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Schedule
1. Types & Applications of compressors- Basic
requirements to design a compressor
2. Key parameters in API 614 - 617 standards
3. Divers for centrifugal compressors and Machine
configurations
4. Thermodynamics & working principle of a
centrifugal compressor- Performance curves
5. Constructional features of centrifugal compressors
 What is a Centrifugal Compressor

What is a compressor?
 A device used to pump compressible fluids ( mostly Gases)
from lower pressures to higher pressures
 What is a Pump ?
 Device used to pump incompressible fluids (mostly liquids)
from lower pressures to higher pressures.
What is the difference between blower and a compressor?
 According to API 617, pressure rise below 0.35 bar is a
blower and above 0.35 bar is a compressor
 Types of Compressors
COMPRESSORS

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT DYNAMIC TYPE

(COMPRESSING FLUID BY REDUCING (ACCELERATING AND
VOLUME OF COPRESSION CHAMBER) DECLERATING OF FLUID)

CENTRIFUGAL AXIAL
RECIPROCATING ROTARY TYPE
COMPRESSORS COMPRESSORS

HELICAL SPIRAL STRAIGHT SLIDE

SCREW AXIAL LOBE VANE

Spl. appls.
Application Range
Discharge Pressure Psia 105

104

103
Centrifugal
102
Axial

101
Reciprocating

102 103 104 105 106

Inlet Flow Acfm
 What is an Axial Compressor
 Axial compressors are rotating, airfoil based machines in
which the working fluid principally flows parallel to the
axis of rotation. This is in contrast with other rotating
compressors such as centrifugal compressors where the air
may enter axially but will have a significant radial
component on exit
 Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of
compressed gas, and have the benefits of high efficiencies
and large mass flow capacity, They do, however, require
several rows of airfoils to achieve large pressure rises
making them complex and expensive relative to other
designs .
 What is an Axial Compressor
 Axial compressors are widely used in gas turbines,
industrial applications such as large air separation plants,
blast furnace s, FCC cracking air.
 Designing the compressor blades with a diffusing
capability can produce a pressure rise in addition to the
moving blades, which produces higher pressure rise per
stage. This is called reaction principle in turbo machines.
If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the
rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction.
 What is a Reciprocating Compressor ?

 A Reciprocating compressor or piston compressor is a

positive-displacement compressor that uses pistons driven
by a crankshaft to deliver gases at high pressure.
 The intake gas enters the suction manifold, then flows
into the compression cylinder where it gets compressed by
a piston driven in a reciprocating motion via crankshaft,
and is then discharged.
 Applications include oil refineries, gas pipelines, chemical
plants, natural gas processing CO2 and refrigeration
plants.
Reciprocating Compressor
 Advantages of Centrifugal Compressors

 High degree of balancing

 Higher surge margins compared to axials
 Pulsation free delivery, No surge tanks are required as in
the case of Reciprocating units.
 Ease of maintenance, Lower noise level & higher reliability
 Best suited for part load operations
 Medium to higher flow rates with good Turndown
Advantages of Axial Compressors

 Capable of handling large flow rates

 Higher efficiencies compared to centrifugals

Advantages of Reciprocating Compressors

 Best suited for large variation of inlet conditions like

molecular weight.
 Best suited for low flow rates and large pressure ratios
and low capital cost
Efficiency Comparison
Head comparison
 Domains

Compressors are used in Oil-Gas, Industrial & Power domains

 Oil & Gas Domain
Upstream Midstream Downstream
 Oil & Gas Domain
Upstream Midstream Downstream

Off shore Facility Refinery

Onshore Facility Pipelines Petrochemical
Gas Processing Power generation

Process Engineering Pipeline Design Process Engineering

Detailed Engineering Detailed Engineering Detailed Engineering
BOP Engineering Metering stations BOP Engineering

Pumps & Compressors Compressors Compressors ( C/R/A)

Gas Turbines Gas Turbines Expanders, Reactors
Centrifugal Pumps Valves, Piping Gas / Steam Turbines
Heat exchangers Heat exchangers
 Applications (Fertilizer)

 Air compressor – for N2 separation

 NG compressor – for NG based plants
 Syn. gas – for H2+N2 for producing NH3 Plants
 CO2 compressor – for urea synthesis
 Refrigeration – Ammonia
 Operating Parameters

Service Suct. Press Disch. Press. Typical Flow rate *

Process Air 1.03 ata 40 ata 60000 Nm3/hr
Natural Gas 1 to 2 ata 40 ata 40000 Nm3/hr
Synthesis Gas NH3 25 ata 140 / 250 ata 165000 (Make up)
590000 (Recycle)
Ammonia Feed 1 to 4.5 ata 17 to 20 ata 40000 Nm3/hr

Urea Syn. ( Co2) 1 to 3 ata 150 / 220 ata 32000 Nm3/hr

* Depends on plant size like 600T/day ,900 T/day,1500T/day
 Compressors Domains
Gas Fields
 Gas Gathering stations, City Gas distribution etc.
 NG boosting – to transport gas via pipelines
 LPG recovery – to recover higher HC from NG
 NG reinjection- for maximizing reservoir yield, NG storage for peak
demand etc.
 LNG – services like boil-off, re-gassification

Refinery
 Fluidised catalytic cracking
 Main air blowers & Wet gas service
 Hydro cracker Unit
 High pr. H2 recycle
 DHDS/DHDT- Low pr. H2 recycle for ‘Sulphur’ recovery
 Lube Oil production- Low pressure Inert gas (N2)
 Compressors Domains
Power sector
 NG boosters for GTs Reciprocating/Centrifugal
 City gas Centrifugal
 Gas gathering stations Centrifugal

Industrial applications.

 Blast furnace blowers Axial /Centrifugal

 Steel mills Axial /Centrifugal
 Plant air Reciprocating/Centrifugal
 Instrument air Reciprocating/Centrifugal
 Types of Centrifugal machines

 Horizontally split Machines for low pressure applications

 Vertically split machines for high pressure applications
 Pipe line compressors single or multiple impellers
 Integrally geared compressors
Horizontally split type Compressor
Vertically split type Compressor
Pipeline compressors

Courtesy GE-oil & gas web site

Integrally geared compressor

Courtesy Man Turbo web site

Axial compressor
Reciprocating Compressors

Pressures up to 3000 atm,

Up to 8 stages per casing
Efficiencies of 70-85%
Manufacturers of Centrifugal Compressors
Process applications acc. To API-617 & API-672

 MAN Turbo, Germany .

