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Structural
Engineering
Handbook
The photos on the front cover are courtesy of Thornton Tomasetti (Chicago office) and Jacobs
(New York office). Mustafa Mahamid is grateful to the two firms for their contributions.
Structural
Engineering
Handbook
MUSTAFA MAHAMID
EDWIN H. GAYLORD, JR.
CHARLES N. GAYLORD

Fifth Edition

NewYork Chicago San Francisco Athens London

Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto
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 About the Editors

Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.E., P.Eng., F.SEI, F.ASCE, F.ACI, is a clinical associate
professor in the Department of Civil and Materials Engineering at the University of Illinois-
Chicago and is a member of the AccessEngineering Faculty Advisory Board. He previously
worked as a practicing structural engineer at GRAEF and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and
currently is a consultant for various structural engineering firms in the United States and
abroad. He is a Fellow of ASCE, a Fellow ofACI, and a Fellow of ASCE's Structural Engineering
Institute (SEI) and is active on various ACI and ASCE/SEI technical committees.

The late Edwin H. Gaylord, Jr. was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Illinois-
Urbana-Champaign.

The late Charles N. Gaylord was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Virginia.
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 Contents

Contributors xv
Prmice xbc

Chapter 1. Structural Loads Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella • •••••• 1

1.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1
1 .2 Dud Loads.................................................................. . 1
1 .3 live Loads ................................................................... . 1
1A Rain Loads ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7
1.5 Soll Lat.nil Loads ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8
1 .6 Snow and Ice Loads .......................................................... . 9
1 .7 Wind Loads••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20
1 .8 E.llrthquake Loads ........................................................... . 49
1 .9 Flood and Tsunami Loads .................................................... . 49
1.1O Load Combinations ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 57
References .......................................................................... . 60

Chapter 2. Structural Analysis Aly M. Said., Anas S. Issa,,

M. Shohrio Alam •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
PART A FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS TO STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORKS ••••• 61
2.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
2.2 Fundam911tals of Analysls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
2.3 Energy Prlndples ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 63
2A Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 67
2.5 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Stnmctures••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 72
2.6 FoKA! Method................................................................ . 74
2.7 Displacement Method ....................................................... . 77
PART B ARCHES AND RIGID FRAMES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
2.8 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
2.9 Analysis of Arches •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 93
2.1o Design of Arches•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 94
2.11 Design of Fnimas ............................................................ . 101
2.12 Special Topics. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 111
2.13 Construction and Details ..................................................... . 112
References .......................................................................... . 116

Chapter 3. The Finite-Element Method Craig D. Foster,

Sheng-Wei Chi •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 119
3.1 0verv1- ofTheory of Flnltti-Element Analysls••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 119
3.2 Outline of Sttlps In a Finite-Element Analysis ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122
3.3 Types of StNctunil and Mechanical Analyses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122
3A Elements and Nodes ......................................................... . 124
3.5 Meshing •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 125
3.6 Applying Loads and Dlspl11ct1ment Boundary Conditions ••••••••••••••••••••••• 126
3.7 Material Models and Other Properties ........................................ . 126
3.8 Solving the Quasi-Static Problem ............................................. . 126

Yll
viii CONTENTS

3.9 Postprocessing-Solving for Strain, Stress, and Other Quantities....... • • • • •• • • 126

3.10 Dynlimlc Flnlte-ElamentAnalysls........ ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 126
3.11 NonllnearFlnlte-ElemmtAnalysls............................................. 128
3.12 Verification and Validation • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 128
3.13 Issues and Pitfalls in Finite-Element Analysis..... • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 128
3.14 lntrodudlon to Finite Elements for Thermal, Thennomechanlcal,
and Other Problems • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 130
Ref.ranees • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 131

Chapter 4. Computer Applications in Structural Engineering

Raoul Karp, Bulent N. Alemdar, Sam Rubenzer............................ 133
4.1 lntrodudlon...... ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 133
4.2 Computer Structural Analysis Simulation •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 133
4.3 Strudural Finite Elements..................................................... 135
4.4 Foundations.................................................................. 139
4.5 Verifying Analysis Results • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 142
4.6 Building lnfonnation Modeling and Interoperability •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 142
4.7 Summary..................................................................... 143
RetWrences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 143

Chapter 5. Earthquake-Resistant Design s. K. Ghosh • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 145

5.1 Overview..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 145
5.2 Nature of Earthquake Motion •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 145
5.3 Design Phllosophy....... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 146
5.4 Seismic O.slgn Requirements of the 2018 IBC/ASCE 7-16....................... 147
References • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 162

Chapter 6. Fracture and Fatigue Kedar s. Kirane, Zdenllc P. Bablnt,

J. Emesto lndacochea, Vineeth Kumar Gattu • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 165
PART A CONCRETE AND COMPOSITES............................................... 165
6.1 lntrodudlon to Quaslbrlttle Fradure • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 165
6.2 Conaete • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 166
6.3 Flber-Relnforced Composites.................................................. 169
Ref.ranees • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 173
PART B STRUCTURAL STEELS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 175
6.4 Fracture of Structural Steels. • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • 175
6.5 Fatigue of Structural Steels.................................................... 182
References • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • 193

Chapter 7. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Joseph w. Schulenberg,

KrishnaR.Reddy.................................................... 195
7.1 Soil Behavior..... •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • 195
7.2 Shallow Foundation Analyses •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 199
7.3 Deep Foundations •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 204
7.4 Retaining Strudures......... ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 210
7.S Investigations................................................................ 218
7.11 Soil Improvement............................................................. 219
7.7 Monitoring................................................................... 221
Ref.rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 221

Chapter 8. Design of Structural Steel Members Jay Shen,

Bulent Akbas, Onur Seirer, Charlies J. Carter. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 225
8.1 Design of Steel and Composite Memben •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 225
8.2 Seismic Design of Steel Members In Moment and Braced Frames • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 264
8.3 Conduding Remarks..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 303
RetWrences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 303

Chapter 9. Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members

Nabil A. Rahman, Helen Chen, Cheng Yu. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 305
9.1 Shapes and Applications. • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 305
9.2 Materials..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 306
 CONTENTS Ix

9.3 Co1TOsion Protection ......................................................... . 308

9A Mambar Design Mathodology................................................ . 309
9.5 Structural Stability In Dmrmlnlng M•mbH Foras••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 311
9.6 Member Design ............................................................. . 311
9.7 Assemblies and Systems ..................................................... . 315
9.8 Connactlons •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 317
Referenctis .......................................................................... . 320

Chapter 1o. Aluminum Structural Design J. Randolph Kissell• •••••••• 321

10.1 Introduction ................................................................ . 321
10.2 Dnlgn OVllrvt.w ............................................................ . 322
10.3 Determining Required Forces ................................................ . 322
10A Axial Tension ................................................................ . 323
10.5 Axlal Comprasslon ........................................................... . 324
10.6 Fluu1W ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 325
10.7 Shear and Torsion••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3215
10.a Combined Forces ............................................................ . 328
10.9 Connactlons •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 328
10.10 Sarvlcaablllty••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 331
10.11 Fabrication and EIWdion ..................................................... . 331
10.12 Fatigue ..................................................................... . 331
References .......................................................................... . 331

Chapter 11. Design of Reinforced-Concrete Structural Members

Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 333
11.1 Concrete .................................................................... . 333
11.2 Reinforcement•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 333
11.3 Spadflcatlons, Codas, and Standards •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
11 A General Raqulntments for Stntngth and Servlcaablltty ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
11.5 General Prlndplu of the Str9ngth O.slgn Mathod ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 338
11 .6 General Prindples and Requirements......................................... . 339
11 .7 One-Way Slabs. Two-Way Slabs. and Beams .................. .. ......... .. .... . 340
11 .8 Columns••••••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 352
11 .9 Tension Members ............................................................ . 354
11.1 O Members Subjectecl to Flexure and Axlal l.oitd ................................ . 354
11.11 w.111 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3515
11.12 Footings•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 360
11.13 'IWo-Way Slab Systems •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 365
11.14 Salsmlc ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 367
References . .. ....................................................................... . 368

Chapter 12. Design of Prestressed-Concrete Structural Members

Sri Srltharan, Maryam Nazari• •••.•.••••••.•.•.••••.•.•.••••••.•.•.••••••.•.• 369
Nal:lltlon .. .. ..................... . ................................. . .......... . ..... . 369
12.1 Introduction ••••••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• • ••••• 370
12.2 Prestress Losses ............................................................. . 371
12.3 Analysis Concepts ........................................................... . 374
12A Design for Flexure ........................................................... . 380
12.5 Dnlgn for Shur, Bond, and Baarfng.......................................... . 3815
12.6 Dnlgn of Continuous Baam .................................................. . 389
12.7 Design for Torsion ........................................................... . 393
12.8 Design for Seismic Loacls ................................... . .......... . ..... . 3!Hi
Rafarancas .. ..................... . ................................. . .......... . ..... . 397

Chapter 13. Masonry Construction Richard Bennett,.

Sam Rubenzer •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 399
Notation ............................................................................ . 399
13.1 Masonry Materials •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 400
13.2 Masonry Analysls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 401
13.3 Unntlnforaicl Muonry •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 402
13A Ralnforad Masonry ......................................................... . 403
x CONTENTS

13.5 Seismic Design • • • •• .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • •• • .. • .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 407

13.6 Specifying Mllsonry and Tasting Mllsonry........ • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 409
13.7 MllsonryFlreW.lls............................................................ 409
References........................................................................... 410

Chapter 14. Timber Structures Thomas Williamson,

Mustafa Mahamld. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 411
14.1
Wood as an Engineering Material.... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • •• • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 411
14.2 Allowabla Strus Design (ASD) VL Load and Raslstance
Factor D•lgn (LRFD)..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 413
14.3 Structural Wood Products. • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 413
14.4 Member Design • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 422
14.5 Connactlon Design • .. • .. • • • • •• .. • .. • • • • •• • .. • .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • •• .. 425
14.6 Lataral Load Raslstanai .. • • • • •• .. • .. • • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • •• .. 430
Rnrene111 • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 435

Chapter 15. Bridge Engineering Soliman Khudeira, Tony Shkurti,

Eric Stone, James Carter Ill, Jamshid Mohammadi, Bora Jang • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 437
PART A STEEL AND CONCRETE BRIDGES • • • • • • .. .. • • • • • .. • • • • .. .. • • • • • .. • • • • .. .. • • 437
15.1 General...................................................................... 437
15.2 Loads ............ ........... ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 437
15.3 Stael Bridges • • • • • •.. • • • • • • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. .. • • • • • •• .. 453
15A Baarlng and Expansion Details................................................ 459
15.5 Beam and Plate-Girder Bridges...... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 462
15.6 Truss Bridges................................................................. 469
15.7 Concrete Bridges • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 470
15.8 Slab Bridges.. • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 471
15.9 T-Beam Brfd991... ........... ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 473
15.10 Bax-Girder Bridges........................................................... 483
15.11 Prestressecl-COncrete Bridges .. • • .. • • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 493
15.12 Bridge Ralllngs • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. .. • • • • • •• .. 505
15.13 Administration of a Bridge System .. • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. • .. • • • • •• .. 506
References ..... ... ... ...... .. ... ...... .. ... ...... .. .. .. ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ...... .. 507
PART B STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES.............................................. 508
15.14 Benefits...................................................................... 508
15.15 Internal Elements............................................................. 509
15.16 Limit States and Combinations...... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 509
15.17 Analysis of Bax Girders .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 511
15.18 Design of Bax-Section Membmn............................................... 512
15.19 Internal Element Design...................................................... 512
15.20 Conduding Remarks.......................................................... 512
References........................................................................... 513
PART C CURVED STEEL I-GIRDER BRIDGES • • • • • .. • • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • 514
15.21 General.......................................................................... 514
15.22 Design Considerations... • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 514
15.23 Curved Girder Mechanics...... •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • •• 517
References ..... ... ... ...... .. ... ...... .. ... ...... .. .. .. ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ...... .. 524
PART D CURVED STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES..................................... 525
15.24 General • .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 525
15.25 Design Considerations... • • • • .. • • .. • • • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •.. .. • .. • • • • •.. • 526
15.26 Bax-Girder Mechanics .. •• .. • .. .. .. • .. .. .. • .. .. .. • .. •.. .. .. .. • .. .. •.. .. .. •.. .. .. • 529
References ..... .. .... ...... ... .. ...... ... .. ...... .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. ...... .. 531
PART E CURVED CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • 532
15.27 General.......................................................................... 532
15.28 Concrete Bax-Girder Bridge Types... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 532
15.29 Significance of Structural Configuration and Details. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 533
15.30 Review of Theory................................................................ 535
15.31 Design Considerations... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 539
References........................................................................... 547
 CONTENTS xl

Chapter 16. Railroad Bridge Design Mohsen Issa,

Ahmad Hammad •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 549
16.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 549
16.2 General Requirements ....................................................... . 549
16.3 Loading ..................................................................... . 549
16A Timber ...................................................................... . 550
16.5 Steel ........................................................................ . 551
16.6 Concrete .................................................................... . 552
References .......................................................................... . 557

Chapter 17. Industrial Buildings Jules Van de Pas, John Rolfes •••••••• 559
17.1 Planning Industrial Buildings. ................................................ . 559
17.2 Code Requirements and Industrial Loads ..................................... . 563
17.3 Framing Systems ............................................................ . 566
Refer.nctis .......................................................................... . 573

Chapter 18. Tall Bulldlngs Charles Besjak, Brian McElhatten,

Preetam Blswas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
18.1 Definition ofTall Building..................................................... 575
18.2 General Design Considerations................................................ 575
18.3 Structural Design Considerations.............................................. 576
18A ServlceabllltyConsideratlons ................................................. 577
18.5 Structural Systems for Tall Buildings........................................... 577
18.6 System Conc.eptuallzatlon..................................................... 579
18.7 System Parameters and Cholms............................................... 581
18.8 Analysis Parameters and Technlquu .. • . . . . . . • • • .. . . . . . .. • • .. • . . . . .. • • .. • . . . . . 591
18.9 Performance-Based Design for Wind • • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 595
18.1 O Performance-Based Design for Seismic .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 599
18.11 CrHp and Shrinkage.......................................................... 600
18.12 High-Rise Bulldlng Glossary................................................... 601
18.13 Addltlon11I Credits • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • 601
Acknowledgments • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 601
Referenais • • • . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . 601

Chapter 19. Thin-Shell Concrete Structures Edmond Sallklls,

Mustafa Mahamid, David P. Billington, Julian A. Dumitnscu • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 603
19.1 Introduction 11nd Historical Oftrvt.w........ ........... ........... ............ 603
19.2 ShellsofRotlltion............................................................. 609
19.3 Domes . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 613
19A Cyllndrlcal Barrel Shells....................................................... 626
19.5 Folded P111t.s........ ............ ........... ........... ........... ............ 632
19.6 Translation Shells of Double Curv11ture • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 638
19.7 Dimensioning .. • • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • 647
19.8 Stability and Safety........................................................... 647
19.9 Construction................................................................. 649
19.10 Appear11nm .................................................................. 649
References .. .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • •.. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 649

Chapter 20. Cable-Supported Roofs Paul A. Gossen,

Keith M. MacBaln • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 651
20.1 Introduction.................................................................. 651
20.2 Cable Mllttlrials and Construction .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • 651
20.3 Structural Systems • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 656
20A Dynamics .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 658
20.5 Analysis and Design • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 658
20.6 E111ctlon...................................................................... 661
Refer.nctis • .. • • • • •• • .. .. • • • • •• • • .. .. • • • • •• • .. .. • • • • •• • • • .. • • • • •• • • • .. • • • • •• • • .. .. • • • • 661
xii CONTENTS

Chapter 21. Reinforced-Concrete Silos Ramez B. Gayed,

Mustafa MahamicL Amin Ghali • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 663
21.1 G•n•l'lll •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 663
21.2 DeslgnofWalls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 676
21.3 DesignofBottoms............................................................ 681
Refl!rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 695

Chapter 22. Design of Steel Tanks Leslie D. Scott • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 697

22.1 Introduction.................................................................. 697
22.2 Design Considerations... . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 701
22.3 Design of Reservoirs and Standpipes . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . • • .. .. . . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. 707
22A ElaYllted Tanks................................................................ 717
22.5 Acmssorlu................................................................... 723
22.6 Materials..... • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • .. • • 726
22.7 Commercially Available Computer Programs..... • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 726
22.8 The Engineen Role...... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 727
Refl!ntnces... •••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 727

Chapter 23. Electrical Transmission and Substation

Structures Michael D. Miller, Robert£ Nickerson. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 729
23.1 Introduction.................................................................. 729
23.2 Referenced Standards and Mlinuals of Practice • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 729
23.3 Transmission Lin• Structures. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 729
23A Substation Structures......................................................... 737
References........................................................................... 740

