UNIT 18 ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE

Structure
18.0 Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 History of Rock Cut Architecture
18.3 Buddhist Rock Cut Architecture
18.3.1 Stupa
18.3.2 Rock Cut Caves
18.3.3 Chaitya - Grihas and Viharas
18.3.3.1 Chaitya – Griha
18.3.3.2 Viharas
18.4 Jain Rock Cut Architecture
18.4.1 Khandgiri – Udaygiri
18.4.1.1 Caves of Udayagiri
18.4.1.2 Caves of Khandgiri
18.5 Hindu Rock Cut Architecture
18.5.1 Chalukyan Rock Cut Architecture
18.5.2 Rock Cut Caves of Kalacuris and the Rashtrakutas
18.5.2.1 Kailasa Temple
18.5.3 Pallava Rock Cut Architecture
18.5.4 Post-Maherdra style Rock –Cut Temples
18.5.5 Monolithic Rathas
18.5.6 Rock-Cut temples of Pandyas

18.6 Let Us Sum Up

18.7 Keywords

18.8 Answer to check your Progress Exercise

18.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit you shall be able to:

‐ Appreciate Indian history of rock-cut and structural monuments.
‐ Learn historical development of rock cut architecture
‐ Analyse different forms of Buddhist Rock-cut Architecture.
‐ Familiarise with Jain Rock cut architecture.
‐ Describe Hindu rock cut architecture.

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18.1 INTRODUCTION

India has been rich in art and architecture since ancient times. Indian history of
rock-cut and structural monuments is around five thousand years old. It is much
older than what history books usually state. Recent archaeological findings
strongly recommend that India had idea of art and architecture innovation and
water management system from the times of Harappan and Indus Saraswati
Civilization. Mauryans advanced this tradition in third century BCE.

Harappans of Dholavira in Rann of Kacch, Gujrat used highly polished stone

pillars in their monuments. It disclaims the theory that the Persians introduced
polished pillars in India during the time of Ashoka. Dholavira also has the
evidence of first rock-cut architecture in India in the form of an excellent rock-cut
water reservoir. A rock-cut well with a few rock-cut steps and a stone made
enclosure is also found in this reservoir.

Similarly for Indus-Saraswati period, there is the archaeological evidence of an

apsidal sun –dried brick temple at Banawali in Haryana. The temple was erected to
worship fire.

18.2 HISTORY OF ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE

Literary references from pre- Buddhist times, i.e., 700 BCE, mentions about
sixteen Mahajanpadas (large states) in Northern India. These Mahajanpadas had
townships as centres of political entities, kingdoms and republics. Vidisha in
Madhya Pradesh was one of them. We get evidence of the construction of a large
oval-shaped Vishnu temple, dated to the fifth century BCE in Vidisha.

It was in the late 4th century BCE with the establishment of the Mauryan
Empire, that we start getting rock-cut structures which were not existing earlier.
Both the types, structural temples (oval or apsidal in shape) and rock-cut ones
flourished side by side. The earliest rock-cut caves dedicated to both Buddhist and
non-Buddhist beliefs in India have been attributed to the Mauryan period, mainly
of Ashoka. This is well supported by the inscriptional evidences found on the
caves’ surface at Barabar and Nagarjuni hills in Bihar.

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 The rock-cut caves were primarily used to practice meditation and offer prayers.
They also served as religious structures. Apparently, the rulers and the subjects
rarely lived in the structures of stone, rather they lived in structures built of wood
and bricks. They were well considerate about the town-planning which is evident
from literature of that period like the travelogue of Megasthenes (3rd century BCE)
and Fa- Hien (5th century CE). According to Kautilya’s Arthasastra, the settlement
area was divided into several zones, religious as well as secular. Archaeological
excavations conducted in the 20th century at Bulandibagh and Kumrahar also
speaks of well-planned cities of Patliputra. Huge palisades, tall and plain Chunar
sandstone pillars, eighty pillared open hall, waterway, monasteries made of burnt
bricks were made during the Mauryan era. However, the Mauryan period is known
for a new genus of architecture- the rock-cut architecture, which consists of highly
polished caves and cave-temples.

