CHAPTER ONE: Reading and Reading Comprehension

1.1.Reading Concept.
Reading is a receptive language process. It is a psycholinguistic process, which starts with a
linguistic surface representation encoded by a writer and ends with meaning constructed by the
reader. In other words, reading comprehension is the act of understanding what you are reading.
Reading comprehension is an intentional, active, interactive process that occurs before, during
and after a person reads a particular piece of writing.
Reading is private. It is a mental, or cognitive, process, which involves a reader in trying to
follow and respond to a message from a writer who is distant in space and time. Because of this
privacy, the process of reading and responding to a writer is not directly observable.
Reading may be defined as an individual's total interrelationship with symbolic information.
Reading is a communication process requiring a series of skills. As such, reading is a thinking
process rather than an exercise in eye movements. Effective reading requires a logical sequence
of thinking or thought patterns, and these thought patterns require practice to set them into the
mind. They may be broken down into the following seven basic processes:
1. Recognition: the reader's knowledge of the alphabetic symbols.
2. Assimilation: the physical process of perception and scanning.
3. Intra-integration: basic understanding derived from the reading material itself, with
minimum dependence on experience, other than knowledge of grammar and vocabulary.
4. Extra-integration: analysis, criticism, appreciation, selection rejection. These are all
activities, which require the reader to bring his experience to bear on the task.
5. Retention: this is the capacity to store the information in memory.
6. Recall: the ability to recover the information from memory storage.
7. Communication: this represents the application of the information and may be further
broken down into at least 4 categories, which are:
Written communication; s/ Spoken communication;
Communication through drawing and the manipulation of objects;
Thinking, this is another word for communication with the self.
Many problems in reading and learning are due to old habits. Many people are still reading in the
way that they were taught in elementary school. Their reading speed will have settled to about

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250 w.p.m. Many people can think at rates of 500 w.p.m. or more, so their mind is running at
twice the speed of their eyes. A consequence is that it is easy to lapse into boredom,
daydreaming or thinking about what you want to do on the weekend. Frequently, it is through
this type of distraction that you find you have to re-read sentences and paragraphs, and you find
as a result, ideas are difficult to understand and remember.
1.2.Reading Purposes
Here we focus on the importance of purpose in private reading and the range in different
purposes for which individuals read. There is evidence that there is a close relationship between
reading purposes and text; reading for pleasure typically, though not always, determines the
choices of a text that is narrative and or literary in style. In addition, there is also a relationship
between reading purpose and the types of reading, for example: skimming, scanning, skipping,
and getting the gist. In order to facilitate each student’s purposes, a preliminary summary of
different reading purposes is presented below.
Every students has their own purpose to read something. To determine in which type you
includes, this is type of reading purposes:
a. Reading for pleasure
To follow a narrative
To enjoy the 'sound' and the rhyme of a literary text
b. Reading for a general impression

• To gain an idea of the writer's viewpoints

• To gain an overall impression of the 'tone' of a text

• To decide whether or not to read the text

c. Reading for organizing reading and study

• To identify the important content of a text

• To answer a specific questions

• To decide which section of a text to start studying

c. Reading for learning content or procedure
 To gain an understanding of new concepts
 To learn certain facts from a text
 To follow instructions
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In general, these are some Reasons to Read More Often:
 It will improve your vocabulary.
 It will improve your reading comprehension.
 It will increase your reading speed.
 It will broaden your understanding of yourself and others.
 It will introduce you to new information and ideas.
Previewing
If we want to be good reader before we read some book, it better to do Previewing. By using
Previewing before you read, you can make a big difference in how well you understand what
you read. The aim of previewing is to find out what you are going to be reading before you
actually read. You preview to get an idea of what you will find in the text. Then your brain can
begin making connections, and your comprehension will be faster and better. We can define
previewing as the way to read before the real reading.
 Previewing is something you already do in your daily life. For example, when you receive a
letter, you usually look first at the return adress or the stamp to find out where it came from
and who sent it. Then you make some guesses about what it will be about. When you read
the newspaper or a magazine you often look at the headlines and the pictures to get some
idea of what the articles are about so you can decide which ones interest you.
 By previewing for just a few seconds, you can pick up a great deal of information about the
text you are going to read. You can preview any idea of text, including pleasure reading
books, magazines articles, tests, and textbooks.

Guidelines for previewing longer passages

• Preview for only a few seconds. For example, for one page of text, you should spend not
more than one minutes previewing.

• Read the title. Does it tell you what the passage is about? Do you know anything about
this subject?

• Decide what kind of text it is. Is it an essay, an argument, a story an explanation? What
can you expect from this kind of text?

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 • Look at the length and organization of the passages. Is it divided into parts? Do the parts
have subtitles? What information do they give you?

• Notice if there are maps, pictures, charts, names, dates, or numbers in the passages.

• Look at the first line or sentence of each paragraph and the last sentence of the final
paragraph. These sections often contain important information.
List of Reading Strategies

Reading Strategies Description

Predicting Helps activate prior knowledge

Based on clues in text (pictures, subtitles, etc.)
Connecting Connecting prior knowledge to new information

Comparing Thinking more specifically about connections they are

making, e.g. How is this different to….?
Inferring Taking information from a text and creating their own
interpretations beyond the literal level.
Synthesizing Piecing information together as students read a text, to keep
track of what is happening
Creating Images Creating sensory images to assist with overall
comprehension of a text
Self-questioning Providing a framework for active learning as students
engage with the text to find answers
Skimming Glancing quickly through material to gain an overall view
of text
Scanning Glancing through a text to locate specific details , e.g.
names, dates etc.
Determining Importance Prioritizing most important information from phrase,
sentence, paragraph, chapter or whole text

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Summarizing and Reducing larger texts to focus on important elements Re-
Paraphrasing stating/re-writing text in own words using key words to
capture main focus
Re-Reading Creating opportunities for deeper understanding, word
identification and developing fluency
Reading On Skipping unfamiliar word(s) and reading on to provide
sufficient context to determine unknown word/phrase
Adjusting Reading Rate Adjusting rate where appropriate, e.g. slowing down to
comprehend new information, or speeding up to scan for
key words
Sounding Out Using knowledge of letter-sound relationship to decode
unknown words
Chunking Breaking multi-syllabic words into units larger that
individual phonemes
Using Analogy Transferring what they know about familiar words to help
them identify unfamiliar words
Consulting a Reference Using a dictionary, thesaurus, reference chart or glossary to
help find word meanings/pronunciations

1.3.Types of comprehension
When we read a text, we understand the text in many ways. These are:
a. Literal comprehension
Literal comprehension refers to an understanding of the straightforward meaning of the text, such
as facts, vocabulary, dates, times, and locations. Questions of literal comprehension can be
answered directly and explicitly from the text. The teachers often check on literal
comprehension first to make sure that their students have understood the basic or surface
meaning of the text.
An example of a literal comprehension question about this article is: How many types of
comprehension do the authors discuss?

