Nihms 1587832

EPA Public Access
Author manuscript
Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.
About author manuscripts | Submit a manuscript
Published in final edited form as:
Ecol Soc. 2020 January 1; 25(1): 1–4. doi:10.5751/es-11286-250104.
EPA Author Manuscript
Coerced regimes: management challenges in the Anthropocene

David G. Angeler1,2,*, Brian C. Chaffin3, Shana M. Sundstrom2, Ahjond Garmestani4,5,
Kevin L. Pope6, Daniel R. Uden7, Dirac Twidwell7, Craig R. Allen2
1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment,

Box 7059, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden 2School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska—
Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA 3W.A. Franke College of Forestry & Conservation,
University of Montana, Missoula, Montana 59801, USA 4U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Research and Development, Cincinnati, Ohio, 45268, USA 5Utrecht Centre for Water,
Oceans and Sustainability Law, Utrecht University School of Law, 3584 BH, Utrecht, Netherlands
6U.S. Geological Survey—Nebraska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, and School of
Natural Resources, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA 7Department

of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA
Abstract
Management frequently creates system conditions that poorly mimic the conditions of a desirable
self-organizing regime. Such management is ubiquitous across complex systems of people and
nature and will likely intensify as these systems face rapid change. However, it is highly uncertain
whether the costs (unintended consequences, including negative side effects) of management but
also social dynamics can eventually outweigh benefits in the long term. We introduce the term
“coerced regime” to conceptualize this management form and tie it into resilience theory. The
concept encompasses proactive and reactive management to maintain desirable and mitigate
undesirable regime conditions, respectively. A coerced regime can be quantified through a
measure of the amount of management required to artificially maintain its desirable conditions.
Coerced regimes comprise “ghosts” of self-sustaining desirable system regimes but ultimately
become “dead regimes walking” when these regimes collapse as soon as management is
discontinued. We demonstrate the broad application of coerced regimes using distinct complex
systems of humans and nature (human subjects, aquatic and terrestrial environments, agriculture,
and global climate). We discuss commonalities and differences between these examples to identify
tradeoffs between benefits and harms of management. The concept of coerced regimes can spur
thinking and inform management about the duality of what we know and can envision versus what
we do not know and therefore cannot envision—a pervasive sustainability conundrum as planet
Earth swiftly moves towards a future without historical analogue.
Keywords
management; alternative regimes; restoration; mitigation; interdisciplinary; resilience; coercion;
coerced resilience; social-ecological systems
*
Corresponding author [email protected].
Angeler et al. Page 2
Introduction
That the dynamics of systems of people and nature are highly complex and uncertain is a
well-established scientific axiom (Allen et al. 2014). This complexity and uncertainty stems
partly from the interaction of distinct processes, including adaptation, recalibration and self-
organization (Holland 2014). Inherent in these dynamics is the potential for complex
systems to exist in alternative, often stable regimes, each with fundamentally different
structures, functions, processes and feedbacks (Holling 1973, Beisner et al. 2003, Scheffer et
al. 1993). Alternative regimes are ubiquitous and occur for instance in cells (Ferrel 2002),
human subjects (Angeler et al. 2018), and geopolitical, ecological, social, social-ecological,
climatic and economic systems (Miller and Williamson 1988, Biggs et al. 2018, Steffen et
al. 2018). Examples include clear-water lakes rapidly becoming turbid, the social-ecological
system organized around Atlantic cod Gadus morhua changing to an American lobster
Homarus americanus fishery, healthy human subjects becoming mentally ill, and the current
rapid change exhibited in our global climatic regime.
Regime shifts are frequently undesired because the alternative regimes, once stabilized in a
new attractor domain, are often permanently degraded and uncertain in the sense that they
provide humanity fewer and often unreliable benefits. There is thus a fundamental need to
transform degraded systems regimes to ideally self-perpetuating regimes that guarantee the
provisioning of ecosystem goods and services (i.e. “desirable regimes”). There is also need
to maintain the adaptive capacity of desirable regimes and avoid exceeding critical
thresholds (regime shift) that may lead to a regime that can be deleterious for human health
and security (Angeler et al. 2019). The pressing need to harness desirable system
functioning for human welfare leads to an increased examination of alternative system
regimes and their management through the lens of resilience theory (Angeler et al. 2016).
Novel concepts are emerging that add to well-established terms used in the ecological
restoration (Table 1) and resilience literature (Angeler and Allen 2016). Coerced resilience,
for instance, is a term that has been introduced to focus on the resilience of production
ecosystems (aquaculture, forestry, agroecosystems; Rist et al. 2014). It refers to enabling and
maintaining high levels of production of a system as a result of external anthropogenic
inputs, which in the long term may lead to the erosion of the resilience of the system.
Coercing the resilience of systems over long periods is costly and can cause the system to
shift into a less desired alternative regime (Gunderson 2000). Similarly, when a system has
undergone a regime shift, the new, undesired regime may require constant and considerable
management to mimic the desired previous regime (Angeler et al. 2018).
The term “coerced resilience” has been used from two mechanistically different
perspectives: improving and mimicking desired regimes. We consider coerced resilience in a
broader context, accounting for reactive and proactive management aimed at the deliberate
creation of artificial regime conditions to guarantee social-ecological sustainability. We
characterize the term “coerced regimes” as a management form that fails to achieve self-
organization and therefore requires constant management for maintaining and creating
desirable system regimes. We envision that management is likely to intensify in the near
future to satisfy the needs for ecosystem goods and services of a growing human population
in a fast changing Anthropocene. There is high uncertainty regarding costs (unintended

consequences, including negative side effects) of management and that may outweigh
benefits in the long term. It is also uncertain how social dynamics lead to unintended
coerced regimes. This new concept therefore motivates discussions about what we know and
envision versus what we do not know and therefore cannot envision—a conundrum that
pervasively plagues management toward sustainability. We discuss these issues using social-
ecological systems and other complex systems (human brain) to demonstrate the broad
application of this term and examine them for commonalities and differences.
Definition
We distinguish “coerced regimes” from related concepts (Table 1) and resilience terms
(Angeler and Allen 2016) and define it as: creating non-self-organizing system regimes that
sustain human needs and wellbeing through constant management (Fig. 1). Inherent in the
definition of coerced regimes is that management does not break the feedbacks that stabilize
a system regime—a notion well aligned with ecological restoration theory (Suding et al.
2004, Suding and Gross 2006). Coerced regimes are therefore untenable without
management – they only comprise the “ghosts” of desirable self-organizing regimes – and
therefore essentially become “dead regimes walking” that collapse once management is
discontinued.
The concept of coerced regimes offers a broad management perspective across a wide array
of complex system types. The terminology borrows from the social sciences, where coercion
is defined as the inverse of freedom (Twidwell et al. 2019). Coercion entails reciprocity in
the forceful persuasion among actors to achieve goals. These goals may not only be
influenced by intended but also unintended human agency that might have indirect effects
resulting from social dynamics or power relations (see below). We therefore think coercion
is an useful analogy in the specific context of management of complex systems of people
and nature. First, defining the goals of human management of social-ecological or other
types of complex systems requires the use of persuasion because the definition of
management endpoints and their societal relevance is subjective and varies between actors in
a social ecological system (e.g., Blythe et al. 2018). Humans need to persuade other humans
to generate shared management objectives. Second, the use of coercion terminology
provides a mechanistic basis for discussions of the different forms of regime management.
For example, regime management can be aimed at maintaining a system in a desired regime,
which has very different implications than the goal of mimicking the conditions of a
desirable regime. In the first instance, a social-ecological system is already in a regime that
is deemed beneficial and desirable to the humans invested in it, and management efforts
would focus on supporting or even increasing the resilience of the key processes and
feedbacks maintaining the system in that regime. For example, nutrient inputs into a shallow
freshwater lake would be kept low so as to not risk the possibility of a regime shift to
eutrophic conditions. In the second instance, a social-ecological system is only being held in
a particular regime by constant human inputs that are critically necessary to maintain
feedbacks, such as the regular liming of lakes to maintain their pH. Using the term coercion
has value because it focuses on the long-term viability of management in a non-stationary
world, thereby embracing the uncertainty surrounding the tradeoffs between costs and
benefits that management and other forms of agency (e.g., social dynamics) may entail.