Chapter 24. Chimneys Shu-Jin Fang, Victor Bochicchio • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 741

24..1Introduction.................................................................. 741
24.2 Design Loads................................................................. 741
24.3 SIMI Stacks .. • • • • •.. • • .. • • • • •.. • • .. • • • • •.. • • • .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • • •.. • 745
24A R•lnforc.d-Concrm Chimneys................................................ 750
24.5 Liners and Unlngs .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • .. • • 752
24.6 Foundations.................................................................. 754
Refl!rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 754

Chapter 25. Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Testing

Didem Ozevin, Farhad Ansari • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 757
25.1 Introduction.................................................................. 757
25.2 Components of NDE Methods................................................. 757
25.3 W.veform-Based NDE Methods and Applications . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 760
25A Th• Appllcatlons ofw.v.fonn-Based NDE M.thods to
Infrastructure Syst.ms... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 765
References • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 767

Chapter 26. Building Information Modellng (BIM) for

Structural Engineering Nawari o. Nawari • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 771
26.1 Introduction.................................................................. 771
26.2 BIM Fundam•ntals..... •. . . . . .. • • • •. . . . . .. .. • • •. . . . .. .. • • •. . . . .. .. • • •. . . . . .. • • 771
26.3 BIM Processes In Practice. . . . . .. • • • • . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. 776
26A Structure and Architecture Synergy (SASJ Framework........ . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 778
26.5 Condusions .. . . . . . • • • • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . . .. • 786
Refl!ntnces • • • .. • • • • .. • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • •• • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • .. • • • •• • • • • .. • • • • .. • • 786

Chapter 27. Structural Fire Engineering v. K. R. Kodur, M. z. Naser..... 789

27.1 G•n•l'lll ...................................................................... 789
27.2 Designing Structures for Fire Safety • • • • • .. • • .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 789
27.3 Fire Growth and Development .. • • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. 789
27A ProP9rtlu of Construction Mat•rlals at Elnat.d TempKBtures •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 791
27.5 Fire R9slstanai Evaluation • • • ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 796
27.6 Prescriptive-Based Approaches............................................... 796
 CONTENTS xiii

27.7 Rational Design Approaches ................................................. . 798

27.8 Summary ................................................................... . 800
Rnr.nct11 .......................................................................... . 800

Chapter 28. Disproportionate Collapse and Blast-Resistant

Design Shalva Marjanishvili, Robert Smilowirz••••••••••••••••••••••••• 801
PART A STRUCTURAL ROBUSTNESS AND DISPROPORTIONATE COLLAPSE 801
28.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 801
28.2 Disproportionate Collapse Mitigation Strategies ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 802
28.3 Progressive Collapse Modeling •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 802
28A Progreulva Collap• Anlllysls Example •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 806
Rnrmct1s .......................................................................... . 809
PART B BLAST-RESISTANT DESIGN ............................................... . 809
28.5 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 809
28.6 Blast Phenomena ........................................................... . 810
28.7 Dynamic Design Approach .................................................. . 812
28.8 Struduntl Bahmor .......................................................... . 813
28.9 Primary Structurw: Mlltertal Selection and Design for
Blast Resistance ............................................................. . 814
28.1 O Secondary Structure: Material Selection and Design for
Blast Reslstanct1 ............................................................. . 815
28.11 Concluslon .................................................................. . 815
Rnrmct1s .......................................................................... . 815

Chapter 29. FRP Strengthening of Reinforced-Concrete

Members Hayder A. Rasheed ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 817
29.1 FRP Properties for Strengthening Appllcatlons. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 817
29.2 Flexural Strengthening Design for Beams and Slabs•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 818
29.3 Shear Strengthening Design for Beams ....................................... . 822
29A Confinement Strmgth•nlng Design for Orcular Columns••••••••••••••••••••••• 827
Rnr.nct1s .......................................................................... . 831

Chapter 30. Structural Glass and Glazing Rul de 5. Camposlnhos ••••• 833
30.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 833
30.2 Glass: Produdlon and Propatl• ............................................. . 834
30.3 Glass as a Structural Material ................................................. . 835
JOA Actions .................................................... .. ................ . 839
30.5 Codes and Standards ...................................... ... ......... . ..... . 842
30.6 Plllte Buckling ............................................................... . 850
30.7 Latentl-Torslonal Budding ................................................... . 854
30.8 Glass Columns ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8515
References .......................................................................... . 858

Chapter 31. Machine Foundations O. Salem All• •••••••••••••••••••• 861

31.1 Background ••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• •••••••••• •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8151
31 .2 Classlflcatlon of Machine Based on Machin•~ •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8151
31.3 Classlflcation of Machine Based on Type of Exdtatlon Force •••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31 A Classification of Machine Based on Foundation ~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31.5 Classification of Machine Load Transfer Mechanism •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31 .6 Design Umlts for Machine Foundations....................................... . 8152
31 .7 Effect of the Supporting Soll ................................................. . 8152
31 .8 Energy Transt.r M•chanlsm ................................. .. ............... . 8153
31.9 Effect of Embedment of Foundation ••• •••••••••• •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8153
31 .1 O Reduction in Permissible Soil Stnass .. . .......... . .......... ... ......... . ..... . 8154
31.11 Damping In Soll ...................... . .................... .. .......... .. .... . 8154
31.12 Modellng TKhnlques for Machine Foundations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8155
31.13 Block-Type Foundation ...................................................... . 8155
31.14 Mat Foundations ............................................................ . 8H
31.15 Elevated Machine Foundation ................................................ . 8157
xiv CONTENTS

31.16 Three-Dimensional Finite-Eletnent Mocleling • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 868

31.17 Soll Moclallng..... ••••••••••• ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 868
31.18 Currant Approach of Soll Mocl•llng............................................ 869
31.19 Methods to Compute Dynamk Impedance Functions • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 870
31 .20 Foundations Supported on Piles............................................... 870
31 .21 Pllu Subjactad to Lateral Vibrations........................................... 871
31.22 ElastlcContlnuum ............................................................ 872
31 .23 Pllu Sub)Ktad to Vartkal Vibrations.......................................... 875
31.24 PileGroupEffect.............................................................. 881
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 882

Chapter 32. Value Methodology Muthlah Kasi,

Charles A. Bartlett. • .. • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • .. • .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • • .. 885
32.1 Introduction.................................................................. 885
32.2 VM Job Plan .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 885
32.3 The Key Futures ofVM Job Plan: Function Analysis •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 889
32A Exampla 1: Parapat Joint Datall .. • .. • • • • •.. • .. .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 890
32.5 Evaluatlon Phasa • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 893
32.6 Implementation • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 894
32.7 Summary..................................................................... 894
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 894

Chapter 33. Stone Cladding Rul de S. Camposlnhos • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 895

33.1 Introduction: Natural Stona Caddlng. • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 895
33.2 Natural Stona Daplctlon • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • •.. • .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 896
33.3 Mechanical Properties • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 898
33A Cadding Systems and Methods .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 899
33.5 Limit States Design .. .. .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 901
33.6 Dowtll Anchoraga. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 905
33.7 Karf Anchoraga............................................................... 909
33.8 Undercut Anchorage..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 911
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 915

Index 9'9
 Contributors

Bulent Akbas. Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University. Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8}
M. Shahrla Alam Professor, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna,
British Columbia, Canada (Chap. 2}
Bulent N.Alemdar, Ph.D., PE Principal Research Engineer. Bentley Systems, Inc., Carlsbad, California
(Chap.4)
O. Salem All, Ph.D., PEEngineering Manager, Structural Technologies (Chap. 31)
Farhad Ansari Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois
at Chicago (Chap. 25}
Charles A. Bartlett, PE, CVS (Chap. 32)
Zdenik P. Balant McCormick Institute Professor and Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Material Science and Engineering,
Northwestern University, Evanston, minois (Chap. 6)
Richard Bennett Professor and Director ofEngineering Fundamentals, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee (Chap. 13)
Charles Bnjak, PE, SE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
David P. Bllllngton Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering, Princeton University (Deceased)
(Chap. 19)
Preetam Blswas. PE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
Victor Bochicchio Executive Vice President, Hamon Custodis, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey (Chap. 24)
Rul de S. Camposlnhos Coordinator Professor with Aggregation, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal
(Chaps. 30, 33)
American Institute ofSteel Construction, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 8}
CharllesJ.Cartllr, Ph.D., PE, SE
James Carter IllConsulting Engineer, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 15)
Helen Chen, Ph.D., PE American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C. (Chap. 9}
Sheng-Wei ChL Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Jullan A. Dumltrucu Consulting Structural Engineer, Raytheon Engineers and Constructors
(Retired) (Chap. 19)
David A. Fanella, Ph.D., SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (Chaps. l, 11)
Shu-Jin Fang Consultant, and Former Associate and Senior Manager, Sargent & Lundy, Chicago,
nlinois (Chap. 24}
Craig D. Foster, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Vineeth Kumar Gattu Chemical and Fuel Cycle Technologies, Argonne National Laboratory
(Chap. 6)
Ramez B. Gayed Adjunct Professor, University of Calga~ and Senior Structural Engineer,
thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (Canada) Inc. (Chap. 21)
llY
xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Amin Ghall Professor Emeritus, University of Calgary {Chap. 21)

s. K. Ghosh S. K. Ghosh Associates LLC, Palatine, minois (Chap. 5)
Paul A. Gossen, PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Ahmad Hammad, Ph.D., PE. SE Assistant Vice President and Senior Engineering Manager, WSP
USA (Chap. 16)
J. Ernesto lndacochu Professor Emeritus, Civil and Materials Engineering, University of
lllinois at Chicago (Chap. 6)
Anas S. Issa Postdoctoral Fellow, Applied Laboratory for Advanced Materials & Structures
(ALAMS), University ofBritish Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada {Chap. 2)
Mohsen Issa, Ph.D., PE, SE Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago (Chap. 16)
Bora Jang Sharma and Associates, Inc. {Chap. 15)
Raoul Karp. PE, SE Vice President of Design Engineering Analysis, Bentley Systems, Inc.,
Carlsbad, California (Chap. 4)
Muthlah Kasi, PE, SE. CVS-Ufe (Chap. 32)
Soliman Khudeira lllinois Institute of Technology and Chicago DOT {Chap. 15)
Kedar S. Kirane Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Stony Brook Untversity, Stony
Brook, New York (Chap. 6)
J. Randolph Klssall, PE (Chap. 10)
V. IC. R. Kodur, Ph.D., P.Eng. University Distinguished Professor and Chairperson, Department
of Ctvil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University. East Lansing, Michigan
{Chap. 27)
Keith M. MacBaln, Ph.D., PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., SE, PE. P.Eng. Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Civil and
Materials Engineering, University ofnlinois at Chicago (Chaps. 1, 11, 14, 19, 21)
Shalva MarJanlshvlll, D.SC:.,. PE, SE Technical Director, Hinman Consulting Engineers, Inc.,
San Francisco, California (Chap. 28)
Brian McElhatten, PE, SE Arup {Chap. 18)
Michael D. Miller, PE. P.Eng.VP Engineering, SAE Towers {Chap. 23)
Jamshid Mohammadi lllinois Institute of Technology {Chap. 15)
M. Z. Naser, Ph.D., PE Assistant Professor, Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University. Clemson, South Carolina {Chap. 27)
Nawarl O. Nawarl, Ph.D., PE School of Architecture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
{Chap. 26)
Maryam Nazari Assistant Professor, Department ofCivil and Geomatics Engineering, California
State University, Fresno, California (Chap. 12)
Robert E. Nickerson, PE Consultant {Chap. 23)
Dldem Ozevln Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago {Chap. 25)
Nabll A. Rahman, Ph.D., PE FDR Engineers, Raleigh, North Carolina (Chap. 9)
Hayd9r A. Rasheed, Ph.D., PE Professor, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas (Chap. 29)
Krishna A. Raddy Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago {Chap. 7)
John Rolfes Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (Chap. 17)
Sam Rubenzer, PE, SE Founder and Structural Engineer, FORSE Consulting, Eau Claire, Wisconsin
{Chaps. 4, 13)
Aly M. Said Associate Professor, Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State Untversity.
University Park, Pennsylvania {Chap. 2)
 CONTRIBUTORS :xvll

Edmond Sallklls California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo (Chap. 19)
Jos•ph W. Schul•nb•rg Assistant Clinical Professor of Civil Engineering, University of minois
at Chicago (Chap. 7)
Lasll• D. Scott Chief Engineer, Tank Industry Consultants, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana (Chap. 22)
Onur Sear, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8)
Jay Shen, Ph.D., PE. SE Department of Civii Construction and Environmental Engineering,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa (Chap. 8)
Tony Shkurtl Consulting Engineer, Chicago, minois (Chap. 15)
RobtirtSmllowltz, Ph.D., PE Senior Principal, Thornton Tomasetti (Chap. 28)
Sri Srltharan Wilkinson Chair of Interdisciplinary Engineering and Professor of Structural
Engineering, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State
University. Ames, Iowa (Chap. 12)
Eric Ston• Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 15)
Jules Yan de Pu Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Greenwood Village, Colomdo (Chap. 17)
Thomas Williamson, PE Retired Vice President of Quality and Technical Services, APA-The
Engineered Wood Association (Chap. 14)
Chang Yu, Ph.D., PE University of North Texas, Denton, Texas (Chap. 9)
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

AB a practicing structural engineer and as an educator, I have always believed that structural
engineers and architects should have knowledge ofthe design of the various types of structures
and of their components, various analysis and design methods, the technologies used in this
analysis, and the design and production of engineering drawings. The Structural Engineering
Handbook provides established engineers, young engineers preparing for license exams, archi-
tects, and civil engineering students a comprehensive reference on the planning and design of
a variety of engineered structures. It also gives the designer the information likely needed for
all design phases.
The handbook covers various types of structures, such as tall buildings, industrial buildings,
bridges including railroad bridges, thin-shell structures, arches, cable-supported roofs, steel
tanks for liquids, retaining structures, blast-resistant structures, bins and silos for granular
material, steel transmission towers and poles, and chimneys. Structural loads for the various
types of structures are also covered, and there is comprehensive coverage of classical structural
analysis methods, finite-element analysis, and computer applications in structural engineering.
Additionally, earthquake-resistant design has been covered based on the most recent codes
and standards. Design of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, structural steel, cold-formed
steel, masonry. wood, and aluminium are covered. A chapter on soil mechanics, soil exploration,
and foundation design is also provided. Design against fatigue and fracture is covered for concrete,
composites, and steel
In this fifth edition, all chapters have been rewritten, some chapters in previous versions
of the handbook have been removed due to recent developments in design or construction
practices, and 12 new chapters have been added. The new chapters cover structural loads,
fracture mechanics of concrete and composites, railroad bridges, health monitoring of struc-
tures, building information modeling (BIM), structural fire engineering, progressive collapse
and blast-resistant design, strengthening of concrete using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP),
structural glass, design of foundations for machines, value engineering, and stone cladding.
The 33 chapters of the handbook have been written by 66 contributors. They have pre-
sented their material in a ready-to-use form with flowcharts to show step-by-step procedures
wherever possible. Therefore, derivations of formulas are omitted in all but a few instances,
and many worked-out examples are given. Background information, descriptive matter, and
explanatory material have been condensed or omitted. Because each chapter treats a subject
that is broad enough to fill a book by itself, the contributors have had to select the material that,
in their judgment, is likely to be the most useful to the greatest number of users. References
and sources of additional material are noted for most of the topics that could not be treated
in sufficient detail.
I am very grateful to the contributors for their tremendous efforts in writing, reviewing,
and editing their work, and for their patience during the time it has taken to complete the
fifth edition.
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.B., P.Bng.
University of Illinois at Chicago
This page intentionally left blank
Structural
Engineering
Handbook
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Structural Loads

BY
MUSTAFA MAHAMID, Ph.D., SE. PE. P.Eng. University of Illinois at Chicago
DAVID A. FANELLA. Ph.D~ SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