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b. Reorganization
The next type of comprehension is reorganization. Reorganization is based on a literal
understanding of the text; students must use information from various parts of the text and
combine them for additional understanding. For example, we might read at the beginning of a
text that a woman named Maria Kim was born in 1945 and then later at the end of the text that
she died in 1990. In order to answer this question, How old was Maria Kim when she died? The
student has to put together two pieces of information that are from different parts of the text.
Questions that address this type of comprehension are important because they teach students to
examine the text in its entirety, helping them move from a sentence-by sentence consideration of
the text to a more global view. The students generally find reorganization questions somewhat
more difficult than straightforward literal comprehension questions.
c. Inference
Making inferences involves more than a literal understanding. Students may initially have a
difficult time answering inference questions because the answers are based on material that is in
the text but not explicitly stated. An inference involves students combining their literal
understanding of the text with their own knowledge and intuitions.
An example of a question that requires the reader to make an inference is the authors of this
article experienced language teachers. Readers are required to use their knowledge of the field,
teaching foreign language reading, with what they have gained from reading the article, in
particular that sentence, to construct an appropriate answer. That is, readers might understand
that newcomers to the profession generally do not develop materials or write articles, so the
authors are probably experienced language teachers.
d. Prediction
The fourth comprehension type, prediction, involves students using both their understanding of
the passage and their own knowledge of the topic and related matters in a systematic fashion to
determine what might happen next or after a story ends.
We use two varieties of prediction, while reading and post- (after) reading. While reading
prediction questions differ from post-reading prediction questions in that students can
immediately learn the accuracy of their predictions by continuing to read the passage. For
example, students could read the first two paragraphs of a passage and then be asked a question

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about what might happen next. They can determine the answer by reading the reminder of the
text.
In contrast, post-reading prediction questions generally have no right answers in that students
cannot continue to read to confirm their predictions. However, predictions must be supported by
information from the text. Generally, scholarly articles do not allow for post-reading prediction
questions. Other types of writing, such as fiction, are fertile ground for such questions. To
illustrate, consider a romance in which the woman and man are married as the novel ends. A
post-reading prediction question might be: Do you think they will stay married? Why or why not?
Depending on a variety of factors including evidence in the text and personal experiences of the
reader, either a yes or a no answer could be justified.
Having students make predictions before they read the text is a pre-reading activity. We do not
see this type of prediction as a type of comprehension. Rather, an activity allows students to
realize how much they know about the topic of the text.
e. Evaluation
The fifth type of comprehension, evaluation, requires the learner to give a global or
comprehensive judgment about some aspect of the text. For example, a comprehension question
that requires the reader to give an evaluation of this article is: How will the information in this
article be useful to you? In order to answer this type of question, students must use both a literal
understanding of the text and their knowledge of the text's topic and related issues. Some
students, because of cultural factors, may be reluctant to be critical or to disagree with the printed
word. In such circumstances, the teacher might want to model possible answers to evaluation
questions, making sure to include both positive and negative aspects.
f. Personal response
The sixth type of comprehension, personal response, requires readers to respond with their
feelings for the text and the subject. The answers are not found in the text; they come strictly
from the readers. While no personal responses are incorrect, they cannot be unfounded; they
must relate to the content of the text and reflect a literal understanding of the material.
An example of a comprehension question that requires a personal response is: What do you like
or dislike about this article? Like an evaluation question, students have to use both their literal
understanding and their own knowledge to respond.

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Also, like evaluation questions, cultural factors may make some students hesitate to be critical or
to disagree with the printed word. Teacher modeling of various responses is helpful in these
situations.
g. Summary of comprehension types
If it is believed that reading is an interactive process in which the reader constructs meaning with
the text, then it’s necessary to help the students learn to do this. This means moving beyond a
literal understanding of a text, and allowing the students to use their own knowledge while
reading. It may be challenging, however, for beginning and intermediate students to create their
own understanding, if they are accustomed to reading word-for-word and focusing on meaning at
the word- and sentence-levels.
1.4.Elements Involved in Reading Comprehension
The main aim of reading is to understand what we read. Reading comprehension is a
dynamic and an interactive process. Comprehension entails three elements: The
Readers, The Texts, and
The Activities.
1. The Readers
The first element is readers. The readers who are comprehending to the text must have
a wide range of capacities and capabilities. These include cognitive capacities
(attention, memory), motivation (a purpose for reading, self-efficacy as a reader), and
various types of knowledge (vocabulary). The capacities, abilities knowledge and
experiences of the readers determines how reading acts happened . The same text will
be understood differently depends on the characteristics of the readers. The attributes
of the readers determine how texts are comprehended. The meaning of the texts is
constructed. As a reader begins to read and completes whatever activity is at hand,
some of the knowledge and capabilities of the reader change. For example, a reader
might increase domain knowledge during reading. Similarly, vocabulary, linguistic, or
discourse knowledge might increase.
2. The Texts
The second element is the texts. The features of the text have a large effect on
comprehension. Comprehension does not occur by simply extracting meaning from
text. During reading, the reader constructs different representations of the text that are

