Chapter 1 - Variations in Psychological Attributes Notes

1. Individual Differences in Human Functioning

2. Assessment of Psychological Attributes
3. Assessment Methods
4. Intelligence
Theories of Intelligence
5. Uni-factor Theory of Intelligence
6. Two-Factor Theory
7. Arthur Jensen’s Model of Intelligence
8. Structure Of Intellect Model
9. Information Processing Approach
10. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
11. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence
12. PASS Model of Intelligence
13. Nature v/s Nurture
14. Assessment of Intelligence
15. Variations of Intelligence
16. Types of Intelligence Tests
17. Culture and Intelligence
18. Emotional Intelligence
19. Aptitude
20. Relationship Between Creativity and Intelligence
21. Variations in Psychological Attributes Class 12 NCERT Solutions

Individual Differences in Human Functioning

The first topic of variations in psychological attributes notes is individual differences in human
functioning. The world around us is diverse and has a lot of variations. The physical attributes vary
among individuals with respect to height, weight, etc. The personal attributes of individuals show
variation like some people around us are motivated. Some are demotivated while some are dull and
some are intelligent. The distinctiveness and variations found in the personality of people are called
individual differences. Situationism talks about the impact of situations on our personality and
according to it, personality is a result of both internal and external factors.

Assessment of Psychological Attributes

Psychological assessment is done to understand and evaluate various qualities, attributes,
behavioral patterns of an individual by the use of systematic and standardized ways of testing. The 5
main domains of Psychological Assessment are

• Intelligence is defined as an individual’s capacity to understand the world, and the ability to
make the best use of whatever a person has.
• Aptitude is defined as an individual’s potential and capability to learn and acquire skills and
aptitude tests give us a clear picture of what a person is capable of doing.
• Interest refers to the preference of an individual in what kind of activity he/she would like to
engage in himself/herself and that is relative to others.
• Personality refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make him/her distinct
from others
• Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behavior
Assessment Methods
Different tests and interviews are conducted as a medium of the assessment method. Several
methods other methods for psychological assessment are mentioned in variations in psychological
attributes notes:

1. Psychological Test is an objective and a standardized way of measuring and evaluating a

person’s psychological attributes like intelligence, values, and these tests are conducted for
various purposes like career assessment, Placement Of Students, etc
2. An interview is a purposeful activity conducted to derive information from a person on a
particular subject on one basis
3. Observation is a powerful and effective method of psychological inquiry for understanding
particular phenomena occurring in real-time
4. A case study is an in-depth study of a particular case/subject. It can be of great help in
developing a clear understanding of the feelings, emotions, beliefs, mindset of a person
5. Self Report is a method in which an individual provides information about himself/herself,
beliefs, opinions, etc

Intelligence
Alfred Binet defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
Wechsler denied intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally,
act purposefully, and deal effectively with his/her environment. Check out the various theories of
intelligence:

Theories of Intelligence
Psychometric Approach
It considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses the individual’s performance in
terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. Various theories of intelligence based on this approach
are as follows:

Uni-factor Theory of Intelligence

It was proposed by the psychologist Alfred Binet who was the first psychologist who coined the term
intelligence. As per this theory, there is a particular set of abilities likeability to judge, reason, and
understand well and on the basis of its differentiation between less intelligent and more intelligent
individuals.

Two-Factor Theory
• The psychometric argument for intelligence as a general ability was first advanced by British
Psychologist Charles Spearman
• Intellectual performance is partially determined by the General Intelligence/G factor and partly
by specific abilities
• G-Factor-Existence of broad mental capacity that influences performance on cognitive mental
abilities
• S-Factor –Ability to excel in certain areas or specific Intelligence.
Theory of Primary Mental Abilities
• This theory was proposed by Louis Turnstone
• This model of intelligence comprises 7 primary mental abilities
• Verbal comprehension-understanding meaning of words, concepts
• Numerical ability- accuracy in solving numerical
• Spatial ability- understand images and patterns
• Perceptual speed- perceiving information
• Memory-learning and recalling information
• Inductive reasoning- Based on facts to derive results
• Word fluency-speaking words fluently

Arthur Jensen’s Model of Intelligence

It was proposed by Arthur Jensen. This model of intelligence is conceptualized in two levels:

1. Level 1 is about associative learning and here output is more or less similar to the input. For
Example- rote learning
2. Level 2 primarily focuses on Higher Order Thinking Skills. For example- Creative Learning

Structure Of Intellect Model (SOI)

It was proposed by J.P. Guilford. Three main aspects of intelligence are classified as follows:

Operations:
The SI theory identifies six kinds of operations:
Cognition: Involves understanding, comprehending, discovering, and becoming aware of information.
Memory recording: The ability to integrate and encode information.
Memory retention: The proficiency to retain and recall previously learned material.
Divergent production: Generating multiple creative solutions or ideas.
Convergent production: Arriving at a single correct answer or solution.
Evaluation: Making judgments or assessments based on criteria.
These operations represent fundamental cognitive processes.