1.1 INTRODUCTION a building or structure and do not include construction loads, environ-
mental loads (such as wind loads, snow loads, rain loads, earthquake
Applicable nominal loads on a structure are determined from the
loads, and flood loads), or dead loads (IBC 202).
general building code under whic.b the project is to be designed and
IBC Table 1607.1 contains nominal design values of uniformly dis-
constructed. Chapter 16 ofthe IBC (Ref. 1) contains the minimum mag-
tributed and concentrated live loads L 0 as a function of occupancy or
nitudes of some nominal loads and references ASCE/SEI 7 (Ref. 2) fur
use. The occupancy description listed in the table is not necessarily
others. For a specific project, the governing local building code should
group-specific (occupancy groups are defined in IBC Chapter 3). For
be consulted fur any variances from the IBC or ASCE/SEI 7.
example, an office building with a Business Group B classification may
It is common for nominal loads to be referred to as service loads.
These loads are multiplied by load factors in the strength design
method Exceptions are the wind load effect Wand the earthquake load Tllble1.1 Summary of Loads Addl'91Hd In the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7
effect E: Both are defined to be strength-level loads where the load fac-
Notation Load Code •ection
tor is equal to 1.0.
Table 1.1 contains a list of loads from the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7. D Dead load IBC 1606
Comprehensive information on the determination of structural loads n, Weight of ice Chap. 10 of ASCFJSEI 7
can be found in Ref. 3. B Combined effect of horizontal and IBC 1613 and
vertical earthquake-induced forces ASCEJSEI 12.4.2
u de£lned in ASCEISF.I 12.4.2
1.2 DEAD LOADS
E., Maximum seismic load effect of IBC 1613 and
Nominal dead loads D are the actual weights of construction materials horizontal and vertical forces u ASCEJSEI 12.4.3
and fixed service equipment that are attached to or supported by the 1et forth in ASCFJSEI 12.4.3
building or structure. Specific examples of such loads are listed under p Load due to fluids with well-defined
the definition of •dead load" in IBC 202. pressures and mu:imum heights
Dead loads are considered to be permanent loads because their mag- F, Flood load IBC 1612
nitude remains essentially constant over time. H Load due to lateral earth pressure.1, IBC 1610 (soil lateral loads)
Superimposed dead loads are permanent loads other than the weights ground water preasure, or pressure
of the structural members and include the following: floor finishes of bulk tnale!lal1
and/or topping; walls; ceilings; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning L LiV<! load. tteept roofllV<! load. IBC 1607
(HVAC) and other service equipment; fixed partitions; and cladding. including any permitted liV<!
Minimum design dead loads for various types of common con- load reduction
struction components are provided in ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-la, and L, RoofllV<! load including any IBC 1607
minimum densities for common construction materials are given in permitted live load reduction
ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-2. In cases where information on dead load is R Rain load IBC 1611
unavailable, values of dead loads used in design must be approved by s Snow load IBC 1608 and Chapter 7
the building official (IBC 1606.2). of ASCE/SF.I 7
T Cumula!M effect. of oelf-straining See ASCEISEI 2.3.4 and
forces and effect. 2.4.4
1.3 LIVE LOADS w Load due to wind pressure IBC 1609 and Chapters 26
1.J,1 G•n•..I to 31 of ASCEISEI 7
Live loads are transient in nature and vary in magnitude over the life w, Wind-on-ice load IBC 1614 and Chapter 10
of ASCEISBI 7
of a structure. These loads are produced by the use and occupancy of
:Z CllAl'TH ONE

a1'o have~ areas that may warrant live loads of 125 or 250 J15f (6.0 or InSI Units
12.0 kN/m2) depending 011 the type of storage, which are greater 1han
the preaaibed oJBc:e live loacb. Structural me.mben are designed on the
buis ofthe muimum effects due t.o application of either a uniform load
L•L.(0.25+Jxu.Ar
4.75 )

or a concentrated load and need not be dalgned for the effects of both In thU equltlon, Ku. la the li'YI: load element factor given In me
loads applied at the U1De time. The building offiGial mu.rt approve live fible 1607.11.1, and Ar ii the tributary area mpported by the member
lOldt that are not 1pecl6cally listed ill the table. mtquare feet (1quare meters).
Putltiom that can be relocated (i.e., thoae typef that are not perma- The live load element factor Ku. c:onvertl the tributary area Ar Into
nently attached t.o the ltrudure) arc conaidered to be live loads In office an Influence area. which b contldeud to be the adjacent floor area from
and other buildinp. A live load equal 1D at leut 15 psi (0.72 kN/m2) which the member cleriva m load. In other wordt,
muat be Included for movable putiliom if the nominal unl.funn floor
Im load la lea than 80 pet (3.8 kN/m2 ). Ku = .infhience area/tributary area
IBC Table 1607.1 pretaibet a minimum roof live load of 20 psi
(0.96 kN/m2) for typical roof lltnlctures; larger live loads are required Figure l.l llluttratahawthereduction multiplier 0.25+15!(.JKuAr )
for roofi UJed u garden.1 or plau1 of 111embly. vvte. wtth respect to the J.nfluence area Ku.Ar. Induded In the figure
ASCE Table 4.3-1 abo contain• minimum unl.funn and concentrated are the minimum influence area of 400 lqUUC kct and the limits of O.S
Im load., and IOJlle of thcae value1 diffi:r from those ill IBC Table and 0.4, which are the muimum permitted reduction1 for memben
1607.1. ASCE Tables CU-land C4.3-2canbe11.ted u a guide in mab- eupportlng one floor and two or more tloors, reapeciively.
liahing live load. for some commmily encountered occupancies. ONB-WAY SLABS
1.3-2 RedllCtlan In Uw! a-. Li:9e load reduction on one-way slab. is pennitted provided that the
Bel;aU1e liw loads are tranlient in nature. the probability that a struc;- tributary area. A,.. doea not exceed an area equal to the slab epan timea a
tur.d member will be mbjected t.o the full effect. from nominal live width normal t.othe epan af 1.5 timeathe dab cpan (I.e., u area wtth an
loadt decreuea u the area 1upported by the member illaeaaee. Euept upcct ratio of 1.5). The live load will buomewhat higher for a one-way
for uniform llw load. on roofs, the minimum Wliformly distributed liYI: slab with an uped ratio of 1.5 than Cm a two-Wlly slab with the same
loadt L, ln me Table 1607.l are permitted t.o be reduced In accordance upect ratio. Thia recognizes the benefits of higher redundancy that
with the methodt in IBC 1607.11.1 ar 1607.ll.2. The general method results from two-way actio11..
of live load reduction ill IBC 1607.11.1 ii alto given ill ASCB/SBI 4.7. ASCE/Sfil 4.7.6 lw the aame requirementa for live load reduction on
Reductlon of roof liYI: loada must confwm t.o IBC 1607.13.2. one-way dab. u that in IBC 1607.11.l.l.

1.J.J Genenl Method of Lin l.eMI ltedudlon Hluyy LIVB LoAl>I

me Bquation (16-23) can be uted to obtain a reduced live load L for Accordlng ro IBC 1607.11.1.2, li'YI: loadt that arc greater than 100 psf
members that support an area KuAr 2: 400 tP (37.2 m1): mlllt not be .reduced acept for the following:
1. Live load. for memben tupporting two or more t1oors are permit-
ted tc be reduced by a muimum al 20 percent, but L must not be lea
L·L.(025+ .jK:Ar ) than that calc:ulmd by CBC 1607.11.1.
2. In 0"11p&Dc.ia other than ltorage. additional Im: load reduction
::! o.sor. rot" member1 mpporting one tloor .is permitted if it can be shown by a regbtered design profesm.ona1. that
2: 0.401-. for members supporting two or more tloon 1uch a reduction i. warranted.

1.0

0.9

0.8

..• 0.7
i.
E 0.8
:I
:Iii I
c 0.5 - ~ ----------------

l '
0 I
I I

0.4 -L------------------'------------------------------
« 0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 2,000 4,000 6 ,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
KuAr (sq ft)
fllure 1.1 Wuctionmult:iplier for live load in aa:orclanc:e with me 1607.11.l.
 STRUCTURAL LOADS J

In buildings that support relatively large live loads, such as storage GROUP A (ASSEMBLY) OCCUPANCIES
buildings, several adjacent bays may be fully loaded; as such, live loads Due to the nature of assembly occupancies, there is a high probability
should not be reduced in those situations. Data in actual buildings that the entire floor is subjected to full uniform live load. According to
indicate that the floor in any story is seldom loaded with more than Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1, live load reduction is not permitted in
80 percent of the nominal live load. Thus, a maximum live load reduc- assembly areas, CX(:ept for follow spot, projection, and control rooms,
tion of 20 percent is permitted for members that support two or more unless specific ~ons ofIBC 1607.11 apply.
floors, such as columns and walls. Flowchart 1 shown in Fig. 1.2 can be used to determine basic uniform
PASSENGER VEHICLE GARAGES live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.1.
The live load in passenger vehicle garages is not permitted to be reduced,
except for members supporting two or more floors; in such cases, the 1.JA Alternirtlvtt Uniform Live l.Olld Reduction
maximum reduction is 20 percent, but L must not be less than that An alternative method of uniform live load reduction, which is based on
calculated byIBC 1607.11.1(IBC1607.11.1.3). Thus, live load reduction provisions in the 1997 Uniform Building Code (Ref. 4), is given in IBC
is not permitted except for members that support two or more floors. 1607.11.2. IBC Equation 16-24 can be used to obtain a reduction factor

FLOWCHART1

Basic Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)

Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted"

No Yes

AT :s: 1.S(slab span) 2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted**

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permittedt

• See IBC 1607.11.1.2 for two exceptions to this requirement.

** Live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be
reduced by a maximum of 20 percent (IBC 1607.11.1.3).
t Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control
rooms are permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1.2 Basic uniform live load reduction In accordance with IBC 1607.11.1 (Flowchart 1).
4 CHAPTER ONE

FlOWCHART1

Basic Unifonn Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)

(continued)

No Yes

Live load raduction is not permitted

except as specified in IBC 1607.13.2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted

:?: 0.50L0 for members supporting one floor

:i: 0.40L0 for members supporting two or more floors

Figure 1.2 (Continued)

R for members that support an area greater than or equal to 150 square

=l~.2-0.0001.A,
for A, S 200 square feet
feet where the live load is less than or equal to 100 psf.
Flowchart 2 shown in Fig. 1.3 can be used to determine alternative R1 for 200 square feet< A, < 600 square feet
uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2. 0.6 for A, ~ 600 square feet
1.3.5 Roofl.oltd1

~ =j~.2-0.0SF
forPS4
In general, roofs are to be designed to resist dead, live, wind, and, where
applicable, rain, snow, and earthquake loads. A minimum rooflive load for 4<F<l2
of 20 psf is prescribed in IBC Table 1607 .1 for typical roof structures, 0.6 for F~l2
while larger live loads are required for roofs used as gardens or places
of assembly. A, = tributary area (span length multiplied by effective width) in
IBC 1607.13.2 permits nominal roof live loads on flat, pitched, and square feet supported by a member
curved roofs and awnings and canopies other than fabric construction P = the number of inches of rise per foot for a sloped roof
supported by a skeleton frame to be reduced in accordance with IBC =the rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32 for an arch
Equation 16-26: or dome
No live load reduction is permitted for members supporting less than
or equal to 200 square feet as well as for roof slopes less than or equal
where L 0 =unreduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof to 4: 12. In no case is the reduced roof live load to be taken less than
projection supported by the member 12 psf. The minimum load determined by this equation accounts for
L, = reduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof occasional loading due to the presence of workers and materials during
projection supported by the member repair operations.
 STRUCTURAL LOADS 5

FLOWCHART2
Alternative Unifonn Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)

Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted*

No Yes

A ~ 0.5(slab span)2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted**

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitte<ft

* Live loads lor members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced
by a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1607.11.2(1); also see exception in that section].
- Live l0&ds for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by
a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1807.11.2(2)].
t Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control rooms are
permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1 .3 Alternative uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2 (Flowchart 2).

Llve loada are permitted to be reduced on areas of occupiable roofs elements must also be designed fur the combined effects of snow and
using the provisions ofIBC 1607.11 for floor live loada (IBC 1607.13.3). wind loads in accordance with IBC 1608 and 1609.
Llve loads that are greater than or equal to 100 psf at areas of roofs
that are classified as Group A (assembly) occupancies are not permit-
ted to be reduced unless specific exceptions of IBC 1607.11 apply (see 1.3.6 Crane Loads
Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1). Design provisions fur runway beams that support moving bridge cranes
A minimum rooflive load of 20 psf is required in unoccupied land- and monorail cranes are given in IBC 1607.14. In general, the sup-
scaped areas on roofs (IBC 1607.13.3.1). The weight of landacaping port structure of the crane must be designed fur the maximum wheel
material is considered a dead load and must be determined based on load, vertical impact, and horizontal impact as a simultaneous load
the saturation level of the soil combination.
A minimum roof live load of 5 psf is required for awnings and A typical top-running bridge crane is depicted in Fig. 1.4. The trol-
canopies in accordance with IBC Table 1607.1 (IBC 1607.13.4). Such ley and hoist move along the crane bridge, which is supported by the
6 CMAPTHONE

FLOWCHART2
Alternative Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)
(continued)

No Yes

Live load reduction is not pennitted

L=L0 [l-(R/IOO)]
=
R O.OS(A - ISO)

{
~ percent for horizontal. members
~ smalle.tt of 60 percent for vertical members
23.1(1 + DILJ

Flg1111t 1.J (Contilnltd)

is muimum; genertilly, this oc:curs when the trolley is moved u close to

the supporting membeu a.s poss:ible.
The muimum whec:l loacb must be increued by the percentage11
given In me 1607.14.2 to accowrt for the vertical Impact for« that le
ca\16ed by the starting and atopphlg m<Mment of the Sll!pellcled wdgh.t
from the c;rane and by the mavcment af the c;rane a!Ollg the rails.
A lateral force that acb perpendicular to the c.rane runway beams is
generated by the tnmvene movement of the crane, that la, by move-
ment Chat oc:c:IU& perpendicular to the 1'W1WIY beam (see Fig. 1.5).
Trolley with Hoist Acc;ording to me 1607.1.U, the magnitude af thi• load Oll c::wie

Vertical

Bridge Runway
Beam (typ.)
Support
Column (typ.)
Hook

ruinftY beams and support colwmis. The entire crane asKmblage can
also move along the length of the runway beuns.
The maximum wheel loads that are to be used in the design af the
supporling member' are due to the weight af Che bridge plus the rum
of the rated capacity and the we.lght of the trolley. The trolley Is to be
p04ltloned on IU rwnw.y u the location where the muhlng load effect
 SlRUCTURALLOADS 7

runway beams with electronically powm<I trolleys is to be taken equal 2. The additional depth of water on the 1111deftec:ted roof @ave the
to 20 perunt of the rum oCthe rated capa.clty of the crane and the weight inlet of the secondary drain.age system at its duign Bow (dh).
of the hoist and ttolley. It is wumed that thla load acta horlzontlllly at The static head d, u the dlltance from the primary drain to the sec-
the tractlo.n surface of the runway beam and that lt ls distributed to the ondary drain and ls determined in the design of the ((lm.bined drainage
runway beam uid supportlDB structure (sw:h as ((INmns) based on the system.
lateral stiffness of the members. The rainwuer depth dA (which it alto nifem!d to u the hydraulic
A longitudlnal force is generated on a crane runway beam by acceler- head) is a function of the .rainfall intenaity i at the site, the area of roof
ation, decderatl.on, and braking of the crane bridge beam (see Fig. 1.5). A that ls serviced by that drainage system, and the &1ze of the drainage
This load is taken u 10 percent of the muimum wheel loads of the system.
c:rane and is usumed to a.ct horizontally at the traction surface of the IBC Figunl 1611.1 provides the rainfall ra.tell for a storm of I-hour
runway beam in either direction parallel. to the beam (me 1607.14.4). duration Chat has a 100-year return period. The.te ratet have been deter-
Bridge aanes with hand-geared bridges are eumpt from this provision. mined by a mttsttcal analysis ofweather .records. Both the primary and
Refuence 5 ((llltt/Jns adcll1lona1 informa1ion on the determination o( the SC(Olldary drainage ~s mutt be designed fur the pmaibed
c:rane loads for indumial buildingl. rainf.ill rate (see Section 1108 of the IPC on how to lize serondary
drainage syJtems). n ill always good practice to check with local build-
1.J.7 ~rWlllund Parddons
ing a11thorltiea to ensure that the proper raln1ill rate la wed In dea!gn.
Interior walls and partitions (lncludlng their finishing materials) that are In genera), dh depends on the type and size of the secondary drainage
greater than 6 feet in height are required to be daigned for a horizontal system and the flow rate Qit mu.st handle. The following equmon from
load. o( 5 psf (IBC 1607.15). Thil requimnent is intended to provide C8.5 can be used to determine the Bow rate through a single secondary
sufficient at.rength and durabillty of the wall framing and ib finished drainage system:
construction when subjected to nomiilal impact loads, suc:'h. as those
from moving furniture or equipment and from HVAC piess11riution. Q=0.0l04Ai
Requimnenbl for fabric partitions that exceed 6 feet in height are ln this equation, Q iJ in gallons per minllk.. A i• in squaR feet. and i iJ
givenlnlBC 1607.15.1.Ahorlzontalload equal to 5 psfla to be applied in inc:'h.et per hour. The constant 0.0104 ill obtained based on the units
to the partitlo.n framing. Additlonally, a 40-pound load. must be applied associated with the variables In the equation:
over an 8-in.-diameter area of the fabric face et a height of 54 in. above
the floor. This condition ill meant to simulate the loa.d caused by a per- Comtant=ft2 x l.D.x_!!_x 7Mgalx....!..!!!.....=O.Ol04
son leaning against the fabric using their hand as the point of contact. hr 12 in. tt3 60 min
The following equa.tiom relue the Bow rate Q in gallons per minute to
1.A RAIN LOADS the hydraulic head dA in inches for channel- and closed-type scuppers
1.4.1 G-.11 (see Fig. 1.6 and Ref. 7):
me 1611 and ASCEISBI Chapter 8 contain requirements for design =
Clwmel-type ICUppers: Q 2.9 ~.5 when h ~di.
rain loads. The nominal rain load R ls determined based on the amount
of water that can accumulate on a roof UNlillng that the primary roof Ooeed-type 8'uppen: Q=2.9 b[t1l -(d11 -ht.s Jwhen h < t111
5