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important for comprehension. These representations include, for example the surface
code ( the exact wording of the text), the text base (idea units representing the
meaning), and a representation of the mental models embedded in the text. Text can be
difficult or easy, depending on factors inherent in the text, on the relationship between
the text and the knowledge and abilities of the reader, and on the activities in which
the reader is engaged. For example, the content presented in the text has a critical
bearing on reading comprehension. A reader’s domain knowledge interacts with the
content
of the text in comprehension. In addition to content, the vocabulary load of the text
and its linguistic structure, discourse style, and genre also interact with the reader’s
knowledge. When too many of these factors are not matched to reader’s knowledge
and experience, the text may be too difficult for optimal comprehension to occur.
3. The Activity
The third element is the activity. Reading comprehension activity is a short of process
which is done to obtain the meaning of the text . The reading activity involves one or
more purposes or tasks, some operations to process the text, and the outcomes of
performing the activity, all of which occur within some specific context. The initial
purpose for the activity can change as the reader reads. That is, a reader may
encounter information that raises new questions and makes the original purpose
insufficient or irrelevant. Processing the text involves decoding the text, higher-level
linguistic and semantic processing, and self-monitoring for comprehension, all of
which depend on reader capabilities as well as on the various text features. Each
element of text processing has varying degrees of importance depending on the type of
reading being done, such as skimming (getting the gist of the text) or studying
(reading the text with the intent of retaining the information for a period of time

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CHAPTER TWO. Approaches to Reading

Chapter objectives: Having completed studying this chapter, you will be able to:

 List the three approaches to (models of) reading.

 Describe the linguistic and non-linguistic skills that are involved in each of the
three models.

 Analyse the three models and see their implication to developing effective
reading.
 Explain the concept of schema theory in reading.

2.1 The reading Models

 Reading is not a passive, but rather an active process.

 In fact an interactive, process has been recognized for some time in native
language reading but it is only recently that second/foreign language reading has been
viewed as an active rather than a passive process.

Early working second language reading assumed a rather passive, bottom-up, view of
second language reading. It was viewed primarily as a decoding process of reconstructing
the author's intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and building
up a meaning for a text from the smallest textual units at the bottom (letters and words) to
larger units at the top (phrases, clauses, links. Problems of SL reading and reading
comprehension were viewed as being essentially decoding problems, deriving meaning
from print.

In the early seventies, Goodman’s psycholinguistic model of reading (later named the
top-down or concept-driven model) began to have an impact on views of second

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 language reading. In this model, the reader is active, makes predictions, processes
information, and reconstruct a message encoded by a writer.

However, as schema theory, research has attempted to make clear, efficient and effective
reading (in L1 and L2) requires both top-down and bottom-up strategies operating
interactively. Both top-down and bottom-up processes, functioning interactively, are
necessary to an adequate understanding of second language reading and reading
comprehension.

2.2 The Bottom- Up (Serial) Approach

 The "bottom up" approach stipulates that the meaning of any text must be
"decoded" by the reader and that students are "reading" when they can "sound out" words
on a page (Phonics).
 It emphasizes the ability to de-code or put into sound what is seen in a text. It
ignores helping emerging readers to recognize what they, as readers, bring to the
information on the page.
 This model starts with the printed stimuli and works its way up to the higher-level
stages. The sequence of processing proceeds from the incoming data to higher-level
encodings.
 Students still need to have a grasp of phonics, spelling and the alphabet to
engage with any text. This is where the bottom-up theory comes into play. While the top-
down approach in reading ha been shown to have significant benefits, it cannot succeed
alone.
 Students begin to recognize words, which increases their speed and begins to give
them the chance to use context to figure out what new words are. The context is also
supplied by the theme or content of the work in question.
 The bottom-up reading model involves a systematic mastery of reading
components so that the student eventually becomes literate. This theory relies on direct
and explicit instruction of the five components of reading throughout early childhood
education.
 The complete process of reading has five main components. In order for students
to become fully literate, the following concepts must be mastered:
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  Phonics – Understanding the sounds that correspond with each letter of the
alphabet. This includes long and short vowels and other phonetic rules and involves
connecting the concept that letters make sounds and sounds make words.

 Phonemic Awareness – Understanding the sounds of letter combinations, such as

consonant blends, syllables and complete words.

 Vocabulary – Understanding what words mean and being able to use them
appropriately.

 Fluency – The ability to read with proper speed and expression without errors.
Fluent readers read in the way that they speak.

 Reading Comprehension – The ability to recall events, characters and the main
idea of a story or passage after it is read.

2.2.1. Problems related to this Approach

 There are some shortcomings to this method. Sometimes students are able to get
through an entire text without having much of a clue about the meaning of it.

 This model has a tendency to depict the information flow in a series of discrete
stages, with each stage transforming the input and then passing the recorded information
on to the next higher stage.

 An important shortcoming of this model is the fact that it is difficult to account

for sentence-context effects and the role of prior knowledge of text topic as facilitating
variables in word recognition and comprehension (because of lack of feedback).

 According to Eskey (1973), the decoding model is inadequate because it

underestimates the contribution of the reader who makes predictions and processes
information. It fails to recognize that students utilize their expectations about the text,
based on their knowledge of language and how it works

2.2.2 Applications of the Bottom-Up approach

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 • Having competence in vocabulary items and various cohesive devices is the
most necessary skill in this model.

Two areas of concern:

Simply knowing the meanings of some set number of words does not ensure that a reader
will be able, while reading, to process those words both rapidly and accurately. Teachers
must help students develop identification skills (exercises for rapid recognition: word
recognition and phrase identification and extensive reading over time).

Rate building: good readers read fast; they do not, like many SL readers, try to read word
by word, which destroys their chances of comprehending very much of the text. The
major bottom-up skill that readers of second language must acquire is the skill of reading
fast. (paced and timed reading exercises: formal rate-building work should be limited to a
few minutes per class). Major increases in reading rate can only follow from extensive
reading in the language over time

2.3 The Top -Down (Concept-Driven) Approach

A top-down approach, a student’s own mind (the 'top') is key for this model, rather than
focusing only on the text itself. A top-down approach emphasizes meaning and themes,
rather than the letters and words that make up the text.

The "top down" approach emphasizes readers bringing meaning to text based on their
experiential background and interpreting text based on their prior knowledge (whole
language). It involves higher order mental concepts such as the knowledge and
expectations of the reader.

The top-down model of reading focuses on what the readers bring to the process
(Goodman, 1967; Smith, 1971,1982).