18.3 BUDDHIST ROCK-CUT ARCHITECTURE

The Buddhists made two types of sacred structures, Stupa and Chaityagriha.
They also established Viharas, that were monasteries for the monks to live in.

18.3.1 Stupa

The term Stupa is widely used by Buddhists. Stupa is a Sanskrit word that
means “pile-up” or mound. Therefore, Stupa is an earthen mound heaped over the
remains of dead. In that sense, it is a burial monument. The term Stupa has also
been used in Vedic literature. It suggests that Vedic Aryans also had tradition of
erecting Stupas, quite earlier to the birth of Buddha. In fact, when Buddha’s main
disciple asked Buddha that how should he honour his relic bones after his death, he
asked him to follow this ancient practice only. The practice of erecting a Stupa was
not confined to the relics of Buddha. After Buddha, his disciples followed this
tradition for their colleagues as well as saints of other beliefs also- called
pratyekabuddhas. Initially, since Stupas were erected on the site of funeral pyre
(Sanskrit: Cita), they were also called Caitya.

Initially Stupas were erected with the help of only earth, piled over the relics.
Later on, use of permanent material started for erection of Stupas. Bricks or other
stones and lime paste were commonly used.

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 The Stupa structure of pre-Common Era was composed of a hemispherical
dome called anda. The dome was erected on a low platform of stone. It was
surmounted by a kiosk with railing called Harmika. It was further crowned by
three discs (Chatras)of reducing sizes, the smallest being on the top. The Chatras
were mounted on a supporting mast called Yasti. A circumambulatory path called
Pradaksinapatha encircles the Stupa. It was meant to undertake sacred
circumambulation on the ground level. The entire complex was then fenced by a
railing called Vedika.

Stupa architecture of Andhra Pradesh is a bit different. Stupas of Amrawati and

Nagarjunikonda, both on river Krishna, have box like projections on all the four
cardinal directions of the Stupa. These are called ayaka platforms. Ayaka is the
altar on which offerings are made. Over this, five tall pillars are erected which are
called ayaka stambhas.

The vedika was either plain or richly decorated with sculptured figures of
nymphs (devkanyas) and lotus patterns. It was built of big stone balustrade
consisting of octagonal pillars (stambha). These were connected to each other by
horizontal bars and continuous rounded coping stones (usnisa).On the four sides of
Stupa four gateways (toran) were built. The gateways were richly carved with
sculptures.

18.3.2 Rock Cut Caves

Among the oldest rock cut caves in India are in Barabar and Nagarjuni hills,
and Swarna Bhandar cave of Rajgir in Bihar. These caves are of Mauryan period.
The caves of Barabar and Nagarjuni were dedicated to the monks of the Ajivika
sect. This sect was founded by Gopala, the seer monk of sixth century BCE.
Gopala was contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira.

Some of the rock cut chambers resembled the wooden buildings of that period.
This architectural adaptation can be seen in famous caves like the Lomas Rishi and
the Sudama in Barabar hills and the Sitamarhi cave in Nagarjuni hill. The facade of
Lomas Rishi cave shows an intimation of construction in wood. The door has two
vertical poles, a version of wooden strut in stone. It has arched gateway with
pointed finial having moldings. The arch was beautifully decorated with floral,
faunal and geometric motifs (intersecting circles). Lomas Rishi is the earliest

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example of rock cut cave architecture which is a carbon copy of some unknown
wooden architecture using grooved rafters and curved frames and finials, screens
and low-relief sculptural decorations. The presence of a wooden beam in 100 year
later example of the Bhaja caves establish the fact that the rock-cut architecture of
the period 300 BCE to 100 CE is imitative copy of wooden architecture. Mauryan
Age also witnessed the Buddhist rock-cut architecture. The remains of the
Buddhists, the Hindu and the Jains rock-cut caves from 2nd century BCE are found
even in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.

