INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY |i

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY |i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY |2

MODULE 2: BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

“HEALTHY BRAINS CREATE A HEALTHY SOCIETY”

-ABHIJIT NASKAR, I AM THE THREAD: MY MISSION

MODULE OVERVIEW

Module 2 discuss the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior. These physiological
and anatomical foundations are the basis for many areas of psychology. In this module, you will
learn how genetics influence both physiological and psychological traits. You will become
familiar with the structure and function of the nervous system. And, finally, you will learn how
the nervous system interacts with the endocrine system.
Learning Outcomes:

 Acquire a basic understanding of the structure and function of the main components of the
nervous system.
 Identify the brain’s neuroanatomy and its functions throughout the nervous system to
understand behavior and mental processes.
 Link the biological factors underlying human behavior and different neurological
disorders.
 Apply an understanding of brain functioning to the conduct of one’s own life.
 Describe the endocrine system and explain its primary responsibilities within the
body.

A. Nervous System, Neurons and Nerves

• Nervous system
– an extensive network of specialized cells
that carry information to and from all parts
of the body.
 Neuroscience
– deals with the structure and function of
neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.
– relationship to behavior and learning

• Neuron
– the basic cell that makes up the nervous
system and receives and sends messages
within that system.

Parts of a neuron
• dendrites: branch-like structures that receive
messages from other neurons
• soma: the cell body of the neuron,
responsible for maintaining the life of the
cell
• axon: long, tube-like structure that carries the
neural message to other cells
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Other Types of Brain Cells

• Glial cells are grey fatty cells that:
– provide support for the neurons to grow on and around
– deliver nutrients to neurons
– produce myelin to coat axons.
• Myelin: fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons
to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse
– clean up waste products and dead neurons.
Generating the Message: Neural Impulse
• Ions: charged particles
– inside neuron: negatively charged
– outside neuron: positively charged
• Resting potential: the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
• Action potential: the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical
charge within the axon
– allows positive sodium ions to enter the cell
• All-or-none: a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all
• Return to resting potential
Communication Between Neurons
• Sending the message to other cells
• Axon terminals: rounded areas at the end of the branches at the end of the axon
– responsible for communicating with other nerve cells
Neuron Communication
• Synaptic vesicles: sack-like structures found inside the axon terminal containing
chemicals
– neurotransmitter:
chemical found in the
synaptic vesicles which,
when released, has an
effect on the next cell
• synapse/synaptic
gap: microscopic
fluid-filled space
between the rounded
areas on the end of
the axon terminals of
one cell and the
dendrites or surface of
the next cell
• receptor sites: holes in the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and
glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters.
• Neurons must be turned ON and OFF
– excitatory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to
fire
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– inhibitory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell

to stop firing
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

B. How the Brain and the Spinal Cord Interact

I. Central nervous system (CNS): part of the nervous system consisting of the brain
and spinal cord
– spinal cord: a long bundle of neurons that carries messages to and from the
body to the brain that is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes
Three Types of Neurons
1. Sensory neuron: a neuron that carries information from the senses to the
central nervous system also called an afferent neuron.
2. Motor neuron: a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous
system to the muscles of the body also called an efferent neuron.
3. Interneuron: a neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives
information from the sensory neurons and sends commands to the muscles
through the motor neurons
– interneurons also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain.
• Neuroplasticity: the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of
cells in response to experience or trauma
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II. Peripheral
nervous system
(PNS): all nerves and
neurons that are not
contained in the brain
and spinal cord but
that run through the
body itself divided into
the:
– somatic
nervous
system
– autonomic
nervous
system

III. Somatic Nervous System

• Soma = “body”
• Somatic nervous system: division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry
information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary
muscles of the body
– sensory pathway: nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS
consisting of sensory neurons
– motor pathway: nerves coming from the CNS to the voluntary muscles,
consisting of motor neurons
IV. Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
– division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all of the involuntary
muscles, organs, and glands; sensory pathway nerves coming from the sensory
organs to the CNS consisting of sensory neurons.
– sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system): part of the ANS that is
responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal.
– parasympathetic division: part of the ANS that restores the body to
normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day
functioning of the organs and glands.
C. The Endocrine Glands
• glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
– hormones: chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands.
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I. How Hormones Interact with the Nervous System and Affect Behavior
• pituitary gland: gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and
influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as the master gland)
• pineal gland: endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum that secretes
melatonin.
• thyroid gland: endocrine gland found in the neck that regulates metabolism.
• pancreas: endocrine gland that controls the levels of sugar in the blood.
• gonads: the sex glands; secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and
behavior as well as reproduction.
• ovaries: the female gonads
• testes: the male gonads
• adrenal glands: endocrine glands located on top of each kidney.
- secrete over thirty different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt
intake.
- provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes
that occur during adolescence.
-
D. Study of the Brain and How it Works
A. Clinical Studies
– deep lesioning: insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through which
an electrical current is sent that destroys the brain cells at the tip of the wire.
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– electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB): milder electrical current that

causes neurons to react as if they had received a message.
– human brain damage
– transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), magnetic pulses are applied to
the cortex using special copper wire coils that are positioned over the head
– repetitive TMS (rTMS).
– transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS),
– human brain damage
– computed tomography (CT): brain-imaging method using computer-
controlled X-rays of the brain.
– magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): brain-imaging method using radio
waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain.
– Mapping Function
– electroencephalogram (EEG): records electric activity of the brain below
specific areas of the skull
– magnetoencephalography (MEG)
– positron emission tomography (PET): radioactive sugar is injected into the
subject and a computer compiles a color-coded image of brain activity of the
brain; lighter colors indicate more activity.
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• B. The Hindbrain
– medulla: first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part
of the brain.
 responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing,
swallowing, and heart rate.
– pons: larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the
bottom.
 plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body coordination, and
arousal.
– reticular formation (RF): area of neurons running through the middle of the
medulla and the pons and slightly beyond.
 responsible for selective attention
– cerebellum: part of the lower brain located behind the pons.
 controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.

