EEP 2301 ELECTRICAL MACHINES II: 45 Contact Hours

Prerequisite EEP 2204 ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

Purpose

This course is meant to enable the student to explain the principles and performance of a.c and d.c
machines and describe the controls for AC and DC and special machines

Aims and Objectives

Course Content
3-phase transformers, Construction, Operation, Characteristics, Configuration, Paralleling,
Application, Performing calculations.

3-phase synchronous motor’ Construction, Principle of operation- leading/ lagging, Starting

and synchronizing methods of 3- machines, Application, Perform calculations, 3-phase
synchronous motor, Equivalent circuits, Torque development, Effects of excitation, Perform
calculations, Applications.

Special machines, Stepper, Servo motors, Linear, Hysteresis, Reluctance.

Course Assessment

Final examination 60%; Continuous assessment 40%

Cats 15% Assignments 5% and Practicals 20%

Recommended Texts
1. T.L Theraja, Electrical Technology
2. A.K Starr, Generation ,Transmission and utilization of electrical energy
3. A.K Gupta, A Course in electrical power
Textbooks and Journals for Further Reading

1. Morton and Spencer, Higher Electrical Technology

2. John Hindmarsh, Electrical Machines and their applications

1
EEP 2301 Electrical machines II
Per-unit system

A per-unit system is the expression of system quantities as fractions of a defined base unit quantity.
This simplifies Calculations because quantities expressed as per-unit do not change when they are
referred from one side of transformer to the other. This can is an advantage in power system
analysis where large numbers of transformers may be encountered. Apparatus will have impedances
lying within a narrow numerical range when expressed as a per-unit fraction of the equipment
rating, even if the unit size varies widely. Conversion of per-unit quantities to volts, ohms, or
amperes requires knowledge of the base that the per-unit quantities were referenced to.

The main idea of per unit system is to absorb large difference in absolute values into base
relationships. Representations of elements in the system with per unit values become more uniform.

A per-unit system provides units for; power, voltage, current, impedance, and admittance. Except
impedance and admittance, any two of these are independent and can be arbitrarily selected as base
values, usually power and voltage. All quantities are specified as multiples of selected base values.
For example, the base power might be the rated power of a transformer, or perhaps an arbitrarily
selected power which makes power quantities in the system more convenient. The base voltage
might be the nominal voltage of a bus. Different types of quantities are labeled with the same
symbol (pu); it should be
clear from context whether the quantity is a voltage, current, etc.

There are several reasons for using a per-unit system:

 Similar apparatus (generators, transformers, lines) will have similar per-unit impedances and
losses expressed on their own rating, regardless of their absolute size. Because of this, per-
unit data can be checked rapidly for gross errors. A per unit value out of normal range is
worth looking into for potential errors.
 Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of apparatus in per unit values.
 Use of the constant is reduced in three-phase calculations.
 Per-unit quantities are the same on either side of a transformer, independent of voltage level
 By normalizing quantities to a common base, both hand and automatic calculations are
simplified.
 It improves numerical stability of automatic calculation methods

The per-unit system was developed to make manual analysis of power systems easier. Although
power-system analysis is now done by computer, results are often expressed as per-unit values on a
convenient system-wide base.

The Per-unit System

2
It is often convenient to carry out calculations relating to transformer and other electrical plant
using the per-unit system. In this method all the relevant quantities arc expressed in per-unit form,
i.e. as fractions of chosen base values.
There are two main advantages in using the per-unit system.
(i) the constants of transformers and other plant fall within narrow limits when
expressed in per-unit form based on their rating.
(ii) in computations involving transformers the need to refer quantities from
one side of the transformer to the other is eliminated.
The per-unit value of any quantity may be defined as

The quantity A may be voltage, current, volt-amperes, impedance, admittance or any electrical
quantity.
The base values of voltage and current, Vb and Ib,,.. may be chosen arbitrarily though they will
usually be chosen to correspond to rated voltage and rated current. Once these have been, chosen
the base values of all other electrical quantities are automatically fixed.
For a single-phase system, the power, reactive volt-ampere and volt-ampere bases are

it is more usual to choose the voltage base and the volt-ampere base and then to determine the
current base from their relationship.

Example ONE

3
A generator rated 1000 VA and 200 V has internal impedance of j10Ω. The generator
impedance of j25% is stamped on the name plate together with the other ratings. The
generator is short circuited at its terminals. Determine the short circuit current and the
short circuit power delivered by the generator in p.u., in percentage (%), and in the
actual units.

4
TWO
A generator supplied a load through a feeder whose impedance is Zf = 1+j202. the load
impedance ZL = 8+j602 the voltage across the load is 120V. Using per unit representation
find
(i) real power
(ii) reactive power supplied by the generator
. Take the load voltage as the reference phasor and choose Sb = 1500VA, Vb = 120V

5
THREE
Example A 500 V 10KVA single phase generator has an open-circuit voltage of 500V. When the
load current is 25A at a certain power factor the terminal voltage falls to 480 V. Determine in per-
unit form'
(a) the output voltage,
(b) the output current.
(c) the output volti-amperes.
(d) the voltage regulation,

With transformers, provided that rated primary voltage is used as base with primary referred
impedances, and rated secondary voltage with secondary referred impedances, the same per-unit
values of impedance are obtained. As a result calculations in per-unit form are the same for the
primary and the secondary. The actual primary or secondary values are obtained by multiplying the
per-unit values by the appropriate base quantities.