The readers sample the text for information and contrast it with their world knowledge,
helping to make sense of what is written. The focus here is on the readers as they interact
with the text.

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 This model starts with the hypotheses and predictions then attempts to verify them by
working down to the printed stimuli. This view of reading was called the
psycholinguistic guessing game.

In the top-down reading model, the emphasis is placed on a student's engagement with
the text. It is not enough to get students to simply know the word they see, understand its
general meaning and know how to pronounce it if reading aloud.

The goal of the top-down reading theory is to get students to become active readers.
Active readers have increased comprehension skills and larger vocabularies and are more
capable of engaging in abstract and logical thought.

Active readers have meaningful engagement with the text. A large reason for this is that
active readers tend to pursue texts in which they are interested. Rather than simply being
able to read the words off an exercise page that is presented to them, top-down readers
learn by reading actual texts that they choose and begin to decode with the help of a
teacher.
When students select a certain text, they have to use clues beyond sounding out words to
understand what they are reading. They need to bring themselves and their experiences to
what they know of the subject matter.

2.3.1 Basic principles of top-down model

• Language, reading included, must be seen in its social context.

• Competence must be separated from Performance:

Competence is what readers are capable of doing. It results in the reader's control of and
flexibility in using the reading process. Moreover, Performance is what we observe them to do. It
is the observable result of the competence. What readers do is not equated with what they are
capable of doing.

• Language must be studied in process.

• Language must be studied in its human context.

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 2.3.2 Impact of the model’s concept on reading

• This model which has recently been characterized as a concept-driven, top-down pattern
had the greatest impact on conceptions about native and second language reading
instruction: it made the reader an active participant in the reading process => From
earlier views of SL reading as a passive linguistic decoding process to more
contemporary views of SL reading as an active predictive process.

2.3.3 Limitations of Top-down Model

• For many texts, the reader has little knowledge of the topic and cannot generate
predictions. Even if a skilled reader can generate predictions, this would take much
longer than it would to recognize the words.

• They tend to emphasize higher level skills as the prediction of meaning by means of
context clues or background knowledge at the expense of lower skills like the rapid and
accurate identification of lexical and grammatical forms.

• In making the perfectly valid point that fluent reading is primarily a cognitive process,
they tend to deemphasize the perceptual and decoding dimensions of that process.

• This model is good for the skilful, fluent reader for whom perception and decoding have
become automatic, not for the less proficient, developing reader.

• Good reading is a more language-structured affair than the guessing-game metaphor

seems to imply.

• a top-down model of reading is essentially a model of the fluent reader and does not
account for all the needs of students who are acquiring reading skills.

2.4 The Interactive Model

• For those reading theorists who recognized the importance of both the text and the reader
in the reading process, the combination of the two emerged the interactive approach.

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 Reading here is the process of combining textual information with the information the
reader brings to a text.

• An interactive reading model is a reading model that recognizes the interaction of

bottom- up and top-down processes simultaneously throughout the reading process.

• The interactive model (Rumelhart 1977; Stanovich 1980) stresses both what is on the
written page and what a reader brings to it using both top-down and bottom-up skills. It
views reading is the interaction between reader and text.

• An interactive model is one which uses print as input and has meaning as output. But the
reader provides input, too, and the reader, interacting with the text, is selective in using
just as little of the cues from text as necessary to construct meaning.

The interactive models of reading assume that skills at all levels are interactively available to
process and interpret the text (Grabe 1988). In this model, good readers are good decoders and
good interpreters of text, their decoding skills becoming more autoThe interactive reading model
describes a reading process and the way linguistic elements are processed and interpreted by the
brain. The model combines both surface structure systems, such as the sensory, bottom-up
portion of reading with deep structure systems, such as the thinking, or top-down, aspects of
reading to build meaning and memory for all learners. It was developed by David E. Rumelhart
in 1977.

Readers use both knowledge of word structure and background knowledge to interpret the texts
they read. A student who encounters an unknown word might use surface structure systems like
graphophonic, or letter-sound, knowledge to decode the word. Another student might find it
easier to use deep structure systems like semantic knowledge, such as meaning and vocabulary,
to decode the same unknown word. Each student makes connections in different ways. This
process validates and supports both methods of understanding, realizing that individual’s process
information in very different ways.

Surface structure processing, also known as bottom-up processing, is the sensory portion of
reading. This method of understanding uses knowledge of letter-sound relationships, lexical or
word knowledge and syntactic or contextual understanding of the text to make meaning of

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previously unknown material. This type of processing can be assisted by the teaching of
phonemic awareness and sentence structure skills. Students who use only surface structure
approaches to understanding often find it difficult to comprehend the text.
Deep structure processing, also known as top-down processing, is the thinking aspect of reading.
This method employs vocabulary knowledge, background knowledge and social construction to
derive meaning from text. This type of processing is often easier for poor readers who might
have trouble with word recognition but have knowledge of the text topic. Vocabulary instruction
is imperative for these learners to build a larger pool of knowledge on which to draw when faced
with unknown text.

The most evident benefit of this model is the opportunity for the differentiation that it provides
students. Students are not required to fit into a set mold or have identical skill sets to decode and
interpret text. They are encouraged to use their own strengths to gain understanding and new
information. When used in the classroom setting, students should be encouraged to share their
knowledge with classmates or peers. This model allows the reader to bring his own background
knowledge to reading and to interact with others to build meaning and memory from the text.

2.4.1. Implications of interactive models

 Higher-level processing abilities play a significant role in reading.

 Many lower-level processing skills are basic to good reading. Methods of instruction for
rapid visual recognition, for extensive vocabulary development, and for syntactic pattern
recognition should become major pedagogical concerns.
 Suggestions for recognition and vocabulary instruction can be found in Stoller (1984,
1986), McKeown et al. (1985), and Nagy, Herman, and Anderson (1985).

 There is a need for a massive receptive vocabulary that is rapidly, accurately, and
automatically accessed -- a fact that may be the greatest single impediment to fluent
reading by ESL students.

 Students may overcompensate (over rely on text or on context) for a lack of

relevant schemata; Simple analyses of student difficulties which explain all problems as

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 wordroundedness, or as unwillingness to guess or take chances, are not justified by the
range of empirical studies in the literature.