C. Limbic system: a group of several brain structures located under the cortex and
involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.
– thalamus: part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain.
 relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the
proper areas of the cortex
 processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area.
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– hypothalamus: small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and
directly above the pituitary gland.
 responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex
– hippocampus: curved structure located within each temporal lobe.
 responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of
memory for location of objects.
– amygdala: brain structure located near the hippocampus.
 responsible for fear responses and the memory of fear
– cingulate cortex: the limbic structure actually found in the cortex.
 plays important roles in cognitive and emotional processing.
D. Cortex (controlling senses and movement)
• Cortex: outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons
– responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.
• corticalization: wrinkling of the cortex.
– allows a much larger area of cortical cells to exist in the small space inside the
skull.
• cerebral hemispheres: the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the
brain
• corpus callosum: thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral
hemispheres.
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E. Four Lobes of the Brain

• occipital lobe: section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral
hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain.
– primary visual cortex: processes visual information from the eyes
– visual association cortex: identifies and makes sense of visual
information
• parietal lobes
– sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere
containing the centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations.
– somatosensory cortex: area of neurons running down the front of the parietal
lobes.
• responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body
receptors for touch, temperature, body position, and possibly taste.
• temporal lobes: areas of the cortex located just behind the temples containing the
neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.
– primary auditory cortex: processes auditory information from the ears
– auditory association cortex: identifies and makes sense of auditory
information
• frontal lobes: areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain; responsible
for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent
speech.
– motor cortex: section of the frontal lobe located at the back; responsible for
sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system.

F. Association Areas of Cortex (responsible for higher thought)

• association areas: areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the
coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.
• Broca’s aphasia: condition resulting from damage to Broca’s area (usually in left
frontal lobe)
- causes the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to
mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly.
• Wernicke’s aphasia: condition resulting from damage to Wernicke’s area (usually in
left temporal lobe)
- causes the affected person to be unable to understand or produce
meaningful language.
• spatial neglect: condition produced by damage to the association areas of the right
hemisphere.
- results in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual
field.
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G. Differences Between the Left and Right Sides of the Brain

• Cerebrum: the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the
structures that connect them.

• left side of the brain

– seems to control language, writing, logical thought, analysis, and
mathematical abilities.
– processes information sequentially, and enables one to speak.
• right side of the brain
– controls emotional expression, spatial perception, recognition of faces,
patterns, melodies, and emotions.
– it processes information globally and cannot influence speech.

E. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
• Causes of ADHD have highlighted the likelihood of more than one cause and more than
one brain route to ADHD.
• Current research is looking at a variety of areas including environmental factors such as
low-level lead exposure, genetic influences, the role of heredity and familial factors, and
personality factors.

References:

Ciccarelli, Saundra K. and J. Noland White. Psychology. Fourth Edition

Coon, Dennis and Mitterer, John O. (2016), Introduction to Psychology Getways to mind and
Behavior 4th Edition, Cenage learning Inc., ISBN : 978 -1-305-09187-0.

Hoeksema, Susan Nolen, Fredrickson,Barbara L., Loftus, Geoff R., WAgeenar, Willem A.,
Atkinson’s and Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology, ISBN: 13:978-1844807284.
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A. Check your Knowledge

1. The short fibers which extend from the neurons allowing it to receive messages from other
neurons are.
a. axons c. nerve bundles
b. dendrites d. synapses
2. Which of the following neurotransmitters is known for its role in schizophrenia and
Parkinson's disease?
a. acetylcholine c. serotonin
b. dopamine d. norepinephrine
3. The cell body is enclosed by the
a. axon c. cell membrane
b. dendrite d. myelin sheath
4. The myelin sheath:
a. is a fatty substance protecting the dendrites.
b. helps to speed up neural messages within the cell.
c. is found in all neurons.
d. protects the cell's vesicles.
5. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: .
a. central and peripheral c. sympathetic and parasympathetic
b. receptors and effectors d. limbic and endocrine
6. Calm is to aroused as is to .
a. parasympathetic; sympathetic c. sympathetic; parasympathetic
b. autonomic; motor d. central; peripheral
7. The area in the back of the temporal lobe that is important in our ability to listen and in
processing and understanding what others are saying is .
a. Korsakoff's area c. Broca's area
b. Wernicke's area d. Sach's area
8. The part of the brain that helps process hearing and give meaning to words is the
.
a. the occipital lobe c. the parietal lobe
b. the temporal lobe d. the frontal lobe
9. Eating, drinking, sexual behavior, temperature control, and sleeping are most strongly
influenced by the:
a. medulla. c. thalamus.
b. cerebral cortex. d. hypothalamus.
10. Damage to the medulla can seriously impair one's ability to:
a. sing. c. breathe.
b. write. d. metabolize food

B. Analysis/Application
1. When is a person considered brain-dead? Read the Terri Schiavo Case. After
reading it answer the following questions:
a. What part of the brain allows Terri to breathe?
b. How would Terri respond to being poked with a needle?
c. Which type of brain scan would a neurologist use to determine how much of Terri’s cortex
is present?
d. Do Terri’s abilities to function fit with severe damage to the cortex?
e. What defines brain death?
f. What type of treatment can be used to help regenerate neurons?