 Siemens, Germany (formerly Demag)
 General Electric (formerly Nuovo Pignone, Italy )
 Elliot, USA
 Dresser Rand, France
 Ebara, MHI, Kobe Steel, IHI, KHI , Japan
 Atlas Copco ,USA
 BHEL, India
 Shanghai Blower Works, China
 Unless customer exercises the options provided in API
standards and specifies compressor requirements suiting
to his plant needs, manufacturers tend to design and
produce machines as per industry practices using their
standard norms.
 From the nature of process requirements decide the
type of compressor best suited and driver from the source
of energy available.
 To obviate this mismatch between purchasers
requirements and what he gets, API formulated design
rules manufacturing and testing procedures and state of
the art proven practices.
 Define scope of supply between purchaser and vendor
viz; Piping, civil , cooling water, C&I
 Selection strategy - Introduction
 Selecting the type of machine is governed by the
following essential factors .
 Lowest power consumption and higher efficiency
 Greater reliability and proven field experience
 Previous experiences of purchaser on a type of
particular machine
 Lower foot print and lower cost.
 Total cost of ownership (TCO) is one of the main
considerations in evaluation and selection.
 Some of the relevant points concerning compressor
selection are placed below
 Selecting right type of machine
 Selecting the right type of machine depends on capacity,
pressure rise, and type of machine among the following
alternatives. Some of the users evaluate reliability and
risk issues first, with the initial cost and other factors as
secondary.
 Centrifugal
 Conventional

 Integrally geared

 Axial
 Reciprocating
 Alternate selection feasibility to be evaluated
 Selecting right type of machine
 Alternative to higher capacity axial compressors can be
obtained from parallel streams of centrifugal
compressors or double flow compressors which
provides a good turndown ratio and a good surge /
choke margin.
 Several smaller RC units can be combined into one
medium or large size centrifugal machine which
provides good reliability and smoother operation
 A conventional centrifugal machine can be replaced by
a high efficiency integrally geared unit with lower cost
which provides an energy efficient and cost economic
solution. Integrally geared machines are best suited for
certain applications like plant air compressors
 Selecting right type of machine
 Selection of type of coolers based on availability of
cooling water.
- Air cooled heat exchangers
- Gas to gas exchangers
- Water cooled exchangers
 Selection between a barrel and cast casing compressor is
made based on gas type.Barrel is used for higher pressures
and hydrogen rich gases.
 Type of mounting to be decided by buyer , Floor mounted
for GT applications or on RCC framed OH Platform for ST
driven units.
 Basic Data Required for Selection
 Capacity Kg/hr or Nm3/hr or am3/hr at suction Condition
 Suction Pressure, Suction Temperature
 Discharge pressure & Temperature ( if any limitation )
 Side streams, extractions and injections,if any
 Gas composition (presence of moisture H2S , Chlorides,
Special gas characteristics like polymerisation
 Off-design performance requirements like regeneration,
sulphiding , turndown conditions, EOR,SOR etc.
 Specify Driver, process steam parameters if ST is a driver
 Utilities like cooling water, steam, N2, Electrical supply
 Vendor Data Requirements
 Process Requirements Specified
 Thermodynamic /process data for the compressor and
its driver. Specify guaranteed points and envelop of
compressor intended operation,
 P&I diagram defining the process loop. Specify Process
requirements like injections, extractions location of
knock out drums, anti-surge loops. (in closed loop
systems like recycle compressors), instrumentation,
Control philosophy and process interactions
 Operational convenience: Capacity control,
performance control, parallel operation and load sharing
operation.
 Control philosophy
 Total plant control philosophy
 Anti surge philosophy and basic control law requires
from process side.
 Type of capacity control best suited for the customers
operational controls.
 Converge on alarms and trips from safety of process
and selection of PLC/ equipment
 Interaction with Plant DCS / MCR
 Area classification as per NEC or IEC
 Simulation philosophy and Hazop studies
 Layout plot plan & General arrangements
 Purchaser shall specify the area and utilities available for
the proposed plant.
 Compressor vendor shall give a plot plan and general
arrangement of various equipments , auxiliaries and piping.
 Vendor will draw his plant utilities from a common battery
limit and will furnish estimates for the utility consumptions
to purchaser.
 Compressor suction and discharge parameters are also
generally specified at Battery limits.
 Vendor shall give the weights of all the equipments dynamic
foundation loads.
 Considering the erection and maintenance weights crane
capacity is decided.
 Type of Bid required

 To enable the vendor to submit an offer to submit a

proper bid purchaser shall specify
 If the order is executed on
 Turnkey basis
 Equipment supply only
 equipment supply + supervisory support
 On EPC basis
 What is the duty structure applicable for the project
Data to be furnished by Compressor vendor
• Thermodynamic data sheets for various operations
envisaged giving gas properties, stage pressures, head
developed, operating speed, power consumed, polytrophic
efficiencies, surge / choke margins.
• Compressor model , constructional details,
• Rotor Dynamic study, submit results like critical speed
analysis unbalance response, stability analysis etc.
• Provide justification for the selection of bearings , couplings
and gears selection
• Foundation details, plot plan, general arrangement, layout,
P&I diagrams, base plates.
• Cross sectional drawings and brief write up on starting
procedures
Data to be furnished by Compressor vendor
• Instrumentation and Control philosophy
• Auxiliary data sheets for Lube & Seal oil system,
couplings and gearboxes .
• Data sheets for driver and related auxiliaries.
• Compliance to standards ,Inspection and Testing
• Quality Plan, and test procedures
• Cost Estimates and expected delivery periods
• Inclusion of recommended spare parts for 2 or 5 year
operation
• For turnkey contracts, commissioning spares to be
included
Data to be furnished by Compressor vendor
• Vendor shall provide experience record for the offered
machine. sealing system driver and gear boxes
• For special applications like high pressure Natural gas ,
vendor shall carryout simulation studies , wherever
specified to simulate starting, loading and shutdown
• Verify driver torque -speed capability to confirm that it
can accelerate the compressor to full speed.
• Carryout Hazop studies if the control systems and
compressor safety requirements to be met met
especially in oil & gas installations.
 Evaluating a Bid – Technical
• The selection should meet all the operating conditions
with good surge and choke margins with no recycle.
• If some of the operating conditions go into surge, viable
compressor operation with suction throttling or IGV shall
be proposed.
• Efficiencies quoted are reasonable and demonstrable
during test, If the design point and off design points are
far off, then the optimisation of efficiency could be
effected.
 Evaluating a Bid – Technical

• The compressor power consumption to be minimum

with higher polytrophic efficiencies for design point
while evaluating different offers.
• Compressor Rotor Dynamic study should indicate a
good rotor stability and shall have no encroachment
into operating zone including off design operation. For
high pressure applications additional vibration stability
checks shall be made.
• Offered machine has a reliable sealing and anti-surge
control system
 Evaluating a Bid – General
• The vendor takes minimum exceptions to API
requirements and complies with purchasers tech
specification and covers all the operating points.
• Vendor data requirements re fullfilled along with offer
• Offered model shall be a proven one & at least 2 units
made by them are in continuous operation for 8000 hours.
• All mandatory shop tests and all the optional tests
imposed in the tender specs are confirmed on merits of
each case, like high pressure low mol weight compressors
to be subjected to FL-FP-FS TEST.
• Vendor should have approved quality systems for ISO9001.
• Vendor should have offered lowest price with shorter
delivery.
 Applicable Standards

• Compressors & Turbines used in oil & gas industry

generally do not have any standby and any equipment
failure can cause the entire process to be put to risk of
a Plant outage and huge financial loss.

