PHY 121

ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM and MORDEN PHYSICS

 RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

 E.M.F.

 KIRCHOFF’S LAWS

 POTENTIOMETER

 WHEAT STONE BRIDGES

Prepared By
OGBAN PETER U.

1
RESISTANCE
The resistance R of a conductor is defined as the ratio V/I, where V
is the potential difference V is applied to two conductors A and B,
and a smaller current I flows in A, then the resistance of A is
greater than that of B. we then write:
𝑉
=𝑅
𝐼
Symbols used to Represent Different Type of Resistors and Meters
R
Fixed Resistor or

Variable Resistor or

Potential divider or

Meters G or 
V A
voltmeter
voltmeter Ammeter

Conductance (a): is defined as the ratio I/V and is therefore, the

inverse of resistance (i.e. I/R in numerical value). The unit of
conductance is Siemens (s).
Example:
(1) A current of 2 mA flows in a ratio resistance R when a
potential difference of 4v is connected. What are the values of
resistance and conductance?

2
 Solution:
𝑉 4
Recall, 𝑅 = = = 2 𝑥 103 = 2000
𝐼 (2 𝑥 10 −3 )

Resistance in Series
The resistors of an electric circuit may be arranged in series, so that
the charges carrying the current flow through each in turn, or they
maybe arranged in parallel, so that the flow of charge divides
between them.

Consider three passive resistors in series, carrying a current I, as

shown in the diagram below:

R1 B R2 C R3
A D

VAB VBC VCD

I

I
VAD

Resistance in Series

If VAD is the potential difference across the whole system, the

electrical energy supplied to the system per second is IVAD electrical
energy per second in all the resistors.

3
 Therefore, IVAD = IVAB + IVBC + IVCD

 VAD = VAB + VBC + VCD ………. (1)

the individual potential difference are given as:

VAB = IR1, VBC = IR2, VCD = IR3 …………… (2)

From equ. 1,

VAD = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

= I(R1 + R2 + R3) ………. (3)

Also, the effective resistance of the system,

𝑉𝐴𝐷
R= = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ……… (4)
𝐼

Resistance in Parallel
Consider there passive resistors connected in parallel between the
points A, B as shown in the figure below,

R1

I3
R2
A B
I2

R3
I1
I

A B
+ -
VAB

4
The potential difference between A and B is the same for each
resistor. A current I enters the system at A and leaves at B setting
up a potential difference VAB between those points. The current
branches into I1, I2, I3 through the three elements therefore, I = I 1 +
I 2 + I 3.
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵
𝐼1 = , 𝐼2 = , 𝐼3 = , …………. (5)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1
 I = VAB + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

𝐼 1 1 1 1
Also, = = + + …………….. (6)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Where, R is the effective resistance (VAB/I) of the of the system.

Examples
Four resistors are connected as shown below
(a) Find the equivalent resistance between points A and C
(b) What is the current in each resistor if a potential difference of
42v is maintained between A and C.

6.0

I1
8.0 4.0
A I C
I2

3.0

5
Solution

The Equivalent resistance in series

Reg = R1 + R2 = 8.0 + 4.0 = 12

The equivalent resistance in parallel

1 1 1
= =
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 1
 Req = 1 1 = 1 1 = 1
+ +
𝑅1 𝑅2 6 3 2

 Req = 2.0

The equivalent resistance from A to C is

12 + 2 = 14

𝑉𝐴𝐵
(b) Using 𝑅 =
𝐼

𝑉𝐴𝐶 42𝑉
 I= = = 3.0𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 14 

Electromotive Force (E.M.F)

Consider the current and potential difference P.d., in circuits
connected to a generator such as a battery. If a high resistance
voltmeter is connected across the terminals of a dry battery B, the
meter may read about 1.5v, since practically no current flows from
the battery in this case we say it is an „open circuit‟ the p.d. across
the terminals of a battery (or any other generator) on open circuit is
called ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE or EMF (E).

6
 When a resistor is connected to the battery, the current flows
through the internal resistance, r, of the battery to complete the
circuit flow. The e.m.f. of a battery depends on the nature of the
chemicals used and not on it‟s size. A tiny battery has the same
e.m.f. as a large battery made of the same chemicals. The internal
resistance of the tiny battery, however, is much less than that of the
large battery. Provided only a small current is taken from the
battery, its e.m.f. and resistance are fairly constant.

1.25v
0.7v
V V
V
1.50v = E
E, r
T F B
B
B I1
I2

E R
r R
25
5
(ii)
(iii)
(i)

E.m.f. and internal resistance

Any electrical generator has two important properties, an e.m.f; E

and an internal resistance r. As shown in figure (i) above E, and r
may be represented separately in a diagram, though in practice
there are together between the terminals T.T. so we can think of the
battery as an electric pump with its e.m.f. E pushing the current

7
round the circuit through both the external (outside) resistor R and
the internal resistor r. It implies that the e.m.f. E is the p.d. across
the external resistor R plus the p.d across the internal resistance r.

Terminal P.D
In figure (ii) above, a resistor of 25 is connected to the battery B so
that a current I, flows in the circuit. The voltmeter reading across
the battery terminals, or terminal p.d., may then be 1.25v, although
the e.m.f. is 1.5v. When the resistor is replaced by one of 5 as in
figure (iii), a larger current I2 flows and the voltmeter reading or
terminal p.d. is now 0.7v. The terminal p.d. varies when a current
flows from a battery, because the voltmeter is connected across the
external or outside resistance in figure (ii). So 1.25v is the p.d.
across the25 resistor. Now the e.m.f., 1.5v maintains the current
in the whole circuit, t hat is through the external and internal r.
therefore deduce that the p.d. across the internal resistance r = 1.5
– 1.25 = 0.25v.

Similarly, in figure (iii), 0.75v is the p.d. across the external

resistance 5. So in this case the P.d. across the internal resistance
r = 1.5 – 0.75 = 0.75v. A common error is to think that the
voltmeter across the terminals reads the e.m.f. This is not the case
here as there is a P.d. across the internal resistance when a current
flows, and the voltmeter can only read the p.d. across the external
resistance R, which is the terminal p.d.
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In figure (ii), the p.d. across the 25 external resistor R is 1.25v and
the p.d. across the internal resistance r = 0.25v. Since the same
current flows in R and r it flows that R = 5r or r = R/5 = 5.

Similarly, the p.d. across the external resistor R of 5 in figure (iii)

is 0.75v and that across the internal resistance r is 0.75v. so r = R =
5, as previously calculated.

Note that as the external resistance R increases, the terminal p.d

increases. When R is an infinitely high value, so that I = 0, the
terminal p.d. is equal to the e.m.f. It therefore implies that e.m.f., E
= p.d across the whole circuit, R plus r.
From figure (ii), the p.d. across R is IR and the p.d across r is
Ir. So,
E = IR + Ir = I (R + r) ….. (1)
𝐸
Or I = ….. (2)
𝑅+𝑟

Note that when the e.m.f., E is used to find the current I, the
resistance (R + r) of the whole circuit is required. On the other
hand, the terminal p.d., v = p.d. across external resistor R
𝐸𝑅
 terminal p.d. v = IR =
𝑅+𝑟

Further, from (1) V = E – Ir ….... (3)

And the current from (1). Ir = E – IR = E – V

𝐸−𝑣
𝑟 = …….. (4)
𝐼

9
Example

Suppose a current of 0.5A flows from a battery of an e.m.f.,

unknown and internal resistance 4 having a terminal p.d. of IV.
Calculate the e.m.f.
Using V = E – Ir

 E = V + Ir = 1 + (0.5 x 4)

E = 3V

KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchoff extended Ohm‟s law to the network of electrical conductors
and gave two laws, which together enabled the current in any part
of the network to be calculated.