18.3.3 Chaitya-Grihas and Viharas

The Chaitya-grihas and the Viharas are two major types of the Buddhist rock-
cut architecture. Though the process required much skill and patience, the
technique involved in creating rock-cut architecture was simple. Starting from the
top and reaching the bottom, the irregular rock cliff was chiselled to produce a
roughly uniform surface. On this plain surface, the entrance of the planned cave
was outlined followed by scooping out the rock in the marked area. Through this
gateway further quarrying could begin with chisels and iron hammer from front to
rear or top to bottom. This method had benefit of carrying out work without the use
of scaffolding and other support systems.

18.3.3.1Chaitya-Griha: The Buddhist rock-cut architecture is reflected best in

their Chaitya-grihas. For Buddhists, the term chaitya is applied to any object
deserving their worship, be it a stupa, the Bodhi or Pipal Tree under which Buddha
got enlightenment, Buddha image, images of Bodhisattvas, the Votive tablet with
pictures from the life of Buddha, etc. The term griha means house. Hence, chaitya-
grihas are of different types, although serving the same purpose i.e., worshipping
Buddha mainly through symbolic associations.

The architectural plan of Chaitya-griha is very simple. It has generally only a

long hall with barrel-vaulted roof giving a semi-cylindrical appearance. Its end is
apsidal, like the back of an elephant. The stupa, carved out of the rock, was located
in the apse such that there was enough space all around it for circumambulation or
pradakshina. Bhaja, Kondane, Pitalkhora, Bedsa, Karle, Pandulena chaitya at Nasik
and cave number 9, 10 and 12 at Ajanta, have some of the important chaityas
belonging to the Hinayana sect of Buddhism.

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 The chaityas belonging to the period from 2nd century BCE to around 50 BCE
do not depict Buddha in human form, rather he was represented by symbols alone.
These symbols were associated with the life of Buddha himself, like stupa,
Vajrasana (his seat of meditation), Pipal Tree or Bodhi Vriksha, feet, turban, etc.
There was another category of symbols that included “triratna”, symbolising
Buddha’s creed- Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The exteriors of Chaitya-grihas
shows animal and human forms along with semi-divine beings, like Yakshas and
Yakshis.

The 1st century CE witnessed the decisive schism in the Buddhist Sangha when
it got divided into two major sects- the Mahayana and the Hinayana. The roots of
this division went down in the First, Second and Third Councils of the Buddhists
held after the death or Mahaparinirvana of Buddha over a period of 1500 years.
The Mahasamghikas who were later known as Mahayanists, held the view that the
Buddha was in fact a Transcendental being, descended on the earth from the
heaven as the saviour of the humanity. However, this was hardly acceptable to the
Hinayanists since they held the view that the Buddha’s stand on this philosophical
issue can never be changed. The Vaishnavas concept of the avatara appears to
have influences the Mahayanists. However, those who did not endorse to this view
kept to the old traditions of not showing the Buddha in the form of a human being.
The “Mahayanists” were those who travel through a ‘great (maha) path (yana)’,
while the “Hinayanists” were those who travel through a ‘narrow/lesser (hina) path
(yana). Therefore, there are Hinayanist chaitya-grihas and Mahayansist chaitya-
grihas.

1st century CE onwards with the spread of Mahayanism, some of the earlier
chaitya-grihas, like Karle and Kanheri in Maharashtra, and some of the newly
carved ones added the Buddha images for the purpose of worship. While some of
the main rock-cut caves of the Mahayanists are Cave nos. 19 and 26 at Ajanta and
the Vishwakarma cave no.10 at Ellora, the main Hinayanist rock-cut caves are at
Bhaja, Kondane, etc.

The Mahayanist chaitya-grihas are extensively adorned with sculptures and

ornamental features showing themes and representations based upon new
mythologies that emerged in the Mahayanist literature. While the facades of the
rock-cut temples were adorned with images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, the

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inside has pictures or wall paintings related to Buddhist themes as well as secular
subjects. Buddha in various poses, standing or sitting, with or without canopy over
the head, occupied prominent locations inside and outside the caves. The pillars,
brackets and friezes in the interior had figures carved or painted along with
geometric, floral and faunal motifs in paintings.

18.3.3.2 Viharas: Vihara, etymologically meaning ‘dwelling place’ was meant

for the Buddhist monks. Archaeological evidences of structural viharas made of
impermanent materials like wood and sun-dried bricks are sometimes found. These
date prior to the Mauryan period i.e., before the 3rd century BCE.