 The development of reading abilities may be viewed more profitably if seen in

terms of stages of skills development.

 Contextual interpretation of lexical items is only a part of the vocabulary skills

needed for fluent reading, and may actually interfere if a student over relies on this
strategy (Stanovich 1980).

 Certain kinds of "phonics" exercises may be helpful to students (Beck 1981).

 Basic recognition exercises to improve speed and accuracy of perception may
constitute an important component of an effective second language reading program
(Stoller 1984).

 Sometime must be devoted in the reading class to bottom-up concerns such as the
rapid and accurate identification of lexical and grammatical forms. Even students who
have developed strong top-down skills in their native languages may not be able to
transfer these higher-level skills to a SL context until they have developed a stronger
bottom-up foundation of basic identification skills.

 Some time must also be devoted in the reading class to top-down concerns such
as reading for global meaning (as opposed to mere decoding),

 developing a willingness to take chances.

 developing appropriate schemata for the proper interpretation of texts.

 Reading of any kind of text must be treated as real reading, that is, reading for
meaning. No student should ever be forced or encouraged to limit him/herself to
decoding skills.

In short, for second language readers, especially, both top-down and bottom-up skills and
strategies must be developed conjointly since both contribute directly to the successful
comprehension of a text.

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 2.4.2. The Importance of Vocabulary
All models of reading recognize the importance of vocabulary, but the interactive model goes
further. Not only is a large vocabulary important, it is a prerequisite to fluent reading skills.
Since automatic word recognition is more important to fluent processing of text than context
clues as a first strategy, large-scale development of recognition vocabulary is crucial (Perfetti
1985). The importance of vocabulary is not only related to the number of words, but also to the
number of times that these words are encountered and retrieved in texts.

2.5 The Schema Theory of reading

Schema theory is an explanation of how readers use prior knowledge to comprehend and learn
from text (Rumelhart, 1980). The term "schema" was first used in psychology by Barlett as "an
active organization of past reactions or experiences" (1932,p.201), later schema was introduced
in reading by Rumelhalt (1980), Carrell (1981) and Hudson (1982) when discussing the
important role of background knowledge in reading comprehension (all cited in An, 2013). The
fundamental principle of the schema theory assumes that written text does not carry meaning by
itself. Rather, a text only provides directions for readers as to how they should retrieve or
construct meaning from their own previously acquired knowledge (An, 2013).

According to schema theory, comprehending a text is an interactive process between the reader’s
background knowledge and the text. Efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the
textual material to one's own knowledge. As Anderson (1977, p.369) point out, "every act of
comprehension involves one’s knowledge of the world as well". Reading comprehension
operates in two directions, from bottom up to the top and from the top down to the bottom of the
hierarchy. Bottom-up processing is activated by specific data from the text, while top-down
processing starts with general to confirm these predictions. These two kinds of processing are
occurring simultaneously and interactively, which adds to the concept of interaction.
Schema theory states that all knowledge is organized into units. ... According to this theory,
schemata represent knowledge about concepts: objects and the relationships they have with other
objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions, and sequences of actions.

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For example, when someone mentions the word "exams," your mind begins searching all the
related information stored in memory.

UNIT THREE: Reading Strategy and Types

3.1. Definition of Reading Strategies

There are many different views about the definition of reading strategies depending on different
scholars that is why there is no clear-cut definition. According to Garner (1987) defines reading
strategies “as generally deliberate, playful activities undertaken by active learners, many times to
remedy perceived cognitive failure” (P, 95). Additionally, Barnett (2002) (Tercanlioglu, 2008)
has used the term reading strategy to refer to “the cognitive operations that take place when
readers approach a text with the purpose to make sense of what they read. In this sense, reading
strategies are as the comprehension processes that readers use in order to make sense of what
they read” (P, 1-14). Therefore, Reading strategies are effective techniques that are used by EFL
learners to success in reading comprehension. On the other hand, we cannot exclude the role of
EFL teachers who should be both aware of the use of reading strategies and should teach learners
on how to use these different strategies successfully.
3.2. The Importance of Reading Strategies
In educational system, most of EFL learners face many problems especially in comprehension of
written materials when reading. According to them, understanding the meaning of texts can be a
great challenge i.e. they able to understand each word and even each sentence; but unfortunately,
they fail to achieve the meaning of text as a whole. For that reason, many psychologies and
researchers assume that those who always struggle and find reading comprehension as a

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problematic issue. Because of most of these students, lack the reading strategies that may help
them to overcome their reading problems.
3.3. Some of Reading Strategies
In the area of reading strategies studies, many researchers have utilized different types of
strategies; these last are more effective, useful and beneficial ones for students which some of
them are as follows: predicting, skimming, scanning, inferring, guessing the meaning of new
words, self-monitoring, and summarizing.

3.3.1. Skimming
Skimming is another fast reading strategy. When you skim, you do not have to read everything
carefully, nor do you know and remember all of the facts and ideas. You can skim by glancing
rapidly through a text in order to get the general meaning or to determine its gist
By skimming, you can
(1) Quickly get information from magazines and newspapers,
(2) re-read difficult texts that you have already read closely,
(3) get some information from textbooks when you are pressed for time,
(4) move through a stack of mail in a hurry, and
(5) find out how a good novel ends.
Skimming for Topics of Paragraphs
Topic is a general point that the paragraph explains. While you skim a paragraph, you should ask
yourself these questions: “What is the paragraph about?” and “What general point is the
paragraph trying to make?” Remember that it is not necessarily to read every word in the
paragraph, just glance through a paragraph to get the general point. Then, state the topic of the
paragraph in a few words. Avoid using terms that are too general or too specific. Examples
Skim the following paragraphs and write the topic of each paragraph in the space provided.
Topic: _______________________________________________________________
Asian and European cities led the list of most expensive cities around the globe in
2019. That is according to the Economist Intelligence Unit’s annual Worldwide Cost of