6
EXAMPLE 2
A 5kVA 200/400V 50Hz single-phase transformer has an equivalent circuit consisting of shunt admittance (1.5 x 10 -3 – j3.15x 10-
3
) S mho and series leakage impedance (0.12 + j0.32)Ω, both referred to the low voltage side. Determine the per-unit values of the
shunt admittance and the leakage impedance using first the primary referred values and then the secondary referred values. The
voltage base is to be the rated value.
Determine also the per-unit value of the core loss when the transformer is excited at rated voltage, the full-load winding loss and
the full-load voltage regulation if the load power factor is 0. 8 lagging, and express each of these values in actual quantities.

It will be noted that, where the rated voltage and volt-amperes are used as bases, the per-unit values
of the constants of the transformer equivalent circuit are the same whether primary or secondary
data arc used.
7
In the transformer equivalent circuit the core loss is represented by power dissipated in Gr the real
part of the shunt admittance. Since the transformer is excited at rated voltage, in per-unit values the
voltage will be unity.

If calculations relating to two or more transformers, or other plant, of different ratings are to be undertaken, then the
per-unit values must all be referred to the same voltage and volt-ampere bases. In such a situation the base values
chosen will not be the rated value of volt-amperes of some of the plant involved.
the per-unit value of any quantity A to Abase1

8
EXAMPLE 3
A 60MVA 3phase 33/11 kv mesh/star-connected transformer supplies a 10 MVA feeder. The leakage impedance per
phase of the transformer is (0015 -1-/0 04) p.u. and the impedance per phase of the feeder is (0 06 + /0-OTjp.u. The
p.u. impedances are based on the nominal ratings per phase of the transformer
and feeder respectively. When the load on the distant end of the feeder is lOMVAat a power facloi ofO Slagging and
the load voltage is 11 kV determine:
(a) The line current in the feeder.
(b) The transformer secondary phase current.
(c) The transformer primary phase current.
(d) The transformer primary line current.
(e) The transformer output line voltage.
( f ) The transformer input line voltage.
The per-unit impedances of the feeder and transformer are based on their respective terminal ratings. It will be
necessary to express these relative to a common base, and the nominal rating of the transformer is chosen as the
common base. The per-unit impedance of the feeder on the new base is

9
10
Three-phase Transformers
Why Transformer Rating is in kVA

Cu loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on voltage. Hence, total
transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on phase angle between voltage and
current i.e. it is independent of load power factor. That is why rating of transformers is in kVA and
not in kW.

Example.
The primary and secondary windings of a 30 kVA 76000/230, V, 1-phase transformer have
resistance of 10 ohm and 0.016 ohm respectively. The reactance of the transformer referred to the
primary is 34 ohm. Calculate the primary voltage required to circulate full-load current when the
secondary is short-circuited. What is the power factor on short circuit ?

K = 230/6000 = 23/600, X01 = 34 Ω,

R01 = R1 + R2/K2 = 10 + 0.016 (600/23)2 = 20.9 Ω

For 3-phase working it is possible to have either a bank of three single-phase transformers, or a single 3-
phase unit Single-phase construction has the advantage that where single units are concerned only one spare
single-phase transformer is needed as a standby, instead of a complete spare 3-phase transformer. The single
3-phase unit takes up less space and is somewhat cheaper. Technically the difference between the single 3-
phase unit and the three single-phase units lies in the fact that there is a direct magnetic coupling between
the phases in the first case but not in the second. Star, delta or zigzag windings are possible in

both primary and secondary, giving many possible pairs of connexion. The complexor diagram for
any connexion is drawn by observing that the e.m.f.s induced in all windings on the same limb are
in phase and in direct ratio to the numbers of turns.
Two cases will be considered in detail, the others being easily followed by similar methods. the
connexions and complexor diagrams for a Δ-Y transformer are shown. The primary complexor
diagram is shown on the left, with primary Line voltages
VAB, VBC and VCA- The secondary is Y-connected, so that the phase voltages Van will be in phase with
the primary line voltage VAB, and the ratio Van/VAB will be almost equal to the turns ratio N2/N1, etc.
The secondary line voltages Vab etc., will be the complexor differences between successive phase
voltages, as shown in the right-hand complexor diagram. In this case the secondary line voltages
11
will lead the primary line voltages by 30o, and will be √3Vp(N2/N1) in magnitude,where Vp is the
primary Line voltage.
Circuit and complexor diagrams of a A-zigzag connexion.

The secondary is divided into two equal halves on each limb, the top half on one limb being
connected in opposition to the lower half on the preceding limb. This connexion is used if the load
on the secondary is far out of balance, since each secondary phase is divided between two primary
windings. Each secondary phase voltage is thus the difference between the e.m.f.s induced in
windings on successive limbs.