Contents:
There are five kinds of contents:
Visual: Pertains to visual information and mental imagery.
Auditory: Relates to auditory stimuli and sounds.
Symbolic: Involves understanding symbols, signs, and abstract representations.
Semantic: Concerns the meaning of words, concepts, and ideas.
Behavioral: Refers to knowledge related to human behavior and actions.
Different types of information fall into these content categories.

Products:
The SI theory defines six kinds of products:
Units: Basic elements of thought, such as individual facts or concepts.
Classes: Grouping related elements into categories or classes.
Relations: Identifying connections or associations between elements.
Systems: Organizing elements into structured systems or frameworks.
Transformations: Changing or manipulating information.
Implications: Drawing logical conclusions from given information.
These products represent the outcomes of cognitive processes.
Information Processing Approach
It describes the processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving and its major
focus is on how an intellectual person act. Some of the theories based on the Information processing
approach are described as follows:

Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Traditionally, intelligence has been defined as mental competence but as per Gardner’s point of view,
this approach is narrow as it fails to include a broad range of human capabilities and adaptations. As
per Gardner, there are 8 distinct varieties of adaptive abilities:

• Linguistic Intelligence – It refers to the ability of a person to use words and language well to
express one’s point of view. For example – writers, poets
• Logical-Mathematical Intelligence – Ability to reason well mathematically as well as logically
and have a high mathematical aptitude and scientific temper. For example, mathematicians,
scientists
• Spatial Intelligence- It refers to the ability to solve spatial problems well and can easily present
the spatial world easily in the mind. For Example- Sailors, Architects
• Musical Intelligence- The ability to perceive pitch and rhythm and to understand and produce
music. For Example – Music Composers
• Bodily-Kinaesthetic Intelligence- The ability to control body movements and skilfully and
flexibly move their body. For example- Dancers, Athletes
• Interpersonal Intelligence- Ability to understand and relate well to others by seeing their point
of view, opinions, etc. For example – Counsellors, Politicians
• Intrapersonal Intelligence- The ability to understand oneself well and being skilled in self-
awareness. For example- Spiritual Gurus
• Naturalistic Intelligence- It is the ability to detect and understand phenomena in the natural
world. For example- Zoologist, Travellers

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg views intelligence as
“the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s
society and culture”. There are three basic types of intelligence:

1. Componential Intelligence / Analytical is defined as the ability to think analytically and

critically to solve problems. It has three components.
➢ Knowledge Acquisition Component is responsible for learning and acquisition of the
ways of doing things.
➢ Meta component involves planning what to do and how to do it.
➢ Performance Component involves actually doing things.

2. Experiential Intelligence/ Creative comprises the mental skills which are needed to deal with
novel problems in an effective/ creative manner.

3. Contextual Intelligence/ Practical includes those skills which are needed to cope up with
everyday demands and manage oneself and other people effectively. They are called Business
sense or Street smart.
PASS Model of Intelligence
• It was proposed by J.P. Das, Kirby, Jack Naglieri in 1994
• Intelligence is an interdependent function of those neurological brain units responsible for
planning, attention, and simultaneous and successive processing
• Attention / Arousal (Brain Stem)

➢ Attention is basic to all humans and important stimuli grab our attention. The optimum
level of attention helps us to focus well on important aspects of a task.

• Simultaneous / Successive Processing

➢ Simultaneous processing takes place in Occipital & Parietal lobe of the brain. It is
about establishing relationships between different topics in order to come up with
something unique and meaningful.
➢ successive processing takes place in frontal temporal part of the brain. It is about
remembering information properly in a serial order.

• Planning

➢ “Planning takes place in the prefrontal cortex of the brain. Once the information has
been attended to and processed, planning occurs, which helps in devising a course of
action, implementing it, and evaluating the results.

Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)

CAS is a test battery developed by Das and Kirby which measures basic cognitive functions of individuals
presumed to be independent from schooling, using verbal and non-verbal tasks. It is designed for individuals
between 5 and 18 years of age. The results of assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children
with learning problems.
Nature v/s Nurture
1. Nature signifies the genetic factors/heredity which plays a crucial role in shaping the
personality and intelligence of an individual
2. Nurture signifies the environmental factors which like nature shape up the intelligence and
personality of an individual
3. Genetic factors play an important role in determining what kind of environment people select
for themselves
4. With respect to the role of the environment, children from disadvantaged homes adopted into
families who have higher socio-economic status exhibit a larger increase in their intelligence
scores as rich nutrition, quality schooling, provision of relevant facilities help in increasing
their IQ
5. It is a popular perception of psychologists that intelligence is the product of nature and
nurture

Assessment of Intelligence
Assessment of intelligence means proper understanding and evaluation of the intelligence of a
person. The intelligence of a person is assessed with the help of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) which was
first proposed by William Stern in 1912.

• IQ is defined as mental age upon chronological age multiplied by 100

IQ= MA/CA*100
• If mental age is higher than chronological age then the person has high intelligence and vice-
versa.
Variations of Intelligence
Intellectual Deficiency- Significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning existing
concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period-
American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD). There are further four types.

I. Mild Retardation (IQ 55-69):

a. They experience slower development compared to their peers.
b. They can typically hold jobs, maintain relationships, and live with their families.
c. Mild care and support are necessary, but they can function relatively independently.
II. Moderate Retardation (IQ 40-54):
a. They require moderate supervision and assistance in daily activities.
b. Language and motor skills may be significantly affected.
c. Independence is limited, and they may face challenges in communication and self-care.
III. Severe Retardation (IQ 25-39):
a. They need constant care and supervision throughout their lives.
b. Communication and motor skills are severely impaired.
c. Independence is extremely limited, and they cannot live independently.
IV. Profound Retardation (IQ Below 25):
a. They require intensive care, often in specialized facilities.
b. Daily living skills are minimal, and they cannot function independently.
c. Their cognitive abilities are severely compromised.

It’s essential to recognize and support individuals with intellectual disabilities, providing appropriate
care and understanding based on their specific needs.

Intellectual Giftedness – In variations in psychological attributes notes next is intellectual

giftedness. It was first thoroughly examined by Lewis Terman in 1925 by conducting a case study on
1500 children with IQ above 130 to examine the role of intelligence in all areas of life. Giftedness
means the exceptional ability of an individual to perform well in a wide variety of areas and it is often
confused with Talent. Talent and Giftedness are separate as talent means remarkable ability in a
specific field like sports, academics, etc. Giftedness broadly includes 3 main characteristics-

1. High Creativity
2. High Ability Giftedness from Teachers’ point of view
3. High Commitment

• Signs of giftedness during childhood are:

1. Exceptional Concentration
2. Preference for Novelty
3. Large Attention Span
4. Good Memory

• Important features of Giftedness:

1. Exceptional Rational Thinking and Problem Solving.

2. High Motivation.
3. High Self-esteem.
4. Independent and non-conformist thinking.
Types of Intelligence Tests
1. On the basis of Administration Procedure

• Individual tests are administered on a single individual and the test administrator is required to
adjust with feelings, the mood of the subject
• Group tests are administered on a group of individuals and it is not necessary for the test
administrator to adjust to the mood of the subjects

2. On the basis of the nature of items used

• Verbal Test – The subject is required to give responses either oral or written.
• Non-Verbal Test- Requires use of pictures as test items. For example, Raven’s Progressive
Matrices (RPM)
• Performance Test- Requires movement of objects/materials. For example, block activity

3. On the basis of Culture

• Culture fair tests are culturally appropriate and are suitable to test the intelligence of all types
of cultures
• Culture Biased Tests are not culturally appropriate and it is not suitable to test the intelligence
of all types of cultures.

Culture and Intelligence

1. Culture is a collective system of ideas, opinions, attitudes which is observed among a wide
number of people
2. An important aspect of intelligence is that it helps people in adapting to their environment and
thus, makes them dynamic
3. As per the Russian Psychologist Vygotsky, culture provides a social context in which people
learn, live, and grow
4. In technologically advanced societies children are fostered with skills of Generalisation,
abstraction and this can be included under technological intelligence in which attention is
mainly given to cognitive processes like attention, memory, observation, etc
5. In the Indian context, intelligence is evaluated on holistic grounds and attention is given to
both cognitive and non-cognitive processes and their integration as well
6. Intelligence in the Indian Context is defined in a broad way and is called buddhi
7. 4 facets of integral intelligence are as follows-

• Cognitive competence includes a cognitive ability and skills like decision-making, analysis, etc
• Social competence includes social skills like communication skills, empathy, cooperation.
• Emotional Competence focuses on self-regulation and having a regular check on one’s
emotions and thoughts.
• Entrepreneurial Competence includes qualities like commitment, dedication, determination,
perseverance, etc
Emotional Intelligence
This concept of emotional intelligence was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer. Emotional
intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions.
It is expressed in terms of EQ (Emotional Quotient).

Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons

• Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
• Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body language,
voice and tone, and facial expressions.
• Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving problems
and taking decisions.
• Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.
• Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and others to
achieve harmony and peace.

Aptitude
Aptitude tests come in two forms: Independent (specialized) and Multiple (generalized). Among
these, the Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT) is commonly used in educational settings, consist of 8
independent subtests, including verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract reasoning, clerical
speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, space relations, spelling, and language usage.
Additionally, an Indian adaptation of DAT has been developed by J.M. Ojha, and several other
aptitude tests exist in India for measuring scientific, scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching
aptitudes.

Relationship Between Creativity and Intelligence

Creativity refers to the ability of a person to think and ponder upon novel and innovative solutions to
the given problem and divergent thinking which refers to thinking in a broad and open-minded
manner is a crucial part of creativity. For example- if a student who is intelligent and academically
bright doesn’t mean that he/she will possess creative ability like an artist or writer and vice-versa is
true as well that if a person has the creative ability like that of an artist or writer that doesn’t mean
that he/she will be academically bright.

Creative fields like filmmaking do require both intelligence and creativity for better problem solving
and decision-making. For example- a writer or a filmmaker must have some intelligence to
understand the field and what kind of content is required in the modern era and creativity along with
that helps them to come up with something unique and out-of-the-box.

In a nutshell, we can say that creativity focuses on being open-minded whereas intelligence mainly
involves coming up with the correct solution to the issue. Some of the famous psychologists who
have developed creativity tests are Guilford, Torrance, etc.

Variations in Psychological Attributes Class 12 NCERT Solutions

How do psychologists characterize and define intelligence?
Alfred Binet defined intelligence as the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well whereas
Wechsler denied intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally,
act purposefully, and deal effectively with his/her environment.
Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
Multiple intelligences identified by Gardner are Linguistic Intelligence, Bodily Kinaesthetic
Intelligence, Logical-Mathematical Intelligence, Interpersonal Intelligence, etc.

How is creativity related to intelligence?

Creative fields like filmmaking do require both intelligence and creativity for better problem solving
and decision-making.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Define Intelligence?
2. What is Aptitude?
3. What is Emotional Intelligence?
4. What is Integral Intelligence?
5. What is Technological Intelligence?
6. Differentiate the various approaches of Intelligence and classify the theories of Intelligence on the
base of the approaches?
7. What is Buddhi?
8. Explain Cubic structure of Intelligence proposed by JP Guilford?
9. "Intelligence is the ability to adapt, to shape and select an environment to accomplish ones goals"
explain the above concept?
10. Explain Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence?
11. Explain the nature and nurture controversy of intelligence?
12. Describe PASS model theory of Intelligence?
13. Explain the Cognitive assessment system of JP DAS?
14. What are the various types of intelligence tests?
15. What are the various misuses of Intelligence tests?
16. Explain the relationship between creativity and Intelligence?
17. Explain the Indian concept of Intelligence?
18. Explain the classification of Terman& Merrill on Intelligence?
19. Name the following
a. Any 3 individual tests
b. Any 3 group tests
c. Any 3 verbal tests
d. Any 3 non-verbal tests
e. Any 3 performance tests
f. Any 3 aptitude tests
g. Any 5 intelligence tests
h. Any 5 intelligence tests for which Indian norms have been developed
i. Any 4 intelligence tests developed in India
20. "Roma is a 10 years old girl how has an exceptional general ability which can be seen in wide
variety of areas"
a. Which ability is been discussed here?
b. Explain its important characteristics in detail?
21. Differentiate between the following
a. Culture Fair and culture bias test
b. Individual and group test
c. Verbal, Non-verbal and performance tests
d. Talent and giftedness. Give Examples
22. Explain the various domains of psychological attribute that categorizes variety of tests.
23. How is Psychometric approach different from information processing approach?
24. Explain the theory of Primary mental abilities?