Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and
authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish,
use and terminate a connection.

Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization
points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-
duplex or full-duplex.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of
the complete message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.

At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It
also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.

Functions of the Transport Layer

Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the
message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet,
from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This
function of the network layer is known as routing.
Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Data Link layer

The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP
model. Its primary function is to facilitate the reliable transfer of data across a physical link or network
segment. This layer deals with issues such as framing, addressing, error detection, and flow control.

There are two sublayers within the Data Link Layer:

Logical Link Control (LLC): This upper sublayer manages error control, flow control, and framing. It
establishes and terminates connections between devices on the network and provides addressing and
control mechanisms.

Media Access Control (MAC): This lower sublayer is responsible for controlling how devices on the
network access the physical network medium and transmit data. It handles the addressing of devices at
the hardware level, ensuring that data is transmitted to the correct destination.

Ethernet and Wi-Fi are examples of protocols that operate within the Data Link Layer. Ethernet deals
with wired networks and defines standards for data transmission over cables, while Wi-Fi deals with
wireless networks and specifies how data is transmitted over the air.

Overall, the Data Link Layer plays a crucial role in ensuring that data is efficiently and accurately
transmitted between connected devices within the same network segment.

Physical layer

The Physical Layer, as defined by the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP model, is
the lowest layer. It's responsible for the actual transmission and reception of raw bitstreams over a
physical medium, such as copper cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals.

Here are some key functions and aspects of the Physical Layer:

Hardware Specifications: This layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for the transmission of data over the physical medium. It includes aspects like voltage
levels, cable types, connectors, pin-outs, and data transfer rates.

Bit Transmission: It handles the actual transmission and reception of raw data bits over the physical
medium. It's concerned with how bits are represented (e.g., voltage levels, light pulses) and how they
are transmitted sequentially.

Physical Topology: It includes the layout or physical arrangement of devices on the network. Topologies
such as bus, star, ring, or mesh are defined at this layer.

Signal Encoding: The Physical Layer specifies how data is encoded into signals for transmission and how
these signals are interpreted at the receiving end.
Transmission Media: It deals with different types of transmission media like copper wires, optical fibers,
and wireless transmission.

Protocols such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth operate partially at the Physical Layer. Each of these
protocols has its own specifications for transmitting data over the physical medium.

The main objective of the Physical Layer is to establish and maintain a reliable physical link between
devices, ensuring that raw data bits are accurately transmitted from one device to another across the
network medium

Note:

Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

TCP IP and OSI layers comparison

The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model and the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model are both conceptual frameworks used to understand how different networking
protocols and communication technologies work together. Here's a comparison of the two:

TCP/IP Model:

Layers: TCP/IP model consists of four layers:

Application Layer: Includes protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP.

Transport Layer: Manages data delivery, using TCP (reliable) and UDP (unreliable) protocols.

Internet Layer: Focuses on addressing, routing, and forwarding of packets using IP.

Link Layer: Deals with physical connections, hardware addressing, and encapsulation.

Flexibility: TCP/IP is more flexible and has been the foundation of the internet. It was developed first and
is widely used in practice.

Protocols: Directly integrates with the protocols that run the internet, like HTTP, FTP, and more.

Adaptability: As the internet evolved, TCP/IP adapted and remained the primary suite of protocols.

OSI Model:

• Layers: OSI model comprises seven layers:

• Application Layer: Network services to applications.
• Presentation Layer: Translation, encryption, and compression.
• Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates connections.
• Transport Layer: End-to-end connections and data flow control.
• Network Layer: Routing and logical addressing.
• Data Link Layer: Framing and error detection.
• Physical Layer: Actual hardware transmission.
 • Standardization: OSI model was created to standardize the different protocols used in computer
networks.
• Conceptual: OSI is more of a theoretical model and isn't as widely implemented as TCP/IP.
• Clear Separation: Offers a clear separation between services, interfaces, and protocols.
• Comparison:

• Layers: TCP/IP has fewer layers, making it simpler, while OSI has more layers, offering a more
comprehensive but complex structure.
• Popularity: TCP/IP is more widely used in practical implementations (like the internet), while OSI
serves as a conceptual guideline.
• Adoption: TCP/IP was adopted earlier and more extensively due to its association with the
internet's development.
• Standardization: OSI aimed at standardizing network protocols but didn't gain as much adoption
as TCP/IP did.
• In summary, both models serve as frameworks to understand networking protocols and
communication, with TCP/IP being more practical and widely implemented, especially in the
context of the internet, while OSI provides a more detailed and comprehensive theoretical
understanding.

Protocols used in tcp/ip protocoal ssuit

• The TCP/IP protocol suite consists of several protocols that enable communication across
networks. Here's a brief summary of some key protocols:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides reliable, connection-oriented communication
between devices on a network. It ensures data delivery by handling packet reordering, error
detection, and retransmission.

Internet Protocol (IP): Handles addressing and routing of data packets between devices on a network or
across multiple networks. IP defines how data is sent between devices by assigning unique IP addresses
to each device.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Offers a connectionless and unreliable communication method. Unlike
TCP, it doesn’t establish a direct connection before sending data, making it faster but less reliable as it
doesn't guarantee delivery.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Manages error messages and control messages used in
network communication. It reports on issues with network delivery, provides diagnostics, and helps
manage network congestion.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network,
enabling communication between devices at the link layer of the TCP/IP model.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): Assigns IP addresses dynamically to devices on a network,
along with other network configuration information, simplifying the process of network setup and
management.
Domain Name System (DNS): Translates domain names (like example.com) into IP addresses that
computers use to identify each other on a network, making it easier for users to remember and access
websites.

These protocols work together to facilitate communication, addressing, and data transfer across
networks in the TCP/IP model.