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Living report, which highlights the top 10 most expensive cities around the globe. The report
uses more than 400 prices across 160 different products and services — including food, drink,
clothing, and home rents — to calculate rankings.
Skimming For General Ideas of Passages
You should skim when you want to find out the general idea quickly. Speed is important for this
kind of skimming, too. You should skim at least two times faster than you usually read.
When you skim for the general idea, you must change the way you read. You cannot read every
word or even every sentence. You have to skip over a lot. In fact, you should skip over
everything and pay attention to only a few important words. These words tell you the general
idea.
Guidelines for skimming for General Ideas
1. Read the first sentence or two at your usual speed. Ask yourself, “What is this about?”
2. As soon as you guess the general idea, go to the next paragraph. Remember, you do not need
to know the details. You only need to learn something very general about the passage.
3. Read only a few words in each paragraph after that. You should look for the words that tell
you about the general idea. Often, they are at the beginning of the paragraph, but they may also
be at the end.
4. Always work quickly. Remember that details are not important.
3.3.2. Scanning
Scanning is a very fast reading strategy. Readers scan by glancing quickly through a text with the
purposes of searching for a specific piece of information or to get an initial impression of
whether the text is suitable for a given purpose.
How to Scan
Since scanning is used to locate a bit of information that the reader knows on the page as quickly
as possible, it is not necessary for the readers to read every single word on the page. The
following tips can help readers scan rapidly and effectively.
1. Concentrate on the piece of information you are looking for. Have that piece of information;
e.g. the name, the date, the place, the number etc., in the front of your mind. Repeat it repeatedly
to yourself as you look. When you scan, notice any pictures, charts, graphs, and italicized or
boldface words or phrase.

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2. Use different eye movements than you would read. When you scan, you need to make a quick
look at a certain bit of information. Thus, you cannot read slowly. You should not move your
eyes from left to right across the page, line by line. Instead, move your eyes over several lines at
a time. When you find what you are looking for, read the whole sentence.
Examples of texts we can scan are scanning a table of contents, Scanning an index of a textbook,
Scanning a job classified advertisement, Scanning an announcement, Scanning a travelling
brochure, Scanning newspaper and magazine articles and etc.
3.3.3. Predicting
Magiliano (1993) stated “prediction strategy involves thinking about what might be coming next
in the text. It is applied by effective reader that mean, they used pictures, headings and text as
well as personal experience to make predictions before they begin to read”(p: 35-53). So,
predicting involves thinking ahead while reading and anticipating information and events in the
text. Jessica also viewed that “it is used in reading task, it helps learners to think what will
happen based upon the text, the author, and background knowledge in other words it makes
students elicit their interest, activate their prior knowledge, or pre-teach vocabulary or concepts
that may be difficult” (Jessica, G, 2000 cited in The Ohio University Education, 2014). In this
sense, predicting requires learners to use the text to decide what will happen next. Readers
confirm or deny predictions with support from the text
3.3.4. Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions
Drawing conclusions refers to information that is implied or inferred. This means that the
information is never clearly stated.
Writers often tell you more than they say directly. They give you hints or clues that help
you "read between the lines." Using these clues to give you a deeper understanding of
your reading is called inferring.
• When you infer, you go beyond the surface details to see other meanings that the details
suggest or imply (not stated).
• Inference is just a big word that means a conclusion or judgments.
• If you infer that something has happened, you do not see, hear, feel, smell, or taste the
actual event. But from what you know, it makes sense to think that it has happened..
• Making inferences means choosing the most likely explanation from the facts at hand.

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 • There are several ways to help you draw conclusions from what an author may be
implying
General Sense
• The meaning of a word may be implied by the general sense of its context, as the
meaning of the word incarcerated is implied in the following sentence:
e.g. Murderers are usually incarcerated for longer periods of time than robbers.
• You may infer the meaning of incarcerated by answering the question "What usually
happens to those found guilty of murder or robbery?" Use the text box below to write
down what you have inferred as the meaning of the word incarcerated.
• If you answered that they are locked up in jail, prison, or a penitentiary, you correctly
inferred the meaning of incarcerated.
Examples
• When the meaning of the word is not implied by the general sense of its context, it may
be implied by examples. For instance,
E.g. Those who enjoy belonging to clubs, going to parties, and inviting friends often to their
homes for dinner are gregarious.
• You may infer the meaning of gregarious by answering the question "What word or
words describe people who belong to clubs, go to parties a lot, and often invite friends
over to their homes for dinner?" Use the lines below to write down what you have
inferred as the meaning of the word gregarious.
• If you wrote social or something like: "people who enjoy the company of others", you
correctly inferred the meaning of gregarious.

Antonyms and Contrasts

• When the meaning of a word is not implied by the general sense of its context or by
examples, it may be implied by an antonym or by a contrasting thought in a context.
Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings, such as happy and sad. For instance,
E.g. Ben is fearless, but his brother is timorous.
• You may infer the meaning of timorous by answering the question "If Ben is fearless and
Jim is very different from Ben with regard to fear, then what word describes Jim?" Write
your answer on the following line.

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If you wrote a word such as timid, or afraid, or fearful, you inferred the meaning of timorous
3.3.5. Using Context to Find Meaning – Science & Technology Examples Reading is a
process of finding meaning in text.
Writers use many ways to convey the meaning of words and concepts. Some are overt and
some are subtle. These clues include definitions, examples, descriptions, illustrations,
clarification, parenthetical notes, comparison, and elaboration. Here are some samples
from Science & Technology texts:
Sample Text
“Electricity (1) is a form of energy. It is produced by the movement of electrons.”
“Hydraulic (2) systems use liquids under pressure to move many things. Huge amounts
of soil at a construction site can be moved with hydraulic machinery (3), such as
backhoes and excavators.” “Oil from the tank is sent along a conductor (4) (a hose or
pipe) to a pump where it is pushed into a cylinder (5) or metal pipe. A cylinder is like a
large syringe.” “To find out more about atoms, scientists want to make particles move
even faster. A machine called a supercollider (6) will do this. Type of Clue in the text
above: 1 is definition, 2 is description 3 is example 4 is parenthetical note 5 is comparison
6 is Illustration Clues for Using Context to Find Meaning Student Resource Clue
Description Signals Definition Example Illustration Description Illustration Clarification
Parenthetical Note Comparison Elaboration Typography and Design.
Definition: The unfamiliar word is specifically defined in the sentence, or in the preceding or
following sentences. “is” or “which means” • commas that set off a qualifying phrase.
Example: The unfamiliar word is illustrated by one or more examples. “for example,”
“including,” or “such as”.
Description: Characteristics or features of the unfamiliar word are described. pictures or
diagrams, descriptive words, sensory words, adjectives and adverbs.
Illustration: The unfamiliar word is shown in a diagram, picture or map. graphic features on
the page.
Clarification: The meaning of the unfamiliar word is restated in slightly different language,
summarized, or paraphrased. “in other words,” “simply,” “clearly”
Parenthetical Note: The meaning of the unfamiliar word is provided in parentheses directly
following the word. (......)