• For that reason API has brought out several stringent

rules and guidelines for the design and manufacture of
equipments made for any petrochemical plant /
refinery in the form of API stds. These standards ensure
safe and reliable operation of turbo machinery.
 API standards
 API 610 Centrifugal Pumps year 2010
 API 611 Aux. Steam Turbines 2008
 API 612 Drive Steam Turbines 2005
 API 613 Gearbox 2003
 API 614 Oil Systems 2008
 API 616 Drive Gas turbines 2010
 API 617 Centrifugal Compressors 2002
 API 618 Reciprocating Compressors 2007
 API 619 Rotary compressors 2010
 API 670 Machinery Protection system 2000
 API 671 Couplings 2007
 API 672 Integrally Geared compressors 2004
 API 676 Positive Displacement Pumps 2009
 Design Standards (API 617)

 API specifies certain basic rules to design ,manufacture

and test the centrifugal compressor
 Key parameters in API 617 ensure the best selection
and design of centrifugal compressor
 Guidelines on material selection for different services.
 Various Inspection & testing Requirements are laid out
in API.
 Vendor data requirements (VDR) and contract
documentation are also defined
 Illustration of API 617 requirements
• Constructional details like materials, casing connections,
• Base plates , welding and machine foundations.
• NDT Requirements
• Design and manufacture of Rotating parts
• Rotor Dynamics, vibrations, balancing & bearings selection
• Compressor shaft end sealing
• Selection of bearings & lubrification systems
• Accessories like couplings and gears
• Instrumentation and Control systems
• Inspection and Testing requirements
• Vendor data requirements.
 Illustration of API 617
requirements - Specified
speeds
 API 617 – Rotor Dynamics

API 617 Defines all the rotor dynamic studies required for
compressors.
Lateral critical speed analysis,
 Damped unbalance response analysis
 Shop verification of unbalance response test
 Stability analysis
 Torsional Analysis.
 Balancing requirements
Campbell diagram
 Tests on compressors
Tests on Compressors

Stage Tests Mandatory Tests Optional Tests

Impeller OS Test No Load MRT Performance Test

Balancing Static Seal Test String MRT

Gas Leak Test FSFPFL

Insensitivity
 Mandatory & Optional shop tests.
Mandatory tests: Optional tests:
 Hydraulic test of casings  Helium leak test
 Impeller over speed Tests  Sound level test
 Mechanical Running Test  Performance test
 Static seal test  Auxiliary equipment test
 Gas leak test  Post test inspection of
 Shop verification of the compressor
unbalance response  Full pressure, full speed
 Rotor Insensitivity test and full load test
In addition to the shop tests, it is a common practice to
ask for site performance test or a 72 hour site running
test.
 API 614 specifies basic rules
for
Design, manufacture of
lubrication and sealing systems
for
Compressors, Steam turbines & gearboxes.
 API 614
 General Requirements Section of API 614 provides users
of information relative to oil or gas definitions, filter
performance and oil system cleanliness testing
 Special Purpose Oil systems provide guidelines on
 Base plates
 Oil Reservoirs, Pumps and Drivers
 Coolers, Filters and Transfer Valves
 Accumulators , Overhead Tanks
 Essential components of Lube oil System
1.2 Base plates
1.3 Oil Reservoirs
1.4 Pumps & Drivers
1.5 Coolers
1.6 Filters
1.7 Transfer valves
1.8 Accumulators
1.9 Overhead tanks
1.10 seal oil drain traps
1.11 Degassing tanks
 API 613 Gear Boxes
 Gear boxes are generally of following classification
 Single helical /double helical
 Horizontal or Vertical offset
 Speed increasing / speed reducing
 Gear box shall be rated for the driver rating, for electric
motor driven units it shall be 110% of motor rating.
 Gear teeth hardening is done by two or more methods.
This is as per practice of individual manufacturers , i.e.
Case carburising, Nitriding and Through hardening
 Service factors for the sizing of gear teeth is based on
driver 1.4 for Motor driven , 1.6 for ST driven.
 API 613 Gear Boxes

 The rotor dynamic design considerations are similar to

Centrifugal compressors.
 Certain special tests are ordered on gearboxes
 Full Speed –Full Load / Partial Load Test / Full torque-
reduced speed
 Full torque-static test / Back to back locked rotor test
 Sound level test
 Axial stability for double helical test.
Choose a right driver that best suits the centrifugal
compressor from application

 Drivers
 Steam Turbines
 Electric Motors
 Gas Turbines
 Steam Turbines-Design Considerations
Steam Turbines use the thermal energy contained in steam
to deliver the power required. Steam is supplied from
either process plant steam from exothermic reaction or
steam produced in a boiler
Steam turbine is selected as a driver, when there is
abundant process steam available in a plant like
fertilizers or refineries. This is also considered as a
suitable driver, when many operating conditions are to
be satisfied and client likes to have a direct drive and a
gearbox can be eliminated
Steam turbine Types
 Condensing Turbines  Back pressure turbines
 Straight condensing  Back pressure Turbines
 Extraction condensing  Extraction back pressure turbines
 Steam Turbines
 Steam turbines are well suited as prime movers for driving
pumps, compressors, and other rotating equipment. This
service generally calls for a backpressure or extraction/
condensing steam turbine. The LP steam turbine exhaust is
available for feed water heating, and process
requirements.
 Steam turbine drives are equipped with throttling valves or
speed governors to modulate steam flow and achieve
variable speed operation. The steam turbine drive is thus
capable of serving the same function as an induction motor
coupled to an inverter or adjustable speed drive.
 Steam turbine drives can operate over a broad speed range
and do not fail when overloaded. They also exhibit the
high starting torque required for constant torque loads
such as positive displacement pumps.
 Steam Turbines
 Steam Turbines are available for power ratings required
for most of the compressors operating envelop.
 Power ratings of 1 to 50 Mw for Back pressure turbines
and 2 to 100 Kw for Condensing turbines are available,
and turbine speeds match the compressor requirements.
 Steam turbine performance is expressed in terms of
isentropic efficiency or heat rate Kcal/hr/Kw. Steam
consumption rates are given in terms of tons/hour.
 Steam turbines provide fast, reliable starting capability
and are particularly adaptable for direct connection to
equipment that rotates at high speeds. Steam turbine
drives may be installed for continuous duty under severe
operating conditions.
 Back Pressure Turbines
 Back pressure turbines are used as mechanical or
generators drivers. In industrial plant applications they
are installed between two steam pressure levels. The
exhaust steam is generally used for plant requirements.
 This turbine design is particularly suitable for injecting or
extracting steam at intermediate pressure.
 The best turbine efficiency and the injection / extraction
requirements are satisfied by adjustment of the number
of blades before /after extraction.
 Condensing turbines