Kirchoff‟s first law states that the total current flowing into the
junction in a network is equal to the total current flowing out of it.
Consider the figure below:

I1

  I 1 = I2 + I3
A I3

I2

Fig. (i)

10
The algebraic sum of the current at a junction of a circuit is zero.
Where a current is assigned positive if it flows towards the point,
and negative if it flows away from it, it implies that at point A in
figure (i) I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
Consider the figure below:

E1

I1
I1 - Ig

A C
Ig
E2
G
Y Rg

Fig. (ii)

Kirchoff‟s second law states that; in a closed loop, the algebraic sum
of the e.m.f.s is equal to the algebraic sum of all the p.d.s in that
circuit.
So, going clockwise round the loop AYCA in fig. (ii) above,
E2 = RAC (II – Ig) - RgIg

Example
Using Kirchoff‟s laws find the currents I1& I2 from the network
below, having tow batteries one of the e.m.f. 6v and internal
resistance 3 and the other of e.m.f. 4v and internal resistance 2
are in parallel across an external resistance R of 8

11
 I1 E1 r1
F G
6v 3

I2 E2 r2
F G
4v 2
I1 + I2
R 8
A B

VAB

From Kirchoff‟s first law, the current passing through the 8 wire is
(I1 + I2), assuming I1 and I2 are the currents through the cells.
Taking closed circuits formed by each cell with the 8 wire, from
the second law,
E1 = 6 = 3I1 + 8 (I1 + I2) = 11I1 + 8I2

E2 = 4 = 2I2 + 8(I1 + I2) = 8I1 + 10I2

Solving the two equations

I1 = 0.61A, I2 = - 0.09A

POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor component with a
sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. When two
terminals are used, it acts as a variable resistor or theostat.
Potentiometer measuring instrument is essentially a voltage divider
used for measuring electric potential (voltage); the component is an
implementation of the same principle.

12
USES OF POTENTIOMETER
Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such
as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by
a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a
joystick. Potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the
controlled load.

When a steady current passes through a uniform resistance wire

the potential gradient along it is also uniform. For example, if an
electric current of 0.5A passes through a uniform wire of resistance
5 Ohms and one metre long, the resistance of each centimeter is
0.05 Ohms, the potential difference across each centimeter is 0.025
volts (i.e. 0.5A x 0.05 Ohms) using Ohm‟s Law.

Battery
Key
()
D K1 Rheostat

 B
100cm
Sliding contact (jockey)
()

Galvanometer
Safety resistance

As the wire is uniform, the uniform potential gradients along the

wire are the potential difference across the whole length of the wire

13
divided by the length of the wire. The drops V1, V2 across two
different lengths, L1, L2 of the same wire are respectively given by:
V1 = 0.025L1 and

V2 = 0.025L2
𝑉1 𝐿1
So that, =
𝑉2 𝐿2

Thus, the potential drops down two different lengths‟. This

illustrates the method of obtaining potential differences of known
values and measuring the ratio between them. The potentiometer
operates on this principle.

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT

Wheatstone designed a circuit called a „bridge circuit‟ which gave an
accurate method for measuring resistance.

B  I2
I1
P Q

A G 
C
I1
R +

D

14
In figure (i) above, x is the unknown resistance, and P, Q, R are
resistance boxes. One of these usually R is adjusted until the
galvanometer G between A and C shows no deflection, a so-called
„balance‟ condition. In this case the current Ig in
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑋

𝑄𝑅
x =
𝑃

Wheatstone Bridge Proof

At balance, since no current flows through the galvanometer, the
points A and C must be at the same potential.
Therefore, VAB = VCB and VAD = VCD
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐵
Using ratios, = ……. (i)
𝑉𝐴𝐷 𝑉𝐶𝐷

Since Ig = O, P and R carry the same current, I1, and X and Q carry
the same current, I2, so from
V = IR
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝐼1 𝑃 𝑃
 = =
𝑉𝐴𝐷 𝐼1 𝑅 𝑅

𝑉𝐶𝐵 𝐼2 𝑄 𝑄
and = = ……… (ii)
𝑉𝐶𝐷 𝐼2 𝑋 𝑋

from eqn. (i) and (ii)

𝑃 𝑄
=
𝑅 𝑋

𝑄𝑅
𝑋=
𝑃

15
Exactly the same relationship between the four resistance is
obtained if the galvanometer and cell positions are interchanged.
Further analysis of the circuit shows that the bridge is most
sensitive when the galvanometer is connected between the junction
of the highest resistances and the junction of the lowest
resistances.

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 COURSE:

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

 ELECTROLYSIS

 FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS

 MAGNETIC FIELDS

 MAGNETIC FORCES ON CONDUCTORS

 HALL’S EFFECT

By

ACHIBIRI SAMUEL UZOMA SMITH

17
ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis is the process of using direct current (DC) to initiate a
chemical reaction. Electrolysis is derived from two Greek words –
“electron” and “lysis” – meaning amber or change and dissolution.
Knowledge and use of electrolysis has been known since 1785 when
Martins Van Marum used electrolysis to reduce tin, zinc and
antimony from their salts.

Key Words and Phrases

 Anode: This is the positive electrode in a cell.
 Cathode: This isthe negative electrode in a cell.
 Electrolysis:The production of a chemical reaction by the flow
of electric current through a solution.
 Valence: Represents the net change in electronic units carried
by an ion.
 Ion: An ion may be either a charged atom or a charged group
of atoms.
 Electrolyte: This is a substance containing free ions which
are the carriers of electric current in electrolysis. If the ions
are not mobile as in a solid salt, electrolysis cannot take place.
 Chemical Equivalent Weight: The atomic weight of an
element divided by its valence is known as the chemical
equivalent weight of the element.

18
  Electrodes: These are conductors in the form of wires, rods or
plates through which an electric current enters or leaves the
electrolyte.
 Cations: Thisare the positively charged ions in an electrolyte.
 Anions: These are the negatively charged ions in an
electrolyte.

When an electrolyte is dissolved in water, it breaks up into

positively and negatively charged ions, making the solution an
electric conductor. When a potential difference is applied to the two
electrodes, the battery or generator of electric current pumps
electrons from its anode to the cathode. The negatively charged
cathode now attracts cations in the electrolyte to itself. The cations
accept electrons to become electrically neutral and are eventually
discharged at the cathode. The cathode of the battery draws
electrons from the anode of the electrolytic cell. The anions in the
electrolyte are attracted to the positively charged anode, where the
give up their electrons to become electrically neutral and are also
discharged.