drainage system is bl~. When this O«lllt, water will rue above the
primary roof drain until it reaches the elevation of the roof edge or the where b and h are the width and depth of the Jtupper, respectively, in
secondary drain.age aystem.. The depth of water above the primary drain inches. Note that the channel-type acuppen equation is also applicable
at the deaign raln1ill l.Dten&lty is bued on the flow rate of the secondary to closed-type scuppers when It ~ dir
~which "f'ariet widely depending on the type of ae<:0ndary symm
that is wed.
The type and location of the aecondary dra!n8 and the amount of
rainwater above their Inlets under dulgn ccndltlons must be known
in order to determine R. Coo.rdination among the design team (archi-
teciura!. structural. and plumbing) ill very important when establishing
.rain Joa.di.
Chapter 11 of the lnte.matlonal Plumbing Code• (IPC&) colltllns
req,ulremenu on the design of roof drainage symms. lncludlng the b
req,uiRd size and number of drains based on the area that is serviced.
(Rei. 6). Ramfa1I. rate$ are given fur varlou& dtie.t In the United Sta.tea
In Appendix B of the lPC. These rates are based on the mapa In IPC Channel- type Scupper
Figure 1106.1, which have the same origin u the mtpS in the IBC (11«
the following d.i.scuss:ion).
1.4.2 Desitft Rllft I.old
me Equation 16-35 or ASCE/SEI Equation 8.3-1 is used to determine
the rain load R:
R=5.2(d,+di.)

The constant in this equation ill equal to the unit load per inch depth
of rainwater, that is, the denalty of water divided by 12 ill. per foot:
62.4/12 =5.2 psf per inch. b
The total depth o( rainwater on a roof that is to be uaed in deten:nin-
ing R ((Insists of two parts:
1. The depth of water on the undetlecte.d roof up to the Inlet of Closed- type Scupper
the secondary dnlnage aystem. when the primary drainage system is
bloclced (dJ. Flfu19 1.6 Roof tcappen.
t CMAPTHONE

Parapet

Scupper (Secondary Drainage System) / Top of Rainwater

dh ./_ __
------- ------------------------ --------- ----
Roof Drain

Primary Drainage System

(assumed blocked)

Figure 1.7 Wala' deptha, tl, and t.llP in accardance with IBC 1611 fur typical perimeter KUf'PC?L

ASCE/SEI Table C8-1 give& flown.tee in gallone per minute and cor- 1.4.4 Controllld Dreln1e-
iuponding hydraulic heads for circular drain, channel-type scupper. ln some Juriadlcttons, the rate of rainwater flow from roofs Jnto storm
and closed-type scupper drainage symm.. drains Is limited. Controlled-ilow drains are typically ut1li7.ed in such
Figure 1.7 illwrtrate.1 the rairxw.Ua' depth! tl., and dh that are to be used. cues and arc dmgned in accordance with lPC 1110 (Ref. 6). The drain-
in determining R for the case of a scupper secondary drainage syrtem. age ftow rate provided by the primary drainage S}'ltem (controlled-ftow
while Fig. 1.8 illustntes these water depths for a typical interior drallar dra!ns) 18 lea.t than the rainfall rate and mter inte.ntJonally accumulate
secondary drainage~ on the roof.
Where buildings are configured. such that rainwater will not collect According to me 1611.3 and ASCE/SEI 8.S, a SC«lllduy drainage
0.11 the roo( no rain load b required in the design of the root; and a sec-
l}'Jtml at a higher elevation must be provided when controlled-ftow
ondary drainage system is not needed. What la important to .note Is that dra!ns are used. u the primary drainage system; th1a .18 meant to limit the
the provWons ofIBC 1611 and ASCB/SEI Chapter 8 must be considered accumulatJon of water on the roof above that elewtion. Note that con-
wherever the potential aim that water ma:y accumulm on die roof. trolled drainage hardware must not be u.ed on the •econduy drainage
1.u Ponding lmablltty l}'Jtml became the secondary system is the backup in caJe the primary
ly3tem u blocked.
ln sl.tuttions where roofs do not hm: adequate slope or ha~ insuffl.dent Roof\! must be designed in mch cases to support the stormwater
and/or blocked drains to remove water due to rain or melting snow, Wllporuily supported on them, dmilu to traditional roof drainage
water will tend to pond in low areas, which will cause the roof structure
~
to deflect. These low areas will subseq,ue.ntly attract even more water, Ponding instability in accordance with me 1611.2 or ASCE/SEI 8.4
leading to addil.lonal defl«tton. Sufllclent stiffness must be provided must also be checl<ed.
so that d.efl~on• will not continually inc~ until innability o~
resulting in localiud failure.
The provision• in ASCE/SEI U are provided to help emure that 1.S SOIL LATERAL LOADS
susceptible bays ha~ adequue stiffnetlS to preclude progressive ddlec:-
tion and adequate mength. to resin the ponding load plus the ~pli~le 1.S.1 G-.11
design rain load (JBe 1611.2). Swrceptible bays are detined in ASCBJSEI Poundation walh of a building or structun: and retaining wll11s murt be
8.4 and illustrated in ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-1. det!gned to mist the lateral loadt cau.ed by adjacent aoll. A geotechni-
ASCE/SEI Figure C8.4-2 shows a roof with. inte.rlor primary drains <:al investigation is uaually unde.rtab.n to determine the magnitude of
and perimeter overftow (secondary) drains. All bays are suscep- die soil prusure. In cue. where the results of such an investipti.on are
tible in this s:itwllion regardle.u of the roof slope becawe water can be not available, the lateral soil loadt in me 'Ilible 1610.1 are to be wed
impounded on the roof when the primary drainage system b blocked. (aimilar de&ign lateral loads are provided in ASCE/SEI Table 3.2-1).

Secondary Drainage System

Top of Rainwater

L
----- -- ---------------------------
Roof Drain --......
ds

-----===~== ; - ========- -----:....-:...------~-----:....~-------------

Primary Drainage System

(assumed blocked)
Rgure 1.8 Wam-deptha. d,and d,.. inaa::mdmcew:ith DlC 1611 far typical intaior clraina.
 SlRUCTURALLOADS t

The design 1atera1 soil load. H, depencls on the type of •oil and the In certain paru of the United States, atmospheric tu loads must be
boundary conditiona a1 the top of the wall Walh that are reatrictecl. to conddered in the design a! all structure. and structural elemenu that
.move a1 the top are to be deaigned for the at-rert p.nmurea tabulated in are exposed to the element.t. Chapter 10 of ASCB/SE.I 7-16 c:ontaina
me Table 1610.1, while walls that are free to deflect and rotate at the top prov:isi.ona on how to determine ice loads due to fnaing rain on a.
are to be clesiped fur the ac:tivc pre11S111'e$ in that table. variety of structural ahapes, objects, and configurations as a function of
Foundation walls that clo not extend more 1han 8 feet bc:low grade the design Ice thickness.
and are laterally rupported at the top by fl.Wble diaphragms are permit-
ted to be dCl!gned for the actift pressure values given in the table. 1.6.2. AltRoofSnowloads
IAkra1 soil preaum are not provided for the expansive IOils Identi- Once a ground mow load has bee.n established, a flat roof snow load,. Pp
fied by Note bin IBC Table 1610.1 becau1e thete soils ha.ve unpredict- ls determined by Eq,UUl.on 7.3-1 a! ASCEJSEI 7:
able characterlstla. These soib absorb water and tend to shrink and
swell to a higher degree than other soils. As these soils swell, they are p1=o.1c,c11,p1
capable of exerting relatively large force. on the aoil-retalning ruucture. The 0.7 factor in Che equation above ii a co1t1ervative ground-to-roof
As such, apanaiTe soils are not suitable u backfill (see Note b). snow load convenlon factor. C, Is the aposure factor, accounts for the
In addition to lateral pres.'lllrel from soil, walls mutt be designed wind at the die, and is related to the type of terrain and the ezposure of
to mist the effects of bydroitattc pre.uure due to undrained bacldlll the roo£ Valu~ of C, are given in ASCB/SEI 7 Table 7.3-1 as a function
(unless a drainage system Is inml!ed) and to any surdlarge loads that of the surfac:e roughness c.:ategory a.nd the type of roof a:posure. Surfac:e
<:all R"1lt from sloping backfills or from d.rivewa}" or parking space. roughne.u categories B, C, and D are defined in 26.7 fur wind deilgn
Chat are close to a. wall Submerged or ~d soil pressuret include (see Table 1.2).
Che weight a! the buoyuit aoil plua the hydrostatic p.ressure.
ASCB/SEI 3.2.2 contains requirements for the de'1gn of any horl- 'hble 1.2 Surfaa Rough MU c:.t.toriu
zontal element supported directly on •oil. auc.:h as slabs on grade and
ba.tement slabt. Full hydrostatic pressure mu.rt be applied over the entinl
area of such elemel!U where applicable. Elem.enta that are supported by
apansive soils must be designed to accommodate the upward loads B Urban and ll1lba.cball. ueu, wooded-, or o1her temm
c.:au.ed by the es:pansive soil. or the expansive soil is to be remOV\ld or 'With~ closely rpaccd. obst:rui:t!one having the
ltlbiliud a.round and beneath the ltlucture.. me of angle-family dwellillp or larger
c Open temlin with ICl!teml obmucticma having height»
gcneraJly 1ea than 3D feet; this a1e80iy ll1dudes flat
1.6 SNOW AND ICE LOADS open country and grastlands
1.6.1 lninlcllldlon D Flat, unob11r11Cted am.t and water A1'faces; lhis category
Struciural memben that are a. part of :coo&, balconies, canopie1, and in.c:lwm smooth mudflm, aalt flm. and unbmbn ice
llmllar atructurea that are expoeed to the e.nviroa.me.nt must be deaigned
fur the effi:cts of mow loacls in th04e geographic areas whe.re snowfall Roof aposun:s are defined as fully expC*d. partially exposed, and
<:all oc;c;ur. sheltered (1ee Footnote a. in Table 7.3-1). A fully exposed condition
Loacls on buildings and oeher structure.I due to snow are determined e:d.rul where a roof la eq>o$ed on all sides with no shelter provided by
based on the anticipated ground mow load. the occupancy of the build- a.dJoWng terrain, higher structuru, or trees. Roofs wi1h large mechani-
.Ing, the aposure, the thermal resistance of the roof structure, and the cal equipment, parapets that extend aboft the height of the balanc.:ed
shtpe and slope of the roof. Partial loading. unbalanced mow loacls mow load. or other similar obstructions a.re not conaidmid to be fully
due to roof configuration, drif\ loacls on lower or adjacent roofs and on exp011ed because such conditions can provide some shelter to the wind.
projections such as parapea and mechanical equlpme.nt. sliding snow Obstructions are defined as providh'lg shelter when they are loc:ated
loads, and ra!n-on-&iow loacls muft also be considered when designing within a dlmnce a! 10h0 from the roof; where h0 is the helglit of the
fur the dfectll &om snow. obstruction above the roof(see Footnote bin Table 7.3-1). The c:onifers
me 1608.1 niquires 1hat de1ign mow loads be d.ewmined by the pro- depicted 111 Fig. 1.9 provide shelter to the building roof if Che dlmnc.:e.
vision• of Chapter 7 ofASCB/SBI 7. In-depth information ii given in the x, between the center!Jne of the building and the tree line is less than or
following sections on the•e provisions along with pertinent background equal to 10h0 • In cases where deciduous trees that are leafless in winter
.Information on the methodologies that iue utilized. aum11111d the site, the fully aposed c:aleiO'Y is applic:able.

x Centerline of building
..-~~~~~~~~~~-.iii

Obstruction provides shelter where x 5 10h0

Flgur. 1.t ShelteRd roof~ for mow loads.
10 CHAPTER ONE

Partially exposed roof exposures are to be used where fully exposed 1.6.4 Slopad Roof Snow l.Ndt
and sheltered conditions do not apply. This is generally the most common Design snow loads fur all structures are based on the sloped roof snow
roof exposure. load, p,. which is determined by the equation
Similar to surface roughness categories, a roof exposure condition must
represent the conditions that are expected during the lifi: of the building.
p,=e,p,
et is the thermal factor; it accounts for the amount of heat loss
through the roof. Values of et are given in ASCE/SEI 7 Table 7.3-2 as a The slope factor, e,, depends on the slope and temperature of the roof,
function of the thermal condition. Like terrain categories and exposure the presence or absence of obstructions, and the degree of slipperiness
conditions, the thermal condition that is chosen must represent the of the roof surface.
anticipated conditions during winters for the lifi: of the building. Figure 7 .4-1 of ASCE/SEI 7 contains graphs of C, fur warm and cold
I, is the importance factor; it adjusts the snow load based on the roof conditions, and C7.4 contains equations for e,. Flowchart 4 in
occupancy of the structure. Risk categories for buildings and other Fig. 1.11 shows the procedure for finding the roof slope factor snow
structures are defined in IBC Table 1604.5, and values of I, are gm:n in load, and Flowchart 5 in Fig. 1.12 shows the procedure for finding the
ASCE/SEI Table 1.5-2. sloped roof snow load.
1.AU Minimum Snow Loads for Low-Slope Roofs 1.6.5 Partl•I LHdlng
ASCE/SEI 7.3.4 contains provisions for minimum snow loads, p,,., for The partial loading provisions of 7.5 of ASCE/SEI 7 must be satisfied
low-slope roofs, which are defined as follows: for continuous roof framing systems and all other roof systems where
• Monoslope, hip, and gable roofs with slopes less than 15 degrees. removal of snow load on one span (by wind or thermal effects) causes
• Curved roofs where the vertical angle from the eaves to the crown an increase in stress or deflection in an adjacent span. For example, an
is less than 10 degrees. increase in bending moment and deflection will occur in the span of a
Flowchart 3 shown in Fig. 1.10 shows the procedure fur finding the cantilevered roof member that is adjacent to the cantilever span where
flat roof snow load. half the snow load is removed.

fLOWCHART3
Flat Roof Snow Load, P/

Determine ground snow loadp8

from Fig. 7.2-1 or Fig. 1608.2 for
conterminous U.S. and Table 7.2-1
or Table 1608.2 for Alaska**

Determine exposure factor c. from

Table 7.3-1 (7.3.1)

Determine thermal factor et from

Table 7.3-2 (7.3.2)

Determine importance factor 1,

using IBC Table 1604.5 and
Table 1.5-2 (7.3.3)

Determine flat roof snow load

P1=0.1c.c,I,p8 by Eq. 7.3-1t

• A ftat roof is defined as a roof with a slope that is less than or equal to 5 degrees.
.. "CS" in the maps signifies areas where a site-specific study must be conducted to
determine Pg· Numbers In parentheses represent the upper elevatlon llmll In feat for
the ground snow load values given below. Site-specific studies are required at
elevations not covered in the maps.
Minimum snow loads for low-slope roofs Pm are specified In 7.3.4. Low-slope roofs are
defined in 7.3.4.
Figure 1.10 Flat roof snow load (Flowchart 3).
 STRUCTURALLOADS 11

FLDWCHAAT4

Roof Slope Factor, c;

No Yes

Detennine thermal factor C1

from Table 7.3-2 (7.3.2)
c, =1.0 (7.4.4)

No Yes

Roof Is defined es a Roof Is defined es a

cold roof (7.4.2) warm roof (7.4.1)

• Portions of curved roots having s slope exceeding 70 degrees shall be considered free of
snow load, that is, c.~ o (7.4.3).