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Comparison: The meaning of the unfamiliar word is provided by contrasting or
comparing it to another word, phrase or concept. “such as,” “like,” “compared to,”
“unlike” or “similar to” synonyms, antonyms and charts
Elaboration: Additional information about the unfamiliar word is provided in the
following sentences and paragraphs. “in addition,” “another,” or “consequently” This may
be a description of a related event, process or product, or a question prompt.
Typography and Design: Design features draw attention to important words and concepts,
and to their definitions. bold, italics, and other.
3.3.6. Anticipation Guide:
What we already know determines to a great extent what we will pay attention to,
perceive, learn, remember, and forget. (Woolfolk, 1998) An Anticipation Guide is a series
of questions or statements (usually 8 to 10) related to the topic or point of view of a
particular text. Students work silently to read and then agree or disagree with each
statement. Help students to activate their prior knowledge and experience and think about
the ideas they will be reading. Encourage students to make a personal connection with a
topic or unit of work so that they can integrate new knowledge with their background
experience and prior knowledge. Connect their personal knowledge and experience with a
curriculum topic or issue. Engage with topics, themes and issues at their current level of
understanding. Have a purpose for reading subject-area text. There are also other reading
strategies.
3.4.Referencing
3.4.1. Anaphoric Reference
An anaphoric reference happens when a pronoun, word or phrase refers to a noun
mentioned earlier in the conversation or writing. Sometimes it occurs within the same
sentence, meaning the noun appears sooner in the sentence before the reference word for
the noun is applied. Sometimes an anaphoric reference alludes to a noun mentioned a few
sentences back or at the beginning of the conversation.
Example:
a. Derek drove to the park, but he was disappointed to find it already closed.
The pronoun he refers to Derek. The pronoun it refers to the park.

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Not every anaphoric reference relies on pronouns. Sometimes a word or phrase can act as
a reference to the noun mentioned previously.
Example:
b. Beatrice grows zucchinis and bell peppers in her garden and shares the
vegetables with her siblings.
The vegetables refers to zucchinis and bell peppers. Saying them instead of the
vegetables can also be applied here and still be an anaphoric reference.
3.4.2. Cataphoric Reference
A cataphoric reference happens when a pronoun, word or phrase refers to a noun
mentioned later in the writing or the conversation. It often occurs within the same
sentence, meaning the reference word appears sooner in the sentence before the noun
appears. There are still instances where the reference word appears a few sentences ahead
before the assigned noun makes an appearance in the conversation or writing.
Example:
Even though she sits at the front of his classroom, Professor Otis still doesn’t know
Susan’s name.
The pronoun she refers to Susan. The pronoun his refers to Professor Otis. As with an
anaphoric reference, a cataphoric reference doesn’t completely rely on pronouns.
Sometimes a word or phrase can act as a reference to the noun mentioned later.
Example:
The painting hangs dusty on my wall. I’ve never been a fan anyway of The Starry
Night.
The painting refers to The Starry Night. Saying it instead of the painting can also be
applied here and still be a anaphoric reference.
3.4.3. Exophoric Reference
An Exophoric reference happens when a pronoun, word or phrase refers to a noun not
mentioned within the conversation or writing. An Exophoric reference requires shared
knowledge between the people within the conversation or between the writer and the
readers.
Example:
I told her that she could find it on a map, but you know how she is.

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She and her refer to a person not ever mention within the sentence. It refers to a place not
ever mentioned within the sentence. How this sentence is conveyed implies
that she and it were previously established prior to this sentence.

4. Types of Reading
Reading skill is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols for the intention of deriving
meaning and constructing meaning. It is a means of language acquisition, of communication and
of sharing information and ideas. There are different types of reading as follows:
a) Slow reading
Slow reading is for beginners particularly and while reading a new or difficult passage. It is
useful while understanding in depth and learning about language system.
b) Fast reading
Fast reading is for native speakers and after being expert in a particular language especially. It
occurs while reading silently. It is used for reading simple text and for self-study. Summarizing
and paraphrasing can be practiced for rapid reading.
c) Silent reading
Silent reading is for understanding the message from graphic symbols with our eyes. It involves
mental process without using organs of speech. Experiments have shown that more
comprehension is achieved only through silent reading. A good silent reader does not allow even
the movement of lips and the use of pen and pencil on the print. The readers are not allowed to
wag their heads. Silent reading is useful for self-study and library reading
Reading for meaning (silent reading) is an activity we normally engage in when we read books,
newspapers, road signs, etc. It is what you are doing as you read this text. It involves looking at
sentences and understanding the message they convey in the words, 'making sense' of a written
text.
d) Loud reading
Loud reading involves both physical and mental process. It changes graphic symbols into the
spoken form and interprets them. It involves pronunciation and helps in relating spelling with
pronunciation. It is useful especially for lower level students and for reading for others.
Reading aloud is a completely different activity; its purpose is not just to understand a text but to
convey the information to someone else