POWER TRANSFORMERS
These have a high utilization factor, i.e. it is arranged that they run with an almost constant load which is
equal to their rating.
The maximum efficiency is designed to be at full load. This means that the full load winding losses must be
equal to the core losses.
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

12
These have an intermittent and variable load which is usually considerably less than the full-load rating.
They are therefore designed to have their maximum efficiency at between 1/2 and 3/4 of full load
Short Transmission Lines in Parallel
Preliminary to the consideration of the operation of two transformers in parallel the simpler case of
two transmission lines parallel will be first considered.

For two single-phase short transmission lines connected in parallel. The total series impedance of
each pair has been equivalently concentrated in one conductor of each. (b) a simple redraft of the
system. It is evident that the voltage drops in the two transmission lines are identical. If the total
current I divides between the two lines so that I1 flows through line 1 (of impedance Zi) and I2 flows
through line 2 (of impedance Z2), then
I1Z1= I2Z2
Also I1+I2= I
I= I1+I2
I1Z1 = I2Z2
I1Z1 = ( I – I1)Z2
I1Z1 = IZ2 – I1Z2
I1Z1 – I1Z2 = IZ2
I1(Z1 – Z2)= IZ2
I 1Z 2
I1 = Z 1+ Z 2

Therefore ………………………….. (i)

Similarly ………………………….. (ii)

This result will also apply to two balanced 3-phase systems operating in parallel if Z1 and Z2 are the
equivalent impedances per phase of the 3-phase transmission lines.

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In many cases the division of the load between the two lines is required. This may be determined as
follows.
Let V be the receiving-end voltage. Multiplying eqns. (i)
and (ii) by V for a single-phase system or by √ 3 V for a 3-pbase system,

…………………. (iii)

And …………………. (iv)

where the total volt-amperes (ST) and the volt-amperes delivered by each line (S1 and S2) are in
complexor form, with the system voltage V as reference.
Eqns. (iii) and (iv) may be expressed using impedance in per-unit form.

If the lines have different volt-ampere ratings the p.u. impedances for both lines will have to be
based on the volt-ampere rating of one line. If the impedances of the lines are given in per-unit
form, each based on the individual volt-ampere rating of the line, the per-unit
impedance of one line may be converted to a new base .

EXAMPLE
A 3-phase cable A supplies a load of 2,000kW at 6,600 V and p.f. 0.8 lagging. A second cable B of
impedance (3 + j4.5)Ω/phase is connected in parallel with A, and it is found that for the same load as
before, A carries 140A and delivers 1200kW at a lagging pf. What is the impedance of cable A?

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS IN PARALLEL

In order that 3-phase transformers may operate in parallel the following conditions must be strictly
observed:
(a) The secondaries must have the same phase sequence.

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 (b) All corresponding secondary line voltages must be in phase. *f
(c) The secondaries must give the same magnitude of line voltage.
In addition it is desirable that
(d) The impedances of each transformer, referred to its own rating, should be the
same, i.e. each transformer should have the same per-unit resistance and per-
unit reactance.
If conditions (a), (b) and (c) are not complied with, the secondaries will simply short-circuit one another and
no output will be possible.
If condition (d) is not complied with the transformers will not share the total load in proportion to their
ratings, and one transformer will become overloaded before the total output reaches the sum of the
individual ratings. It is difficult to ensure that transformers
in parallel have identical per-unit impedances, and this affects the load sharing in the same manner as was
indicated for single-phase transformers in parallel.
It is relatively simple to ensure that the phase sequence of all transformer secondaries is the same before
connecting them in parallel.
The terminals of the h.v. and l.v. sides are labelled for the conventional positive phase sequence. It is then
only necessary to ensure that correspondingly lettered terminals are connected together. The main difficulty
arising from the parallel connexion of 3- phase transformers is to ensure that condition (b) is satisfied. This
is because of the phase shift which is possible between primary and secondary line voltages in such
transformers.
Three-phase transformers are divided into four groups according to the phase displacement between the
primary and secondary line voltages. These groups are
1. No phase displacement
2. 180c phase displacement
3. -30° phase displacement
4. +300 phase displacement

Only transformers in the same groups may be connected in parallel.

Groups 1 and 2 contain (i) star-star, (ii) delta-delta, and (iii) delta zigzag combinations.
The connexion and complexor diagrams for a star-star transformer belonging to group 1 are shown
in Fig. (a). In this case it is immediately obvious that there is no phase displacement between the
primary and secondary phase and line voltages. The essential point to observe is that all windings on
the same limb of a transformer must give voltages which are either is phase or in antiphase,
according to the relative winding directions. The line voltages are derived from the three phase
voltages in the usual manner.