The rock-cut vihara comprises of a central hall for worship and a few cells
around it for the monks to live in. The square or rectangular hall is entered through
a rock-cut doorway and a pillared verandah. The cells or rooms lacking windows
were provided with stone beds shaped out of the existing rock insitu.

Hinayanist viharas are majorly found in the Western Ghats, at sites like Ajanta
and Ellora. Cave no. 8, 12 and 13 at Ajanta are a few examples. Hinayana viharas
also include those at Bedsa, Kondane and Pitalkhora, and cave no. 3, 8 and 15 at
Nasik. The highly decorated facades, i.e., frontals as well as sculptural panels and
friezes are the noteworthy elements of these viharas.

Impact of Mahayanism can be seen on the architecture and concept of the

viharas. Sometimes the Mahayanists converted the purely residential vihara into a
place of worship as well as residence, i.e., chaitya-griha-cum-vihara. For this
reason, sometimes the central cell of the back wall was converted into a shrine
enclosing the image of the Buddha who was often surrounded by attendants or by
Avalokitesvara and Maitreya, two of the most important Bodhisattvas. Instead of a
stupa, the image of the Buddha or the image of Buddha carved on the body of the
stupa, became the object of worship. The facade and the porch were extensively
decorated with sacred motifs and symbols like lotus, wheel and swastika, and
geometric designs. Cave no.6 at Ajanta and cave no. 11 and 12 at Ellora marks
existence of double-storeyed viharas. It may be noted that the viharas and the
rock-cut temples and shrines did not belong to a single religion exclusively, rather
some belonged to Jainism and Hinduism, while some belonged to Buddhism.

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 Check Your Progress-1

1. What is rock cut architecture.

2. Give historical account of development of rock cut architecture.
3. Describe Stupa.
4. What is the difference between Chaitya Griha and Viharas.

18.4 JAIN ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE

18.4.1 Khandgiri-Udayagiri is one of the most prominent siddhakshetras of

Digambara Jain community. It is believed that Lord Kharavela has developed these
caves around 2000 years prior for the resting of Jain priests. The entire twin hills
range is considered to be one of the soonest Jaina rock-cut shelters that takes an
outstanding place in the historical surroundings of rock-cut architecture.

The most important and prominent architectures are the Hathi Gumpha cave
with the inscriptions of Kalinga king Kharavela of the Chedi tradition, the Rani
Gumpha, Svargapuri and Manchapuri caves, Ganesa-Gumpha. The caves in
Udayagiri especially the Rani and GanesaGumpha describe the Jaina legends,
mythology and iconography. The representation of Kalinga real figures can be
witnessed in the Rani Gumpha and Manchapuri caves.

There are 18 caves in Udayagiri and 14 caves in Khandgiri. Out of all these
caves, a few are double storied while some are single. Although the major portion
belongs to single storeyed caves.

18.4.1.1 Caves of Udayagiri: The Rani Gumpha or cave no.1 is a double

storied monastery having seven entry doors with front face. The upper floor
consists of nine columns. This cave is famous for its exceptional acoustics
characteristics. Depiction of stately people in majesty, rampaging elephants and
monkeys can be witnessed in this cave. The cave also contains image of Surya
riding chariot. MancapuriGumpha or cave no. 9, a double storeyed cave has several
sculptures, reliefs and inscriptions. Out of those inscriptions, two inscriptions
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resemble about Kudepasiri, the successor of Kharavela and Badukha, the son or
brother of Kudepasiri.

The GanesaGumpha or cave no. 10 is known for its stone monuments. It has
monuments of Jain Tirthankara and inscriptions. It consists of two dwelling cells
with low ceilings along with the verandah with a bench in front. The monuments of
Ganesha were made in the later period, along with the large sculptures of two
elephants in front of the cave.