 Condensing turbines are used as mechanical or generator

drivers. They are characterized by a large exhaust section
dictated by large steam volume flow caused by low
condensing pressure. The last section of two or three
stages have twisted airfoils to obtain high efficiency.
 The exhaust casing flange may be upwards or downwards or
axial. The condensing turbines are particularly suitable for
steam injection and/or extraction, matching the
requirements of petrochemical or power generation
applications such as co-generation or combined cycles.
 Gas Turbines-Design Considerations
 Gas turbines, unlike a steam turbines, uses the thermal
energy of a hot gas to generate power required. The heat
is obtained from within the gas turbines by burning fuel
inside the Gas Turbine Combustion chamber.
 When many operating conditions are to be satisfied for
a compressor, gas turbine is employed. The gas turbine
takes less time for start up and to reach full speed.
 A two shaft gas turbine is most suitable as a driver as
the HP shaft works at optimum speed and HP rotor can
run at flexible speed demanded by the compressor load.
 Gas turbine is economical to be run when there is
abundant natural gas available like in Pipeline
compressors.
Gas Turbines Example : GE turbines

Courtesy : GE website
 Electric Motors
 Electric Motor is selected when there is only one fixed
speed operation required when steam /gas is not available
 The two most common electric motors used for gas
compressor drives are AC synchronous and asynchronous or
induction motors.
 The following possibilities exist.
 Variable frequency drive (VFD) with electric motor
driving the compressor directly or though a gearbox.
 Constant speed motor across-the-line with a variable
speed gearbox, using a variable speed hydraulic drive.
 Constant speed motor across-the-line driving the
compressor at motor speed or through a gearbox.
 Advantages of Electric Motor drive
 Electric motor drives are very competitive and offer
significant advantages against gas/Steam turbines.
 Electric drives have lower capital cost, higher efficiency,
higher availability and lower maintenance cost.
 An electric drive with its relatively simple design requires
less maintenance than gas turbines ,which have many hot
gas path and wearing parts.
 The start-up procedure for electric motors is much
simpler than for gas turbines and thus electric drives are
much more flexible.
 Electric drives are beneficial from an environmental point
of view.
Arrangement of machines
Arrangement of ST+ C1 + Gear Box + C2+ C3
Driver + Steam or Gas turbine

Steam turbine Compressor

Electric Motor +Gear Box + Compressor
ST + Gear Box + Comp.1+ Comp. 2

78
 Integrally geared compressor Integrally geared compressor
Impellers on either side of Bull gear Impellers on one side of Bull gear
Parallel flow, suction in ends Series flow (basic compressor)
Parallel flow, suction in center Series flow, one intercooler
Series flow, 2 intercoolers Series flow, 1 intercooler
Suction at ends
Series flow, 1 intercooler Series flow, with double flow
Large air compressor inlet and side stream
 Thermodynamics - Centrifugal Compressors

 Gas properties
 Relative humidity & gas molecular weight
 Perfect Gas Behavior
 Compression Processes
 Entropy, Enthalpy, Compressibility
 Principle of compressor working
 Working cycle of compressor
 The Euler Turbo machinery Equation
 Gas Laws and Gas properties
 Gas - Compressors handle gases with different
behaviors. Some are ideal gasses like Air, N2 and the
other real gasses like Ammonia ,CO2 and mixture of
gases like hydrocarbons. The ideal gas law is often used
as the first order description of any gas
 Ideal Gas - Although no gas is truly ideal, many gasses
follow the ideal gas law very closely at sufficiently low
pressures. The ideal gas law was originally determined
empirically . It is an equation of state that relates the
thermodynamic variables of pressure, temperature,
volume and number of molecules to one another.
 Gas Laws and Gas properties
 Ideal Gas :
 Boyle Law: The gas volume varies inversely with the
pressure. In mathematical form, this can be stated as
p1 /p2 = V2/V1 or simply pV=Constant
 Charles law defines linear relationships for Volumes and
temperatures V1/V2= T1/T2
 Real Gases – One of the equations of state for a real gas
is written as р/ρRT = z( T, р ) where
p = abs. pressure , T = abs. temperature, ρ = Gas density
z = Compressibility factor, n = moles, R = ideal gas const.
 Units used in Engg calculations
 Flow Qn (Nm3 / hr) or G ( KG / hr ) or Qs (SM3/hr)
 Nm3/hr represents volume flow at m3/hr at NTP
conditions of P = 1.033 kg/cm2a , T = 2730 K
 Sm3/hr represents volume flow at m3/hr at Standard
conditions of P = 1.033 kg/cm2a , T = 2880 K
 am3/hr represents volume flow in m3/hr at actual
suction conditions Pressure and Temperatures
 Mass flow rate relates to G Kg/hr = Qn * MW / 22.414
As per Avagadros formula
 Pressure Kg/cm2 a / bar / kPa / N/m2
 Temperatures Deg C 0r Deg K
 Gas Behavior
 An Ideal Gas is one which obeys Boyle's Law and Charles'
Law exactly
 The Ideal Gas Law is an equation of state for a gas, which
describes the relationship among the four variables
Temperature, Pressure, Volume, and moles of gas (n).
 The mathematical form of the Ideal Gas Law is:
PV = nRT and n = m/MW, Where:
 P – pressure , V – volume, and T - temperature
 n - number of moles , m – mass and MW – Mol. Weight
 R - ideal gas constant.
 The moles of a gas is: n = m / MW
 Where m is the mass of the gas, and MW is mol. weight.
Universal Gas Constant - Ru

The Universal Gas Constant - Ru – which appears in ‘ Ideal

Gas Law’ can be expressed as the product between the
Individual Gas Constant – R and the Molecular Weight -
Mgas - for the gas, and is the same for all ideal or perfect
gases:
Ru = Mgas Rgas
( Ru = universal gas const.= 8.314472 J / (mol.K) )
Rgas = 8314.472 / Mgas J / kmol.K or
Rgas = 848 / Mgas kgm / kmol.K
Mgas = Mol.weight of ideal gas / mixture of gases
 Molecular weight

 Molecular weight is the weight of a molecule (smallest

particle of a compound ) that has all the chemical
properties of that compound. It is expressed in atomic
mass units or amu, for a compound, it is the sum of the
atomic weights
 For example, water has the molecular formula H2O,
indicating that there are two atoms of hydrogen and one
atom of oxygen in a molecule of water.
 Rounded to three decimal places, the atomic weight of
hydrogen is 1.008 amu and that of oxygen is 15.999 amu.
 The molecular weight of water is thus
(2×1.008)+(1×15.999)=2.016+15.999=18.015 amu.
 Molecular weight
 Example: A sample of oxygen gas is studied. If a 1.00 gram
sample of oxygen gas at 25.0oC (298.15Deg K) and 1.00
atm pressure has a volume of 0.765 L (.765/1000 m3)
what is the molecular weight of oxygen gas ?
 Solution: Simply use the above equation to get the
molecular weight
 M = mRT/PV
 M = (0.001* 848 * 298.15) / (1.033*10000*0.765 *1E-03)
 M = 32.0 kg/kmol
Molecular weight of mixture of gases
Gas Composition MW Vol % Wt %
Hydrogen M1 X1 y1
Nitrogen M2 X2 y2
Carbon di oxide M3 X3 y3
Oxygen M4 X4 y4

Molecular weight of mixture M mix. = ∑ Mi Xi / 100

where X is the composition of the constituent % by
volume M is the molecular weight of the constituent