15
The effect of reversing the connexions to the l.v. winding is shown in Fig. (b). The directions of the
phase e.m.f.s in the secondary are reversed, so that there is now 180° phase displacement between
the primary and secondary line voltages. This connexion therefore belongs to group 2.
Fig. (c) shows diagrams for the delta-delta connexion in group 1. the complexor diagrams indicating
that there is no phase shift

The load-sharing properties of two 3-phase transformers with equal voltage ratios are governed by
the same equations as single-phase transformers, when the impedances are expressed as per-unit
impedances, i.e. irrespective of the methods of connexion used for the transformers.

DELTA-STAR CONNEXION IN GROUPS 3 AND 4

16
Standard connections for three phase transformers ( 3
 TX)
Transformer windings can be constructed for connection to a one-phase, two-phase or three-
phase power supply.
Combinations are also possible, namely three-to-two or three-to-one phase conversion. Six-,
12- and even 24-phase connections may be needed in rectifier transformers. Single phase
transformers can be independent; arranged to provide a two- or three-wire supply, centre-
point earthed, or
combined to form a three-phase bank. In the case of threephase windings, three forms of
connection are possible; star, delta and interconnected-star (zig-zag). When combined on the
same core, a delta winding and an interconnected-star winding can be arranged to provide
zero phase displacement, and when either of these is combined with a star winding, a 30 o (
phase displacement results, either leading or lagging.
By reversal of one winding with respect to the other when a combination of the same
connection is involved, or where the combination is of connections giving the same phase
displacement, a 180 ( phase displacement is produced.
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A summary of the combinations and the corresponding e.m.f. diagrams is given in the figure
below.
In a star/star connection unbalanced load may result in neutral displacement and third-
harmonic currents may circulate between lines and earth. These difficulties may be
overcome by providing a delta connected stabilizing (tertiary) winding with a rating
sufficient to take short-circuit
fault currents. The need for this winding depends, however, on the core construction. Where,
as in banks of three one-phase units or in five-limb three-phase core-type transformers, there
is an independent iron path for the zero-sequence flux in each phase, the z.p.s. impedance is
consequently high, making a stabilising winding essential.
With three-phase three-limbed cores the z.p.s. fluxes are forced out of the core and the z.p.s.
impedance is lower; consequently, a tertiary winding may not be necessary.

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19
Transformers for High Frequencies
At radio frequencies and above, steel laminations cannot be used for transformers and coils because
of the excessive eddy-current and hysteresis losses. One solution to this problem is to form cores of
iron dust in an insulating binder. Such dust cores can be used up to radio frequencies, and have an
effective relative permeability of about 10.
An alternative solution has become available with the development of homogeneous non-metallic
materials called ferrites. These have the form XO.Fe2O2, where X stands for a divalent metallic
atom.
Ferrites crystallize in a cubic spinel structure, and are characterized by a high initial relative
permeability (between 10 and 3,000) and a very high resistivity (typically 106Ω-m compared to
about 10-7Ω-m for iron). Owing to the high resistivity, eddy-current losses are virtually non-existent,
so that ferrites can be used up to frequencies in excess of 109Hz. They are not suitable, however, for
power frequency applications owing to their relatively high cost and fairly low saturation flux
density (about 0-2 T), Their mechanical properties are similar to those of insulating ceramics—they
are hard and brittle and not amenable to mechanical working. It is interesting to note that a naturally
occurring ferrite known as lodestone or magnetite was the first material in which magnetic effects
were observed.
The magnetic properties of ferrites depend on the metallic atom that occupies the position X in the
ferrite formula. In magnetite this happens to be a divalent iron atom, so that magnetite is a double
oxide of iron (FeO. Fe2O3). The manufactured ferrites are generally mixed crystals of two or more
single ferrites.
Manganese zinc ferrite (MnO.FeaOs. ZnO.Fe2O3) and nickel zinc ferrite (NiO.Fe2O3, Zr.O. Fe2Q3)
have very narrow hysteresis loops and are suitable for high-Q coils, wideband transformers, radio-

20
frequency and pulse transformers and aerial rods. The material is supplied in the form of extrusions
or preformed rings. Various grades are available depending on the application and frequency range
required.
Magnesium manganese ferrite (MgO.Fe2O3, MnO.Fe2O3) exhibits a relatively square hysteresis loop
which makes the material suitable for switching and storage applications.

OPERATION OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS IN PARALLEL

21
22
FURTHER PROBLEMS
1. A 3,200/400 V single-phase transformer has winding resistances and reactances of 3 Ω and 13 Ω
respectively in the primary and 0.02 Ω and 0.065 Ω in the secondary. Express these in terms of (a)
primary alone, (b) secondary alone.
Ans, 4.28 Ω, 17.16 Ω; 0. 067 Ω, 0.268 Ω.

2. Explain with a diagram, how a transformer can be represented by an equivalent circuit. Derive an
expression for the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the primary winding.

A 50 Hz single-phase transformer has a turns ratio of 6. The resistances are 0.9 Ω and 0.03 Ω
and the reactances 5 0 and 0-13O for high-voltage and low voltage windings respectively.
Find (a) the voltage to be applied to the high-voltage side to obtain full-load current of 200A
in the low-voltage winding on short-circuit, (b) the power factor on short-circuit
Ans. 330V; 0.2 lagging.