19
Hence, an electric current passes through the complete circuit.
DC Supply

Cathode+ - anode

+ -

Anode Cathode

- +
Electrolyte

Anions - + Cations

Fig. 1: Mechanism of electrolysis

The required product of electrolysis are in different physical states

from the electrolyte and can be removed by some physical
processes. For example, in the electrolysis of brine to produce
hydrogen and chlorine, the products are gaseous. These gaseous
products bubble from the electrolyte and are collected. In general,
metals or hydrogen gas are discharged at the cathode while non-
metals (except hydrogen) are discharged at the anode.

20
Electrolysis of Acidified Water
Acidified water is made by adding a few drops of tetraoxosulphate
(vi) acid to water. Therefore, the electrolysis of acidified water is the
same as the electrolysis of dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid.
Acidified water contain the following:
H2SO4 H2O
Cathions 2H+(ag) H+(aq)
Anions 𝑆𝑂42−(𝑎𝑞) 𝑂𝐻 −(𝑎𝑞)
Concentration of ions High Low
Position in electrochemical series 𝑂𝐻− are higher in the series
than 𝑆𝑂42−

21
At the Cathode: The H+ ions migrate to the cathode where they
acquire an electron each to form neutral hydrogen
atoms. These atoms then combine in pairs to
produce diatomic molecules of gaseous hydrogen.
H+(age) + e- H

H+H H2(g)

At the anode: Both 𝑆𝑂42− and OH- migrate to the anode, where OH-
are preferentially discharged. Each OH- loses its
electron to the anod to become a neutral – OH
group. Two – OH groups react to form one molecule
of water and one atom of oxygen. Gaseous oxygen is
produced when the oxygen atoms combine in pairs
to form diatomic molecules.
𝑂𝐻 − (𝑎𝑞)𝑂𝐻 + 𝑒 −
𝑂𝐻 + 𝑂𝐻  𝐻2 𝑂𝑎𝑗 + 𝑂
𝑂 + 𝑂  𝑂2 (𝑔)
Summary
Cathodic Half-reaction: 4𝐻+ 𝑎𝑞 + 4𝑒 −2𝐻2 (𝑔)
Anodic half-reaction: 4𝑂𝐻− 𝑎𝑞 2𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙 + 𝑂2 𝑔 + 4𝑒 −
Overall reaction: 4𝐻2 𝑂 𝑙  4𝐻+ 𝑎 + 4𝑂𝐻− (𝑎𝑞)
2𝐻2 𝑔 + 𝑂2 𝑔 + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
2𝐻2 𝑙 2𝐻2 𝑔 + 𝑂2 (𝑔)

22
The electrolysis of acidified water yields 2 volumes of hydrogen at
the cathode and 1 volume of oxygen at the anode, i.e. the ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen by volume is2:1 respectively.

FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS

Faraday‟s laws of electrolysis are quantitative relationships based
on the electrochemical researches published by Michael Faraday in
1834.

Several versions of the laws can be found in textbooks and in

scientific literature. The most common statements resemble the
following:

Faraday’s First Law of Electrolysis: The mass of a substance

altered at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to
the quantity of electricity transferred at that electrode. Quantity of
electricity refers to the quantity of electric charge, measured in
coulomb.
MQ ……………………… (1)
M  It ……………………… (2) where Q = It
M = EIt ……………………… (3)

E is a constant which is defined as the mass in grams of a

substance liberated by the passage of 1 coulomb of electricity.

23
Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis: When the same quantity of
electricity is passed through different electrolytes, the relative
number of moles of the elements discharged are inversely
proportional to the charges on the ions of the elements.

The minimum quantity of electricity required to liberate one mole of

singly-charged ions, such as hydrogen or chloride ions, is 96500
coulombs. This quantity of electricity is called the Faraday and is
denoted by F. This follows that two faradays will be needed to
discharge one mole of ions of a divalent or radical such as zinc or
tetraoxosulphat (vi).

Faraday‟s two laws can be summarized as follows:

𝑄 𝑀
𝑀= ……………. (4)
𝐹 𝑉

Where M is the mass of the substance liberated at an electrode in

grams, Q is the total electric charge pass through the substance F =
96485Cmol-1 is the Faraday Constant, M is the molar mass of the
substance and finally v is the valency number of the ions of the
substance.

For Faraday‟s First Law, M, F, and V are constants, so that the

larger the value of Q the larger M will be. For Faraday‟s Second

24
Law, Q, F, and v are constants, such that the larger the value of the
equivalent weight the larger M will be.

Equation (4) can also be written as:

𝐼𝑡 𝑀
𝑀= …………………. (5)
𝐹 𝑉

Example 1
A charge of 2 x 10-4F is passed through an electrolytic containing
ferric ions (Fe+++). Assuming that the only cathode reaction is Fe+++ +
3e+- Fe, What mass of iron will be deposited (Atomic weight of
iron is 55.85.
M=?
Q = 2 x 10-4F
M = 55.85
V=3
Recall that:
𝑄 𝑀 2 𝑥 10 −4 𝐹 55.85
𝑀= = 𝑥
𝐹 𝑉 𝐹 3
55.85
= 2 𝑥 10−4 𝑥
3

= 3.72 𝑥 10−3 𝑘𝑔 = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟐𝒈

Example 2
Calculate the mass of silver deposited when a current of 2.6A is
passed through a solution of a silver salt for 70minutes (Ag = 108; 1
Faraday = 96500C).

25
 M = 108
F = 96400C
t = 70 x 605 = 42005
I = 2.6A
M=?
V=i
𝑄 𝑀
𝑀=
𝐹 𝑉
𝐴𝑔+ 𝑒𝑞 + 𝑒 − − 𝐴𝑔(𝑠)
108(g) IF 108g
𝐼𝑡 𝑀 2.6 𝑥 4200 108
𝑀= = 𝑥
𝐹 𝑉 96500 1
= 12.22g

MAGNETISM
Magnets are objects that produce magnetic fields and attract metals
like iron, nickel and cobalt. Magnetic field lines of force enter a
magnet from the south pole and exit at the north pole. Permanent
or hard magnets create their own magnetic fields all the time. While
temporary or soft magnets produce magnetic fields while in the
presence of a magnetic field and for a short while after exiting the
field. Electro-magnets on the other hand, produce magnetic fields
only when electric current travels through their coils.

26
In the past magnets were usually made of metals or metallic alloys.
But these days you have magnets made from other materials such
as ceramic, Alnico (Aluminum, nickel, and cobalt) Neodymium,
Samarium Cobalt and Polymers. What is responsible for magnetism
in magnets? To find the answer, just Read on.

Magnetic Domains
Each electron in an atom acts like a tiny electromagnet. The
magnetic fields of a group of atoms close to each other combine
together to form a domain. Although magnetic domains can contain
as much as 1020 electrons they are still usually very small ranging
from around 10 to 1000 microns. Thus a small sample of iron can
contain a huge number of magnetic domains. When a piece of metal
is not magnetized, its magnetic domains point in random directions
metal or a temporary magnet, the domains tend to align with the
external filed, and return to their random arrangements when the
field is removed.

Domain of a piece of iron Domain of a magnet

27
Forces of Objects in Magnetic Fields
When a sample made of iron, cobalt, or nickel is placed in the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet, the field lines become
concentrated within the sample. Lines leaving the N – pole of the
magnet enter one end of the sample, pass through it, and leave at
the other end. Thus, the end of the sample closets to the magnet‟s
N-pole becomes the sample‟s S-pole and the sample is attracted to
the magnet.