Molecular weight of mixture M mix. = ∑ yi ( yi/Mi )

where X is the composition of the constituent % by
volume M is the molecular weight of the constituent
 Relative humidity
 The relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water
vapor in the air/gas (at a specific temperature) compared
to the maximum amount of water vapor air/gas could hold
at that temperature and is given as a percentage value.
 Relative humidity depends on the temperature of the
air/gas, as warm air/gas can hold more moisture than cold
air/gas. Relative humidity is measured with the help of
dry/wet bulb thermometers.
 A relative humidity of 100 percent indicates that the air is
holding all the water it can hold at current temperature,
any additional moisture results in condensation.
Relative humidity
 Relative humidity
Let P’ = Water vapor partial pressure
Psat = Saturated vapor pressure at a certain temperature
P = Total mixture pressure
Xv = The water vapor present in the air
p’
RH % = ------ from which P’ = Psat * RH
Psat
xv = P’/ P

Example : For a pressure of 1 kg/cm2, 40 DegC, relative humidity 100%

P sat is read from graph 0.07 kg/cm2
The water vapour present in the air
Xv = 0.07*1.00 / 1.00= 70.00 gr / m3 of air
 Thermodynamic entities : Entropy
 Entropy is a thermodynamic property that can be used to
determine the energy not available for useful work in a
thermodynamic process.
 Thermodynamic entropy has the dimension of energy
divided by temperature, and a unit of joules per
Kelvin(J/K) in the International System of Units. The
entropy is of great significance in compression and
expansion of gases where the process is assumed to be
isentropic.
 s = dQ/T J/Kelvin
 Thermodynamic entities : Enthalpy
 Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a
thermodynamic system. The increase in enthalpy of a
system is exactly equal to the energy added through
heat, provided the system is under constant pressure
 ΔH = Q where , ΔH is the change in enthalpy of
system, and Q is the energy added to the system
 The total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured
directly; the enthalpy change of a system is measured
instead. Enthalpy change is defined by the following
equation: ΔH = Hfinal − Hinitial where ΔH is the enthalpy
change Hfinal is the final enthalpy of the system, Hinitial
is the initial enthalpy of the system,
Thermodynamic entities : Compressibility

 Compressibility factor (Z), is a useful thermodynamic

property for modifying the ideal gas law to account for
the real gas behaviour.
 Compressibility factor values are usually obtained by
calculation from equations of state (EOS), gas tables
charts, Alternatively, the compressibility factor for
specific gases can be read from generalized
compressibility charts that plot Z as a function of
pressure at constant temperature.
Thermodynamic entities : Compressibility
 As for the compressibility of gases, any pure gas at the
same reduced temperature, Tr, and reduced pressure,
Pr, should have the same compressibility factor. The
reduced temperature and pressure are defined as:

 Tc and Pc are critical temp and critical pressures ,

 T and P are temperature and pressure of a gas at
suction/discharge considered.
Typical compressibility chart
 Processes & Cycles
• States of a thermodynamic system can be changed by
interacting with its surrounding through work and heat. When
this change occurs in a system, it is said that the system is
undergoing a process.
• A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of different processes
that begins and ends at the same thermodynamic state.
Some of the examples of the cycle are
• Steam turbine Rankine cycle
• Gas Turbine Brayton cycle
refrigeration Refrigeration system
Petrol engines Otto cycle
 Isobaric / Isochoric Process
 Isothermal Process
Compression Processes
 Isentropic process
 Polytropic Process
 Isobaric Processes Isochoric Processes

Iso baric / constant Pressure Isochoric / Constant Volume

process occurs at constant process : is one in which the volume
pressure. An example would is held constant, meaning that the
be to have a movable piston in work done by the system will be zero.
a cylinder, so that the pressure
It follows that, for the simple system
inside the cylinder is always at
atmospheric pressure, of two dimensions, any heat energy
although it is isolated from the transferred to the system externally
atmosphere. will be absorbed as internal energy.
Adiabatic process Isothermal Process

P
P
2 PV= NkBT

1 W

V2 V2 V1 V
V1 V

 Adiabatic process is a  Isothermal process : occurs

process in which there is at a constant temperature.
no energy added or
subtracted from the ΔT=0
system by heating or
cooling. For a reversible
process, this is identical
to an isentropic process
Polytropic process

Polytropic process is a thermodynamic process that obeys the relation:

 Where P is the pressure, V is volume, n is a polytropic index ), and C is

a constant. This equation can be used to accurately characterize
processes of certain systems, notably the compression or expansion of
a gas,
 Different processes
PV Diagram for Isentropic, Polytropic and Isothermal compression, for
the same final and initial pressures

The area to the left of

each line represents the
work, vdP

Note, it takes less work

for an isothermal
process
PV diagram for Isothermal & polytropic compression
process (multistage)

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

volume
 Technical design areas
 Thermodynamic Calculations
• Gas properties for gas mixtures
• Compressor performance prediction Design / Off design.
• Aerodynamic design of 3D impellers
• Internal gas leakage and seal performance
 Mechanical Design
• Strength calculations for all compressor components.
• Sizing of couplings, bearings, seals
 Rotor Dynamics
• Evaluation of critical speeds, Unbalance response
Stability analysis & Torsional analysis.
 How a centrifugal compressor works ?
 Centrifugal compressor is a dynamic type of compressor
where the pressure rise is accomplished by a transfer of
dynamic energy from the rotor to the gas.
 Velocity is imparted from moving wheel to gas in the
impeller and Velocity is converted to pressure in the
impeller.
 The unconverted kinetic energy at the impeller exit is
converted further to pressure energy in diffusers.
 For a given pressure ratio, more head is required to
compress a low molecular weight gas.
 Increasing speed imparts higher kinetic energy, which can
raise the gas to higher pressure. Basic Fan laws give an
idea of the relations of various compressor parameters.
 Euler’s Theorem
According to a form of Euler's fluid dynamics equation,
known as " Pump and Turbine equation," the energy
input to the unit mass of fluid passing through a channel
is equal to the product of variation of momentum of the
fluid between inlet and outlet and its angular speed.