The HathiGumpha or cave no. 14 had great historical records of King

Kharavela’s empire in the form of inscriptions. It has a natural artificial structure
like columns of Verandah. A lot of symbols and footprints can be seen drawn on
this cave. There is a hollowed boulder with entrance doors and windows in the front
of HathiGumpha. The other important caves of Udayagiri are BajagharaGumpha,
ChotaHathiGumpha, AlkapuriGumpha, Jaya-vijaya, PanasaGumpha,
ThakuraniGumpha, PatalapuriGumpha, JambesvaraGumpha, VyaghraGumpha,
SarpaGumpha, DhanagharaGumpha, HaridasaGumpha, JagammathGumpha and
RosaiGumpha.

18.4.1.2 Caves of Khandgiri: The Khangiri hill contains some degree

less caves. Mostly all the caves are rectangular in plan and are single stories except
for one i.e., Cave no. 5. The Tatowa Gumpha i.e., cave no.1 is a luxuriously
enhanced cave decorated with two door attendants and two bulls and two lions.
The Ananta Gumpha consists of incredible figures of women, elephants, athletes,
geese conveying blossoms, etc.

Cave no. 7 i.e., the Navamuni Gumpha has a cut cell and a raised wall inflated
with Jain Thirtankaras, Sasanadevis and Ganesh. Inscription is carved here. There
is a tiny figure of Chandrparbha seated on a lotus and a figure of Naga too. Cave 8
i.e., the Barabhuji Gumpha is embellished with Jain Thirtankaras and Sasana
Devis. There are two relief images found in this cave which talk about 12 armed
SasanaDevis, hence it is called as Barabhuji Gumpha. Some Tirthankara sculptures
are also found in this cave. Cave 9 i.e., the Trusula Gumpha was displayed in
medieval state of affairs through a little changes. There are three models of
Rishabha Deva found in the standing posture. Aside from these figures there are
models of 24 Jain Tirthankaras which look uneven.

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 The other important Khandgiri caves are TentuliGumpha, KhandagiriGumpha,
DhyanaGumpha, AmbikaGumpha, LalatendukesariGumpha and EkadasiGumpha.

Check Your Progress-2

1. Describe caves of Udayagiri.

2. Explain features of different caves of khandgiri.

18.5 HINDU ROCK CUT ARCHITECTURE

The rock-cut Buddhist architecture found is mainly of the period from third
BCE to seventh century CE. After this the Mahayana Phase came to its near end
and Tantrik phase started with emphasis on different kinds of esoteric rituals.
Hindu rock-cut Architecture has its history starting from the fifth century CE
onwards when the rock cut shrines in Deccan and south India were made by the
Brahamanas. Most important among these were the rock cut shrines at Badami,
Ellora, Elephanta, Mamallapuram, Aurangabad and Aihole. These shrines
prospered during the period of Chalukyas, Pallavas and Rashtrakutas. These rock-
cut temples play an important role in the story of gradual evolution of the rock-cut
architecture in India.

18.5.1 Chalukyan Rock Cut Architecture: The Chalukyan architecture can

be divided into rock cut shrines and the structural Hindu temples. The rock cut
caves of Badami and Aihole motivated the later developments in the structural
temples of Bijapur, Karnataka. The structural characteristics of all Chalukyan
temples is same. All of them have front porch (mukha mandapa), main or central
hall (mahamandapa) and a small, square sanctum cell (garbhagriha) cut deep into
the rock. Badami has four such cave shrines, out of which three are Brahmanical
shrines. Cave number 3 is dedicated to Vishnu and was the largest and earliest
shrine carved during the rule of Chalukya king Mangalesa (CE 578). This cave
comprises mukha mandapa, mahamandapa and garbhgrha cut deep into the rear
wall. The garbhagriha accommodate a lingam. The shrine is north east facing and
stands on a raised, nicely decorated base (adhisthana). A staircase leads to mukha
mandapa. Six pillars and two pilasters having highly decorated brackets with

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human, animal and celestial figures make the façade so attractive.