The viability and tradeoffs of different management choices also relate to operational
aspects of management that are relevant from a quantification point of view, which further
underscores the usefulness of the analogous use of coercion terminology. That is, a coerced
regime can be quantified through a measure of the amount of management required to
maintain its desired conditions. This directly relates to the ecological resilience of a system
because the more human inputs required to maintain ecological feedbacks and the key
processes and functions associated with a particular regime, the less resilient a system will
be (Gunderson 2000). Furthermore, managers often choose management goals that are
focused on maintaining specific resilience, such as a certain harvest rate of a product such as
a fishery, agricultural crop, or timber, or to increase the resilience of an ecological service
such as flood control. These management goals are designed to reduce variability (Holling
and Meffe 1996) but in practice reduce overall system resilience, by simplifying abiotic and
biotic structures.
Management often aims to transform regimes from degraded to less degraded, or even to
desirable regimes that are self-maintaining and self-perpetuating. When management fails to
restore, and therefore only mimics, the conditions and functionality of a past or novel, self-
organizing, desired regime it only manages for the “ghost of a (past) desired regime”.
Management also often aims at conserving desirable system regimes that are no longer
viable and that would switch to an alternative, frequently undesired regime if management
were discontinued. Such conservation may not be indefinitely possible in a rapidly changing
world. A related form of management relates to human-made artificial systems (e.g.,
production ecosystems such as agriculture) that need constant management and subsidies to
maintain desirable system conditions with enhanced production. As soon as the management
of such systems is discontinued they tend to drift towards previously existing natural
ecosystems (e.g., succession towards forest; Gill and Marks 1991; Keleman et al. 2017). The
coerced regime features of production systems and potentially other complex systems
without a natural analogue are also inherent in the definition of coerced resilience (Rist et al.
2014); that is, management creates an artificial regime and targets enhanced production
within it. This indicates that the concept of coerced regimes is also inclusive of coerced
resilience (Table 1).
Coerced regimes are ubiquitous across complex systems and range, for instance, from the
use of performance-enhancing drugs in athletes, to the mitigation of poverty traps, to

sustainable cities and political systems. We discuss in detail several transdisciplinary
examples of coerced regimes that align with our definition and demonstrate general
applicability across distinct scientific disciplines and systems of people and nature. We
present examples that demonstrate the unrecognized prevalence of coerced regimes, and
organize them by the scale (from human individuals to the global climate). Our examples
focus on the maintenance and mimicking of desirable conditions, but we acknowledge that
regime coercion can be undesirable; for example, in alcoholism or drug abuse where humans
self-coerce their emotional and physical state.

Examples of coerced regimes

Diseased regimes of human subjects
Bipolar or manic–depressive disorder is an affective disorder comprised of a healthy regime
before the illness is triggered and a diseased regime when pronounced mood swings
manifest (Angeler et al. 2018). These mood swings are comprised of recurrent cycles of
(hypo)mania symptoms (increased energy levels, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts,
pressure of speech, frequent agitation, confusion and distraction, heightened libido, and in
extreme forms hallucinations and delusions) and severe depression episodes (chaos,
emotional emptiness, despair, self-stigma, doom, anhedonia, guilt, monochromatic world
view, and suicidal ideology) (Goodwin and Jamison 2007). The disorder comprises a
spectrum wherein (hypo)manic and depression symptoms manifest with high variability and
magnitude among patients, and these symptoms often co-occur (mixed states) (Phelps 2006).
The illness affects between 3 to 8% of the human population (Goodwin and Jamison 2007),
although this percentage may be higher because current diagnostic problems complicate
differentiating between unipolar and bipolar depression (Bauer and Pfennig 2005).
As is the case with other mental illnesses, bipolar disorder is managed to mitigate symptoms
and improve the patient’s personal and interpersonal functioning. From a coerced-regimes
perspective, this management treats the diseased regime through psychopharmacological

treatment, therapy, mindfulness and exercise to approximate conditions of a healthy regime
(Phelps 2006). That the diseased condition of the disorder is a coerced regime is manifested
in a return of full-blown symptoms of (hypo)mania and depression once clinical treatment is
discontinued (Milkowitz and Gitlin 2015). This is because the disorder is chronic and has no
cure, which highlights that the diseased regime comprises a stable alternative regime from
which a return to the healthy regime is impossible. Thus, the goal of treatment of the
disorder is to manage for the “ghost of a healthy-regime past.” Treatment of bipolar disorder
also exemplifies negative side effects that may counteract the management efficiency; for
instance, medication toxicity, medication to control side-effects of other medicaments,
weight changes, sedation and cardiovascular problems and other physical diseases (Correll
et al. 2015, Milkowitz and Gitlin 2015).
Restoring and mitigating degraded ecosystems

Anthropogenic acidification of surface waters has been a major environmental problem in

northern Europe and eastern North America during the epoch of flourishing industrial
activity. Acid rain impacted aquatic ecosystems by lowering pH and increasing aluminium
concentrations beyond lethal thresholds for organisms, leading to a loss of biodiversity and
profound alteration of community structure and ecosystem processes (Schindler 1988). This
led in many cases to a shift from a circumneutral regime to an acidified regime (Baho et al.
2014). To counteract acidification effects and mimic conditions of a circumneutral regime,
countries in Europe and North America implemented large-scale mitigation programmes
based on application of crushed limestone (liming) to surface waters and catchments
(Henriksson and Brodin 1995, Sandoy and Romunstad 1995).