FLOWCHART4

Roof Slope Factor, Cs

(continued)

No Yes

Detennine roof slope factor c, Detennine roof slope factor c,

using the solid line in Fig. 7.4-1 b using the dashed line in Fig. 7 .4-1 b

No Yes

Detennine roof slope factor C, Detennine roof slope factor C,

using the solid line in Fig. 7.4-1 c using the dashed line in Fig. 7.4-1c

Flgu!W 1.11 Roof slope factor (Plowchart 4).

12 CHAPTER ONE

FLOWCHART4

Roof Slope Factor, Cs

{continued)

No Yes

Detennine roof slope factor c, Detennine roof slope factor c,

using the solid line in Fig. 7.4-1at using the dashed line in Fig. 7.4-1at

•• See 7.4 for definitions ot unobstructed and sllppery surfaces. An R-value for a roof Is
defined as Its thermal resistance.
t See 7.4.5 for an additional uniformly diStributecl load that is to be applied on overhanging
portions of warm roots due to fonnatiOn of ice dams and icicles along eaves.
Figure 1.11 (Conlinud)

There will be (n-1) possible combinations for this case where n is equal
FLOWCHARTS to the number of spans in the continuous beam system.
Sloped Roof Snow Load, p, Case 1 can occur when two different snow events that correspond to
half of the balanced snow load are separated by an event that prevents
the lower half of the roof snow from drifting. The intervening event can
be sleet or freezing rain, for example. After the second snowfall occurs, a
Determine flat snow load PJ strong wind blows across the roof, removing snow from all of the spans
from Flowchart 3 and depositing it on all of the downwind spans. Case 1 in Figure 7.5-1
depicts the case for wind blowing from right to left.
Wind blowing from left to right must also be considered, and this is
Detennine roof slope factor c, covered in Case 2 for a wind of shorter duration than that in Case 1. In
from Flowchart 4 particular, the wind event in Case 2 is long enough to remove the snow
from the first span and deposit it on the adjoining spans.
The load pattern depicted for Case 3 in Figure 7.5-1 could cor-
respond to a case where there is an obstruction on the roof (such as
Detennine sloped roof snow a parapet) that blocks the wind from blowing the snow behind the
loadp, = C,p1 by Eq. 7.4-1 obstruction.
Partial loading provisions need not be considered for structural
Figure 1.12 Sloped roof snow load (Flowchart 5). members that span perpendicular to the ridgeline of gable roofs with
slopes between 2.38 degrees ('f.i on 12) and 30.3 degrees (7 on 12)
because this loading case is addressed in the unbalanced snow load
For simplicity, only the three load cases given in Figure 7.5-1 of provisions of 7.6.1, which are covered in the next section.
ASCE/SEI 7 need to be investigated; comprehensive alternate span (or 1.6.6 UnlMlllnmd RoofSn-LIHld1
checkerboard) loading analyses are not required:
OVERVIEW
• Full balanced snow load on either of the exterior spans and half of
the balanced snow load on all other spans. Unbalanced snow load occurs on sloped roofs from wind and sunlight
• Half of the balanced snow load on either exterior span and full bal- and in most cases can be considered a drift load. Wind tends to reduce
anced snow load on all other spans. the snow load on the windward portion of a roof and increase the snow
• All possible combinations of full balanced snow load on any two load on the leeward portion. Provisions for unbalanced snow loads are
adjacent spans and half of the balanced snow load on all other spans. given in 7.6.1 for hip and gable roofs; in 7.6.2 for curved roofs; in 7.6.3
 $1RUCTURAL LOADS 13

fur multlple folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roofs; and in 7.6.4 In CUC$ where W is Jen than 20 feet. a wlue of W equal to 20 feet
fur dome rooh. When determining unbalan~ mow loads on a root it ii used in Equation 4.3. In such cues, the mow drift height. Ii,,, deter-
ill important to consider wind from all directions. mined. by Equation 4.3 need not be tabn greater than
HIP AND GABLB Roo11s ~I,p1W/4y
Depicted. In Fig. 1.13 is unM!an~ mow load. on a hip aid gable roof whe.re W ls the actud fetch distance, not the minimum fetch distance
of a building due to wind. The shape of the roof drift can t.wically be of20 feet.
characterized u a triangle located. close to the ridgeline: the turchuge is The density of snow, y, ill determined by Equa1ion 7.7-1:
essentially zero at the ridge, and the top sumce of the surcharge I• basi-
cally horizontal. Loading (Ollcli1lon• meant to represent thl• behavior ')'=0.13p,+14S: 30 pc(
arc giTen in 7.6.1.
Flowchart 6 in Fig. 1.15 can be used to determine the unbalanced roof
mow loads for hip and gable roofs.

.....
Wind
Windward Leeward
CuRVJIJ> ROOI'
Provisions for balanced and unbalanced mow loads on curved roo& are
given in 7.6.2. Any portion of a curved roof that has a slope that exceecb
70 degreu can be comidered free of1now loads. Note that the roofJlope
is measured from the horizoatal. to the tan.gent of the curved roof at that
point In cases where the roof •lope a<:l:ed.a 70 degree«, the point on the
roof at a slope of 70 degree1 is (Ollsiderecl to be die eave.
Balanced and unbalanced. load cases that are applicable to curved roo&
are given In Figure 7.4-2 aa a function of the dope of the roof at the eave.
It Is Important to note that these provisions are not applicable to
c:urved roof's that are co.ncavc upward. In such caset. u wdl as in cases
for other roof geometries and complicated site (Ollditions, wind tunnel
model studiet should be wed to establish design snow loads (see C7.14).
Flgin 1.13 U~ mow load on• hip or gable roo£ The unbalanced. load.ls very similar to Cue 2: the windward portion of
the roof between the windwvd eave and the crown ls auumed. to be free
Unbalanced. mow loads mlllt be considered. for roofs with 1lope.1 of* of mow, and there are two cases to comi.der for die leeward portion ofthe
on 12 (2.38 degrees) Chrough 7 on 12 (30.3 degree.). Drift» typically do roof depending 011 whether or not the ground or another roof abuts the
not form on roofs with. slopes less than and greater than tht$e llmiting curved roof w.ilhiD. 3 reet of.Its eaves (see Figure 4.8 In Ref 3).
whle.. Bdanced. and unbalan«d load conditlons that must be addressed Flowchart 7 in Fig. 1.16 cm be used to detx!rmine the unbalan«d roof
for hip and gable roofs arc illumab!d in Figure 7.6-2 (see Fig. 1.14). mow loads for curved roo&.
MUL'l1PL£ FOLDBD Pu.'1'11, SAWTOO'l'B, AND
8hd..fS/3 BAJl!UlL VAULT ROOFS
I' 'I Provisions for unbalanced mow loads on folded plate, sawtooth, and
0.3ps f ! : hdy/./S bane! vault roofs are given in 7.6.3. Unbalanced loads need to be con-
Unbalanced
All other cases
..,~~.~-.--
. .--.i.~ i i t t Ps
dde.red when the slope e:ui!eds" .ln.fft (1.79 degrea).
Similar to curved roofs. unbalanced. loads are equal to O.S!J at
the crown or ridge of the roof and are equal to 2pJ' C, at the valleys.
IDllS!raled in Figure 7.6-3 are the balanced and unlialanced loads for a
sawtooth roof.
Unbalanced
w s 20 feet w ith t t t t t lsPg Flowchart 8 in Fig. 1.17 can be used to detx!rmine the unbalan«d roof
mow loads for folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roo&.
roof rafter system
DoMll Rool'S
Acco.rding to 7.6.4, unbalanced snow loads for dome roof's are to be
determined in the same manner u for curved rooti. Unbalanced loads
Balanced t I I I I I I I i Ps are to be applied to the downwind 90-degrc:e sector of the dome in plan
(see Fig. 1.18). The load decreases linearly to zero over 22.5-degree sec-
tors on either side ofthis aec:tor. No anow load. I• taken on the remaining
225-degree upwind sector.
The balan~ and unbalanced. load di..ruiblllions depend on the slope

[d
of the roofat die eaves. In the unbalanced load case, the mow load at the
eave or where the slope .Is equal to 70 degrees dec.rease& llneady to zero
over the 22.S-degree sector on each side of the 90-degree downwind
a«tor of the root:
s 1.6.7 Drlfb on Lowtr Roots
0v:u.VIBW
Section 7.7 contains provl.slo.ns for snow drifts that can oc<:Ur on lower
roo& of a building due to die following:
1. W'md depositing mow from higher portion• of the same building
or an adjacent building or terrain feature (sw:h u a hill) to a lower roof
2. Wlnd depositing snow from the windward portion of a hnm roof
FltuM 1.14 Balanced and unbalanced snowloadt fur hip and gable rooft. to the portion of the lower roof adjaCCI1t to a taller part of the building
 FLOWCHART&

Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads - Hip and Gable Roofs

(7.6.1)

No Yes

Unbalanced snow loads are

not required to be applied

No Yes

No Yes

Unbalanced load shall consist of: Apply unbalanced unifonn snow

load of I,P1 on the leeward side
• 0.3p,on the windward side and no load on the windward side
• p, on the leeward side plus a rectangular (see Rg. 7.6-2 and Fig. 4.5)
surcharge of h,n/{S, which extends from
the ridge a distance of BhifS/3*

(see Rg. 7.6-2 and Fig. 4.5)

• hd Is the drift height from Fig. 7.6-1 wllh W substituted fort u• y = snow
density detennlned by Eq. 7.7·1, and S =roof slope run for a rise of one.
Figure 1.15 Unbalanced roof snow loads-hip and gable rooti (Flowchart 6).

FLOWCHART7

Unbalanced Roof Snow Loads - Curved and Dome Roofs*

(7.6.2, 7.6.4)

No Yes

Unbalanced load shall consist of: Unbalanced snow loads are not
• No load on the windward side required to be applied
• The applicable load distribution depicted
in Cases 1, 2, or 3 shown in Fig. 7.4-2 (see
Figs. 4.6, 4.7, and 4.6)**

• Portions of curved roofs having a slope> 70° shall be considered free of snow.
- See Fig. 4.10 for application ol unbalanced snow loads on a dome roof.

Figure 1.16 Unbalanced roof snow loads-cur-1 and dome rooti (Flowchart 7).
14
 $1RUCTURAL LOADS 15

fLOWCHART8

No Yes

Unbalanced snow loads are not Unbalanced load shall consist al'*
required to be applied • o.s pt at the ridge or crown
• 2 p/C, atthe valtey-
• Figure 7.6-3 and Fig. 4.9 illustmte batanced and unbalanced snow !Oads for a
eawtooth roof.
•• Snow eurfal::& above th& valley shall not b& at an &levation higher than th& snow
above th& ridg&. Snow d&pths shall be det&rmin&CI by <IMclng th& snow load by th&
snow density given by Eq. 7.7·1.
Figure 1.17 UD.balaD<:cd roof «llOW loadt-mllltlple fu1dcd plait. sawtooth. md ham! '9all!t roaff (Plowdwt 8).

Decreasing snow load

Decreasing snow load

Plan of Dome Roof

The first type of drift Is cailed a leeward drift. and the •econd 18 a In the case ofleeward. drlft8, the height of the drift. h.,. at the roof step
windward. drift. Both types of drifts are lllusmited in Figure 7.7·1 (see is determined from Figure 7.6-1 by substituting the length of the upper
Fig. 1.19). root lClf!Pd' for l,. and using the mow importance factor. I,:
In cases where there is a change in elevation between roan, mow

~ =[0.43(l1 ppt)(p1 +10)~ J-1.5

will have a tendency to accumulate at this location (aee Fig. 1.19).
Depe.nding 011 wind direction, either a windward or a leeward. drift
will form. A triangular shape i• used to diaracterize windward drifh
as well.
"1.
The configuration that Is to be taken for snow drilU on lower roo& ls The clear height. h., ahown in Fig. 1.20 is equal to the height of the
deplcb:d In Figure 7.7·2 (see Fig. 1.20). roof step minus the height of the balanced mow, It,,. It Is dete.rm.!ned
16 CMAPTERONE

Wind
)

Windward drift Leeward drift

i upper

Ps

/iower

Figure 1.30 Cwifiguralion af anow drifta.

in this way assuming that the upper roof Is blown clear of snow in There may be caS« where the drift width. w, aceeda the le.ngth of the
the vicinity of the drift. While this assumption is generally valid for lower root ei.,_. Jn these situations. the drift load ii to t<iper linearly to
windward dritling, it is not necessarily accurate for leewvd. drifting wo at the iiir end of the lower level roof. This provision may be appli-
because there may still be anow on the upper level roof when the drift cable to canopiea over an entranceway to a building. Figure 1.21 ahow»
has stoppe<l growing. For simplicity; the ume assumption is used for the the proper load dlstr:lbution to use where w > ti..-.
clur height regard!~ of the type of drift that is formed
The height of the balanced mov.s h"' ii determined 111ing the magni-
tude of the balanced snow load, p., and the density of the snow, -y:
,,. p, p,
y 0.13p,+14
where yneed not be taken greater than 30 pd {see Equation 7.7-1).
The width of the drih. w, depends on the clear height. h., as follows:

Jfit Is found that the governing drift height, ""' aceeds the clear height,
h" then the drift height is set ~u.al to h.., The drift width in dm cue has
been ertablished by equating the crou-sectional area o( the triangular
drift that 18 llmiled to h, (i.e., h, x w/2) with the cross-sectional area of
the triangular drift that Is not llmlted to h, [I.e., (114 x 411/2)). The upper
limit of drift width 811i i• baled on studi« that showed that additional
mow accumulation i.'I not er;pectlld within a rise-to-run railo range of RguN 1.21 Load ~n where the drift width 1£ graier thaD the lezl8th
1:6.5 to 1:10. of the lowerroo£
 STRUCTURALLOADS 17

According to 7.7.1, drift loads need not be 'onsidered where the ratio to existing ones within a horizontal distance of20 feet have the potential
hjhb is less than 0.2. In sum 'ases, the roof step is relatively small so that to increase the snow loads on the existing roof when the new roof is
the drift formation is negligible. higher than the existing one. In particular, both drift and sliding snow
loads must be considered on the existing roof due to the presence of
ADJACENT STRUCTURES
the new roof. Additionally, the existing roof will most likely be partially
Leeward drifts = form on the roof of a stru,ture that is close enough
to an adjaant one that has a higher roof. A"ording to 7.7.2, leeward
exposed or sheltered by the new building or alteration; if it were fully
exposed previously, an increase in snow load will be realized due to this
drifts form on lower roofs of adjacent buildings when the horizontal change in exposure.
separation distance, s, between the two is less than 20 feet and is less ASCE/SEI 7.12 requires that owners or agents for owners of an exist-
than 6 times the vertkal separation distance, h. The drift surcharge is ing building with a lower roof be notified for the potential of in'reased
determined using the provisions of 7.7.1. See Ref 3, Section 4.2, fur snow loads when a new building or alteration with a higher roof is to be
details on drift calculations at adjacent structures. lo'8ted within 20 feet of the existing building.
INTERSECTING DRIFTS AT Low ROOFS
GENER.AL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE
ASCE/SEI 7.7.3 contains provisions for snowdrifts that =
o"ur at SNowLoAns
reentrant 'omers and parapet wall 'omen Three-dimensional drifts
The following general procedure, which is based on that given in C7,
form at sum locations due to wind acting in multiple directions. The
can be used to determine design snow loads in accordance with Chapter 7
provisions in 7 .7.1 are to be used to determine the individual two-
of ASCE/SEI 7:
dimensional snowdrift geometries for both leeward and windward
1. Determine ground snow load, p~ (7.2).
intersecting snow drifts. Referen'e 3 Section 4.2 'ontains details on the
2. Determine flat roof snow load, Pt• by Equation 7.3-1 (7.3). The
determination of intersection drifts at low roofs.
procedure is shown in Fig. 1.10 (Flowcliart 3).
Roop PROJECTIONS AND PARAPETS 3. Determine sloped roof snow load, p,. by Equation 7.4-1 (7.4).
The pro,edUie is shown in Figs. 1.11 and 1.12 (Flowchart 4 and
Drift loads on sides of roof projections (including rooftop equipment)
Flowchart 5).
and at parapet walls are determined by the provisions of 7.8, which are
4. Consider partial loading (7.5).
based on the drift requirements of7.7.1.
5. Consider unbalanced snow loads (7.6). The procedure is shown
The drift that is formed adjai:ent to a parapet wall is a windward drift,
in Fig. 1.15 (Flowchart 6) for hip and gable roofs, Fig. 1.16 (Flowchart 7)
and the height of the drift is equal to three-quarters of h11 from Figure 7 .6-1.
for curved and dome roofs, and Fig. 1.17 (Flowchart 8) for multiple
SLIDING SNOW folded plate, sawtooth, and barrel vault roofs.
6. Consider snow drifts on lower roofs (7.7) and roof projections
The load 'awed by snow sliding off of a sloped roof onto a lower roof
(7.8). The procedure to determine snow drifts is shown in Fig. 1.22
is determined by the provisions of 7 .9. Sum loads are superimposed on
(Flowchart 9).
the balan'ed snow load of the lower roof and need not be used in com-
7. Consider sliding snow (7.9).
bination with drift, unbalanced, partial, or rain-on-snow loads.
8. Consider rain-on-snow loads (7.10).
Sliding snow loads are applicable for upper roofs that are slippery
9. Consider ponding instability (7.11).
with slopes greater than % on 12 and for upper roofs that are not slip-
10. Consider existing roofs (7.12).
pery with slopes greater than 2 on 12.