Cave number 1 is dedicated to Shiva. Its plan is a bit different from that of cave
number 3. It has two rows of four pillars each that divide the floor into central nave
and side aisles. The cave is famous for some beautiful carvings, an eighteen- armed
Siva, Mahishasurmarini, Ganesa, Shankarnarayan and Ardhnarisvara. The celing is
decorated with carved figures, especially serpent motif. Cave number 2, dedicated
to Visnu has carvings of Visnu, Brahma, Siva and Astadikpalas on its celings.
Cave number 4 is a Jaina shrine and therefore portrays an image of Mahavira. The
carvings of the Tirthamkaras and Padmavati are also present.

Aihole has two rock cut temples, one Hindu and the other Jaina. The shrine
Ravana Phadi dedicated to Siva is dated to sixth century CE. A flight of steps
called sopana leads to the temple. The facade of the temple consists of two square
pillars. These pillars support the roof of the temple. The temple has the main
mandapa, an antechamber and the garbhagriha that contains a rock cut Sivalinga.
There are two chambers on either side of main mandapa. The ceiling of
antechamber portrays Vishnu on Garuda, a central lotus and Indra on his mount
Airavat, the white elephant. The side walls are carved with several Hindu deities,
including Siva, Parvati, dancing Siva with his son Ganesh, Ardhanarisvara,
Saptamatrkas (the Seven Divine Mothers), Vishnu in form of Varaha and goddess
Durga in the form of Mahisasuramardini.

18.5.2 Rock Cut Caves of Kalacuris and the Rastrakutas: The Ellora
caves in Maharashtra are the best example of co-existence of different religions
and belief systems originated in Indian soil. Ellora caves accommodate shrines and
temples of Hinduism and Buddhism as well as Jainism and do not belong to solely
a single religion. It negates the theory created by Westerners that there was rivalry
amongst ancient Indian religions as between Islam and Christianity.

The Ellora caves are cut in the high and solid hills of Charnadari formation in
the Weston Ghat. The site is around 30 km north west of Aurangabad. These caves
belong to sixth-seventh century to eleventh-twelfth CE. There are almost hundred
caves in the hill range, out of which 34 caves are of great importance. They are
famous for their extraordinary craftsmanship and creativity. Cave number 1 to 12
belong to Buddhism, Caves 13 t0 29 are Brahmanical and Cave number 30 to 34
belong to Jainism.
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 Cave number 15 of Ellora belongs to the period of Rashtrakuta Dantidurga (CE
753-57). It has inscriptional evidence to confirm the date. Great Kailasa temple of
Cave 16 at Ellora was carved under the direction of Krsna I (CE 757-83), the
successor of Dantidurga. The history of rock cut architecture at Ellora is older than
the arrival of the Rashtrakutas. Cave number 1 to 10 and Cave 21 belong to the
period of the Kalacuris of Mahismati.

18.5.2.1 Kailasa Temple: Kailasa temple (Cave 16) at Ellora represents

the most elaborate and mature phase of rock-cut architecture in India. It is a huge
temple complex with walled compound. It consists of the entrance gateway
(mukha- mandapa), the oblong (gopuram) with barrel-vault (sikhara), Nandi
Madapa and Garbha- grha. The temple is west facing and rests on a raised
rectangular platform in east-west direction.

Over the main high platform i.e., the adhishthana there lies the sanctum which
is surrounded by subsidiary shines. The four-storey central vimana has an
octagonal ‘cupola’ type bulbous (stupi) sikhara end. It also has multiple statues of
bulls on the top platform.

18.5.3 Pallava Rock Cut Architecture: Pallavas of Kanci was a powerful

royal house during the second half of sixth century. It reigned over the Telugu and
northern part of Tamil region till the end of ninth century. The truly Dravidian
style of temple architecture started in the patronage of Pallavas only. The soft
sandstone outcrops were not available in Pallava kingdom. Therefore, unlike the
Chalukyas, Pallavas used hard rock hills of granite, gneiss and basalt for carving
out their rock cut and structural temples.

Pallava emperor Mahendravarman I who ruled in early seventh century-initiated

rock cut architecture in Tamil Nadu. Laksitayatana Tridevamurti cave temple at
Mandagappattu was the first rock cut cave of Mahendravarman I. It was totally
chopped out of a granite outcrop and didn’t use any bricks, mortar, wood or metal.