It is increasingly recognized that liming, rather than restoring circumneutral regimes, only
mitigates acidification effects, thereby manageing the acidified regime to approximate lake
conditions that are conducive to ecosystem service provisioning (e.g., recreational and
commercial fishing and aquaculture). As is the case with the bipolar example, liming
manages for the “ghost of a past circumneutral lake regime.” Limed conditions ultimate
return to acidic conditions once management is discontinued (Clair and Hindar 2005). In
conservation ecology, liming has been regarded as pathological because of its profound
alteration of biogeochemical and biological variables (Angeler et al. 2017), which provides
another example of negative side-effects of management in coerced regimes.
Maintaining desired regimes in a sea of change

A universal threat despite the inherent geographic and evolutionary isolation of grasslands is
woody encroachment (Briggs et al. 2005). In the Great Plains of North America, many
grassland ecosystems are threatened by encroachment of Eastern red cedar Juniperus
virginiana (Roberts et al. 2019). This species was formerly rare due to its extreme sensitivity
to fire. However, since the influx of agrarian colonists into the U.S. Great Plains in the
1850s, fire was largely suppressed, disrupting the natural disturbance regime in which fire
played an essential role (DellaSalla and Hanson 2015). This has facilitated the incursion of
Eastern red cedar and other woody species into the Great Plains and is driving a biome level
regime shift (Roberts et al. 2019). The leading edge of the woody regime has been moving
steadily north over the past 50 years, and has moved from southern Kansas in 1966 to
southern Nebraska in 2016 (Roberts et al. 2019). This slow-moving (relative to human life-
spans) but spatially extensive shift from grassland to woody shrubland has serious
implications for humans and nature.
Grasslands and grassland biota are highly endangered in North America (Samson and Knopf
1994; Grant et. al. 2004), and in the United States several grassland species are threatened to
an extent that they are listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Birds such as the
Greater Prairie Chicken (Tympanuchus cupido) and Henslow’s Sparrow (Passerculus
henslowii) require management under the ESA, and the best management practice for these
species is to maintain grassland habitat. This is difficult in a sea of cedar, where propagule
pressure from the surrounding undesired (woody) regime is constant, which makes the
establishment of trees in the grasslands highly successful (Cassey et al. 2018). Complicating
matters, many North American grasslands are now highly fragmented such that spatially
contagious processes, including fire, are excluded, unless purposely introduced (Fuhlendorf
et al. 2018). The answer for remaining grassland patches isolated by the spread of the woody
cedar regime is intensive management of patches through prescribed fire and a number of
actions captured under the phrase “brush management” (e.g. Archer and Predick 2014).
These approaches have been successful in maintaining patches of grassland, but these are
increasingly isolated and vulnerable to fragmentation effects. Cessation of intensive
management would lead to a rapid change of these remnant grassland patches to shrublands
due to the extreme propagule pressure of the surrounding landscape. This highlights that
much current grasslands management creates a ghost regime that is no longer viable.

Artificial, beneficial regimes: Agricultural production

Many forms of agriculture (e.g., intensive-irrigated agriculture) are novel, human-managed
regimes entirely geared towards the creation of benefits for humanity, i.e., the production of
food (Rist et al. 2014). Irrigated agriculture as a strongly coerced system is manifested in
crop production in dryland areas of the world. For example, across Arizona, an area with
low precipitation and natural surface water availability, 485000 ha are under irrigated
production, including an estimated 64000 ha of cotton Gossypium spp., an extremely water-
intensive crop relative to other crops grown in arid climates (Lustgarten and Sadasivam
2015). In the early to mid-20th century, groundwater was used exclusively to grow larger
fields of cotton in this region, servicing a high-domestic demand during both World Wars,
but as aquifers declined and pumping costs increased, the state of Arizona prevailed in its
almost century-long battle to channel water from the Colorado River hundreds of kilometers
to irrigate agricultural fields (including cotton) in central Arizona. Today, most cotton
farmers irrigate with a mix of groundwater, Colorado River water, and surface water from
other federal and state reclamation projects in Arizona.
The coerced nature of a cotton-farming regime in the deserts of Arizona is evident in that the
market price of cotton no longer consistently supports the inputs (water pumping costs, fuel,
fertilizer, pesticides, and labor) necessary to maintain its production. As well, the
opportunity cost or willingness of others to pay for Colorado River water currently used to
support cotton agriculture is rapidly rising due to the needs of more high-value crops in
downstream reaches of the basin and increasing municipal demands for water from cities
such as Phoenix. The U.S. and state governments have and continue to facilitate and
incentivize cotton farming in Arizona through direct subsidies to farmers, low- or no-interest
farm loans, and subsidized water delivery both directly and indirectly through massive
infrastructure projects (Lustgarten and Sadasivam 2015). Without massive irrigation
infrastructure, subsidized costs of moving water over hundreds of kilometers, and consistent
yearly incentives to farmers, industrial cotton farming and the subsequent greening of the
surrounding ecosystem would likely cease in arid central Arizona. This indicates the lack of
a self-sustaining regime in this type of coerced system, which is further supported by the
initiation of successional dynamics towards natural ecosystem regimes (e.g., old field
succession; Gill and Marks 1991; Keleman et al. 2017) once elements of agriculture have
been eliminated. Intensive agriculture also highlights substantial negative effects that arise
from management; e.g., the use of nutrients and pesticides that impact the natural
environment (Goudie 2018). This example is typical of other water-intensive cropping
systems that are expanding globally and may pose significant sustainability challenges.
Global climate regimes

Substantial modeling evidence suggests profound future alterations in the world’s climate
with dramatic consequences for climatic system features such as temperature, polar ice-sheet
coverage, marine jet streams and sea-level rise as a result of human burning of fossil fuels
(IPCC 2014). Changes to these features are expected to occur abruptly and non-linearly, key
characteristics of regime shifts. That such abrupt, substantial and persistent changes in
climatic systems, driven by temperature increase, are already taking place is supported by
empirical observations. Evidence includes, for example, regime shifts in arctic marine

environments (Kortsch et al. 2012) and other ocean regions in the Northern Hemisphere
(Beaugrand et al. 2015), ground-water systems (Figura et al. 2011) and forest-fire regimes
(Westerling et al. 2006).
Steffen et al. (2018) describe our current climate regime as a glacial-interglacial limit cycle,
with an ~100000- year cycle, self-organized and maintained during the past 1.2 million
years. An alternative regime, which we have perhaps already entered, is called ‘Hothouse
Earth,” and uncertainty regarding Earth’s trajectory within this regime suggests varying
degrees of risk for sustaining human life should the Earth system move fully onto this
attractor. Steffen et al. (2018) argue that we need to consider deliberately coercing the Earth
system close to the threshold between the Glacial-Interglacial regime and Hothouse Earth.
Maintaining the Earth system artificially in this Glacial-Interglacial regime would require
massive external subsidization by humans, as such a state would not be self-organizing. A
series of measures, including decarbonization of the global economy, enhancement of
biosphere carbon sinks, behavioral changes, technological innovations, new governance
arrangements, and transformed social values have been identified as the minimal, but
perhaps not sufficient, changes necessary to manage the Earth system away from the
Hothouse Earth attractor. The objective would be to prevent the Earth system from moving
fully into a potentially catastrophic Hothouse Earth regime by holding it in a coerced
regime. Managing for the “ghost of the Glacial-Interglacial climate” might buy humans time
to eventually move the Earth system back onto the Glacial-Interglacial attractor. This
example highlights the context dependence of the concept. The desirability of human
management to prevent the Earth system from moving onto the Hothouse attractor is clearly
more desirable than the alternative.
Coerced regimes: commonalities and differences