Magnetic fields also exert forces on other magnets. The field

produced by the N-pole of one magnet pushes out and naturally
enters the south pole of another magnet, the attractive force then
creates another larger magnet. Like poles repel each other becomes
their lines of force are traveling in opposite directions, clashing with
each other rather than moving together.

The figures above show to separate magnets be and after the are
brought close to each other.

28
Magnetic Fields
The region round a magnet, where a magnetic force occurs, is called
a magnetic field. The magnetic field lines are drawn by means of a
compass needle placed near the magnet. The direction of the
magnetic field at a given point is the direction of the north pole of
the compass needle points. Magnetic field lines are drawn so that
the tangent to a field line at any point gives the direction of the
magnetic floes density at that point, and they are also drawn so
that the number of lines per unit cross-sectional area is
proportional to the magnitude of the magnetic field.

Experimentally it is found that when a charged particle (either alone

or as part of a current) moves through a magnetic field, a force due
to the field can exert a force on the particle. If we fire a charged

particle through a point at which a magnetic field 𝐵 is to be defined,

using various directions and speeds for the particle and
determining the force FB that acts on the particle at that point. We
find that when the particles velocity is along a particular axis

through the point, force FB is zero. For all other directions of 𝑉 the

magnitude of FB is zero. For all other directions of 𝑉 the magnitude

of FB is always proportional to Vsin. Where  is the angle between

the zero – force axis and the direction of 𝑉 . Hence, the direction of

FB is always perpendicular to the direction of 𝑉 .

 𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞 𝑉 𝑥 𝐵 ……………………….. (1)

29
The force 𝐹𝐵 a particle is equal to the charge q times the cross

product of its velocity and the field 𝐵.

𝐹𝐵 = /𝑞/𝑣𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛  ………………………. (2)

The SI unit for 𝐵 that follows equation (2) is the newton per
coulomb-meter per second. For convenience, this is called tasla(T)
after Nikola Tesla a Serbian – American inventor. An earlier (non-SI)

unit for 𝐵, still in common use, is the gauss (G).

1tesla = 104gauss.
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑁.𝑠
1tesla = IT = =1
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 /𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 ) 𝐶.𝑚

When both magnetic field 𝐵 and an electrig field E are present in a

region, the force on a test charge is the vector sum of the electric
and magnetic forces: Ftot = q [E + (V x B)]. This relation is known as
the lorents equation.
Ftot = q [E + (v x B)] ………………………. (3)

Crossed Fields

Both electrical field 𝐸 and magnetic field 𝐵 can produce a force on a

charged particle. When the two fields are perpendicular to each
other, they are said to be crossed fields. J J Thompson in 1897
used crossed fields in his experiments that led to the discovery of
the electron. A modern version of Thompson‟s apparatus is
described below.

30
Charged particles (which are now known as electrons) are emitted
by a hot filament at the end of the tube and accelerated by an
applied potential difference V. After they pass through a slit in the
screen C, they form a narrow beam. They then pass through a

region of crossed 𝐸 and 𝐵 fields, and head toward the fluorescent

screen S where they produce a spot of light. By controlling the
magnitudes and directions of the fields, Thompson could control
where the spot of light appeared on the screen. For the arrangement

on the figure above, electrons are forced up by the electric field 𝐸

and down the page by the magnetic field 𝐵.

From our knowledge of electric fields we know that when a charge

particle(q) is moving an electric field 𝐸 with a velocity V and mass M

in a plate of length L the deflection of the particle y is given by:

31
 2𝐸𝐿2
𝑦= ……………………………. (4)
2𝑚𝑣 2

2𝑚𝑣 2 𝑦
𝐸= ……………………………. (5)
𝑞𝐿2

𝐹𝑐
and that: 𝐸= ……………………………… (6)
𝑞

𝐹𝐸 = /q/E …………………………….. (7)

Where the two fields are adjusted so that the two deflecting forces
cancel, we have that:
/q/E = /q/VBSin900
/q/E = /q/VB
𝐸
V= ……………………………… (8)
𝐵

If we put equation 8 into equation 4 we have that:

𝑞𝐸𝐿 2 𝑞𝐸𝐵 2 𝐿2
𝑦= 𝐸2
=
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝐸 2
𝐵2

𝑞𝐵 2 𝐿2
𝑦=
2𝑚𝐸

2mEy = 2B2L2
𝑞𝐵 2 𝐿2
𝑚=
2𝐸𝑦

Dividing both sides by the charge q we get.

𝑚 𝐵 2 𝐿2
= ……………………… (9)
𝑞 2𝐸𝑦

Thus crossed field allow use to measure the ratio of m/q of particles
moving through Thompson‟s apparatus.

32
Example
A He2+ ion travels at right angles to a magnetic field of 0.80T with a
velocity of 105mls. Find the magnitude of the magnetic force on the
ion.
 = 90 V = 105m/s

𝐵 = 0.80T F=?
Force is given by:
F = qvBSin
F = 2(1.60 x 1019)  105mls x 0.80T Sin900
F = 2.56 x 1014N
HALL’S EFFECT
We have earlier proved that a beam of electrons in a vacuum can be
deflected by a magnetic field. However, can the drifting conduction
electrons in a copper wire also be deflected by a magnetic field? This
is what Edwin H. Hall in 1879 showed.
X X X X
d 𝐸 X X
X X X X 𝐸
X X X X
𝐵 X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X
X X X X X X X X
Vd X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X
X X X X X X - X X
- X X - X X
X X 𝐹𝐵 X 𝐹𝐸 𝐹𝐵
X X 𝐹𝐸 𝐹𝐵
X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X
Vd
i
i
i
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
33
Fig (i) shows a copper strip carrying a current i whose direction is
from the top to the bottom of the figure. If any external magnetic

field 𝐵 , pointing into the plane of the figure, we see that the

deflecting force 𝐹𝐵 will act on each electron drifting it toward the

right edge of the strip. As time passes electron pill at the right
leaving the left negative. The separation of positive and negative

charges produce an electric field 𝐸 with the strip, pointing left. As

time continues to pass by equilibrium develops and the force due to

𝐵 and that due to 𝐸 balances each other allowing the electrons to

drift out without further increase in 𝐸 .

By connecting a voltmeter across the width of the strip, we can

measure the Hall potential difference between the two edges of the
trip.

Suppose VH is the magnitude of the Hall voltage and d is the width

of the strip. Then the electric field strength E set up across the strip
is E = VH/d. ………………………….. (10)

Now when the electric magnetic forces are in equilibrium,

eE = eVdB …………………………. (11)
𝐽 𝑖
However drift velocity is Vd = = …….. (12)
𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝐴

34
Where J = 1/A is the current density of the strip, A is the cross-
sectional area of the strip and n is the number density of charge
carriers.

If we put equation (12) and equation (10) into equation (11) we get.
E = Vd B
𝑖𝐵
E=
𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝑉𝐻 𝑖𝐵
=
𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝐴
𝑖𝐵
VH =
𝑛𝑒𝐴

𝑖𝐵 𝐴 −1
VH =
𝑛𝑒 𝑑

In which 1(=A/d) is the thickness of the strip.