The Pallava rock cut temples are free standing small pavilion type pillared halls
and are therefore called mandapa, decorated with extremely beautiful carved
sculptures. The mandapa is divided into mukha mandapa and mahamandapa.
However, unlike the rock cut caves of Chalukyas, there is no specially chopped out
garbhagriha in early Pallava cave shrines to accommodate deity’s image.

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 The facade of mukha mandapa comprises even number of equal spaced pillars
and terminating with pilasters at both ends. The varying floor level and differences
in height of the roof mark the separation between mukhamandapa and
mahamandapa. Pillars of mandapa are divided into three parts. The top and bottom
are square shaped and are called sadurams. The middle section is octagonal and is
called kattu. Sadurams are normally embellished with lotus medallions, but some
other motifs as gaja, makara, kinnaras and creepers are also seen in medallions.
The massive potika (corbel) above the pillars is seen no longer angular in a few
examples, rather they are curved and carved with a central patta (flat median band)
flanked by a series of wavy (Taranga) ornamentation with multiple folds. These
early caves do not have a developed prastara (parapet wall) and the kapota
(cornice).

The caves belonging to early Mahendra period were quite simple and did not
have much sculptural representations. There was only representation of two
dvarapalas at either end of the facade or at the most, flanked in the sanctum.
However, none of the Mahendra style cave temples had sculptures of deities in the
garbhagriha.

18.5.4 Post-Mahendra Style Rock-cut Temples: Rock-cut activities with a

slightly modified form were witnessed in the post Mahendra period, although the
general plan and layout remained unchanged. The sanctum of the post-Mahendra
caves is more elaborately carved out. Also, the pillars of this period are
rectangular, tall and slenderer, unlike the ones before. There is enough space
between the two pillars of the facade, which allows better visibility of the interiors
from outside. It was in this period for the first time that the representation of
Somaskanda (Siva along with Skanda) began to appear. The cave temples of this
period were highly ornamented with relief sculptures and other decorative
elements.

The emergence of free-standing monolithic shrines known as rathas was also

witnessed in the post-Mahendra period. Mahendra’s successor Narasimhavarman I
Mamalla (630-668 CE) initiated this in his newly built capital of Mamallapuram.

The mandapa of the Mamalla style of cave temples consisted of three angas- 1.
Adhishthana (bottom-most base of the monolithic structure carved from the same
rock) with or without mouldings; 2. Kudya-stambha (pilasters) with their capitals,
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and 3. Prastara (parapet surrounding the cornice which is decorative as well as
protective). The prastara consisted of a developed kapota (cornice/eave) decorated
with kudu (horseshoe-shaped arches) motifs. A row of miniature decorative salas,
oblong in plan with a barrel-vaulted roof lies above the kapota. In temples of later
periods, this line of salas terminates at either end with ornamented miniature kutas.
These kutas were square in plan and have a domical roof. The kutas and salas form
a long chain decorating the parapet, hence these elements together are called hara
i.e., the garland. The shrine was placed on the top of the adhishthana which was
provided with the sopana (staircase) in front. The cave temples of this style were
well planned in elevation and had elaborate decorations.

The pillars of these cave temples are taller and slenderer than those witnessed
before. They are circular, octagonal or fluted in section. The prominent feature of
the Mamalla style temples is the pillar base that resembles crouching vyalis
(stylized mythical lions). The malasthana (loops of garlands), padmabandha (lotus
petals band), kalasa (vase), tadi (saucer-shaped moulding), kumbha (bulbous
member representing water-pitcher), pali (resembling a lotus but without any
scalloped petals) and the phalaka (abacus) are the other characterstic elements
decorating the pillar. The potika (boat-shaped bracket) with taranga (wavy or
corrugated) ornamentation, and a patta (flat median band) decorated with creepers,
rests on the phalaka.