RAIN-ON-SNOW SURCHARGE LOAD 1.6.8 Ice Loads

The snow load provisions in the ~ussions above 'onsider load effects OVERVIEW
due to light rain on snow; effects due to heavy rain are not directly taken An ice-sensitive structuTe is defined as one in which the effects due to
into acc:ount in the SO-year ground snow loads. At locations where the atmospheric ice loading governs the design of part or all of the struc-
ground snow load is greater than 20 psf, it is assumed that because of ture (IBC 202 and ASCE/SEI 10.2). Examples include the following:
the relatively deep snow pad, heavy rains have a less likely chance of (1) lattice structures, (2) guyed masts, (3) overhead lines, (4) light sus-
permeating through the snow pack and draining away; as sum, rain-on- pension and 'able-stayed bridges, (5) aerial cable systems (e.g., ski lifts),
snow load effects have been captured in the ground snow load measure- (6) amusement rides, (7) open catwalks and platforms, (8) flagpoles,
ments, and an additional surcharge to account fur this is not required. and (9) signs.
A rain-on-snow surcharge load of 5 psf is to be added on all roofs that Freezing rain is rain or drizzle that falls into a layer of subfreezing
meet the conditions of 7.10. This surcharge load applies only to the bal- air in the earth's surface and freezes on oontact with the ground or any
anced load case and need not be used in 'ombination with drift, sliding, other exposed surface to form glaze (clear, high-density) ice. Compared
unbalanced, minimum, or partial loads. to in-doutl icing (which o"urs when a supercooled ~ud or fog drop-
lets that are carried by the wind freeze on impact with objects) and
PONDING INSTABILITY snow, freezing rain is considered the cause of the most severe ice loads
Provisions for ponding instability and progressive deflection of roofs in most of the contiguous United States. Because values of ice thickness
are given in 7.11and8.4 of ASCE 7. Sus~ble bays, that is, bays with for in-cloud icing and snow are not 'Uirently available in a form that
a roof slope less than ~ in. per foot or those where the primary drain is suitable for inclusion in ASCE/SEI 7, only data for freezing rain are
system is bloclted and the secondary drain system is functional, must given in Chapter 10.
be analyzed for the effects from the larger of the snow load or the rain Ice that is formed on exposed surfaces increases the size of the surface,
load assuming the primary drainage system is bloclted. The roof stru'- which increases the projeded area that is exposed to wind. Chapter 10
ture in these bays must be designed with adequate stiffness to preclude contains requirements that address the proper wind loads that must be
ponding instability. used on ice-covered ~tures.
Roof surfaces with a slope greater than or equal to 14 in. per foot The provisions of Chapter 10 do not apply to structures that are
toward points of free drainage need not be 'onsidered susceptible to covered by national standards (e.g., electric transmission systems and
ponding instability. communication towers and masts). In such cases, the standards and
guidelines in 10.1.3 are to be used where appli,able.
EXISTING RoOFS Design for dynamic load effects resulting from galloping. ice shedding.
Requirements for increased snow loads on existing roofs due to addi- and aeolian vibrations, to name a few, are not covered in Chapter 10. Such
tions and alterations are covered in 7.12. New structures built adjacent effects must be considered in certain types of ice-sensitive structures.
18 CHAPTER ONE

FloWCHART9

Drifts on Lower Roof of a Structure

(7.7)

Determine ground snow load p1 from

Fig. 7 .2-1 or Fig. 1608.2 for
conterminous U.S. and Table 7.2-1 or
Table 1608.2 for Alaska*

Determine snow density

y=0.13p1 +14S30pcf(Eq. 7.7-1)

Determine sloped roof snow load

p 1 from Flowchart 5

Determine he as clear height from

top of balanced snow to
• closest point on adjacent
upper roof
•top of parapet
•top of projection on the roof
(see Fig. 7.7-2 and Fig. 4.12)**

Determine (1) drift height hdfrom Fig. 7.6-t for

leeward drifts and from 7.7.1 for windward drifts Drift loads are not
and (2) drift width wfrom 1.1.1t required to be applied

• ''CS* in the maps signifies areas where a site-specific study must be conducted to determine p1 . Numbers
in parentheses represent the upper elevation limit in feet for the ground snow load values given below.
Slte-speclftc studies are required at elevallons not covered In Iha maps.
•• Height of balanced snow hb = p,lyor p1fy(7.7.1).
t See 7. 7.2 and Figs. 4.14 and 4.15 for drift loads caused by adjacent structures and terrain features.
See 7.8 for drift loads on roof projections and parapet walls.
Figure 1.22 Drift on lower roof of a structure (Flowchart 9).

IcB LOADS DVB TO FIU!BZI~G RAm %3)0.10

Nomlul la Thickness Figures 10.4-2 through 10.4-6 contain an
equivalent uniform radial thickness, t, of ice due to freezing rain at a
f,. =(3 for 0 feet < z :!>900 ft
= 1.4 for z > 900 ft
height of 33 feet above the ground for the contiguous 48 states and
Alaska based on a 500-year mean recurrence interval. The concurrent • Importance Factor
3-second gust wind speeds are also given in the figures; these wind Importance factors, I~ adjust the nominal ice thickness and concurrent
speeds correspond to the winds that occur during the freezing rain wind pressure based on the occupancy of the structure. Risk categories
storm and those that occur between the time the freezing rain stops and for buildings and other structures are defined in IBC Table 1604.5, and
the temperature rises to above freezing. Special icing regions are also values of 11 are given in ASCBJSEI Table 1.5-2.
identified on the maps (gray shaded areas) and occur in the western • Topographic Factor
mountainous regions and in the Appalachian Mountains. Because of wind speed-up effects, the ice thickness and concurrent
The following factors are considered in the calculations of the ice wind speed are larger for buildings and structures that are situated
load: on hills, ridges, and escarpments compared to those located on levd
• Height Factor terrain. To account for these effects, the nominal ice thickness is
The height factor, f., is determined by Equation 10.4-4, and it is used modified by (JC.t)0.3S, where Ku is the topographic factor determined
to increase the radial thickness of ice for any height above ground, z: by Equation 26.8-1.
 STRUCTURAL LOADS 19

Dllllgn le11 Tbkknns far Freezing R.-ln The design Ice thickness, t"' that For wind on ice-covered solid freestanding walls and solid signs, wind
Is to be used In calculating ice weight is the nominal ice thickness, t, mul- loads are determined for solid freestanding walls and solid signs using
tiplied by the modification factors noted above (see Equation 10.4-5): Equation 29.3-1:
ttl = tIJ.(Ka )0.35 F=qhGCfA,
Ice Weight Ice load is determined using the ice weight, D~ that is where q4 is determined by Equation 29.3-1 at height h, which is defined
formed on all exposed surfaces of structural members, guys, compo- in Figure 29.3-1, and G is determined in accordance with 26.11.
nents, appurtenances, and cable systems. The cross-sectional area of ice, c
The force coefficients, 1, given in Figure 29.3-1 and the gross area,
Ai· to be used in the determination of D1 in such cases is determined by A,. of the solid freestandiD.g wall or solid sign must be based on the
Equation 10.4-1: dimensions including ice.

~ =n;ttl(D, +t4} WIND ON ICE-COVERED OPEN SIGNS AND

LATTICE FRAMEWORKS
The volume of ice on flat plates and large three-dimensional objects,
Wmd loads are determined for these types of structures using Equation
such as domes and spheres, is determined by Equation 10.4-2:
29.4-1. c1, given in Figure 29.4-2, are to be uaed in this equation. In all
Vj = n;ttlA, cases, the solidity ratio e (which is equal to the ratio of solid area to gross
area) that is defined in Figure 29.4-2 is to be based on the projected area,
For flat plates, A, is the area of one side of the plate. For domes or including ice.
spheres, A, is the projected area of the dome or sphere and is deter-
mined by Equation 10.4-3: WIND ON ICE-COVERED TuvsSED TOWERS

2 Wind loads are determined using Equation 29.4-1 using the force coef-
A,= itr
ficients, c1, from Figure 29.4-3 and the gross area, A1 , based on the
In this equation, r is the radius of the maximum cross section of a dome dimensions, including ice.
or a radius of a sphere.
WIND ON ICE-COVERED Gun AND CABLES
The ice volume given by Equation 4.16 is for a flat plate or projected
surface that is oriented perpendicular to the path of the raindrops. Because there is very little published experimental data for force coef-
ASCE/SEI 10.4.1 permits Equation 4.16 to be multiplied by 0.8 for verti- ficients fur ice-covered guys and cables, a single value of 1.2 is permitted
cal plates and 0.6 fur horizontal plates. to be used in all cases (10.5.5). The rationale behind using this value is
Once Ai or \./have been computed, the corresponding ice weight, D1, given in Cl0.5.5.
is determined by multiplying A 1or Vj by the density of ice. .According to
DESIGN TBMPBRATURBS POR FREEZING RAIN
10.4.1, the density of ice must not be taken less than 56 pd.
Figures 10.6-1 and 10.6-2 give temperatures concurrent with ice thickness
due to freezing rain for the contiguous 48 states and Alaska, respectively.
1.6.9 Wind on Ice-Covered Strudures The design temperature for ice and wind-on-ice that is to be used
OVERVIEW is the temperature from Figures 10.6-1 and 10.6-2 or 32°F, whichever
Ice that has formed on structural members, components, and appurte- gives the maximwn load effects. For Hawaii, the temperature must
nances increases the projected area that is exposed to wind and changes be 32°F.
the structure's wind drag coefficients. Ice accretions tend to round sharp 1.6.10 P•rtl•l lmldlng
edges, thereby reducing drag coefficients fur members lila: angles and
rectangular bars. It has been found that variations in ice thickness due to freezing rain at a
Ice-sensitive structures must be designed fur the wind loads deter- given elevation are usually small over distances of about 1000 feet. Thus,
mined by the provisions in ASCE/SEI Chapters 26 through 31 using partial loading from freezing rain does not usually produce maximum
increased projected area and the modifications set forth in 10.5.l load effects. However, in certain types of structures, partial ice loads
through 10.5.5. The loads determined in this fashion are defined as the can produce maximum effects, and this must be considered in design.
wind-on-ice loads, W;. Additional information on this topic can be found in Cl0.7.
GENERAL PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE
WIND ON ICE-CovERED CHIMNEYS, TANKS, AND
ATMOSPHERIC ICE LOADS
SIMILAR STRUCTURES
For chimneys, tanks, and other similar types of structures, design wind The following general procedure, which is based on that given in 10.8,
can be used to determine design ice loads in accordance with Chapter 10
loads are determined by Equation 29.4-1:
of ASCE/SEI 7:
F=q.GC1A1 1. Determine nominal ice thickness, t; the concurrent wind speed,
V,; and the concurrent temperature from Figures 10.4-2 through 10.4-6
The velocity pressure, q,, is determined by Equation 26.10-1 using the or from a site-specific study in accordance with 10.1.1 (10.4.2, 10.6).
topographic factor, K.,. determined in accordance with 10.4.5 and the 2. Determine height factor,/., for each design segment of the struc-
concurrent wind speed, V,: ture (10.4.3 ).
3. Determine importance factor, I;. (lo.4.4).
q, = 0.00256K,Kr1KtlK<V,2 4. Determine topographic factor, K.,. (10.4.5).
The velocity pressure exposure coefficient, K,, is determined from 5. Determine design ice thickness, t"' by Equation 10.4-5 ( 10.4.6).
Table 26. 10-1, and the wind directionality factor, K"' is defined in 26.6. 6. Determine the weight of ice, D;, using the applicable equations in
The ground elevation factor K, is defined in 26.9. 10.4.1 (10.4.1).
The gust factor, G, is determined in accordance with 26.11. For struc- 7. Determine the velocity pressure, q., for wind speed, v,. in accor-
tures with square, hexagonal, and octagonal cross sections, the force dance with 26.10.
coefficients, c1 , are given in Figure 29.4-1. 8. Determine the applicable wind force coefficients, Cp in accor-
Similarly, wind on ice-covered chimneys, tanks, and similar struc- dance with 10.5.
tures is determined by Equation 29.4-1: 9. Determine the gust effect factor, G, in accordance with 26.11.
10. Determine the design wind force, W;. in accordance with the
F=q,GC!Af applicable provisions of Chapter 29 (10.5).
20 CMAPTERONE

1.7 WIND LOADS 3-.ewnd averaging time is based on the mrponse c:.harac:tcristics of the
1.7.1 Introduction newer instrumentJ that are utiliud a1 the weather stalions.
Thundentnrma, hurricanu, toma.does, and special regional~ are
NATUllB 011 Wnm LOADS the d1matological ev=tsthat are ofprlmarytntemt when deGgn1ng build-
In genual. wind loading is the drea of the atmoaphere passing by a ings and struc:tu.res in the U.nted States. Fipre 1.23 illustratet 1he control-
stationary llrudure attached to the earth's surface. An in-depth dis,. ling climamlogical evmts tlllll produce es.t!l!me wind speeds in R'giom of
cusalon on the mechanics of atm.Oipherlc drculatlone can be found Che CClltemlinous United Stata h is evident from the figure 1hat the pre-
in Ref. 8. wlllng wind speeds are generated bythunderstonm in most afthe country.
Loads on build.inp and other structures due to the~ &om wind Wind speeds genmted by tomadoe~ are not included in the wind
are deta:mined by conllidering both almwpheric and aerodynamic speed maps in the me or ASCEISBI 7. The primary reason for this hu
efferu. The.te effects form the bw of the methodologies given in to do with Che s:igD!&mtly lower probability of occurrence of tomad.oet
ASCB/SE[ 7 for the determination of wind loads. compared to that for baac: wind speeds. Additional lnfunmtton on how
Atm01pheitc: Efl'ectll The atrnwpheric facton that have a direct to design for tornadoes is c:overed In Re£ 3.
impact on the magnitude of wind loading on a building or other struc- Special wind ngions can have wind speeds significantly greater than
ture are obtained from meteorological and boundary layer effecb. Chose in 1um>unding &Ras. Suc:.h rqiio.11al effects include wind blowing
MmorolOfT Meteorology is the study of the atmosphe.re, and wind over mowxtaln ranges or through gorges or valleys. The.te reglom are
climawlogy Is a branch within meteorology that focuse~ on the predlc:- identified u $l)edd wind regions on 1he bulc: wind tp«d maps.
lion of storm conditions. In particular, extreme wind speeds u1ociated ._,..,, """' Ruld 11JntartJa The layer of the earth's atmosphere
with d!Herent types of sto.r:ma and the probability of occurrence ofsuch that is localed from the surfa.c.e of the earth to appromnald.y 3300 feet
atmne wlues are analyzed at specl1lc geographical loc:atl.ons. Th.ls above the rurface .Is known as the boundary layer. The fluid dynamic
information is UJed in dm:lopiilg deaign wind sp«d maps In the IBC effi:c:ts that oc:c:ur within this layer have an important impact on the
and ASCE/SEI 7. Wmd Tdocity is used in calculating the maximum magnitude of wind loads on buildinp and other struc:tum.
des:igll wind loads that can be expected on a bull.ding or structure dur- In general, the surface of the earth exerts a horizontal drag force on
ing .Its life span. wind. which impedea ita flow. The more frictional reslatanc.e ii experi-
Wlnd speed meuurements that are utilized. in c:mitiDg the dWgD. enced, the closer the wind flow Is to the surface; thus, wind w!od.ty Is
wind spee<I map• in the IBC and ASCB/SEI 7 are obtained from essen- smaller at or near the ground levd compared to levels@ove the surfue.
tially two different sources. In non-huniCU1e regions, wind speed data Similarly. at. a given height @ove the surface. wind velocity is amaller
u collected from mndard three-cup ane.mometm that are located over rougher surfacea compared to smoother ones because of frlctio.c.
33 feet «hove the ground in open te.m1n (such as at alrpom) at 485 Figure 1.24 depicts the variation of wind speed with. respect to height
National Weather Service weather rtatiO.Ds throughout the United and rwfac:e roughness. Bo1h phenomen& are captured in the cunent
States thJrt have :;rt leut. S years of aVllilable data. Design wind speeds wind load provisions wring a modified venion of the power-law meth-
in hurric.:ane reglom are obtained from nat:iatJcal aimulatlom bued on odology that wu fint introduced in Ref. 9. Note that the wind velod-
historkal datt. since actual weather data on hurricmes at any partlc:ular ti« become con5tant above certain h.e.lghts fur the dlfftrent roughnw
location are picrally limited. categories; these heights are defined u gradient helghta in ASCE/SBI 7.
The wind speed that was recorded. at the afomnentioned weather MirodJn•mlc Eflllc:ta
statioiu fur many ,an wu the fastest-mile whld $pttd, which is the OnMnr Wmd tlow ii disturbed due to the preaenc:e of a bull.ding
muimwn wind speed average<l owr 1 mile of wind passing through an or atrw:ture in Its path. The resulting raponae• due to this disturbance
memometer. From this definition. It follows thJrt the cormpondlng aver- are governed by the laws of «erodynamia. In the c:ase of a bull.ding
aging time u equal to 3600 divided by the vdocil:y of wind in mile.1 per or o1her str\lc:ture that has an essentially block-like shape (which is
hour. M the Nltlonal Weather Service phased out the older equipment. referred to as a bluff body), bluff body aerodynamics is UJed to predict
the fastest-mile wind speed was replaced with a 3-staJnd gust speed. The Che eff'ect8 caused by placing the bluff body in Che flow of wind.