𝑖𝐵𝐿−1
 𝑉𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
𝐵𝑖
𝑉𝐻 = ………………… (13) Halls potential difference
𝑛𝑒𝑙

Also,
𝐵𝑖
𝑛= …………………. (14) number of density
𝑉𝐻 𝑒𝑙

change carriers.

35
 LECTURE NOTE ON

 TRANSFORMER

 A.C. CIRCUIT

 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER

 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT

CARRYING CONDUCTOR

By:
OMOJOLA

36
TRANSFORMER
This is an electrical device used to step-up or step-down voltage in
an a.c. circuit.
It consist of a primary and a secondary coil wound on the same iron
core. See fig. 1.0 below.

O O
Np Ns Vs
Vp
O
O

Primary coil Secondary

Laminated core

The basic principle of operation of a transformer is based on

Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction.

The law which states that whenever there is a change in the

magnetic flux linking a circuit, an e.m.f. is directly proportional to
the time rate of change of magnetic flux linking the circuit.
𝑑 𝐵 𝑁𝑑 𝐵
E  E=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Working
If the primary coil is connected to a source, it creates a varying
magnetic flux in the core. This changing magnetic flux is connected

37
to the secondary coil and give rise to induced e.m.f. in the coil that
is proportional to the number of turns in the coil.
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
i.e. = ……………………………. (i)
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

Where: Vs = Induced e.m.f. or voltage in the secondary coil

Vp = Induced e.m.f. or voltage in the primary coil
Ns = Number of turns in secondary coil
Np = Number of turns in primary coil

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one with no losses of any kind. i.e. a
transformer with 100 percent efficiency.
Power in primary = power in secondary or
Input power = output power
IpVp = IsVs …………….. (ii)
Where Ip and Is are primary and secondary current
𝐼𝑝 𝑉𝑠
Hence: = ……………….. (iii)
𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑝

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
But from equation (i) =
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

𝐼𝑝 𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
 = =
𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝

𝑁𝑠
Where is called the turn ratio.
𝑁𝑝

𝑁𝑠
By choosing the appropriate turns ratio , we may obtain any
𝑁𝑝

desired secondary voltage from a given primary voltage.

If Ns> Np, then Vs> Vp and we have a step-up transformer.

38
If Ns< Np, then Vs< Vp and we have a step-down transformer.

At a power generating station, step-up transformer are used; the

primary is connected to the power source and the secondary is
connected to the transmission lines giving the desired high voltage
for transmission. Near the consumer, a step-down transformer
lower the voltage to a value suitable for use in home or industry.

ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER AND HOW TO MINIMIZE IT

Copper or heat losses – energy is Using a low resistant coil or
lost in form of heat. I2R in the thick wire.
coil
Eddy current loses – magnetic Is minimized by increasing the
flux induces current in the core, resistance of the core by the
referred to as eddy currents, lamination of the iron core.
thereby heating up the core
Hysteresis loses – This happen in By use of core made of soft
the transformer core since the magnetic core.
core is taken through a cycle.
The loss is dependent on the
area of the hysteresis loop.
Magnetic leakage – some By special forms of coil winding.
magnetic flux does not pass
through the iron core

39
Types of Transformer
Based on construction we have:
(i) Core – type transformer
(ii) Shell – type transformer
(iii) Spiral – type
Efficiency of a Transformer
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒄𝒚 = 𝑥 100%
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝐼𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝐸= 𝑥 100%
𝐼𝑝 𝑉𝑝

Example:
1. What is the turn ratio required in a transformer to step down
250V to 50V. If the secondary current is 2A and resistance in the
primary is 10kn. Calculate the primary current.
Solution
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑁𝑝
=
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑁𝑠
250 𝑁𝑝
= = 5 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
50 𝑁𝑝

Since Is = 2A
𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠
From the relation −
𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝

𝑁𝑠
 𝐼𝑝 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑥
𝑁𝑝

1
= 2𝑥 = 0.4𝐴
5

 The primary current Ip = 0.4A

40
2. A step-up transformer is used on a 120V line to furnish
1800V. The primary has 100 turns. How many turns are on the
secondary?
Solution
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑒 120 100
=  =
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 1800 𝑁𝑠
 Ns = 1500turns.

3. A transformer used on a 120V line deliver 2.0A at 900V. What

current is drawn from the line? Assume 100% efficiency.
Solution
Power in primary = Power in Secondary
I p Vp = I s Vs
Ip x 120 = 2 x 900
 Ip = 15A

Exercise
1. A step-up transformer operates on a 110V line and supplies a
load with 5.0A. The ratio of the primary and secondary
windings is 1:25. Determine :
(i) The secondary voltage
(ii) The primary current and
(iii) The power output. Assume a resistive load and 100%
efficiency.

41
 2. An ideal step-down transformer has a turn ratio of 20. The
r.m.s. current and voltage in the primary are 20A and 250V.
calculate:
(i) The maximum current and voltage in the primary
(ii) The r.m.s. current and voltage in the secondary.
3. A step-down transformer is used on a 1650V line to deliver
45A at 110V – What current is drawn from the line? Assume
100% efficiency.

A.C. CIRCUITS
An alternating current is a current that varies sinusoidally.
The current, emf or voltage of an a.c. source is represented as:
I = Io sinwt
= IoSin𝑓𝑡 where w = 2𝑓𝑡
V = Vo Sinwt
= Vo Sin𝑓𝑡
Where:
I = Instantaneous current
Io = Peak or maximum current
Vo = Instantaneous voltage
Vo = Peak or maximum voltage
W = angular velocity
Wt = Phase angle of the current.
The output of an a.c. source is shown in fig. 2.0 below.

42
 V
I

Vo

Io

t
t

Fig. 2.0: An a.c. output

THE PEAK (AMPLITUDE) AND ROOT MEAN SQUARE (R.M.S) VALUES

The peak value is the maximum current recorded during an a.c.
cycle.

R.m.s value of an alternating current is the direct current which

gives the same heating rate as a given alternating current. It is also
called effective value of the current. It is given by:
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑟.𝑚 .𝑠 = = 0.707𝐼𝑜
2
𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑟.𝑚 .𝑠 = = 0.707𝑉𝑜
2

RESISTOR IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT

Fig. 2.1(a) show a simple a.c. circuit where an a.c. voltage is
connected to a resistor. Fig. 2.1(b) show the wave form and fig.
2.1(c) the phase diagram

43
 
I Fig. 2.1(a)

V or I R

V = VoSinwt
I = IoSinwt
I Im

t
 2 3
V Vm

Wt

Fig. 2.1 (b)

Phasor diagram

When an a.c. voltage is applied to a pure resistor, the voltage across

the resistance and current through it attain their maximum values
at the same instant and their zero values at the same instant. The
voltage and current are said to be in phase. i.e. from ohim‟s law we
have
V = IR
𝑉
 𝐼=
𝑅

Putting V = Vosinwt ]

𝑉 𝑉𝑜𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
 𝐼= = = 𝐼𝑜 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑅 𝑅

𝑉𝑟.𝑚 .𝑠.
 𝐼𝑟.𝑚 .𝑠 =
𝑅

44
 INDUCTOR IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT


I

Im

I = Im Sin (Wt - ) V Vm
2
Vm
Wt

V I Im

V = Vm Sinwt Phasor diagram

When an a.c. voltage is applied to a pure inductance, the voltage

1
across the inductance reach its maximum value cycle ahead of the
4

current i.e. when the current is zero, the back emf of the
inductance causes the current through the inductance to lag
1 
behind the voltage by cycle (or ), and the two are 900 out of
4 2

phase.
If V = VmSinwt the current will be


I = ImSin (wt - ),
2

45
 The inductor opposes the flow of current. This opposition offered to
the flow of a.c. by the inductor is known as inductive reactance Xv.
This is given by the relation:
Xv = 2fL V = IXv
CAPCITOR IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT
A capacitor with capacitance C is connected to the arc source as
shown in fig. 2.3


I

V = Vm Sinwt

Im
I
(b)

Vm
(c) V
Wt


I = Im Sin(wt + )
2

Graphical rep.