Our examples, which cover a range of hierarchical organization and complex-system types
(from human subjects to the Earth’s climate), represent applications of the concept of
coerced regimes across a wide spectrum of systems of people and nature and scientific
disciplines. All examples share the commonality of being untenable without constant
management. Inspired by Helen Prejean’s 1993 novel Dead Man Walking, we refer to a
coerced regime as a “dead regime walking.” Despite this common characteristic, our
examples differ in several aspects (Table 2). These aspects relate to management forms,
focus and goals, the imitation of disturbance regimes and systems dynamics, and the
systems’ connectivity with other systems.
Our examples represent two categories of management goals and focus: managing for
maintenance, and managing for restoration. The first category, managing for maintenance, is
exemplified by grasslands and targets the conservation of emblematic wildlife and
rangelands for grazing. Without management these commodities would be threatened by
cedar encroachment, a process that has become the main driver of an alternative, rapidly
expanding woodland regime (Briggs et al. 2005). That is, management for maintenance of a
grassland regime is designed to keep these systems from crossing a threshold leading to the
cedar regime. In this case, management maintains a grassland ghost regime, which is no
longer viable without human intervention. This type of management also occurs in novel,

highly artificial systems such as irrigated agriculture that have no natural system regime
analogue. Managing for maintenance is also evident in the implementation of earth
stewardship measures to maintain a safe operating space for humanity that is bound to the
current Glacial-Interglacial climate regime (Rockström et al. 2009, Carpenter et al. 2017,
Steffen et al. 2018). Despite being appealing, the effectiveness of earth stewardship
measures for preventing the Earth system from moving from the Glacial-Interglacial
attractor onto the Hothouse Earth attractor is uncertain given the connectedness and cross-
scale complexity of combined ecological, economic and social systems on our planet
(Holling 2001). Given this uncertainty it is unclear how effective management of a current
but no longer viable and self-sustaining climate regime can be. The climate example also
makes clear that management for maintaining the climate regime involves radically different
forms of human interventions (earth stewardship measures) compared to those that have
contributed to its deterioration (unsustainable use of fossil fuels). The climate example
highlights that hysteresis can impose limitations on the efficacy of regime management, a
fact well known in restoration ecology (Sudding and Hobbs 2009), requiring different, more
complex and likely costlier approaches to keep the dead regime walking. The second
category, managing for restoration, is evident in the bipolar and acidification examples.
Contrary to the grassland and climate cases, these examples show that management is
designed to mitigate the impact of undesired regimes and approximate conditions of a
previous desired regime. That is, management focuses on the ghost of a desired regime past.
Also in these cases, coerced regimes arise from our inability to overcome hysteresis, which
would be prerequisite for reincarnating the ghost as a self-organizing regime. In other words,
we are incapable of moving the system back to its original configuration because the original
conditions permitting the previous regime are no longer an option, either from lack of
knowledge regarding feedbacks and mechanisms regulating the original regime, or because
the basic prerequisites for a specific system configuration (i.e. local and regional
environmental conditions) no longer exist, or both.
It follows from our examples that coerced regimes vary in the types, quantities, frequencies
and consequences of management they require. Our example systems therefore are coerced
in terms of their degree and form of management. Coercion, like resilience, is not inherently
good or bad—it depends entirely on context and human perception. In a time of increasing
non-stationarity across many kinds of human and ecological complex adaptive systems,
climate change alone demands that we make fully informed choices about when and where
we intervene in systems and what degree of management will be likely to achieve our
desired goals. Ecological and social-ecological systems will be at increasing risk of being
dead regimes walking as the underlying environmental conditions allowing them to operate
in their current regime change. Humankinds’ wish to manage for a desired system regime
does not mean we have the ability to do so. In particular, managing for desired regimes that
are resilient and self-reinforcing may be beyond our means because of lack of data, lack of
resources, and a lack of control over all the variables that impact ecosystems. When systems
lack self-organization, the next best option may be to coerce desirable conditions in a system
that would otherwise move into a different basin of attraction governed by a different
regime, though even this management goal will necessarily be constrained by the availability
of labor, time and money. It may be highly useful to evaluate potential system interventions

from the perspective of evaluating the type and quantity of management required (i.e. are
they ecologically and economically sustainable); the frequency required; and the
consequences generated, such as wastes, vulnerabilities induced, and potential knock-on
effects of management, in order to explicitly understand the trade-offs at stake. For example,
intensive agriculture vs agroecological farming systems differ in their impacts on soil,
biodiversity, the delivery of ecosystem goods and services, pollution of aquatic systems and
their resilience to system disruption (Altieri et al. 2015, Garibaldi et al. 2017, Gordon et al.
2008, Koohafkan et al. 2012). It also seems likely that more intensive management over
larger spatial and temporal scales runs the risk of generating more unintended consequences
(e.g., homogenization and variance reduction [e.g. Holling and Meffe 1996]) not initially
considered when intervention began. This highlights the need to account for tradeoffs
between benefits and harm of regime management (Figure 2), a pervasive dilemma (e.g.,
Rodríguez et al. 2006). These tradeoffs and systems dynamics may be additionally
influenced by the openness and connectivity of the system (Allen et al. 2016). From our
examples, coerced grassland regimes have the fewest unintended or externalized negative
side-effects, because management is based on fire, which comprises part of a natural
disturbance regime (DellaSalla and Hanson 2015). In contrast, managing for the ghosts of
desired regimes past in bipolar disorder and acidified lakes incurs more notable side-effects
because the managment subsidies are alien to the system. With psychopharmacological
treatment in bipolar disorder, there is a substantial input of chemical drugs that do not occur
naturally in the organism and that can cause, for instance, cardiovascular problems and other
physical diseases (Correll et al. 2015). In acidified lakes, the input of lime not only causes a
profound alteration in the biogeochemical structure of a lake but also leads to changes in
algal body morphology (Drakare et al. 2012). Lakes and human subjects are complex-system
types in which treatment (i.e., management) and associated side-effects are contained within
the individual system. This differs from agricultural systems that are spatially open. As a
result, negative effects of agriculture can be locally and regionally substantial and alter
hydrological and ecological environments due to intensive irrigation and the use of inputs,
such as fertilizers and pesticides (Goudie 2018). In the case of climate regime management,
which can be based on technological, cultural, economic and social measures, the tradeoffs
between potential harms and benefits of Earth stewardship measures are again difficult to
envision partly due to the scales and multidimensionality at which these measures interact
with biophysical processes of the planet.
Outlook
The degree of management amount needed to obtain desirable regimes exemplified by our
example systems, which is inherent in the concept of coerced regimes, has fundamental
implications for the sustainable management of complex systems of people and nature in a
rapidly changing world. These implications become evident in two distinctly different
management premises. The first premise relates to what we know about systems and the
visions we have about managing these for the benefit of human societies, including nature
and biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provisioning. In the grassland example,
management is geared toward conserving threatened and endangered wildlife species by
maintaining habitat in a slowly, but fundamentally, shifting landscape. However, grassland