3 The primary and secondary windings of a 30kVA 6,000/230V transformer have resistances
Of 10 Ω and 0.016 Ω respectively. The reactance of the transformer referred to the primary
is 34 Ω.
Calculate (a) the primary voltage required to circulate full-load current when the secondary
is short-circuited,
(b) the percentage voltage regulation of the transformer for a load of 30kVA

23
 having a p.f. of 0.8 lagging.
Ans. 200V; 3.1 per cent.

4 Enumerate the losses in a transformer and explain how each loss varies with the load when
the supply voltage and frequency are constant. Describe how the components of the losses at
no load may be determined.
A transformer having a rated output of 100kVA has an efficiency of 98 per cent at full-load unity p.f.
and maximum efficiency occurs at j full load (unity- p.f.).
Calculate (i) the core losses, and (ii) the maximum efficiency. Ans. 0.62kW; 98.4 per cent.

5 Two transmission iines of impedance (1 + j2)Ω and (2 + j2) Ω respectively feed in parallel a
load of 7,500 kW at 0.8p.f. lagging. Determine the power output of each line and its power
factor.
Ans. 3,750kW, 0.707 lagging; 3,750KW. 0.894 lagging.

6 A 400kVA transformer of 0.01 per unit resistance and 0.05 per unit reactance is connected in
parallel with a 200kVA transformer of 0.012 per unit resistance and 0.04 per unit reactance.
Determine how they share a Ioad of 600kVA at 0.8 pf lagging,
Ans. 373/-39 kVA; 227/-33-6-kVA.
7 Two 3-phase transformers operating in parallel deliver 500A at a p.f. of j 0-8 lagging. The
resistances and reactances of the transformers are R1 = 002 Ω, X1= 0.2 Ω ;
R2 = 0.03 Ω, X2 =0.3 Ω.
Calculate the current delivered by the first transformer and its phase angle with respect to the
common terminal voltage. (R1/X1=R2/X2) Ans. 300 A, 0-8 lagging.

8. Explain clearly the essential conditions to be satisfied when two 3-phase transformers are
connected in parallel. Give two sets of possible connexions, explaining how these are
satisfactory or unsatisfactory.

24
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
 runs at synchronous speed
 it can be made to operate over a wide range of power factors (lagging, unity or
leading) by adjustment of its field excitation. Therefore, it can be made to carry the
mechanical load at constant speed and at the same time improve the power factor of
the system.
 Synchronous motors are generally of the salient pole type .cylinderical.
 A synchronous motor is not self-starting and an auxiliary means has to be used for
starting it.
 We use either induction motor principle or a separate starting motor for this
purpose. If the latter method is used, the machine must be run up to synchronous
speed and synchronized as an alternator.
 to make the motor self-starting, a squirrel cage winding (also called damper winding)
is provided on the rotor.
 due to magnetic interlocking between the stator and rotor poles, a synchronous
motor can only run at synchronous speed. At any other speed, this magnetic
interlocking (i.e., rotor poles facing opposite polarity stator poles) ceases and the
average torque becomes zero. Consequently, the motor comes to a halt with a
severe disturbance on the line. nous motor operation, no voltage is
 No e.m.f is induced in the rotor by the stator field because the rotor winding is
rotating at the same speed as the stator field.

What happens when we apply mechanical load to a synchronous motor?

The rotor poles fall slightly behind the stator poles while continuing to run at
synchronous speed. The angular displacement between stator and rotor poles
(called torque angleα) causes the phase of back e.m.f. Eb to change w.r.t. supply voltage V.
This increases the net e.m.f. Er in the stator winding. Consequently, stator current I a ( =
Er/Zs) increases to carry the load.
The following points may be noted in synchronous motor operation:
(i) A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed at all loads. It meets the
increased load not by a decrease in speed but by the relative shift between
stator and rotor poles i.e., by the adjustment of torque angle α.
(ii) If the load on the motor increases, the torque angle α also increases
(i.e., rotor poles lag behind the stator poles by a greater angle) but
25
 the motor continues to run at synchronous speed. The increase in
torque angle α causes a greater phase shift of back e.m.f. Eb w.r.t.
supply voltage V. This increases the net voltage Er in the stator
winding. Consequently, armature current Ia (= Er/Zs) increases to
meet the load demand.
(ii) If the load on the motor decreases, the torque angle α also
decreases. This causes a smaller phase shift of Eb w.r.t. V. Consequently, the
net voltage Er in the stator winding decreases and so does the armature
current Ia (=Er/Zs).
Pull-Out Torque

There is a limit to the mechanical load that can be applied to a synchronous motor. As the
load increases, the torque angle α also increases so that a stage is reached when the rotor
is pulled out of synchronism and the motor comes to a standstill. This load torque at which
the motor pulls out of synchronism is called pull—out or breakdown torque. Its value varies
from 1.5 to 3.5 times the full— load torque. When a synchronous motor pulls out of
synchronism, there is a major disturbance on the line and the circuit breakers immediately
trip. This protects the motor because both squirrel cage and stator winding heat up rapidly
when the machine ceases to run at synchronous speed.