Δhu = ω x change of momentum of the gas

where ΔHu = Energy absorbed by the wheel
ω = angular speed
 Definition of a stage
Total pressure rise = Pressure rise in impeller + diffuser

DIFFUSER
RETURN CHANNEL

LSD VANE

IMPELLER

ON IMPELLER SEAL

INTER STAGE SEAL

 Objectives of a good selection

 To keep the number of casings minimum to control cost

 To limit the machine size
 To achieve the discharge pressure targets
 To limit the discharge temperatures
 To match the driver speeds.
 To keep the power requirement minimum
 To get a good operating margin
 To make the impellers practicable to manufacture
 Analytical approach to stage design
Simplest thermal equilibrium of state PV = z m R T where
P = Pressure in Kg /cm2
V =volume in m3/kg,
z = compressibility factor assumed 1.0 for perfect gases
m = mass flow kg / sec
R = Gas constant 848/ μ mol weight
T = gas temperature deg/ K
k = Isentropic index of compression = Cp / Cv
 Temperature Ratio TR = { Pressure Ratio } n-1/n
 Mach number Mu = U2 / √ g.k.R T
 Polytropic efficiency ή = ( k-1) / k / ( n-1) / n
 Polytropic head H pol = Z R T n/( n-1) x { ρ (n-1/n ) – 1}
 Preliminary stage design
1. Check the type of machine
If Discharge Pressure < 40 bar Low pressure Horiz. split
If Discharge Pressure > 40 bar High Pressure vertically split
2. Estimate the inlet nozzle size and area required from
permitted velocity of Fluid
< 35 m/sec at inlet and
< 45 m/sec at discharge
3. Nozzle size decides the compressor casing model
 Inlet and outlet velocity triangles
C1 , C2 abs velocities
C1U, C2U Tangential component of C1
C1R C2R & Radial components of C2
α1, α 2 Flow angles
β1,β2 Blade angles
r1, r2 Blade radius
U1, U2 Tip speeds
 D N / 60 m/sec
Step 1. Analytical approach to stage design
 Centrifugal impeller is designed based on Euler’s equation
Change of momentum = 1/g ( r2 * C2 * Cos α 2 - r1* C1 * Cos α 1)
Energy absorbed by the wheel ΔHU = ω * Change of momentum
ΔHU = ω * 1/g ( r2 * C2 * Cos α 2 - r1* C1 * Cos α 1)
Remembering that U = ω * r
ΔHU = ω * 1/g (U2 * C2 * Cos α 2 - U1 * C1 * Cos α 1)
For Centrifugal impeller with radial inlet, α1 =900, C1* U1 *Cos α1 = 0
The equation becomes ΔHU = ω * 1/g (U2 * C2 * Cos α 2 )
From Velocity diagram C2U = C2 * Cos α 2
ΔHU = 1/g ( U2 * C2U ) kgm / kg ……...eqn T
Step 2. Analytical approach to stage design
 Let us define flow and head coefficients as below:
 as flow coefficient  = C2R U2 = 4.Q1/( .D22 .U2)
 as head coefficient 2 = C2U / U2 where,
From velocity triangles 2 = σ ( 1- 2 cot β2 ) where σ slip factor= 0.86
 ΔHU Effective= 1/g ( * U2 * U2) or ΔHU = 1/g ( * U22 ) kgm / kg.
 ΔHU POL = H eff *  POL
 The head developed can also be written as
ΔHU POL = Z R T n/( n-1) * { ρ (n-1/n ) - 1 }
 From manufacturers experience & test data, pol. efficiency is assumed
 Value of k is evaluated from gas properties
n/(n-1) = k/(k-1) *  POL
 From the above, the impeller discharge pressure discharge temp and
volumes are calculated at the outlet of impeller.
Step 3.Analytical approach to stage design
 (n-1/n) is evaluated from Polytrophic Efficiency equation,

 POL = (k-1)/k / (n-1)/n or n/(n-1) = k/(k-1) *  POL

 T2 = T1 * ρ (n-1/n ) and V2 = z*R*T2/ P2

Diffuser : the recovery of kinetic energy from diffuser inlet to diffuser exit
Δhu = ( C3 ^2 – C4 ^2 ) /2g*J
and Δhu = Cp * ΔT
Once ΔT is evaluated, pressure and other gas properties at the end of
diffuser can be estimated
Step 4.Analytical approach to stage design
 Pressures , temperatures and gas properties are evaluated
for discharge conditions and used as input data for the
next impeller design. The process is repeated for the
number of stages envisaged in the machine till desired
discharge pressure is achieved.
 Depending on the flow coefficient  , right type of
impeller is selected from the right family of impellers. The
standard family of impellers are stored in the order of 
 As the gas is compressed from one casing to the other, the
flow coefficients  get reduced and results in a more
narrow impeller. The entire process is automated and
performed by computer calculations
Impeller stages arranged in order of
flow coeff.

Inlet flow coefficients

 Explanation about efficiency
 Most of the time, compression is neither truly isentropic
nor isothermal, instead a polytrophic compression process
is followed.
 Efficiency & head rise are evaluated in a test rig and
plotted against non-dimensional flow coefficient φ
 The equation for energy consumed / head is the same as
for adiabatic compression, except that the polytrophic
compression exponent n replaces heat capacity ratio k.
 The polytrophic efficiency is defined as the ratio of
polytrophic work to actual work. For centrifugal machine,
polytrophic efficiency is more dependable than adiabatic
efficiency
Polytrophic efficiency = H pol./ H eff.
Adiabatic efficiency = H adia/ H eff
Losses in a compressor
 Losses in centrifugal impeller

 Frictional losses: Distributed and localized which are

related to the movement of fluid against fixed surfaces
and due to rapid change in direction , changing section
cross sections.
 Losses due to impact of fluid against moving blades
which depend on capacity and peripheral speeds.
 Volumetric losses due to leakage of fluid from discharge
to suction of an impeller
 Slip Losses due to non congruent flow along the blades
defined as below:
Compressor stage on a H-S diagram

D
i
f
f
u
h s
e
r

I
m
Stage p
e
= Impeller +Diffuser
l
l
e
r

entropy
 H-s diagram for stage design

 Cond A denotes at the compressor nozzle inlet

 Cond 0 denotes before the eye of impeller
 Cond 1 denotes at impeller inlet
 Cond 2 denotes at the discharge of impeller
 Cond B denotes at the end of diffuser
 Cond C denotes at the end of stage
 H-s diagram for stage design
 A to 0 an rise in velocity corresp. to C02 /2g and a fall in
Head
 0 to 1 an increase in velocity at impeller eye corresponding to
C12 /2g
 From 1to 2 the rise in head is from impeller represented by h2
 Total energy gain is represented by h2-h1
 From 2 to B it follows the diffusion process where the K.E
component is converted and gain additional head corresp. to
( C22 _ Cb2 )/2g
 B TO C represents K.E recovery from volute and outlet nozzle
 Total effective head recovery in the entire stage is therefore
hc - hA
 Mach Number
Gas velocity / tip velocity
MACH number = ---------------------------------------
Sound Velocity a
a = Sound velocity in m/sec is a characteristic of fluid.
a=√gkRT
g = acceleration due to gravity
k = cp/cv isentropic exponent
R = gas constant
T = Absolute temperature of gas
If tip velocity is used it is called Machine Mach number
 Effect of Mach Number
 If the Mach Number is <1, the flow velocity is lower than the
speed of sound - and the speed is subsonic.
 If the Mach Number is 1, the flow velocity is equal to the speed of
sound - and the speed is transonic.
 If the Mach Number is > 1, the flow velocity is higher than the
speed of sound - and the speed is supersonic.
 Mach number influences the maximum amount of gas that can be
compressed for a given impeller speed. As the gas flow rate
increases so does the velocity within the compressor’s internal
flow path until it approaches the fluid acoustic velocity, thus
limiting the flow.
 Gas velocities that approach a Mach number of one indicate choke
flow inside the compressor. As velocities approach Mach 1 shock
waves are generated with a consequent heavy loss of energy.
 Constraints of selection
 Higher speed results in higher stresses- NACE, where
applicable, puts a limit on the stresses and on speed.
 More number of impellers to compensate the reduced
speed or reduced diameter, increases span and makes
the rotor span longer unacceptable from rotor-dynamics
 Accommodating higher number of impellers adds up a
second casing due to critical speeds increases cost.
 To minimize cost intercoolers are minimized, which
results in low efficiency.
 In order to provide oil/DGS sealing system, one must
limit the discharge temperature and indirectly on speed.
 External factors like couplings, journal & thrust bearings
put constraints on shaft size.
 Selection guidelines
Summarize the selection guidelines as below
 If the flow exceeds a limit for centrifugal machine for
lower pressure ratios, then the suction flow is divided
into two streams and compressed in identical and
parallel compression stages.
 Do not exceed the number of impellers by 8, because
 Higher numbers results in slender rotor and bring
critical speeds closer to the operating speed.
 More number of impellers results in poor operating
margins.
 More number can increase the casing length and cost.
When the inlet flow exceeds Centrifugal limits
Q