46
n an a.c. voltage is applied to a pure capacitor, the voltage across it
lags 900 behind the current flowing through it. Current must flow
before the voltage across (and charge on) the capacitor can build
up.
If V = Vosinwt the current will be

I = Io Sin (wt - ),
2

Capacitor opposes the flow of current. This opposition is called

capacitive reactance.
This is given by:
1
Xc = V = TXc
2𝑓 𝐶

Series Circuit
L and R is series
Consider and inductor L in series with resistance R, with an
alternating voltage
Phaser daigram
R L

VR VL
VL V VL


90 

I VR

47
In R. L. circuit, the sum of the respective voltages VR and VL across

R and L is equal to V. But the voltage VL leads by 900 on the current

I, and the voltage is in phase with I. thus the voltages can be drawn

to scale as shown in fig. 2.4(b) and hence by Pythagoras theorem

V2 = VL2 + VR2

But VL = IXL

 V2 = I2 XL2 + I2 XR2

V2 = I2 (XL2 + XR2)

𝑉2 𝑉
 I2 =  I=
𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑋𝑅2
𝑋𝐿2 + 𝑋𝑅2

From fig. 2.4(b), the current lags behind the applied voltage V by an

angle given by
𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
tan = = = ……………. (b)
𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑅

𝑋𝐿
  = tan-1
𝑅

From equation (a) opposition Z to the flow of a.c. is given by

𝑉
Z= = 𝑋𝑙2 + 𝑅2
𝐼

Where Z = Impedance

C and R in series

48
 C
R
VR

VC VR
VC
VC
V


Apply similar analysis to that of L and R in series and find the

impedance of a capacitor C and resistance R in series and the angle

 i.e.

𝑉
Z= = 𝑋𝐶2 + 𝑅2
𝐼

𝑋𝑐 𝑋𝑐
tan =
𝑅
 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑅

L.C.R. in series

Consider a circuit containing an inductance (L) capacitance (C) and

Resistance (R) in series

VL
L C R

A D
VL VC VR
VL - VL V
900
 l B
 O
VR

VC

49
The phasor diagram has VL leading by 900 on UR VC lagging by 900

on VR with the current I in phase with VR fig 2.6(b). If VL is greater

than VC their resultant is (VL – VC) in the direction of VL as shown.

Consider triangle ODB

From Pythagorean theorem.

V2 = (VL – VC)2 + VR2

But VL = IXL, VC = IXC VR = IR

V2 = (IXL – IXC)2 + I2 R2

V2 = I2 [(XL – XC)2 + R2]

𝑉 𝑉
 I= or I = I=
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅2 𝑋 2 + 𝑅2

where X = XL - XC
𝑉
 𝑍= = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅2
𝐼

Also fig. 2.6(b) I lags on V by angle  given by

𝐷𝐵 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 𝐼𝑋𝐿 − 𝐼𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
tan  = = = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑉𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑅

NB: Reactance X is the opposition offered to the flow of alternating

current either by the capacitor or the inductance or both

X = XL – XC

50
Impedance Z of the a.c. circuit I the total opposition offered to the

flow of the a.c. by the resistor and either inductance or capacitor or

both. It is measured in ohm‟s.

RESONANCE IN THE RLC SERIES ICT

Resonance is said to occur in an a.c. series circuit when the

maximum current is obtained from such a circuit.

Consider the graph of variation of current I and frequency f.

Io 
The frequency at which
Io this resonance occur is
known as the resonant
frequency of the cct.

f0 f

Consider the graph of variation of Z with f

Z
XL
A

XC

fo
51
NB XL = 2fL  XL f

1 1
XC =  Xc
2𝑓𝐶 𝑓

Variation of XL with frequency is a straight line passing through the

origin. Variation of Xc with frequency is a curve approaching the two

axis. R is independent of frequency and so it is represented by a

line parallel to the frequency axis.

The diff (XL - XC) is represented by the broken lines. It can be seen

that XL – XC decrease to zero for a particular frequency fo and

thereafter increases again so from Z = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2 + 𝑅2 , the

impedance diminishes to A and then increases as the frequency f is

varied.

The magnitude of fo is given by

XL – XC = O  XL = XC

1
2𝑓𝑜 𝐿 =
2𝑓𝑜 𝐶

2
4 𝐿𝐶𝑓𝑜2 = 1
1 1
𝑓𝑜2 = 2  fo =
4 𝐿𝐶 2𝐿𝐶

52
POWER IN AN A.C. CCT
In an a.c. circuit, the product of not mean square value of the
current and the voltage does not give true power in Walt.
P = Ir.m.s. Vrms (VA) i.e. is a reactive power measured as KVA.
The true power (W) in an a.c. circuit is given as:
P = IV cos
where cos is called the power factor
𝑅
cos =
𝑍

average power in a.c. I2r.m.s R = Irms Vrms cos

IoVoCos 
=
2

Examples
A voltage V = (60.0V) sin120t is applied across to 20.0 resistor.

What will an a.c. ammeter in series with the resistor read?

Solution

The r.m.s voltage across the resistor is

𝑉𝑜
Vr.m.s. = = 0.707V0.
2

V = 0.707 x 60 = 42.4V
42.4
From V = IR  I = 2.12𝐴
20

(2) A 120V a.c. voltage source is connected across a 2.0MF

capacitor. Find (i) the current to the capacitor if the frequency of the

source is 60HZ. (ii) What is the power loss in the capacitor.

53
Solution

From the relation.

1 1
XC = = = 1330
2fC 2 𝑥 3.142 𝑥 60 𝑥 2 𝑥 10 −6

120
Recall V = IXC I = = 0.09𝐴
1330

𝑅
(ii) Since Cos  = and R = 0
𝑍

Power loss = IVcos 

= IV Cos 90 = 0

3. A 110V a.c. voltage source is connected across a pure 0.55H

inductor. Find (i) The current through the inductor if the frequency
of the source is 50HZ. (ii) What is the power loss in the inductor?