conservation provides a striking example that envisioning successful species conservation

based on knowledge about their habitat use becomes fallacious. This fallacy arises because
management builds on assumptions that the dynamics of social-ecological systems are
stationary. That is, assuming that restoring habitats at small scales will bring the species
back while habitat destruction and degradation proceed at broader scales – the myth of the
field of dreams (Hilderbrand et al. 2005) – is bound to fail because a plethora of factors,
including Allee effects, metapopulation and metacommunity dynamics, landscape change,
habitat destruction and fragmentation, and spatial connectivity, cause an extinction debt that
leads to the loss of species in the long run (Tilman et al. 1994). In other words, landscapes in
which small-scale habitats are embedded are not static but shifting in response to
environmental change and other disturbances, so management policies that focus on habitat
restoration and assume all else is held constant are fundamentally flawed. Furthermore, the
rate and magnitude of climate change amplifies both the inherent dynamism of landscapes
and non-stationarity as a result of the human-driven disturbances listed above, which
contributes to the creation of the ghosts of alternative regimes and eventually dead regimes
walking (Craig 2010, Vitousek et al. 1997, Pecl et al. 2017). From this perspective, attempts
to manage grassland regimes only “buy time” (Biggs et al. 2009) to conserve emblematic
wildlife. We will eventually falter in our endeavor to save many species from extinctions.
Non-stationarity shatters the field of dreams and will likely curtail management of desirable
system conditions in the long term.
The inability of humans to manage complex-system regimes ad infinitum raises questions

about the long-term costs and consequences associated with the buying of time, specifically,
the tradeoffs between benefit and harm that arise from management and the challenge to
optimize the former and minimize the latter. This brings us to the second management
premise, which is based on non-stationary assumptions: what we do not know and therefore
cannot envision. That is, instead of managing regimes for specific sets of commodities,
transformations to alternative self-organizing regimes with novel sets of goods and services
may become management alternatives or even priorities for future sustainability (Hobbs et
al. 2009; Allen and Holling 2010). However, the implementation of this management
premise is difficult. First, in addition to often being very costly, transformation is challenged
by the difficulty or even impossibility of breaking the feedbacks of system regimes (Suding
et al. 2004), to which, with exceptions (e.g., Herrmann et al. 2016), a significant number of
failed restoration projects attest (e.g., Gulati et al. 2008, Palmer et al. 2010). This suggests
that despite exhaustive adaptive experimentation and knowledge acquisition (Baho et al.
2017) we are unlikely to be sufficiently knowledgeable to intentionally create particular self-
sustaining and desired novel system regimes. Given the reality of constant and increasingly
faster non-stationary change, this management goal becomes even more unrealistic. As a
result it is possible that the best we can do is manage for desirable regimes that require
consistent management in the form of human-provided inputs to maintain feedbacks, even
though these systems will have low resilience and unintended side-effects of management or
social dynamics. Furthermore, transformations can only be carried out within specific
bounds defined by the laws of nature. That is, deliberate conversion of one ecosystem type
(e.g. a grassland) to another radically different one (coral reef) is practically impossible. As
a result management will be needed to obtain coerced desirable regimes of complex systems

that are otherwise untenable, but which may be brittle because of the influence of
unintended side-effects of management or social dynamics. Second, for many systems we
have neither the knowledge nor the vision of how a novel, future, viable and self-organizing
regime should look, although scenario planning, based on societal and technological factors,
envisioned for instance in the current artificial intelligence debate (Tegmark 2017), may help
for this purpose. A case in point is a future cure of human illness through nanotechnology
presently envisioned in science fiction. Despite the appeal of this currently unrealistic
scenario, and its delicate ethical implications, we currently lack knowledge and models for
bioengineering humans into novel self-organizing regimes. For instance, we currently lack
the science that would allow transforming mentally ill human subjects to a novel healthy
regime. Third, as a global discourse on transformation grows steadily, the degree to which
academic conceptions of the term (including inherent limitations) translate into the action
arena of environmental and sustainable development will vary, highlighting complicated
questions of who or what benefits from management and who or what is marginalized
(Blythe et al. 2018). These are critically important questions to address as the need to
manage systems for desired human outcomes increases.
In the face of these limitations, a sustainable future will, rather than depending on
purposeful successful transformations into self-organizing, desirable regimes, likely require
even further expanding degrees of management to satisfy the increasing needs of service
provisioning for a growing human population. Several of our examples demonstrate that
management can have substantial negative side-effects, and it is likely that increasing
degrees of management of complex systems in the future will have detrimental long-term
effects. System resilience that occurs largely as a result of human management is more
fragile because of the lack of ecologically-based self-reinforcing feedbacks. For example,
the condition of a medicated patient or limed lake is brittle (i.e. low resilience) which
manifests in a fast return to diseased or acidified conditions once management is ceased.
Exceeding the resilience of coerced regimes may lead to unforeseen surprises that manifest
in a form of novel system structures that require even more intensive coercive management
for mitigating negative impacts and providing commodities. Because managing for
resilience is contingent on legal settings (Twidwell et al. 2019), substantial policy
implications and challenges arise from such uncertainty. Events from the past, such as
agriculture that led to regime shifts in lakes and required extensive management to mitigate
cultural eutrophication (Carpenter 2005), may provide lessons for the future. Such lessons
could form the cornerstone for envisioning and spurring thinking about the complexity
associated with management for future sustainability, highlighting the broad utility of the
concept of coerced regimes for theory and practice.
We conclude by highlighting that we have discussed the concept of coerced regimes from a
point of view were management is mostly intentional. This is in line with a large body of
research, which has shown that once humans are integrated into the system boundaries, the
management becomes part of the regime feedbacks (Tavoni et al. 2012; Lade et al. 2015;
Schlüter et al. 2014, 2019). We acknowledge that unintentional social dynamics may
similarly result in coerced regimes. For example, the role of social flows such as migration
and remittances can determine whether or not forest transitions occur (Ospina et al. 2019).
Specifically, people migrate or send money to their families not with the intention of