(i) The effect of stator field on the stator (or armature) conductors is
accounted for by including an inductive reactance in the armature
winding. This is called synchronous reactance Xs. A resistance Ra
must be considered to be in series with this reactance to account for
the copper losses in the stator or armature winding. This resistance
combines with synchronous reactance and gives the synchronous
impedance of the machine.
(ii) The second effect is that a voltage is generated in the stator winding by
the synchronously revolving field of the rotor this generated e.m.f. EB is
known as back e.m.f. and opposes the stator voltage V. The magnitude of E b
depends upon rotor speed and rotor flux φ per pole. Since rotor speed is
constant; the value of Eb depends upon the rotor flux per pole i.e. exciting
rotor current If.

26
This equivalent circuit helps considerably in understanding the operation of a
synchronous motor.
A synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V.
If the field excitation is such that Eb < V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor is
said to be over-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V. As we shall see, for both
normal and under excitation, the motor has lagging power factor. However, for over-
excitation, the motor has leading power factor.
Note: In a synchronous motor, the value of Xs is 10 to 100 times greater than Ra.
Consequently, we can neglect Ra unless we are interested in efficiency or
heating effects.

MOTOR ON LOAD
In d.c. motors and induction motors, an addition of load causes the motor speed to
decrease. The decrease in speed reduces the counter e.m.f. enough so that additional
current is drawn from the source to carry the increased load at a reduced speed. This action
cannot take place in a synchronous motor because it runs at a constant speed (i.e.,
synchronous speed) at all loads.
What happens when we apply mechanical load to a synchronous motor? The
rotor poles fall slightly behind the stator poles while continuing to run at
synchronous speed. The angular displacement between stator and rotor poles
(called torque angleα) causes the phase of back e.m.f. Eb to change w.r.t. supply voltage V.
This increases the net e.m.f. Er in the stator winding. Consequently, stator current Ia ( =
Er/Zs) increases to carry the load.
The following points may be noted in synchronous motor operation:
(i) A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed at all loads. It meets the
increased load not by a decrease in speed but by the relative shift between
stator and rotor poles i.e., by the adjustment of torque angle α.
(ii) If the load on the motor increases, the torque angle a also increases (i.e.,
rotor poles lag behind the stator poles by a greater angle) but the motor
continues to run at synchronous speed. The increase in torque angleα
causes a greater phase shift of back e.m.f. Eb w.r.t. supply voltage V. This
increases the net voltage Er in the stator winding. Consequently, armature
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 current Ia (= Er/Zs) increases to meet the load demand.
(iii) If the load on the motor decreases, the torque angleα also decreases. This
causes a smaller phase shift of Eb w.r.t. V. Consequently, the net voltage Er
in the stator winding decreases and so does the armature current Ia (=
Er/Zs).

Consider an under-excited star-connected synchronous motor (Eb< V) supplied

with fixed excitation i.e., back e.m.f. Eb is constant
Let
V = supply voltage/phase
Eb = back e.m.f./phase
Zs = synchronous impedance/phase
(i) Motor on no load
When the motor is on no load, the torque angle α is small.
Consequently back e.m.f. Eb lags behind the supply voltage V by a small angle δ). The net
voltage/phase in the stator winding, is Er. Armature current/phase, I a = Er/Zs
The armature current Ia lags behind Er byθ = tan-1 Xs/Ra. Since Xs >> Ra, Ia lags
Er by nearly 90°. The phase angle between V and Ia isφ so that motor power
factor is cosφ. Input power/phase = V Ia cosφ

(ii) Motor on load

When load is applied to the motor, the torque angle a increases
This causes Eb (its magnitude is constant as excitation is fixed) to lag behind V by a greater
angle. The net voltage/phase Er in the stator winding increases. Consequently, the motor
draws more armature current Ia (=Er/Zs) to meet the applied load.
Again Ia lags Er by about 90° since Xs >> Ra. The power factor of the motor is
cosφ.
Input power/phase, Pi = V Ia cosφ
Mechanical power developed by motor/phase
Pm = Eb× Ia× cosine of angle between Eb and Ia = Eb Ia cos(δ−φ)
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Effect of Changing Field Excitation at Constant Load
In a d.c. motor the armature current Ia is determined by dividing the difference
between V and Eb by the armature resistance Ra. Similarly, in a synchronous
motor the stator current (Ia) is determined by dividing voltage-phasor resultant
(Er) between V and Eb by the synchronous impedance Zs.
One of the most important features of a synchronous motor is that by changing the field
excitation, it can be made to operate from lagging to leading power factor. Consider a
synchronous motor having a fixed supply voltage and driving a constant mechanical load.
Since the mechanical load as well as the speed is constant, the power input to the motor
(=3 VIa cosφ) is also constant. This means that the in-phase component I a cosφ drawn from
the supply will remain constant. If the field excitation is changed, back e.m.f E b also
changes. This results in the change of phase position of Ia w.r.t. V and hence the power
factor cos φ of the motor changes. Fig. (11.9) shows the phasor diagram of the
synchronous motor for different values of field excitation. Note that extremities of current
phasor Ia lie on the straight line AB.
Under excitation
The motor is said to be under-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb < V.
Under such conditions, the current Ia lags behind V so that motor power factor is lagging as
shown in Fig. (11.9 (i)). This can be easily explained. Since Eb < V,
the net voltage Er is decreased and turns clockwise. As angle θ (= 90°) between
Er and Ia is constant, therefore, phasor Ia also turns clockwise i.e., current Ia lags
behind the supply voltage. Consequently, the motor has a lagging power factor.