Solution:

XL = 2fL = 2 x 3.142 x 50 x 0.55

= 172.81 173

then:

𝑉 110
I= = = 0.635
𝑋𝐿 173

 I = 0.635A

4. A coil having inductance 0.18H and resistance of14 is

connected across a 120V, 30HZ line compute (a) the current in the

54
oil (b) the phase angle between the current and the supply voltage
(c) the power factor and (d) the power loss in the coil

Solution

(a) XL = 2fL = 2 x 3.142 x 30 x 0.18 = 33.9 34

and Z = 𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 2 = 142 + 34 − 0 2 = 1352

 Z = 36.77

𝑉 120
So I= = = 3.26
𝑍 36.77

 I = 3.3A

𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 34−0
(b) tan  = = = 2.4
𝑅 14

 = 67.6 680

The voltage lead the current by 680

(c) Power factor = Cos = Cos 68 = 0.37

(d) Power loss = IVCos = 120 x 3.3 x 0.38

= 0.15KW

5. What will be resonant frequency of a series circuit containing

an inductor of 200H and a capacitor of 200pF

55
Solution
1 1
fo = =
2 𝐿𝐶 6.28 200 𝑥 10 −6 𝑥 200 𝑥 10 −12

1
= = 796178.34
6.28 4 𝑥 10 −14

fo = 796.178KW

Exercise

(1) A series circuit consisting of a 100 non inductive resistor, a

coil with a 0.20H inductance and negligible resistance, and a

20F capacitor is connected across a 120V 60HZ power

source. Find (a) the current (b) the power loss (c) the phase

angle between the current and the source voltage and (d) the

voltmeter readings across the three elements.

(2) A current of 30mA is supplied to a 4.0F capacitor connected

across an alternating current line having a frequency of

500HZ. Compute the reactance of the capacitor and the

voltage across the capacitor.

(3) An a.c. current in a 10 resistance produces thermal energy

at the rate of 360W. Determine the effective values of the

current and voltage.

56
(4) What is reactance and impedance of a 60HZ a.c. circuit

containing an inductor of 2.5H, a resistor of 200 and a

capacitor of 10F connected in series.

(5) What is the inductive reactance of the coil of 2H as a 60HZ

alternating current flows through it?

(6) Calculate the resonant frequency of a circuit of negligible

resistance containing and inductance of 80mH and a capacitor

of 600F.

(7) A resistance of 20 on inductance of 0.2H and a capacitance

of 100F are connected in series across 220V, 50HZ main.

Determine the following:

(a) Impedance, (b) current in the circuit.

(b) Voltage across R, L and C

(c) Power in volt ampere and in watts.

(d) The power factor

(e) Phase angle.

57
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Magnetism is a property of matter and it occurs in different forms

and degree in various conductors and insulators. For example, at

low temperature, metallic system exhibit either superconducting or

magnetic order. The degree of magnetism of a substance is due to

the intrinsic magnetic dipole moments of its electrons. The degree of

magnetism is also called magnetization and it is defined as the net

magnetic dipole moment of the substance per unit volume.

Faraday was the first to start classifying substance according to

their magnetic properties. Faraday classified them as either

diamagnetic or paramagnetic and he based his classification on the

force exerted on the materials when placed in an inhomogeneous

magnetic field.

Diamagnetic substance have a negative magnetic susceptibility, (i.e.

they are materials in which the magnetization and magnetic field

are opposite). The electrons in the atom of diamagnetic materials

are all paired and there is no intrinsic Magnetic moment. When a

material is placed into a magnetic field, its atoms acquire an

induced magnetic moment pointing in a direction opposite to that of

the external field and the material becomes magnetic. The

58
diamagnetic field produced by the material opposes the external

field, although this diamagnetic field is very weak (except in

superconductors).

NB: If the atoms of a material have no magnetic moment of their

own, then diamagnetism is the only magnetic property of the

material and the material is called diamagnetic. Copper exhibits

such diamagnetism.

Paramagnetic substance has a weak positive magnetic susceptibility

resulting from the presence of atoms (or cons) that have permanent

magnetic moments. These moments interact only weakly with each

other and are randomly oriented in the absence of an external

magnetic field. When a paramagnetic substance is placed in an

external magnetic field, its atomic moments tends to line up with

the field. However, this alignment process must compete with

thermol motion, which tends to randomize the magnetic moment

orientation. If only a relatively small fraction of the atoms are

aligned with the field, then the magnetization obeys Curie‟s law.

59
Curie‟s Law states that the magnetization of a paramagnetic

substance is proportionate to the applied magnetic field and

inversely proportional to the absolute temp.

𝐵𝑜
M=C ……. (1) Where C = Curie‟s constant
𝑇

Bo = Magnetic field

T = absolute temp

M = Magnetization

The law shows that when Bo = O, the magnetization is Zero,

corresponding to a random orientation of magnetic moments. As the

ratio of magnetic field to temperature becomes great, the

magnetization approaches its saturation value corresponding to a

complete alignment of its moments and equation is no longer valid.

When the temp. of a ferromagnetic substance reaches or exceeds

critical temp. called thecurie temperature, the substance loses its

residual magnetization and becomes paramagnetic. Below the Curie

temp., the magnetic moments are aligned and the substance is

ferromagnetic. Above the Curie temp., the thermal agitation is great

enough to cause a random orientation of the moments, and the

substance becomes paramagnetic.

60
Ferromagnetic substance have the highest magnetic susceptibility.

These substance contain atomic magnetic moment that tend to

align parallel to each other even in a weak external magnetic field.

Once the moments are aligned the substance remains magnetized

after the external field is removed. This permanent alignment is due

to a strong coupling between neighbouring moments, a coupling

that can be understood only in quantum – mechanical terms.

All ferromagnetic materials are made up of microscopic regions

called domains, region within which all magnetic moments are

aligned. These domains have volumes of about 10-12 to 10-8and

contain1017 to 1021 atoms. The boundance between the various

domains having different orientations are called domain walls. In an

unmagnetized sample, the domains are randomly oriented so that

the net magnetic moment is zero as shown in fig. 1.0(a). When the

sample is placed in an external magnetic field, the magnetic

moments of the atoms tends to align with the field, which results in

a magnetized sample.

61
 (a) (b)
Fig. 1.0:

Random orientation of a tomic magnetic

When an external field Bo is applied, the atomic
moments in an unmagnetized substance
magnetic moments tends to align with the field, giving
the sample a net magnetization.

Some examples of ferromagnetic substance are, iron, cobalt,

nickel, gadolinium and dysprosium.

Magnetic Force on a Current – Carrying Conductor

Consider a straight segment of a conducting wire, with length L and

cross-sectional area Ai the current is from bottom to top. The wire is

in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 , perpendicular to the plane of the

diagram and directed into the plane. Let‟s assume that the moving

changes are positive as shown in fig. 1.0 below.

I
x x x A x x x
x x x x x x
x x x 𝑉𝑑 x x x
x x x x x x
+
x x x𝐹 x x x
q
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
I 𝐵
x x x x x x

Fig. 1.0: Forces on a moving position charge in a current carrying conductor

62
The drift velocity 𝑉𝑑 is upward, perpendicular to 𝐵 . The average

force on each charge is 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑉𝑎 x 𝐵, directed to the left as shown in

the figure; since 𝑉𝑑 and 𝐵 are perpendicular, the magnitude of the

force is F = qVaB …………… (i)

To find the total force on all the moving changes in a length l of

conductor with cross-sectional area A, we multiply the force on one

charge by the number of charges in the segment. Since the volume

of the segment is Al, the number of charges in the segment is nAl,

where n is the number of charges per unit volume.