changing the forest, but forest changes are unintended consequences of such social
dynamics. These examples make clear that the outcomes of intentional and unintentional
human activity can have similar outcomes on ecosystem dynamics. Because both comprise
some forms of human agency, the concept of coerced regimes is inclusive of such different
forms. The concept therefore has the potential to spur the development of a research agenda
to address ghost regimes in the Anthropocene: How does one identify them? How does one
classify them? Are there archetypical configurations of ghost regimes? These questions need
to revolve around our understanding of social dynamics as part of the feedbacks of the
system. Actors actions, influences and results (i.e. power dynamics), unintentional social
dynamics (e.g., migration, remittances) and unintended side-effects of intentional
management on ecosystems will play an important role in answering these questions.
Acknowledgements
This work was conceived and carried out during a visiting professorship of DGA at the University of Nebraska—
Lincoln. Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement
by the U.S. Government. The Nebraska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit is jointly supported by a
cooperative agreement among the U.S. Geological Survey, the Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, the
University of Nebraska, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Wildlife Management Institute. The findings
and conclusions in this manuscript are supported by the U.S. Geological Survey but have not been formally
disseminated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and should not be construed to represent this agency’s
determination or policy. The authors thank Dr. Elizabeth King and anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on a
previous manuscript version.
Literature cited
Allen CR, Angeler DG, Garmestani AS, Gunderson LH, and Holling CS. 2014 Panarchy: Theory and
applications. Ecosystems 17: 578–589.
Allen CR, and Holling CS. 2010 Novelty, adaptive capacity, and resilience. Ecology and Society 15(3):
24.
Allen CR, Angeler DG, Cumming GS, Folke C, Twidwell D, and Uden DR. 2016 Quantifying spatial
resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology 53: 625–635.
Altieri MA, Nicholls CI, Henao A, and Lana MA. 2015 Agroecology and the design of climate
change-resilient farming systems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 35: 869–890.
Anderson S 2017 Coercion. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Zalta Edward N., ed.), https://
plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/coercion/
Angeler DG, and Allen CR. 2016 Quantifying resilience. Journal of Applied Ecology 53: 617–624.
Angeler DG, Allen CR, and Persson M-L. 2018 Resilience concepts in psychiatry demonstrated with
bipolar disorder. International Journal of Bipolar Disorders 6(1): 2. [PubMed: 29423550]

Angeler DG, Allen CR, Barichievy C, Eason T, Garmestani GS, Graham NA, Granholm D, Gunderson
LH, Knutson M, Nash KL, Nelson RJ, Nyström M, Spanbauer TL, Stow CA, and Sundstrom SM.
2016 Management applications of discontinuity theory. Journal of Applied Ecology 53: 688–698.
Angeler DG, Drakare S, Johnson RK, Köhler SJ, and Vrede T. 2017 Managing ecosystems without
prior knowledge: pathological outcomes of lake liming. Ecology and Society 22(4): 44.
Angeler DG, Fried-Petersen HB, Allen CR, Garmestani A, Twidwell D, Chuang W, Donovan VM,
Eason T, Roberts CP, Sundstrom SM, and Wonkka CL. 2019 Adaptive capacity in ecosystems.
Advances in Ecological Research 60: 1–24. [PubMed: 31908359]
Archer SR, and Predick KI. 2014 An ecosystem services perspective on brush management: research
priorities for competing land‐use objectives. Journal of Ecology 102: 1394–1407.
Baho DL, Drakare S, Johnson RK, Allen CR, and Angeler DG. 2014 Similar resilience attributes in
lakes with different management practices. PloS One 9(3): e91881. [PubMed: 24618720]
Bauer M, and Pfennig A. 2005 Epidemiology of bipolar disorders. Epilepsia 46: 8–13.

Beaugrand G, Conversi A, Chiba S, Edwards M, Fonda-Umani S, Greene C, et al. 2015 Synchronous

marine pelagic regime shifts in the Northern Hemisphere. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B 370(1659): 20130272.
Beisner BE, Haydon DT, and Cuddington K. 2003 Alternative stable states in ecology. Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment 1: 376–382.
Biggs R, Carpenter SR, and Brock WA. 2009 Turning back from the brink: detecting an impending
regime shift in time to avert it. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106: 826–831.
Biggs R, Peterson G, and Rocha JC. 2018 The Regime Shifts Database: a framework for analyzing
regime shifts in social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 23(3):9.
Briggs JM, Knapp AK, Blair JM, Heisler JL, Hoch GA, Lett MS, and McCarron JK. 2005 An
ecosystem in transition: Causes and consequences of the conversion of mesic grassland to
shrubland. Bioscience 55: 243–254.
Blythe J, Silver J, Evans L, Armitage D, Bennett NJ, Moore M, Morrison TH, and Brown K. 2018 The
Dark Side of Transformation: Latent Risks in Contemporary Sustainability Discourse. Antipode
50: 1206–1223.
Carpenter SR 2005 Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: bistability and soil phosphorus. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences 102: 10002–10005.
Carpenter SR, Brock WA, Hansen GJA, Hansen JF, Hennessy JM, Isermann DA, Pedersen EJ, Martin
Perales K, Rypel AL, Sass GG, Tunney TD, and Vander Zanden MJ MJ. 2017 Defining a safe
operating space for inland recreational fisheries. Fish and Fisheries 18: 1150–1160.
Cassey P, Delean S, Lockwood JL, Sadowski JS, and Blackburn TM. 2018 Dissecting the null model
for biological invasions: A meta-analysis of the propagule pressure effect. PLoS Biol 16(4):
e2005987 [PubMed: 29684017]

Clair TA, and Hindar A. 2005 Liming for the mitigation of acid rain effects in freshwaters: a review of
recent results. Environmental Reviews 13: 91–128.
Cooke GD 1999 Ecosystem rehabilitation. Lake and Reservoir Management 15(1): 1–4.
Correll CU, Detraux J, De Lepeleire J, and De Hert M M. 2015 Effects of antipsychotics,
antidepressants and mood stabilizers on risk for physical diseases in people with schizophrenia,
depression and bipolar disorder. World Psychiatry 14(2): 119–136. [PubMed: 26043321]
Craig RK 2010 Stationarity is dead-long live transformation: five principles for climate change
adaptation law. Harvard Environmental Law Review 34: 9.
DellaSala DA, and Hanson CT. 2015 The ecological importance of mixed-severity fires: nature’s
phoenix. Elsevier.
Drakare S, Persson G, Angeler D, and Holmgren K. 2012 IKEUs Överkalkningsprogram, 2006–2010:
Vilka effekter på biota ser man I överkalkade sjöar. Institutionen för vatten och miljö, Sveriges
lantbruksuniversitet
Ferrell JE Jr 2002 Self-perpetuating states in signal transduction: positive feedback, double-negative
feedback and bistability. Current Opinion in Cell Biology 14: 140–148. [PubMed: 11891111]
Figura S, Livingstone DM, Hoehn E, and Kipfer R. 2011 Regime shift in groundwater temperature
triggered by the Arctiv Oscillationa. Geophysical Research Letters 38: 1–5
Fuhlendorf SD, Davis CA, Elmore RD, Goodman LE, and Hamilton RG. 2018 Perspectives on
grassland conservation efforts: should we rewild to the past or conserve for the future?.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 373(1761): p.20170438.
Garibaldi LA, Gemmill-Herren B, D’Annolfo R, Graeub BE, Cunningham SA, and Breeze TD. 2017
Farming approaches for greater biodiversity, livelihoods, and food security. Trends in Ecology &
Evolution 32: No.1.
Gill DS, and Marks PL. 1991 Tree and Shrub Seedling Colonization of Old Fields in Central New
York. Ecological Monographs 61: 183–205.
Goodwin FK, and Jamison KR KR. 2007 Manic-depressive illness: bipolar disorders and recurrent
depression. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gordon LJ, Peterson GD, and Bennett EM. 2008 Agricultural modifications of hydrological flows
create ecological surprises. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23: No.4.
Goudie AS 2018 Human impact on the natural environment. John Wiley & Sons.