F1srure 1.23 The c.o111:rollillg clim.at.ologlcll ~that produce extttme wlJld apeeda ill iegiona of the
<»llte?mlnOllf United Stam!.
 $1RUCTURAL LOADS 21

Heightz

Wind Velocity

Flat, open, unobstructed areas, including water

Open terrain with scattered obstructions

Urban and suburban areas with closely spaced obstructions

Flgur.1.24 The variation of wind speed with reipect to he!Pt and swfaoe roughntw.

In general, when wind oome.t into contact with a building or other by roles when determining the effects caused by lntemal pressures.
structure, the following premim are created: ASCE/SE[ 7 defines an opening u an aperture or hole in the build.Ing
1. I!xtenuil pressures. which act on aD oterior sur&us; th~ pm- envelope that allows air to Bow through the build.Ing envelope and that
lllml are caused by the effects that are generated when the wind strika ill designed. u open during design winds. Doors, operable windows.
the building or other structure. exhaum for ventilation systems, and gap• (deliberate or otherwise)
2. Intmtal prwum, which act on all interior surfaces; these pmsum around cladding are juat a f.ew examples of openlnga.
are due to leakage of air duough the o:terlor Nl'filce to the interior 'Pace. .A number of diffemlt cues need to be aamined iD. order to properly
It ii a11umed that the a.tern.al and intanal pressure a act perpendicu- understand the ~ that internal pressure can have on a building or
lar to the exterior and interior surfaces of the bull.ding or other struc- strucl:uni. In the caJe of a building that hu a relatively large opening
ture. respectively. A pressure Is defined as positive whe.n it acts toward. on the windward wall. the wind :flow will try to IDflate the build.Ing,
the sumce and negative when it «Ill away from the fU1'face.. Positive resulting in internal premire that Is positive (see Fig. 1..27). Convemly,
pressure is c:ommonly referred to as just pressure, and negative pre11ure an opening on the leeward wail, side walls, or roofwill tty to ddlate the
is also identified as sucl:loo. building and will result in negative internal pressure.
Emntol Preuure Figure 1.25 depicts idealized wind flow around luJ. open 'fnllldlng b de&ed by ASCEISEI 7 u atructum having at
a gable roof build.Ing. Wind velocity inaeue~ at di!tanr;es &bow the least 80 percent ope.11 at each waD..
surlac;e, u shown in the following equation below. The prasure p, at A pmtiaUy endosed building hu openinp that are large enough to
this point CUI be theoretically determined using Bemoulli'1 eq,uation: affect internal pres.rore and have bac:kp:iund porosity low enough to
allow internal pressure to build up.
p,=ipv1 luJ. endoJedbuildiD.g Is one that is neither open nor partially encloud.
The efrec:u of Internal piessure are accounted for in ASCEISEI 7 by
In this equation, p ii the atmospheric; air density. and V ii the wind intnnal pressure coefficients, the magnitude a of which are based on the
velocity at the elevation of the stagnalion point. enclosure clual&ation of the build.Ing or other structure. It is evident
The leeward wall and the aide walb all have negative praaure (the from Fig. 1.27 that internal preaure does .not contribute to the overall
negative pmsure on the leeward. wall is refured to as the wake). horizontd wind pressures that act on a structure because .uch preir
A generic repmentation of the external wind pn:uures on the walls sures caned out. However, internal pni.uumi must be c:omidered in the
and roof of the building depicted in Fig. 1.25 ii given in Fig. 1.26.
design of individual components (auc:h u walll and roof framing) and
The dimentlonle&1 pressure c,. which is commonly referred to as a cladding; the type of Jntemal pre.sure (positive or negative) that results
in the critlw load combination m\Ut be Ulled.
p1usurt coefficient, la de&ed as the preaaure pat any point on the bull.d- Glllt Efl'Ktl Wmd velocity typically changes dramatically with time;
ing or structure divided by the stagnation pressure: numeroUll peab and valley1 normally oc:cur over relatively short time
spans. In general. the average wind speed obtained from a wind event is
c, =-'-2
pV /2 larger when a shorter averaging time Is used. The peaks in wind velocity
are called gusts, and these effects must be comidered in design.
lnfllmal PnSNn Cid En"°""" CJaa:HJarcion Intemal preuure1 act Gust-d'ect facton are used in .ASCB/SBI 7 to account fur this
on all interior surfaces of a building or structure and are due to leak- phenomenon. In short. a gust-effect factor relates the peak to mean
age of air (pressure) through the exterior surt\ice to the Interior space. ~·e In terms of an equivalent mt.lc design load or load effect. The
The number and size of openinp in the envelope of the sttucture play method that ii wied to detennine auc:h fa.ctou ii based on the following
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 sketch of, 309, 310;
selected by Hamilton and King as Federalist candidate for President, in
1796, 310.

Pintard, John, chief of Tammany Society, 148.

Porcupine’s Gazette, active in urging war with France, 350-60;

publishes Martin’s attacks on Jefferson, 352, 353;
abusive to Democrats, 354, 355;
on Lyon-Griswold fight in House, 361.

Powell, Mrs. Samuel, aunt of Mrs. William Bingham, 132.

Priestley, Joseph, English liberal, addresses Tammany and other

‘Democratic Societies’ in New York, 259.

Randolph, Edmund, Attorney-General under Washington, considers

Hamilton’s Bank Bill unconstitutional, 77;
on reception of Genêt, 215;
succeeds Jefferson as Secretary of State, 239;
and French Minister Faucet, 285;
is dismissed from Cabinet, 286.

Read, Jacob, Senator from South Carolina, denounced in Charleston for

supporting Jay Treaty, 281.

Reign of Terror, Alien and Sedition Laws produce, in 1798, 380-82;

continued through two years, 383;
riotings, 384;
victims, 386-93, 398-406.

Report on Manufactures, Hamilton’s, 161;

newspaper comments on, 161.

Report on the Public Credit, Hamilton’s, 43-68;

debated in Congress, 44.
Reynolds, James, seeks to blackmail Hamilton, 187.

Ricketts, John, proprietor of the Circus, Philadelphia, 138.

Rights of Man, by Thomas Paine, copy lent by printer to Jefferson, 82;

in returning borrowed copy to printer Jefferson writes note commending
pamphlet, 83;
Jefferson’s note used by printer as preface, 83;
effect of publication, 83, 84;
newspaper controversy over, 83, 84.

Rittenhouse, David, scientist and friend of Jefferson, 149;

and Jefferson in library of Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 156;
aids in preparations for reception of Genêt, 219;
president of Democratic Club of Philadelphia, 223.

Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Duc de La, on Philadelphia, 124, 125;

in Philadelphia, 135.

Rush, Dr. Benjamin, writes letters to Maclay against Assumption, 61;

on Paine’s Rights of Man, 84;
letter to Burr, 147;
Jefferson’s friend, 149;
in yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, 237.

Rutledge, John, denounces Jay Treaty, 280;

appointment as Chief Justice not confirmed, 289.

Saint Cecilia Society, Democratic Club in Charleston, 223.

St. Clair, General Arthur, failure of expedition against Indians made issue
by Jeffersonians in campaign of 1792, 175.

Schuyler, Philip, father-in-law of Hamilton, elected Senator from New

York, 36;
 letter of Hamilton to, on Washington, 41, 42;
and the Assumption Bill, 62.

‘Scrippomony,’ Jefferson on, 87.

Sedition Bill, purpose to crush Jeffersonian press, 376, 377;

debates on, in Congress, marked by disorder, 378;
passed by small margin, 380.

Sedgwick, Theodore, speculator in public securities, defends Funding Bill,

48, 49;
on funding of debt, 48, 49, 50;
on Madison’s plan to amend Funding Bill, 55;
speech on the Assumption Bill, 62;
and Excise Bill, 72;
and amendment to Excise Bill, 73;
on Giles’s resolutions attacking Treasury management, 201;
recommended Adams’s nomination as Vice-President, in 1789, 325;
on results of 1798 elections, 383.

Sedgwick, Mrs. Theodore, 134.

Sherman, Roger, Representative and Senator from Connecticut, on titles, 3.

Sign of the Sorrel Horse, Philadelphia tavern, 119.

Smith, Mrs. Margaret Bayard, on Jefferson, 92, 93.

Smith, Samuel, on Madison commerce resolutions, 241.

Smith, Jeremiah, on Philadelphians, 116.

Smith, William, Representative from South Carolina, on Madison’s

amendment to Funding Bill, 55;
chosen director of Bank of United States, 90;
on Giles’s resolutions attacking Treasury management, 201, 203;
on Madison’s commerce resolutions, 240, 242.
Southwark Theater, Philadelphia, 137.

Speculation, in government securities, 44-47;

members of Congress involved, 46-48;
in stock and scrip, 87;
fraud and counterfeiting, 88;
Hamilton shocked and concerned, 88;
bubble bursts in 1792, 176;
Hamilton’s policies charged as cause of panic, 177;
newspaper comments on, 177.

Spooner’s Vermont Journal, on the Jay Treaty, 283.

Steele, John, North Carolina, 181.

Stewart, Mrs. Walter, daughter of Blair McClenachan, social leader of

Philadelphia, 132.

Strong, Caleb, Senator from Massachusetts, 9;

and the Assumption Bill, 62.

Sullivan, James, lawyer, pamphleteer, and orator for the Democrats, 145.

Tammany, Sons of, rival organization to Society of the Cincinnati, 148;

at first non-partisan, then fervid Jeffersonians, 148.

Tariff, in First Congress, 19;

in Second Congress, 161;
Hamilton’s Report on Manufactures excites little attention, 161.

Taylor, John, of Caroline, a Jeffersonian leader in Virginia, 149, 150;

Jeffersonian leaders confer at home of, 205;
pamphlet analyzing vote in Congress vindicating Hamilton, attributed to,
205, 206;
introduces Virginia Resolutions in Legislature, 409.
Tilley, Count, 135.

Treaty with the Southern Indians, Washington’s attitude on presentation to

the Senate, 21, 22.

Trumbull, John, paints portrait of Hamilton, 162.

Tucker, George, editor of Blackstone’s Commentaries, 169.

Twining, Thomas, in Philadelphia, 120.

United States Chronicle, on Freneau’s attacks on Hamilton, 164.

Venable, Abraham B., of deputation from Congress to Hamilton on the

Reynolds charges, 187.

Vermont Journal, on Hamilton’s Passaic Falls scheme, 162.

Vining, John, Representative from Delaware, and Assumption, 61;

Maclay on, 61.

Virginia Resolutions, written by James Madison, and introduced in

Legislature by John Taylor of Caroline, 409;
contemporary opinions of, 409-11.

Wadsworth, Jeremiah, Representative from Connecticut, speculator in

certificates, 47 n.;
sneers at soldiers of Revolution, 55, 56;
elected director of Bank of United States, 90.

Warville, Brissot de, and Mrs. Bingham, 128, 129.

Washington, George, reception on arrival in New York, 6, 7;

 inaugurated President, 7;
bored by dignities and ceremonial of office, 16, 17;
his solemn dinners, 18;
presents in person treaty with Southern Indians for ratification by Senate,
20;
annoyed by proposal to refer treaty to committee, 21;
rents house of Robert Morris in Philadelphia, 119;
endeavors, unsuccessfully, to effect reconciliation between Jefferson and
Hamilton, 171;
Hamilton refuses to discontinue attacks in Fenno’s Gazette, 172;
and the French Revolution, 214;
issues Neutrality Proclamation, 216;
and Jefferson in the case of the Little Sarah, 228;
reluctantly accepts Jefferson’s resignation, 233, 234;
appoints Jay special envoy to Great Britain, 247;
attacks Democratic Societies in Message, 261;
delays signing Jay Treaty, 285;
his prestige used to make Treaty more acceptable, 286;
is attacked by Democratic press, 286-88;
refuses to comply with request of House for papers pertaining to Jay
Treaty, 298;
refuses to be a candidate for a third term, 308;
accepts chief command of army in prospective war with France, 413;
selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as major-generals, 413.

Washington City, new capital, in 1800, 486-89;

‘city of magnificent distances,’ but mud roads, 487.

Whiskey Boys, the. See Whiskey Insurrection.

Whiskey Insurrection, the, 250-56;

grew out of enforcement of Excise Law, 251;
Hamilton active in suppressing, 254-56;
ringleaders arrested, harshly treated, and jailed, 255;
most of prisoners acquitted on trial, 255;
two convicted, but pardoned by Washington, 256;
tempest in a teapot, 256.
Williamson’s Gardens, New York City, 10.

Willing, Thomas, business partner of Robert Morris, elected director of

Bank of United States, 90.

Wingate, Paine, on Federal Hall, 2.

Witherspoon, John, president of Princeton, 157.

Wolcott, Mary Ann, sister of Oliver Wolcott, afterward Mrs. Chauncey

Goodrich, 134.

Wolcott, Oliver, of Connecticut, on Hamilton’s religious views, 41;

mouthpiece for Hamilton, 59, 60;
on Philadelphians, 116;
on demonstrations against Jay Treaty, 275;
Adams’s Secretary of the Treasury, sketch of, 331-34.

Wolcott, Mrs. Oliver, called ‘the magnificent,’ 134.

Wythe, George, Virginia lawyer and politician, 96;

presides at meeting in Richmond denouncing Jay Treaty, 282.

X Y Z papers, Federalists familiar with, before publication, 364;

Hamilton sees trump card in them for war party, 364;
Jeffersonians kept in ignorance, 364;
excitement intense on publication, 365, 366;
‘millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute,’ a clarion call, 366;
rioting in Philadelphia, 367.

Yellow Cat, the, Philadelphia tavern, 120.