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g) Intensive Reading
It is to understand everything the students read and be able to answer detailed vocabulary and
comprehensive questions.
Grellet (1981, p. 4) defines intensive reading as, "Reading shorter texts to extract specific
information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail." Intensive reading
emphasizes accuracy and detailed information. A short extract of moderate degree of difficulty
and containing features that merit detailed study form a basis for intensive reading practice.
Its aim is finding detail information.
"Intensive reading is often (but not exclusively) teacher-chosen and directed. It is designed to
enable students to develop specific receptive skills such as reading for gist".
In order to get students to read enthusiastically in class we need to work to create interest about
the topic and task. Concerning students' role, Harmer (1991, p.287) opines, ‘the comprehension
tasks we ask students to do are based on tasks in a course book.
In other words, the students are responding to what someone else has asked them to find out.’
Students are far more likely to be engaged in a text if they bring their own feelings and
knowledge to the task, rather than only responding to someone else's ideas of what they should
find o
h) Extensive Reading
Extensive reading involves general understanding of a text without necessarily understanding
every word. It is a rapid silent reading for pleasure.
The readers have option of skipping a whole section they find either too difficult or less
interesting. It includes short stories, novels, magazines and newspaper articles. Its purpose is
getting pleasure as well as information.
One of the fundamental condition of a successful extensive reading programmed is that students
should be reading materials, which they can understand. If they are struggling to understand
every word, they can hardly be reading for pleasure- the main goal of this activity.
This means the written materials should be accessible to our students. The teacher's role is to
promote reading and persuade students of its benefits. For this, we can present a model reading
of a piece of a book, which is exiting.
Concerning extensive reading tasks for students, Harmer (1991 p.285) opines:

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Students should be allowed to choose their own reading a text, following their own likes and
interests, they will not be reading the same texts at once. For this reason- and because we want to
prompt students to keep reading- we should encourage them to report back on their reading in a
number of ways.

CHAPTER FOUR: READING PROCES

4.1. Reading stages
There are 3 Stages for Reading comprehension. These we are:

1. Pre-Reading Stage

2. While-Reading Stage

3. Post-Reading Stage

1. Pre-Reading

Purpose of Pre-Reading Activities

The purpose of pre-reading activities is to:

• Establish a purpose for reading

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• Improve vocabulary so students can complete the reading task successfully

• Predict what they are going

• Establish what they know about a topic

Pre-Reading Activities Examples

Some examples of pre-reading activities are:

Have you ever used Charts in the classrooms?

2. While Reading

While-Reading Activities are defined as activities that help readers to focus on aspects of the text
and to understand it better. The goal of these activities is to help readers to deal as they would
deal with it as if the text was written in their first language.

While-Reading Activities Examples

1. Identify topic sentences and the main idea of paragraphs. Remember that every paragraph
usually includes a topic sentence that identifies the main idea of the paragraph.

2. Distinguish between general and specific ideas.

3. Identify the connectors to see how they link ideas within the text. For a full list of linking
words, have a look at these linking words grouped by category

4. Coding text involves teaching students a method of margin marking so they can place a
question mark next to a statement they do not understand or an exclamation mark next to
something that surprised them.

3. Post-Reading

Post-reading activities help students understand texts further, through critically analyzing what
they have read.

The following table summarizes the dominant activities issued in each stages of reading.

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STAGE THEORY / TERMS STRATEGIES

Preview, activate schemata, set purpose for reading

Pre-reading Schema Theory and
What do I know? / What do I want to know?
Construct meaning, evaluate comprehension, employ
Active Influence of Schemata
fix-up strategies as needed, am I understanding? If
Reading/ through on Comprehension
not, what should I do about it? And am I fulfilling
reading Meta cognition
my purpose?
Review, evaluate understanding, evaluate reading
process
Post-reading Reflection
What have I learned? What changes/improvements
are needed in my reading habits/skills?

4.2. Levels of Comprehension

• The purpose for which you read a text also determines the level of
comprehension you need to achieve to satisfy your purpose.
• Generally, three levels of comprehension correspond to the purposes for reading
outlined.
1. Literal Level
2. Interpretive level
3. Analytical level
4. Critical level
4.2.1. Literal Level
• The first level, literal comprehension, is the most obvious.
• Comprehension at this level involves surface understanding.

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 • At this level, readers find information and ideas that are explicitly stated in the
text.
• It can be tested using simple wh-questions.
• It involves rote learning and memorisation.
• Being able to read for literal meanings i.e., stated ideas is influenced by one's
mastery of word meanings in context'
4.2.2. Interpretive level
• The second level or strand is interpretive or referential comprehension.
• At this level, readers go beyond what is said and read for deeper meanings.
• They must be able to read critically and analyse carefully what they have read.
• They need to be able to see relationships among ideas, for example, how
ideas go together and also see the implied meanings of these ideas.
• It is also obvious that before readers can do this, they have to first
understand the ideas that are stated (literal comprehension).
 Interpretive or referential comprehension includes thinking processes such as
drawing conclusions, making generalizations and predicting outcomes
 At this level, readers should have the skills of able to
• Drawing inferences
• Tapping into prior knowledge / experience
• Attaching new learning to old information
• Making logical leaps and educated guesses

• Reading between the lines to determine what is meant by what is stated By answering
more challenging questions such as:
• Re-arrange the ideas or topics discussed in the text.
• Explain the author's purpose of writing the text.
• Summarize the main idea when this is not explicitly stated in the text.
• Select conclusions which can be deduced from the text you have read.
4. 2.3. Analytical level
• The third level of comprehension is critical reading whereby ideas and information are
evaluated.

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 • Critical evaluation occurs only after readers have understood the ideas and information
that the writer has presented.
• At this level, readers should test themselves on the following skills:
o The ability to differentiate between facts and opinions. o The ability
to infer the hidden agenda of the writer o The ability to recognize
persuasive statements .
o The ability to judge the accuracy of the information given in the text.
4.2.4 The Critical Level:

In this level, we are analyzing or synthesizing information and applying it to other information.
Understandings at the literal and interpretive levels are combined, reorganized and restructured
at the critical level to express opinions, draw new insights and develop fresh ideas. Guiding
students through the applied level shows them how to synthesize information, to read between
the lines and to develop a deeper understanding of the concepts, principles, and implications
presented in the text.

Skills for being an effective reader and for increasing comprehension are:
 Finding main ideas and supporting details/evidence
 Making inferences and drawing conclusions
 Recognizing a text's patterns of organization
 Perceiving conceptual relationships
Testing your knowledge and understanding of the material through application
When comprehension fails, or your understanding seems limited, you can use a plan that
includes:
Using structural analysis and contextual clues to identify unknown vocabulary words (e.g., look
at roots, prefixes, suffixes). If this fails, keep a dictionary close by and look up words you don't
understand
Reading more critically - ask questions while you read
Summarizing or outlining main points and supporting details
Rereading the material

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