Grant TA, Madden E, and Berkey GB, 2004 Tree and shrub invasion in northern mixed-grass prairie:
implications for breeding grassland birds. Wildlife Society Bulletin 32: 807–818.
Gulati RD, Pires LMD, and Van Donk E. 2008 Lake restoration studies: failures, bottlenecks and
prospects of new ecotechnological measures. Limnologica 38: 233–247.
Gunderson LH 2000 Resilience in theory and practice. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31:
425–439.
Handy JA 2018 The Secret Tribe: A Memoir of Resilience. Friesen Press, Victoria, Canada.
Henriksson L, and Brodin YN. 1995 Liming of Acidified Surface Waters: A Swedish Synthesis.
Springer, Berlin.
Herrmann DL, Schwarz K, Shuster WD, Berland A, Chaffin BC, Garmestani AS, Hopton ME. 2016
Ecology for the shrinking city. BioScience 66: 965–973.
Hilderbrand RH, Watts AC, and Randle AM. 2005 The myths of restoration ecology. Ecology and
Society 10(1): 19
Hobbs RJ, Higgs E, and Harris JA. 2009 Novel ecosystems: implications for conservation and
restoration. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24: 599–605. [PubMed: 19683830]
Holland JH 2014 Complexity—a very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Holling CS 1973 Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics 4(1): 1–23.
Holling CS 2001 Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems.
Ecosystems 4: 390–405.
Holling CS, and Meffe GK. 1996 Command and control and the pathology of natural resource
management. Conservation Biology 10: 328–337.
IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to
the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing
Team, Pachauri RK and Meyer LA (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.
Koohafkan P, Altieri MA, and Gimenez EH. 2012 Green Agriculture: foundations for biodiverse,
resilient and productive agricultural systems. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability
10: 61–75.
Kortsch S, Primicerio R, Beuchel F, Renaud PE, Rodrigues J, Lønne OJ, and Gulliksen B. 2012
Climate-driven regime shifts in Arctic marine benthos. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 109: 14052–14057.
Lade SJ, Niiranen S, Hentati-Sundberg J, Blenckner T, Boonstra WJ, Orach K, Quaas MF, Österblom
H, and Schlüter M. 2015 An empirical model of the Baltic Sea reveals the importance of social
dynamics for ecological regime shifts.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112:
11120–11125.
Lustgarten A, and Sadasivam N. 2015 5 27 Holy crop: How federal dollars are financing the water
crisis in the West. ProPublica Online: https://projects.propublica.org/killing-the-colorado/story/
arizona-cotton-drought-crisis (accessed 5 Nov 2018).
Miller MH, and Williamson. 1988 The international monetary system: An analysis of alternative
regimes. European Economic Review 32: 1031–1048
Milkowitz DJ, and Gitlin MJ. 2015 Clinician’s guide to bipolar disorder. New York: Guilford Press.
Ospina D, Peterson G, and Crépin AS. 2019 Migrant remittances can reduce the potential of local
forest transitions—a social-ecological regime shift analysis. Environmental Research Letters 14:
024017.
Palmer MA, Menninger HL, and Bernhardt E. 2010 River restoration, habitat heterogeneity and
biodiversity: a failure of theory or practice? Freshwater Biology 55: 205–222.
Pecl GT et al. 2017 Biodiversity redistribution under climate change: Impacts on ecosystems and
human well-being. Science 355: eaai9214. [PubMed: 28360268]
Phelps J 2006 Why am I still depressed? Recognizing and managing the ups and downs of Bipolar II
and soft bipolar disorder. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Roberts CP, Allen CR, Angeler DG, and Twidwell D D. 2019 Spatial regimes: a new frontier for the
science of early warnings. Nature Climate Change DOI: 10.1038/s41558-019-0517-6

Rist L, Felton A, Nyström M, Troell M, Sponseller RA, Bengtsson J, Österblom H, Lindborg R,

Tidåker P, Angeler DG, Milestad R, and Moen J. 2014 Applying resilience thinking to production
ecosystems. Ecosphere 5(6): 73
Rockström J et al. 2009 Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity.
Ecology and Society 14(2): 32
Rodríguez JP, Beard TD, Bennett EM, et al. 2006 Trade-offs across space, time, and ecosystem
services. Ecology and Society 11(1): 28.
Samson FB, and Knopf FL. 1994 Prairie conservation in North America. Bioscience 44: 418–421.
Sandoy S, and Romunstad AJ. 1995 Liming of acidified lakes and rivers in Norway, An attempt to
preserve and restore biological diversity in the acidified regions. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 85:
997–1002.
Scheffer M, Hosper SH, Meijer ML, Moss B, and Jeppesen E. 1993 Alternative equilibria in shallow
lakes. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 8: 275–279. [PubMed: 21236168]
Schindler DW 1988 Effects of acid rain on freshwater ecosystems. Science 239: 149–157. [PubMed:
17732976]
Schlüter M, Hinkel J, Bots P, and Arlinghaus R. 2014 Application of the SES framework for model-
based analysis of the dynamics of social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 19(1): 36.
Schlüter M, Haider L, Lade S, Lindkvist E, Martin R, Orach K, Wijermans N, and Folke C. 2019
Capturing emergent phenomena in social-ecological systems: an analytical framework. Ecology
and Society 24(3):11.
SER (Society for Ecological Restoration International Science & Policy Working Group). 2004 The
SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration. Society for Ecological Restoration
International www.ser.org.
Steffen W, Rockström J, Richardson KL, Lenton TM, Folke C, Liverman D, et al. 2018 Trajectories of
the Earth System in the Anthropocene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
201810141.
Stockholm Resilience Center. 2014 The hidden cost of coerced resilience. http://
www.stockholmresilience.org/research/research-news/2014-11-29-the-hidden-cost-of-coerced-
resilience.html [accessed July, 27, 2018]
Suding KN, Gross KL, and Houseman GR. 2004 Alternative states and positive feedbacks in
restoration ecology. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 19: 46–53. [PubMed: 16701225]
Suding KN, and Gross KL. 2006 The dynamic nature of ecological systems: multiple states and
restoration trajectories In: Foundations of Restoration Ecology (editors: Falk DA, Palmer MA,
Zedler JB), Island Press, pp. 190–209.
Suding KN, and Hobbs RJ. 2009 Threshold models in restoration and conservation: A developing
framework. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24: 271–279. [PubMed: 19269057]
Tavoni A, Schlüter M, and Levin S. 2012 The survival of the conformist: social pressure and renewable
resource management. Journal of Theoretical Biology 299: 152–161. [PubMed: 21810428]
Tegmark M 2017 Life 3.0 – Being human in the age of artificial intelligence. Penguin Books
Tilman D, May RM, Lehman CL, and Nowak MA. 1994 Habitat destruction and the extinction debt.
Nature 371(6492), 65.
Twidwell D, Wonkka CL, Wang H-H, Grant WE, Allen CR, Fuhlendorf SD, Garmestani AS, Angeler
DG, Taylor CA, P Kreuter U, and Rogers WE. 2019 Coerced resilience in fire management.
Journal of Environmental Management 240: 368–373. [PubMed: 30953990]
Wandelt K 2018 Encyclopedia of Interfacial Chemistry: Surface Science and Electrochemistry.
Elsevier.
Westerling AL, Hidalgo HG, Cayan DR, and Swetnam TW. 2006 Warming and earlier spring increase
western US forest wildfire activity. Science 313: 940–943. [PubMed: 16825536]