Yellow fever, in Philadelphia, 237, 238;

in New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, 380.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Pickering (Wingate to Pickering), II, 447.
[2] Ames, I, 31.
[3] Writings, I, 450.
[4] Ames, I, 31, 32.
[5] Pickering (Wingate to Pickering), II, 447.
[6] Ames, I, 31; Pickering, II, 447.
[7] Republican Court, 120-22; Story of a Street, 101.
[8] Ames, I, 32-34.
[9] Writings, I, 450.
[10] Ames (to Minot), I, 41-42.
[11] Republican Court, 122, note.
[12] Adams’s explanation, Works, VIII, 511-13.
[13] Maclay, 2-3.
[14] Maclay, 7-10.
[15] Ibid., 22-24.
[16] Ibid., 25-27.
[17] Maclay, 37.
[18] Writings, I, 470-71.
[19] Ames, I, 46.
[20] June 3, 1789.
[21] Maclay, 31.
[22] Daily Advertiser, April 24, 1789.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Story of a Street, 221.
[25] Maclay, 7-10.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Gazette of the United States, May 2, 1789.
[28] Ibid.
[29] Ibid, May 8, 1789.
[30] Daily Advertiser, May 8, 1789.
 [31] Daily Advertiser, May 8, 1729.
[32] Gazette of the United States, May 9, 1789.
[33] Governor Page complained bitterly of hogs and mud. Memorial History, III,
48.
[34] The Daily Advertiser advertises the specifications April 13, 1789.
[35] Maclay, 90.
[36] Gazette of the United States, June 27, 1789.
[37] Memorial History, III, 47.
[38] Daily Advertiser, March 6, 1789.
[39] Memorial History, III, 45.
[40] Daily Advertiser, April 15, 1789.
[41] New York in 1789, 117.
[42] Memorial History, III, 65; New York in 1789, 117-20.
[43] New York in 1789, 172-75.
[44] Ibid., 176.
[45] Ibid., 178.
[46] May 9, 1789.
[47] Gazette of the United States, May 13, 1789.
[48] Maclay, 31.
[49] Gazette of the United States, June 6, 1789.
[50] Ibid., September 19, 1789.
[51] Story of a Street, 112.
[52] Gibbs, I, 22.
[53] Ibid., I, 43.
[54] New York in 1789, 19.
[55] Ibid., 119.
[56] Warville, 96-97.
[57] Republican Court, 210, note.
[58] Brooks, Knox, 217-18.
[59] Mrs. Iredell; McRee, Iredell, II, 296-97.
[60] Gazette of the United States, May 16, 1789.
[61] Ibid., May 30, 1789.
[62] Daily Advertiser, June 19, 1789.
 [63] Gazette of the United States, April 15, 1789.
[64] Maclay, 257-58.
[65] Wharton, Salons, Colonial and Republican, 53.
[66] Maclay, 266.
[67] Ibid., 73-74.
[68] Story of a Street, 112, 114-17, 121.
[69] Richmond Hill, at present site of Charlton and Varick Streets.
[70] Letters of Mrs. Adams (to Mrs. Shaw), II, 201; (to Thomas Brand-Hollis), II,
205.
[71] Ames (to Minot), I, 34; Maclay, 375; Familiar Letters, 86-89.
[72] Adams, Works, VIII, 491-92.
[73] Thayer’s Washington, 180-81.
[74] Gazette of the United States, May 6, 1789.
[75] Republican Court, 149, note.
[76] Autobiography, Ford, I, 171.
[77] Maclay, 138.
[78] Iredell, II, 138.
[79] Maclay, 138.
[80] Ibid., 138, 206.
[81] Ibid., 101.
[82] Maclay, 38.
[83] Ibid., 50.
[84] Bassett, The Federalist System.
[85] Gerry, Annals, May 20, 1789.
[86] Writings (to Randolph), I, 471-73.
[87] Jackson, Annals, I, 486-89.
[88] Page, Annals, I, 548-52.
[89] Maclay, 128-31.
[90] Iredell (Lowther to Iredell), II, 258-59.
[91] Writings, I, 471-73.
[92] Warville, 102.
[93] Familiar Letters, 236-37.
[94] Oliver, 114.
[95] Gibbs, I, 22.
[96] Autobiography, 278.
[97] Morris, Diary, II, 456.
[98] Oliver, 15.
[99] See Appendix, Lodge, Alexander Hamilton.
[100] Works, IX, 405-06; letter to brother.
[101] Ibid., X, 109.
[102] Intimate Life, 3.
[103] Life, by son, I, 4.
[104] Fiske, I, 104-05.
[105] Life, by son, I, 10.
[106] Ibid., 22.
[107] Ibid., 263-74.
[108] Payne’s Journalism, 191-92.
[109] Works, I, 202.
[110] Ibid., I, 213-39.
[111] Ibid., I, 243-87.
[112] Life, by son, II, 277.
[113] Ibid., I, 69.
[114] Works, VI, 276.
[115] Life, by son, I, 69.
[116] Ibid., I, 318.
[117] Ibid.
[118] Lodge, 26.
[119] Oliver, 27.
[120] Intimate Life, 47.
[121] Oliver, 161-62.
[122] Lodge, 177-78; Oliver, 163-64.
[123] Oliver, 86.
[124] Ibid., 263.
[125] Ibid., 376.
[126] Works, VI, 457.
[127] Oliver, 149.
 [128] Fiske, 120; Lodge, 58.
[129] Beck, 75.
[130] Oliver, 156.
[131] Works, I, 347-69.
[132] Beck, 76.
[133] Life, by son, II, 487.
[134] Ibid., 487.
[135] Ibid., 488.
[136] Ibid.
[137] Ibid.
[138] Ibid., 516.
[139] Lodge, 60.
[140] Works, I, 404.
[141] Gordy, I, 70.
[142] Works, I, 417.
[143] Ibid.
[144] Works, I, 420.
[145] Lodge, 62-63.
[146] Statement to Tench Coxe quoted by Jefferson, Works of Jefferson, Ford, I,
338.
[147] Letter to G. Morris, Works, X, 425.
[148] Morris, Diary, II, 456.
[149] Works, X, 480.
[150] Intimate Life, 75.
[151] Life, by son, I, 398.
[152] Parton’s Jefferson, 358.
[153] Familiar Letters, 236-37.
[154] Oliver, 177-78.
[155] Works, X, 3; letter to King.
[156] Jefferson’s Anas, I, 180.
[157] Morris, Diary, II, 456.
[158] Lodge, 156.
[159] Works, X, 354.
 [160] Morris, Diary, II, 456.
[161] Cabot, 298-300.
[162] Intimate Life, 48.
[163] Life, by son, I, 236.
[164] Ibid., 233.
[165] Lodge, 81.
[166] Ibid., 144.
[167] Oliver, 40.
[168] Works, X, 90-91.
[169] Ibid., X, 425-26.
[170] Works, X, 123-26; letter to Lloyd.
[171] Parton’s Jefferson, 355.
[172] Intimate Life, 46.
[173] Works, IX, 256-58.
[174] Familiar Letters, 236-37.
[175] Morison’s Otis (to Mrs. Otis), I, 141-43.
[176] Cabot, 204-05.
[177] Morison’s Otis, I, 141.
[178] Lodge, 272.
[179] Oliver, 76.
[180] Ibid., 381.
[181] Griswold, 173.
[182] Intimate Life, 55.
[183] Ibid., 56.
[184] Ibid., 60.
[185] Ibid., 259.
[186] Ibid., 73.
[187] Intimate Life, 17.
[188] Works, V, 61 (to Washington); X, 256 (to William Smith); X, 275 (to King);
X, 343 (to Pickering).
[189] Life, by son, reminiscences of Troup, I, 10.
[190] Ibid.
[191] Works, VI, 276.
 [192] Ibid., X, 432-37.
[193] Intimate Life, 334.
[194] Ibid., 406.
[195] Oliver and Sumner.
[196] Intimate Life, 261.
[197] Works, IX, 232-37.
[198] Ibid., X, 356-57.
[199] Daily Advertiser, October 9, 1789.
[200] Gerry and Clymer, both supporters of the Report, objected. Annals, January
9, 1790.
[201] Maclay, 177.
[202] Writings, J. Q. Adams, I, 49.
[203] Connecticut Gazette, February 19, 1790.
[204] Lodge, 90-91.
[205] Ibid.
[206] Madison’s Writings (letter to Pendleton), I, 507-09.
[207] Maclay, 179. The member of Congress who sent the vessels was Jeremiah
Wadsworth of Connecticut.
[208] Professor C. A. Beard makes a conclusive case against both in his Economic
Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy.
[209] Works of Jefferson, I, 354.
[210] Mr. Amory, H. G. Otis, and William Wetmore.
[211] Writings of J. Q. Adams, I, 56-59.
[212] Maclay, 177-78.
[213] Beard’s Economic Interpretation, 104-12.
[214] Gazette of the United States, ‘Common Sense,’ January 30, 1790.
[215] Annals, January 28, 1790.
[216] Ibid.
[217] Maclay, February 1, 1790.
[218] Maclay, 194.
[219] Annals, February 10, 1790.
[220] New York Daily Advertiser, February 13, 1790.
[221] Familiar Letters, 108.
[222] Gazette of the United States, April 15, 1790.
 [223] Fiske, 187.
[224] Ames (letter to Minor), I, 35.
[225] First Forty Years of American Society, Family Letters of Mrs. Margaret
Bayard Smith, 61.
[226] Works of Jefferson, Ford, I, 86.
[227] Mrs. Smith, 63.
[228] Annals, February 11, 1790.
[229] Madison’s Writings, I, 507.
[230] Annals, February 15, 1790.
[231] Writings (to Randolph), I, 512.
[232] White, Annals, February 16, 1790.
[233] White, Annals, February 16, 1790.
[234] Maclay, 199.
[235] Ibid., February 22, 1790.
[236] Writings, J. Q. Adams, I, 49.
[237] Gazette of the United States, June 12, 1790.
[238] Centinel, February 24, 1790.
[239] Ibid., March 20, 1790.
[240] Pennsylvania Gazette, copied in Maryland Gazette, February 26, 1790.
[241] Boston, Independent Chronicle, March 4, 1790.
[242] Boston, Independent Chronicle, March 25, 1790.
[243] Ibid., April 15.
[244] Maclay, 202.
[245] Ibid., 205.
[246] New York Advertiser, February 20, 1790.
[247] Ibid., February 22, 1790.
[248] Comptroller of the Treasury.
[249] Gibbs, I, 43.
[250] Madison’s Writings (to Jefferson), I, 511.
[251] McRee, Iredell (from Senator Johnson), II, 286; (from William R. Davie), II,
281, note.
[252] King, I, 385.
[253] Henry, II, 459.
[254] Stone of Maryland.
[255] Maclay, 203.
[256] Ibid., 209.
[257] Ibid., 212.
[258] Ibid., 214.
[259] Maclay, 227, 230.
[260] Ibid., 234.
[261] Elias Boudinot of New Jersey.
[262] Maclay, 237.
[263] Maclay, 248.
[264] Ibid., 250.
[265] Writings, I, 517.
[266] McRee, Iredell, II, 286.
[267] Lodge, Cabot, 35-36.
[268] Ibid. (to Goodhue), 37.
[269] Gazette of the United States, April 21, 1790.
[270] Ibid., April 24, 1790.
[271] Centinel, June 19, 1790.
[272] Daily Advertiser, March 24, 1790.
[273] Ames (to Dwight), I, 79-80.
[274] Maclay, 292.
[275] Ibid., 299.
[276] Maclay, 310.
[277] Works, Ford, VIII, 42-45.
[278] Ibid., VIII, 52.
[279] Writings (to Monroe), I, 522.
[280] Maclay, 332.
[281] Gazette of the United States, August 25, 1790.
[282] February 25, 1791.
[283] Brooks, Knox, 213.
[284] Maryland Journal, February 11, 1791.
[285] Josiah Parker.
[286] Annals, January 5, 1791.
[287] Samuel Livermore.
[288] Annals, January 6, 1791.
[289] Annals, January 11, 1791.
[290] Maclay, 385.
[291] Ibid., 385.
[292] Maclay, 387.
[293] Jefferson’s Works, VIII, 123.
[294] Works, III, 319-41; 342-87.
[295] Ibid., 388-443.
[296] Maclay, 364.
[297] Ibid., 369.
[298] Annals, February 2, 1791.
[299] Ames (to Dwight), I, 94.
[300] Annals, February 3, 1791.
[301] Jefferson’s Works, III, 145-53.
[302] Madison’s Writings, III, 171.
[303] Madison’s Writings, III, 171.
[304] Ames (to Minot), February 17, 1791.
[305] Madison’s Writings (to Jefferson), I, 534-35.
[306] Hamilton’s Works (letter to Carrington), IX, 513-35.
[307] Parton, II, 1.
[308] Dustin’s Freneau, 160.
[309] May 11, 1791.
[310] Gazette of the United States, April 6, 1791.
[311] Daily Advertiser, February 25, 1791.
[312] Independent Chronicle, March 10, 1791.
[313] New York Daily Advertiser, July 19, 1791.
[314] British Agent.
[315] Domestic Life, 197-98. Jefferson was living in the country.
[316] Maryland Journal, March 22, 1791.
[317] Domestic Life, 199.
[318] Ibid., 201.
[319] Jefferson’s Works, VIII, 205.
 [320] Gay’s Madison.
[321] Madison’s Writings, I, 534.
[322] Graydon, 375.
[323] McRee, Iredell, II, 335.
[324] Adams, Adams, I, 454.
[325] New York Daily Advertiser, July 8, 1791.
[326] Ibid., July 9, 1791.
[327] Ibid., July 14, 1791.
[328] Independent Chronicle, June 23, 1791.
[329] Ibid., July 7, 1791.
[330] Ibid., August 26, 1791.
[331] Ibid.
[332] Jefferson’s Works, VIII, 192.
[333] Adams, Works, VIII, 503.
[334] Ibid., 505.
[335] Madison’s Writings, I, 535.
[336] Jefferson’s Works, VIII, 223.
[337] Jefferson’s Works, VIII, 232.
[338] Madison’s Writings, I, 540.
[339] Ibid., I, 534.
[340] Madison’s Writings, I, 538.
[341] Maryland Journal, February 15, 1791.
[342] Pennsylvania Gazette, September 7, 1791.
[343] August 17, 1791.
[344] Hamilton’s Works (to King), I, 402.
[345] August 8, 1791.
[346] August 9, 1791.
[347] August 13, 1791. ‘Scrips sold last night: Cash 212-202-210-206; 10 days,
216, 217-1/2, 214; 30 days, 223, 212, 215; 45 days, 216; 60 days, 219; Sept. 10, 224;
Deliver and pay December 1, 235; Deliver October 1 and pay January 1, 242;
Monday next, 207; Tuesday, 215-1/2, 217, 210.’ (New York Daily Advertiser.)
[348] Daily Advertiser, August 15, 1791.
[349] New York Daily Advertiser.
[350] Daily Advertiser, August 17, 1791.
[351] New York Daily Advertiser, September 21, 1791.
[352] Independent Chronicle, September 1, 1791.
[353] Independent Chronicle, August 18, 1791.
[354] Maclay, 272.
[355] Familiar Letters, 148.
[356] Maclay, 272.
[357] Mrs. Smith, 6.
[358] Ibid., 6-7.
[359] Liancourt, III, 157.
[360] Parton on the Moore incident, III, 115-19.
[361] Maclay, 272.
[362] Mrs. Smith, 6-7.
[363] Maclay, 272.
[364] Familiar Letters, 149.
[365] Familiar Letters, 148.
[366] Maclay, 272.
[367] Liancourt, III, 157.
[368] Familiar Letters, 148.
[369] Mrs. Smith, 6-7.
[370] Randall, I, 14.
[371] Dodd, Statesmen of the Old South, 3-4.
[372] Ibid., 9.
[373] Dodd, Statesmen of the Old South, 23.
[374] Parton’s Jefferson, I, 27.
[375] Randall, III, 448.
[376] Autobiography, I, 77.
[377] Fiske, 148.
[378] Works (to Mrs. Trist), V, 151.
[379] Ibid. (to Bellini), V, 151.
[380] Ibid. (to Mrs. Trist), V, 81-82.
[381] Ibid. (to Bellini), V, 151-54.
[382] Morris, Diary, I, 101.
[383] Domestic Life (letter to Madison), 155; Works, I, 131-38.
 [384] Domestic Life (letter to Adams), 156.
[385] Ibid. (to Jay), 156.
[386] Ibid. (to Jay), 159.
[387] Works (letter to Lafayette), VII, 370; (to De St. Etienne), VII, 370-72; (the
Charter), VII, 372-74.
[388] Ibid., IV, 72.
[389] Ibid. (to De Unger), IV, 138-39.
[390] Autobiography, I, 72.
[391] Mrs. Wharton, 391.
[392] Parton’s Jefferson, I, 344.
[393] Vol. I, 77.
[394] Works, V, 3-4: letter to Chastellus.
[395] Ibid., VI, 428: to Warville.
[396] Randall, I, 17.
[397] Ibid., III, 556-58; letter to Rush.
[398] Ibid., 671-76.
[399] Ibid.; also see The Thomas Jefferson Bible, edited by Henry Jackson.
[400] Randall, III, 547.
[401] Dodd, Statesmen of the Old South, 36.
[402] Randall, III, 620-22.
[403] Works, VI, 11-15; to Charles Thompson.
[404] Ibid., 227-29 (to Edward Carrington); 269-71 (to J. Blair).
[405] Ibid., 296-301 (to Benjamin Hawkins and George Wythe); 231-32 (to Count
Del Vermi).
[406] Ibid., 285-89; to John Adams.
[407] Ibid., 368.
[408] Ibid., 378-83; to William Carmichael.
[409] Works, VI, 385-93.
[410] Ibid., 425-27. I have the authority of Josephus Daniels for a tradition in
North Carolina that such a letter in the hands of Willie Jones was responsible for the
failure of the first Convention there to ratify. The letter is apparently lost.
[411] Ibid., VII, 26-30; to Carmichael.
[412] Ibid., 36-39; to Colonel Carrington.
[413] Ibid., 79-88.