Normal excitation
The motor is said to be normally excited if the excitation is such that E b = V. This is shown in
Fig. (11.9 (ii)). Note that the effect of increasing excitation
(i.e., increasing Eb) is to turn the phasor Er and hence Ia in the anti-clockwise
direction i.e., Ia phasor has come closer to phasor V. Therefore, p.f. increases
though still lagging. Since input power (=3 V Ia cosφ) is unchanged, the stator
current Ia must decrease with increase in p.f.
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 If field
excitation is increased until the current Ia is in phase with the applied voltage V, making the
p.f. of the synchronous motor unity. For a given load, at unity p.f. the resultant E r and,
therefore, Ia are minimum.

Over excitation
The motor is said to be overexcited if the field excitation is such that E b > V.
Under-such conditions, current Ia leads V and the motor power factor is leading
as in (iv)). Note that Er and hence Ia further turn anti-clockwise from the normal excitation
position. Consequently, Ia leads V.
From the above discussion, it is concluded that if the synchronous motor is
under-excited, it has a lagging power factor. As the excitation is increased, the
power factor improves till it becomes unity at normal excitation. Under such
conditions, the current drawn from the supply is minimum. If the excitation is
further increased (over excitation), the motor power factor becomes leading.
Note. The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases as the
power factor becomes poor, either leading or lagging.

11.11 Power Relations

Consider an under-excited star-connected synchronous motor driving a
mechanical load.
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equivalent circuit for one phase

power flow diagram of the synchronous motor.

Mechanical Power Developed By Motor

phasor diagram of an under-excited synchronous motor driving a
mechanical load. Since armature resistance Ra is assumed zero.
tanθ = Xs/Ra =∞ and henceθ = 90°.
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Input power/phase = V Ia cosφ

Power Factor of Synchronous Motors

In an induction motor, only one winding (i.e., stator winding) produces the
necessary flux in the machine. The stator winding must draw reactive power
from the supply to set up the flux. Consequently, induction motor must operate
at lagging power factor. But in a synchronous motor, there are two possible
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sources of excitation; alternating current in the stator or direct current in the
rotor. The required flux may be produced either by stator or rotor or both.
(i) If the rotor exciting current is of such magnitude that it produces
all the required flux, then no magnetizing current or reactive power
is needed in the stator. As a result, the motor will operate at unity
power factor.

(ii) If the rotor exciting current is less (i.e., motor is under-excited),

the deficit in flux is made up by the stator. Consequently, the
motor draws reactive power to provide for the remaining flux.
Hence motor will operate at a lagging power factor.
(iii) If the rotor exciting current is greater (i.e., motor is over-excited),
The excess flux must be counterbalanced in the stator. Now the
stator, instead of absorbing reactive power, actually delivers
reactive power to the 3-phase line. The motor then behaves like
a source of reactive power, as if it were a capacitor. the motor
operates at a leading power factor.
To sum up, a synchronous motor absorbs reactive power when it is under
excited and delivers reactive power to source when it is over-excited.

Synchronous Condenser
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore,
behaves as a capacitor.
An over-excited synchronous motor running on no-load is known as
synchronous condenser.
When such a machine is connected in parallel with induction motors or other
devices that operate at low lagging power factor the leading kVAR supplied by
the synchronous condenser partly neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the
loads. Consequently, the power factor of the system is improved.

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Applications of Synchronous Motors

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SPECIAL MACHINES
Special machines are electrical machines which have special applications.
It includes machines whose stator coils are energized by electronically switched currents. The
examples are: various types of stepper motors, brushless d.c. motor and switched reluctance
motor etc., d.c./a.c. servomotors, synchro motors and resolvers. These motors are designed and
built primarily for use in feedback control systems.
Stepper Motors
These motors are also called stepping motors or step motors. The name stepper is used because it
motor rotates through a fixed angular step in response to each input current
pulse received by its controller. In recent years, there has been widespread demand of stepping
motors because of the explosive growth of the computer industry. Their popularity is due to the
fact that they can be controlled directly by computers, microprocessors and programmable
controllers.
industrial motors are used to convert electric energy into mechanical energy but they cannot be
used for precision positioning of an object or precision control of speed without using closed-loop
feedback. Stepping motors are ideally suited for situations where either precise positioning or
precise speed control or both are required in automation systems.
Apart from stepping motors, other devices used for the above purposes are synchros and resolvers
as well as dc/ac servomotors.
The unique feature of a stepper motor is that its output shaft rotates in a series of discrete angular
intervals or steps, one step being taken each time a command pulse is received. When a definite
number of pulses are supplied, the shaft turns through a definite known angle. This fact makes the
motor well-suited for open-loop position control because no feedback need be taken from the
output shaft.
Such motors develop torques ranging from 1 µN-m (in a tiny wrist watch motor of 3 mm diameter)
up to 40 N-m in a motor of 15 cm diameter suitable for machine tool applications. Their power
output ranges from about 1 W to a maximum of 2500 W. The only moving part in a stepping motor
is its rotor which has no windings, commutator or brushes. This feature makes the motor quite
robust and reliable.