Hence, the total magnetic force on all the moving charges in this

segment is

F = (qVa x B) nAL ……..……… (ii)

But I = nqVaA

Therefore,

f = Il x B …………… (iii)

if the 𝐵 field is not perpendicular to the wire but makes an angle 

with it,

 f = IlB Sin ……………. (iv)

If  = 0 then f = 0

63
If the conductor is not straight, we can divide it into infinite simal

segments dl. The force df on each segment is

df = IdL x B ……………. (v)

To get the total force on the wire, we integrated equation (v) over the

length of the wire. That is

𝑏
F=I 𝑎
𝑑𝐿 𝑥 𝐵 ……………. (vi)

Where a and b represents the end points of the wire

NB Equation (iv) is valid for both positive and negative charges and

even when both signs of charge are present at once. This happens

in some semiconductor materials and in ionic.

Exercise

Where is the application of the magnetic force on a current-carrying

wire found?

(1) A conductor carrying a current of 150A and 20m in length is

placed in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 0.75T.

Calculate the force on the conductor if it is placed

(i) Perpendicular to the field

(ii) at 500 to the field.

64
Solution

(i) F = ILB

= 150 x 20 x 0.75

= 2250N

(ii) F = ILB Sin

= 150 x 20 x 0.75 x Sin 50

= 1723.6N

Exercise

1. A straight horizontal wire X1 of mass 80g and length 0.6m is

placed in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of 0.4T

perpendicular to X. Calculate the current in X if the force

acting on it just balances its weight (g = 10N/kg)

2. A wire carrying a current of 20A and4m in length is placed in

a field of flux density 0.55T. What is the force on the wire if it

is placed:

(i) Perpendicular to the field.

(ii) Parallel to the field.

(iii) At 600 to the field.

65
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

 D.C. GENERATORS (DYNAMO)

 A.C. GENERATORS

66
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Classical theory of electromagnetism deals with electric and

magnetic fields and interactions caused by distribution of electric

charges and currents. It was the work of James Clerk Maxwell

which consistently unify the two distinct theories of electricity and

magnetism into a single theory called electromagnetism.

Electromagnetic induction is one of the novel discoveries which give

birth to classical electrodynamics (electromagnetism). As said

earlier, electric field concept in physics i.e. naturally independent.

The theory of electromagnetic induction was first developed by

Michael Faraday in 1831. In the 1820‟s it was known that an

electric current produces a magnetic field. Joseph Henry and

Michael Faraday both work independently made effort to reverse the

process and produce a current with a magnetic field.

The result is elusive because a steady magnetic field will not induce

a current to flow in a circuit. It is only a time changing magnetic

field that induces a current to flow. Therefore these bodies of

experiments was summarized as Faraday‟s Law of electromagnetic

induction.

67
Electromagnetic Induction is a process where a conductor placed in

a changing magnetic field causes the production of E.M.F and

electric current.

Thus Faraday‟s Law of electromagnetic induction state that:

whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linking a circuit on

electro motive force (EMF) is induced the strength of which is

proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the

circuit.

−𝑑
E=
𝑑𝑡
𝑚 (𝑡)

Where: m = magnetic flux

Consider a closed circuit which surface A

𝑑2
m(t) = 𝐴
𝑥 𝑛. B(t, x)

dA(d2x𝑛)

-B(x)
v
Over a
A surfaces

Redd (Induced)

Fig. 1

B(t, x) = magnetic field (induced)

Therefore:
68
 −𝑑
E=
𝑑𝑡
ʃ𝐴 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑛. B(t, x)
2
= - ʃ𝐴 𝑑 2 𝑥 𝑛 . 𝐵(𝑡1 𝑥)
4

Apply stokes theorem on this integral, transform it to:

−2
x𝐸(𝑡,𝑥) = 𝐵(𝑡,𝑥) ……………………. (2)
4

Don‟t worry much about the equation now:

 read del, X is read as cross (note not multiplication symbol) while

xE is read as curl of electric Reld.

Note: Equation 2 explicitly connects electricity with magnetism

which resulted in technological breakthrough that produces,
generators, electric motors, trains farmers, Relays, induction coils
and even levitating trains (MAGLEV)

Lenz law

faraday‟s law tells us that an EMF is always induced whenever

there is a change in magnetic flux linking the circuit or coils either
the magnetic Relds is moving or the coil is moving whichever, but
did not tell us the direction of current flow in the induced E.M.F,
this was the success of Lenz called Lenz Law: which state that
whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linking a coil, and
induce current is produced which flow in such a way as to oppose
the motion producing it (either that of the coil or the magnet). Thus
the current in the loop flow in the opposite direction to the motion
of either the magnet or the coil.

69
(a) Moving Magnet
Coils
S N

Direction of motion Direction of

current flow

Coils
S N

Directed motor Direction of

current flow

(b) Moving Coil

Coil, direction of motion

S N

Current

Coils director of motion

S N

Current

Lenz Law can be verified in the laboratory using a galvanometer, a

bar magnetic and a coil of wire.

DYNAMO (D-C GENERATOR)

Dynamo is an electrical generator that produces direct current

using a commentator. Dynamo is most often called D.C. generator.
Dynamos were the first electrical generators capable of delivering

70
power for industrial usage. Though A.C. generators have a better
advantage over D.C. generator, no doubt Dynamo is a foundation
upon which other electric-power conversion machine were based.
Dynamos were invented as a viable replacement for batteries. The
use of A.C. current is not known then.

Principles

A dynamic machine consists of a stationary structure called stator,

which provides a constant magnetic held and a set of rotating
windings called armature which turn within the constant magnetic
field; cutting the magnetic flux thereby creating an electric current
in the wire. A commentator was needed to produce direct current
because when a loop of wire rotate in a magnetic field the current
produce reverses with each half turn which produces alternating
current, the commentator serve as a rotary switch, it consist of a
set of contacts mounted on the machines shaft combined with
graphite-block station by contacts called “brushes”. The
commentator reverses the connection of the windings to the
external circuit when the potential reverses, therefore instead of
alternating current, a direct current is produced.

Note: a D.C. generator in reverse order could work as a D.C.

motor.

71
A.C. GENERATOR

A.C. generators or alternators as they are usually called. A.C.

generators produce alternating current with frequency base on the
rotational speed of the rotor and the number of magnetic poles.

Principles

An A.C. generator is the same with D.C generator except A.C

generator does not have a commentator. A typical alternators use a
rotating field (electro magnetic) winding excited with a direct
current and a stationary winding (stator) to produce alternating
current.

72
Generators consist mainly of two parts with subdivision namely the
mechanical parts, and the electrical parts.

Mechanical parts

(1) Rotor: Wheel is the rotating part of an electrical machine.

(2) Stator: Which is the stationary part of an electrical machine.

Armature: Which is the windings that generate the electric Current.

Electrical Parts

1. Field

Magnetic Excitation of Electric Generators

Generators that use field coils, rather than permanent magnet

requires a current to be present in the field coils for the device to
work; this is known as excitation. A small generator is self-excited
that is when the generator first start to turn, the small amount of
magnetism present in the iron core provides a magnetic field which
gets the generator started, generating a current also in the
armature. Large generators like the one use in power stations
require a separate smaller generator to excite the field coils to
inputlarge armature current to start it.

73
Note: A.C. generators also function as A.C. motors in reverse order.

74