Q/2
C1 Q/2 Q/2
Q suc

C2
Q/2
Q

Solution 1 Solution 2
 Selection guidelines…. contd.
 Limits on discharge temperatures
 Natural gas limit to 130-150
 Air and N2 compressors limit to 250 Deg C
 Compressors with seals to 150 Deg C
 No temperature rise to improve compressor efficiency.
 If the temperatures exceed above, introduce an intercooler
 If there is an intermediate injection, provide an outlet and an
intercooler and separator to facilitate ease of mixing
 Arrange impellers back to back subject to 8 impellers per casing
 Limit the tip speeds.
 If there is presence of H2S or water vapor to 300 m/sec.
 If the critical speeds are close to operating speeds
 If the impeller stresses are higher than the material capability.
 Design Inputs
Let us examine selection and sizing of a compressor having the
following parameters.
 Barometer reading
 Ps = 1.00 ata @ flange Ts = 45 Deg C
 Pf = 8.5 ata @ flange td = ?
 Flow rate 10000 Nm3 / hr
 Medium air with 100 % relative humidity
To arrive at the following data
 Casing size
 Impeller diameter & Number of impellers
 Number of Phases
 Power consumption
 Speed
 Discharge temperatures
 Selection
P1 = 1.00 ata T1 = 30 Deg C
P2 = 8.00 ata , Capacity 5000 m3/hr, Medium = air
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Selection 1 Motor driven compressor
N 6500 rpm - 8 stages size 600 mm power 1.5Mw ,
Efficiency 78% cost 1 m $
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Selection 2 Turbine driven compressor
N 6500 rpm 8 stages size 600 mm power 1.5Mw,
Efficiency 78% cost 1.5 m$
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Selection 3 Integrally geared compressor
Pinion 1 Speed 16500 rpm 2 stages size 300 mm
Pinion 2 Speed 24000 rpm 2 stages size 200 mm
Total power power 1.2Mw , Efficiency 82 % cost 0.5 m$
Compressor selection - Examples

Gearbox
 Understanding performance curves
 Operation range of a centrifugal compressor
 Influence of Different gas composition on compressor
performance.
 Performance curves
 The performance curves will bring out the’ expected ‘
performance of the machine throughout the entire
operating speed zone from Minimum governing speed to
maximum continuous speed and trip speed whenever
required.
 Curves are drawn for
 Discharge Pressure Vs. Suction capacity
 Shaft power Vs Suction capacity
 Polytropic efficiency Vs. Suction capacity
 Polytropic Head Vs Suction capacity
 Performance curves are drawn with fixed suction
conditions for the entire capacity zone within which the
machine operation is feasible.
 Design & Guarantee points.
 The operating point that demands lowest shaft power or
highest efficiency and optimized compressor design is a
design point.
 Out of many such design points with varying efficiencies,
the one customer chooses to operate continuously and
marked for guarantee is a guarantee point.
 The highest speed demanded by the compressor among
various operating conditions is termed as 100% speed.
 Driver over speed and impeller over speed are always
referred to this 100% speed.
Compressor performance Curve

85% N
 Other Operating points
Compressor behavior for various operating points A, B,C and F
Consider ‘D ‘ design operating point
B Represents maximum flow 136% under constant pressure. This is
possible by increasing speed to 100%
A Represents minimum flow 58% under constant pressure. This is
possible by reducing speed to 85%
C Represents an intermediate flow of 82% under constant discharge
pressure by reducing speed to 90%
F Represents a maximum head situation under design flow. This is
possible by increasing speed to 100% which is a threshold of
operation . Also the turbine rated speed.
 The performance is shown for 110% speed in the curve a required by
API but the machine can not run at this speed as it is known as
turbine trip speed. Any other operating point like E can be achieved
based on the system resistance within the speed domain of the
driver.
 Design Performance Curves
ST / Gas Turbine drivers
 Curves are drawn for Design Point speed, Rated point
speed , 100% speed , Minimum Gov. Speed and in steps
of10% between min and max speeds.
 If the machine is a ST driven, Normal operating point
becomes design point and performance of the machine is
verified for Rated point
 Required margins are provided for ST rated point as
envisaged in API
 Identify the prohibited operating speeds ,if any, from
the Torsional and lateral critical speed point of view.
 Design Performance Curves
Electric Motors
 The worst operating point demanding highest head,
highest flow and lowest molecular weight and highest
inlet temperatures is decided as design point
 The speed corresponding to this design point is
considered for the Gear Box pinion speed. All other
lower operating points are met by suction throttling.
 As an energy conservative alternative, any of these
points are achieved by employing Fluid Coupling or VFD
controllers, wherever provided.
 Performance curve
Best performance curve is one
 It has good surge and choke margins and has a good
turndown ratio including for operation at 100% speed.
 Which is flat and less sensitive to fluctuation in flow.
 Where adequate speed and power margins are provided
to take care of fluctuation in inlet specified parameters
 Which represents longer and continuous operation
Normal and Rated points.
 Adequate margins for Surge & max. Capacity lines are
drawn at left & right of curves respectively
 Understanding performance curves
 Process system operating pressure and system pressure drop
strongly influence compressor capacity.
 Suction pressure changes have a much larger influence on
compressor capacity due to their effect gas density
 Increasing compressor suction pressure and reducing
discharge pressure will increase compressor capacity.
Reducing System pressure drop at compressor suction and
discharge need to be identified to increase the flow rate
through the compressor.
 The curve is flat near the surge point and becomes steeper as
flow is increased. Hence, small head changes near the surge
point cause a large increase in compressor capacity.
 As compressor operation moves toward stonewall, decreasing
head has less influence on inlet flow rate as the curve slope
increases.
 Performance curves - Machine health
Observation Reason Result
Operating point Flow rate increase due to Reduction in discharge Pressure
shifting to right 1. Fall in syst. Resistance which needs speeding up
2. Heavy internal leakages Increase in discharge temperatures
shows recycling.
Operating point Flow rate fall due to Increase in Discharge Pressure
shifting to the left 1. Rise in syst. Resistance which needs speed reduction
2. Increase in inlet temp.
Operating point 1. Rise in syst. Resistance Increase in Discharge pressure +
Raising above 2. Increase in gas density. flow rate + shaft power
design point 3. Reduction in let temp.
Operating point 1. Blockage, Drop in Disch. Pr and capacity,
Falling below design 2. Gas density reduction Blockage of passages results in
point 3. Inlet temp rise. reduction in power also.
increase in power 1. Drop in inlet temp and maintain inlet temp and flow
consumption speeding up rates. If the leakages are to heavy
2. Increase in flow rate and as a consequence of a surge,
speeding up inspect the internals
3. Heavy int. leakages
 Operating range
 In a multi stage compressor train identifying surge and choke for the
train is a complex.
 Every impeller has a surge and choke based on the blade geometry of
the impeller selected.
 When an impeller is selected for an application with an optimum
flow rating, the subsequent impellers will have to be of lower and
lower capacity to have clear surge margin.
 The train surge margin will be dictated by the most narrower of the
train . When one of the impellers of the train experiences surge, all
next impellers will follow and the machine collapses to surge.
 If an intermediate impeller has reached choke margin, it will not
have design pressure rising capability in addition to limiting flow,
with the result that next impeller will see its surge point.
 As the number of impellers in a machine are large, the train will
have a smaller operating range limited by either of the impellers.
 Operating range
 In a multi stage compressor train identifying surge and choke for the
train is a complex. Every impeller has a surge and choke based on
the blade geometry of the impeller selected.
 When an impeller is selected for an application with an optimum
flow rating, the subsequent impellers will have to be of lower and
lower capacity to have clear surge margin.
 Even when individual impellers have good surge and choke margins,
the resulting train surge margin will be reduced and dictated by
factors like gas mol.wt., speed & number of impellers.
 First impeller should not go into surge and last one should not go
into choke. When one of the impellers of the train experiences
surge, all next impellers will follow and the machine collapses to
surge. If an intermediate impeller has reached choke margin, it will
not have design pressure rising capability in addition to limiting flow,
with the result that next impeller will see its surge point.
 As the number of impellers in a machine are large, the train will
have a smaller operating range limited by either of the impellers.
 Operating range
AI 1st stage impeller , AII 2nd stage impeller, AIII 3rd stage impeller