Step Angle
The angle through which the motor shaft rotates for each command pulse is called the step angle
β. The smaller the step angle, greater the number of steps per revolution Resolution is given by
the number of steps needed to complete one revolution of the rotor shaft. The higher the
resolution or accuracy of positioning obtained. The step angles can be as small as 0.72º or as large
as 90º. But the most common step sizes are 1.8º, 2.5º, 7.5º and 15º.
The value of step angle can be expressed either in terms of the rotor and stator poles (teeth) Nr
and Ns respectively or in terms of the number of stator phases (m) and the number of rotor teeth.

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The higher the resolution, the greater the accuracy of positioning of objects by the motor.

∴ Resolution = No. of steps / revolution = 360º / β

A stepping motor has the extraordinary ability to operate at very high stepping rates (up to 20,000
steps per second in some motors) and yet to remain fully in synchronism with the command
pulses.
When the pulse rate is high, the shaft rotation seems continuous. Operation at high speeds is
called ‘slewing’. When in the slewing range, the motor generally emits an audible whine having a
fundamental frequency equal to the stepping rate. If f is the stepping frequency (or pulse rate) in
pulses per second (pps) and β is the step angle, then motor shaft speed is given by
n = β × f / 360 rps = pulse frequency resolution
If the stepping rate is increased too quickly, the motor loses synchronism and stops. Same thing
happens if when the motor is slewing, command pulses are suddenly stopped instead of being
progressively slowed.
Stepping motors are designed to operate for long periods with the rotor held in a fixed position
and with rated current flowing in the stator windings. It means that stalling is no problem for such
motors whereas for most of the other motors, stalling results in the collapse of back emf (E b) and a
very high current which can lead to a quick burn-out.

Applications :
Such motors are used for operation control in computer peripherals, textile industry, IC
fabrications and robotics etc. Applications requiring incremental motion are typewriters, line
printers, tape drives, floppy disk drives, numerically-controlled machine tools, process control
systems and X-Y plotters.

Usually, position information can be obtained simply by keeping count of the pulses sent to the
motor thereby eliminating the need for expensive position sensors and feedback controls. Stepper
motors also perform countless tasks outside the computer industry. It includes commercial,
military and medical applications where these motors perform such functions as mixing, cutting,
striking, metering, blending and purging. They also take part in the manufacture of packed food
stuffs, commercial end products and even the production of science fiction movies.

Example 1.

A hybrid VR stepping motor has 8 main poles which have been castleated to have 5 teeth each. If
rotor has 50 teeth, calculate the stepping angle.

Solution. Ns =8 × 5 = 40; Nr = 50

∴β= (50 − 40) × 360 / 50 × 40 = 1.8º.

Example.2.

A stepper motor has a step angle of 2.5º.

Determine
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 (a) resolution
(b) number of steps required for the shaft to make 25 revolutions and
(c) shaft speed, if the stepping frequency is 3600 pps.

Summary of Stepper Motors

1. A stepper motor can be looked upon as a digital electromagnetic device where each pulse
input results in a discrete output i.e. a definite angle of shaft rotation. It is ideally-suited for
open-loop operation because by keeping a count of the number of input pulses, it is
possible to know the exact position of the rotor shaft.
2. In a VR motor, excitation of the stator phases gives rise to a torque in a direction
Which minimizes the magnetic circuit reluctance. The reluctance torque depends on the
square of the phase current and its direction is independent of the polarity of the phase
current. A VR motor can be a single-stack or multi-stack motor. The step angle β = 360º /
mNr where Nr is the number of rotor teeth and m is the number of phases in the single-
stack motor or the number of stacks in the multi-stack motor.
3. A permanent-magnet stepper motor has a permanently-magnetized cylindrical rotor. The
direction of the torque produced depends on the polarity of the stator current.
4. A hybrid motor combines the features of VR and PM stepper motors. The direction of its
torque also depends on the polarity of the stator current. Its step angle β = 360º / mNr.
5. In the 1-phase ON mode of excitation, the rotor moves by one full-step for each change of
excitation. In the 2-phase-ON mode, the rotor moves in full steps although it comes to rest
at a point midway between the two adjacent full-step positions.
6. Half-stepping can be achieved by alternating between the 1-phase-ON and 2-phase-ON
modes. Step angle is reduced by half.
7. Microstepping is obtained by deliberately making two phase currents unequal in the 2-
phase ON mode.

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