Figure 1.
Illustration of coerced resilience. Shown are changes over time (blue arrow) of a desired
(green) and undesired (red) regime. The shifting shapes of basins of attraction show that the
desired regime becomes increasingly untenable while the undesired regime more stable over
time. Increasing management intervention (purple arrows) are needed to coerce the system
(symbolized with ball) into the ghost of a desired regime past (gray area warping the no
longer existent basin of attraction and steep slopes leading into the undesired basin of
attraction).

Figure 2:
Schematic showing scenarios of benefit-harm tradeoffs associated with coerced regime
management. Managing for coerced grassland regimes has the highest benefit and least
impact. Bipolar disorder, acidification and intensively subsidized agriculture show that
negative effects of system coercion can outweigh benefits. Such effects may be influenced
by system openness which my cause spatial contagion effects of coercive management

(agriculture affecting adjacent ecosystems vs bipolar disorder and lake acidification in which
treatment is contained within the system). Note: The examples are largely simplified and
meant for comparison and demonstration of tradeoffs in the context of coerced regimes.

Table 1:
Definitions of coercion terms that are used across different scientific fields.
Term Definition
Restoration The intentional activity that initiates or accelerates the recovery of an ecosystem with respect to its health, integrity
and sustainability (SER 2004)
Rehabilitation The repair and replacement of essential structures and functions to achieve specified objectives without the pretense of
accomplishing absolute authenticity of pre-disturbance conditions (Cooke 1990)
Mitigation Intended to offset known impacts to an existing historic or natural resource
Coerced resilience Resilience that is created as a result of anthropogenic inputs, such as labor, energy and technology, rather than
supplied by the ecological system itself, whereby coercion of resilience enables the maintenance of high levels of
production (Rist et al. 2014). Coerced resilience can be considered to focus on improving the performance of a single
or few system variable(s) (e.g., production output).
Coerced regimes Focuses on the creation of artificial, non-self-sustaining feedbacks through constant management to mimic the
conditions of a desirable regime (this paper). Coerced regimes can also arise from unintentional social dynamics (see
text). The concept is inclusive of proactive (maintaining desired) and reactive (mitigating degraded regimes)
management. Contrary to coerced resilience, coerced regimes focuses on mimicking of systemic conditions
(feedbacks), rather than the optimization of a few system variables. Coerced regimes are “dead regimes walking”
manifested in the collapse of coerced desired system regimes and the return of a coerced degraded regime to the full
manifestation of its undesired conditions when management is ceased.
Forced resilience* In a psychological context, refers to a willful coping with trauma and adversity (Handy 2018)
Command-and- Pathological management that decreases the resilience and adaptive capacity of a system through controlling a
control management particular ecosystem regime indefinitely into the future (Holling and Meffe 1996). Coerced resilience management
often comprises a form of command and control management
Social coercion The practice of forcing another party to act in an involuntary manner by use of threats or force (Anderson 2017)
Poverty/rigidity traps With its focus on reactive management to mitigate highly degraded and resilient social-ecological system regimes, this
concept is subsumed within the concept of coerced regimes.
Coercivity (in A measure of the ability of a ferromagnetic material to withstand an external magnetic field without becoming
material science and demagnetized (Wandelt 2018)
electrical
engineering)
*
Term used interchangeably with coerced resilience by Stockholm Resilience Center (2014)

EPA Author Manuscript EPA Author Manuscript EPA Author Manuscript
Table 2.
Comparison of coerced-regime examples.
System Management Goal Spatial Disturbance Subsidy

connectivity regime
Angeler et al.
Bipolar Restoration Cognitive and (inter)personal functioning No Artificial Chemical

Lakes Restoration Emblematic species conservation; fisheries Low Artificial Chemical
Agriculture Novelty Food provisioning High Artificial Physical, chemical, technological
Grasslands Maintenance Emblematic species and rangeland conservation High Natural Physical
Climate Maintenance Conserving planetary glacial-interglacial climate regime High Natural, artificial Physical, technological, social, political

Page 20

Nihms 1587832

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nihms 1587832

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Nihms 1587832

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EPA Public Access

Coerced regimes: management challenges in the Anthropocene

1Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment,

Natural Resources, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA 7Department

of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

use of performance-enhancing drugs in athletes, to the mitigation of poverty traps, to

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Examples of coerced regimes

perspective, this management treats the diseased regime through psychopharmacological

Restoring and mitigating degraded ecosystems

Anthropogenic acidification of surface waters has been a major environmental problem in

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Maintaining desired regimes in a sea of change

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Artificial, beneficial regimes: Agricultural production

Global climate regimes

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Coerced regimes: commonalities and differences

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

with biophysical processes of the planet.

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

conservation provides a striking example that envisioning successful species conservation

system conditions in the long term.

The inability of humans to manage complex-system regimes ad infinitum raises questions

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

bipolar disorder. International Journal of Bipolar Disorders 6(1): 2. [PubMed: 29423550]

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Beaugrand G, Conversi A, Chiba S, Edwards M, Fonda-Umani S, Greene C, et al. 2015 Synchronous

e2005987 [PubMed: 29684017]

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Rist L, Felton A, Nyström M, Troell M, Sponseller RA, Bengtsson J, Österblom H, Lindborg R,

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

by system openness which my cause spatial contagion effects of coercive management

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Mitigation Intended to offset known impacts to an existing historic or natural resource

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

Comparison of coerced-regime examples.

System Management Goal Spatial Disturbance Subsidy

Bipolar Restoration Cognitive and (inter)personal functioning No Artificial Chemical

Ecol Soc. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2021 January 01.

You might also like