18.5.5 Monolithic Rathas

The Pallava rathas are free-standing monolithic rock-cut temples chiselled out
of a large hard granite and gneiss outcrops at the coastal site of Mamallapuram. For
example, the famous Pandava Rathas and the Draupadi Rathas were chiselled out
during the time of Narasimhavarman I Mamalla. The plan of these rathas is simple
consisting of a small mukha-mandapa in front of the sanctum. The rathas were
either single storeyed or multi storeyed vimana. The single storeyed vimana
(ektala) has six parts from base to top, namely the adhishthana (bottom-most
base/plinth), bhitti (wall), prastara (entablature), griva (neck), sikhara (rising
spire), and the stupi (finial) crowning the top of the sikhara. The double storeyed
vimana (dvitala) has both the storeys decorated with hara elements i.e., the sala,
kuta and panjara decorating the parapet wall. The kutas, placed at the corners, are
square in plan with a round but faceted domical roof which is crowned by a single
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stupi (lotus bud finial). Such shikhara with domical roof is known as kutina-
sikhara. The sala is elongated in form with barrel-vaulted roof crowned by a row
of stupis. This type of sikhara is known as sala-sikhara.
There are also tritala and chatushtala (three-storeyed and four-storeyed)
vimana. These are also known as jati vimanas. The vimanas with five or more
storey are known as mukhya vimanas. The size of each superimposed storey is
smaller than the structure beneath giving the superstructure a tapering effect. Not
only it gives it great height, but also more stability and durability.

18.5.6 Rock-cut temples of the Pandyas: Towards the end of the 7th century,
the Pandyas inspired by the Pallavas, started rock-cut architecture. The Sri Karpaga
Vinayakar temple at Pillaiyarpatti in Sivagangai district near Karaikudi is said to
be one of the earliest rock-cut shrines of Pandyas dated early seventh century,
although the cave has been later modified by different rulers. Several Pandya cave
Shrines are found at Tiruttangal, Piranmalai, Kudumiyamalai and Sittannavasal, the
most famous being Siva cave shrine at Malaiyadikurichi ; the Narasimha
cave at Anamalai and the Subrahmanya cave at Tirupparankunram.

The Pandya rock-cutting technique can be derived from the unfinished rock-cut
shrine of Vettuvankoil at Kalugumalai, datable to the 8th century. It is said that the
kutina-sikhara with its ornamentation was shaped initially by quarrying from top to
bottom. The dome-shaped sikhara has six faces, each face carved with a kudu arch.
However, the bottom of the temple is left unfinished.

The Pandya caves followed the same scheme like the Pallavas, having
garbhagriha fronted by the pillared mandapas except for the difference being the
presiding deities in the garbhagriha of the Pandya rock-cut caves. The pillars of
the mandapas were crowned by the cushion capitals. The potikas of these pillars
were generally plain unlike the Pallavas caves where the potikas were highly
ornate. The Pandyas inspired by the Chalukyas, also carved the Sivalinga and the
Nandi out of living rock.

Check your progress -3

1. Describe Chalukyan Rock Cut Architecture.

2. What is the location of Kailasa Temple (Ellora).
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 3. Discuss Uniqueness of monolithic Rathas.

18.6 LET US SUM UP

Indian rock-cut architecture is very diverse and found in greater profusion than
any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world. There are more than
1500 identified rock cut structures in India. Numerous of these structures are full of
artworks of universal significance. These ancient and medieval structures are
amongst the great achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship that
existed in India from the time immemorial.

18.7 KEY WORDS

Stupa: is a Sanskrit word that means “pile-up” or mound. Therefore, Stupa is an

earthen mound heaped over the remains of dead.

Chaitya: for Buddhists, the term chaitya is applied to any object deserving their
worship, be it a stupa, the Bodhi or Pipal Tree under which Buddha got
enlightenment, Buddha image, images of Bodhisattvas, the Votive tablet with
pictures from the life of Buddha, etc

Griha: the term griha means house.

Viharas: etymologically meaning ‘dwelling place’ was meant for the Buddhist
monks.

18.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PRIGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress-1

1. See Sec. 18.1

2. See Sec. 18.2
3. See Sub Sec. 18.3.1
4. See Sub Sec. 18.3.3
Check your progress -2

1. See Sub Sec. 18.4.1.1

2. See Sub Sec. 18.4.1.2

Check your progress -3 16

1. See Sub Sec. 18.5.1
2. See Sub Sec. 18.5.2.1
3. See Sub Sec. 18.5.5

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