is likely to be a similar scenario in
ment distribution patterns for marine deposits, is important for better other continental-scale bedrock rivers. Therefore, prediction of the na-
resource exploitation and improved sampling and resource exploration ture of the fine size fraction on the basis of clast provenance alone is
techniques. problematic. Mechanically weaker rocks such as basalt may be lost.
Therefore, using clast assemblages to reconstruct the drainage history
5.3. Implications for river terrace deposits analysis of high energy river systems should take into account the possibility
of loss of mechanically weaker clasts. Bridgland (1999) used clast anal-
The clast assemblage of the Proto and Meso Orange River gravel ter- ysis to reconstruct the drainage evolution of the Thames River, England,
race deposits is controlled by catchment-scale processes (Fig. 15). In and argued that tributaries have been re-organised over its history and
contrast, differences in the heavy mineral assemblages between the that the river has diverted its course in response to middle Pleistocene
two gravels (Figs. 9, 13) is influenced by local controls, such as the avail- glaciation based on evidence from changes in the composition of clasts.
ability of Namaqua Metamorphic Complex rocks to the Orange River However, chalk is an important rock type exhumed in the Thames
and the lower preservation potential of amphibole-epidote. This implies drainage basin. Therefore reconstructing palaeo-tributaries that have
that extrinsic controls on clast assemblage and intrinsic controls on drained solely through chalk on the basis of clast assemblage alone is
heavy mineral assemblage of the Orange River gravels need to be con- problematic in this case, because chalk is mechanically weak. Through
sidered in evaluation of terrace deposits of other bedrock river systems clast analysis of late Quaternary sediments, Jones (2000) noted a
downstream decrease of granite clasts in the Pineta Basin, Spain, and at- Aizawa, M., Bluck, B.J., Cartwright, J., Milner, S., Swart, R., Ward, J.D., 2000. Constraints on
the geomorphological evolution of Namibia from the offshore stratigraphic record.
tributed it to mechanical breakdown. If these Pineta Basin sediments Communications of the Geological Survey of Namibia 12, 337–346.
were deposited by a higher energy river system, the granite clasts Amiotte Suchet, P., Probst, J.L., 1993. Modelling of atmospheric CO2 consumption by
might have been broken down and their signature lost. In such cases, chemical weathering of rocks: application to the Garonne, Congo and Amazon basins.
Chemical Geology 107, 205–210.
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blages would be a better approach because heavy minerals would weathering and diagenesis: a catalog for optical analysis. Sedimentary Geology 280,
have survived mechanical breakdown and retained the source signa- 165–178.
Ashley, G.M., Renwick, W.H., Haag, G.H., 1988. Channel form and processes in bedrock
ture. Therefore, the heavy mineral assemblage technique is a useful and alluvial reaches of the Raritan River, New Jersey. Geology 16, 436–439.
tool for studying drainage basin evolution in areas where rivers and Bailie, R., Gutzmer, J., Rajesh, H.M., 2010. Lithogeochemistry as a tracer of the tectonic set-
their associated tributaries drain areas whose geology is dominated by ting, lateral integrity and mineralization of a highly metamorphosed Mesoproterozoic
volcanic arc sequence on the eastern margin of the Namaqua Province, South Africa.
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Long Term Controls On Continental Scale Bedrock River Terrace de - 2018 - Sedime

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Sedimentary Geology 364 (2018) 103–120

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Long-term controls on continental-scale bedrock river terrace deposition

Permo-Carboniferous to Jurassic Karoo Supergroup (Visser, 1993; Table 1

4.1. Stratigraphic relationship and gravel terrace characterisation

Fluvial gravel terrace successions, such as those deposited on bed-

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