S S S

C
C C

Inlet flow m3/hr

QO II = QO I * ( ps1/pd1 ) * ( Td1/Ts1 )* ( zd1/zs1)

QOIII = QO II * ( ps2/pd2 ) * ( Td2/Ts2 )* ( zd2/zs2) so on

Off Design Performance
Affinity Laws
 Effect of Variation of Gas properties

 Curve A Heavier gas, and /or Lower inlet temp

 Curve B Lighter gas and / or Higher inlet temp
 Off design Performance Characteristics
How Off design conditions can make the compressor
operation in efficient ?

Parameters defined as off design

 Change in composition (change in Molecular Weight,
Humidity)
 Change in Inlet temperature
 Change in Inlet Pressure
 Increase in internal leakage and blockage
Molecular Weight Variation
Change in Inlet Temperature
Change in Inlet Pressure

156
Internal Leakages & Fouling

157
Compressor Components
• Stator
•Casing, Nozzles, Casing • Journal bearing
lugs
• Thrust bearing
•Counter casing • Shaft end Oil Seals
•Diaphragm
•End covers (head flange)
•Shaft seals rings
• Rotor
• Impellers
• Spacers
• Balance drum
• Thrust collar
• Couplings
 Various gas path components

Critical Parts of a machine which greatly influence machine

performance
 Inlet filters
 Inlet & Discharge Volutes
 Impellers
 Diffusers & Return guide vanes
 Heat Exchangers & Cooler
 Piping
Compressor cross section
 Various parts of compressors

Inlet filters for air compressors

 Inlet filter prevent solids and dust particles from
entering the machine to improve the life of internals
and damage to close clearance parts
 At the same time, Filters create huge pressure drop
needing machine to spend extra energy to recover the
inlet drop.
 Inlet filters may have low pressure drop at the
beginning but as time passes they clog faster and drop
across filters adversely increase in deterioration.
 Parts of compressors – Inlet Volutes

 Gas is drawn into the compressor through the suction

nozzle and enters the volute. The gas accelerates in
the inlet volute to enable it’s entry into the first
impeller. He inlet nozzle and inlet volute shall be sized
to have a minimum expansion as it passes through inlet
zone
 Parts of compressors -Discharge volutes
 After exiting impeller stages, the gas flows to an
annular chamber called the discharge volute which
collects the gas from the diffuser and conveys it to the
discharge nozzle.
 The discharge volute is so designed that the gas coming
out of the diffuser with higher velocity is collected
progressively into the collecting chamber (Volute) and
decelerates to get it accommodated into the discharge
flange. This process helps the gas to recover some
pressure in the volute by loosing some kinetic energy.
 Parts of compressors – Impellers
 The key component that produces pressure rise is
impeller. It is the impeller's rotating set of vanes that
gradually raises the energy of the working fluid. In many
modern high-efficiency centrifugal compressors, the gas
exiting the impeller is traveling near the speed of
sound.
 Impellers are designed in many configurations like
"open“ "closed“ Most modern high efficiency impellers
use "backward curved vanes. It is the impeller where
exchange of energy takes place from rotor to the fluid.
 Minimizing various losses can increase the efficiency of
impeller and ultimately the compressor. The design
skill centers around impeller to optimize the design.
3D impeller
Open 3D impeller Closed 3D impeller

3D Impeller can be either open or closed

 Open Vs Closed type of impellers
Closed Impellers : When the disc stresses of shroud are
within material limits, impellers are made as closed
ones. The closed impellers have better performance as
the internal leakages are nil
Open Impellers: When the disc stresses are higher
impellers are made open type. The advantage of these
impellers is that they are easier and simple to
fabricate. The disadvantage being that the shroud
leakages will bring down the impeller efficiency.
 Diffusers
 A centrifugal compressor achieves a pressure rise and
adds large kinetic energy to a continuous flow of fluid
through the impeller. This kinetic energy is then
converted to an increase in potential energy/static
pressure by slowing the flow through a diffuser.
 In many cases the flow leaving centrifugal impeller is
approximately at 300 m/s. It is at this point, in the
simple case according to Bernoulli's principle, where the
flow passes into the stationary diffuser for the purpose
of converting this velocity energy into pressure energy.
 Diffusers can be vaneless or vaned
 Diffusers

C4

C3

If C3 velocity at diffuser inlet and C4 Velocity at diffuser outlet

Kinetic energy recovery is by expansion from c3 to c4
2 2
Energy recovery Δh = ( C3 - C4 ) / 2g
 Return guide vanes

 The next gas path component is return guide vanes,

which direct the gas from diffuser to next stage.
 This component can also be used to provide pre-rotation
of the gas at a pre defined pre whirl into next stage.
 These blade profiles are designed from the standard
profiles developed by NACA.
 The return channel is designed in such a way that the
incidence is closely organised to the cast blade inlets to
discharging fluid after the bend
Return guide Vanes