The Cost of Corrosion in China: Baorong Hou Editor

Baorong Hou Editor
The Cost of Corrosion

in China
The Cost of Corrosion in China
Baorong Hou
Editor
The Cost of Corrosion

in China
123
Editor
Baorong Hou
Institute of Oceanology
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Qingdao, Shandong, China
ISBN 978-981-32-9353-3 ISBN 978-981-32-9354-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9354-0
Jointly published with Science Press, Beijing, China.
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ISBN of the China Mainland edition: 978-7-03-062276-1
Translation from the Simplified Chinese language edition: 中国腐蚀成本/Zhongguo Fushi Chengben by 侯保荣/
Baorong Hou, © Science Press, Beijing 2018. Published by Science Press. All Rights Reserved.
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Editorial Committee
Consultants: Xu Kuangdi, Zhou Ji, Ding Zhongli, Wang Yupu

Editor in Chief: Hou Baorong
Associate Editors in Chief: Xu Binshi, Xu Huibin, Zhang Jianyun, Li Xiaogang
Members (by Chinese phonetic alphabet of surname): Chen Kefu, Ding Wenjiang, Ding
Yihui, Gao Congjie, Guo Jianbo, Hao Jiming, Hou Li’an, Hu Zhenghuan, Jian Xigao, Ke Wei,
Li Helin, Li Yang, Li Zhongping, Mao Xinping, Liao Changwen, Nie Jianguo, Niu Xinqiang,
Qu Jiuhui, Song Junqiang, Wang Jingquan, Weng Yuqing, Xie Jianxin, Xue Qunji, Zeng
Hengyi, Zhang Cai, Zheng Jielian, Zhou Chenghu, Zhou Kesong, Zhou Lian, Zhou Shouwei
Chang Wei, Chen Guolong, Chen Zhuoyuan, Cheng Xuequn, Du Cuiwei, Du Min, Duan
Jizhou, Fu Yufang, Gao Jin, Gao Yunhu, Ge Honghua, Ge Yan, Gu Bei, Han Wenli, Huang
Ping, Huang Yanliang, Huang Yunhua, Li Jingui, Li Weihua, Li Yan, Lin Huaqiang, Liu
Jianguo, Liu Jianhua, Liu Xiaohui, Lu Lin, Lu Feng, Lu Dongzhu, Ma Huaxiong, Ma Xiumin,
Ou Li, Qiu Xiaofeng, Ruan Guoling, Sun Mingxian, Sun Song, Wang Fan, Wang Fuhui,
Wang Hui, Wang Peng, Wang Shengnian, Wei Shichen, Wu Guokai, Wu Junsheng, Xiao Kui,
Xu Weichen, Xu Chunchun, Yang Hongsheng, Yin Chengxian, Yue Qingrui, Zhang Dawei,
Zhang Dun, Zhang Jinquan, Zhang Sanping, Zhao Chongjiu, Zheng Meng, Zhu Xichang
List of Team Members for the Project: A Study on Corrosion Status

and Control Strategies in China
Consultants: Xu Kuangdi, Wang Yupu

Chief Officer: Hou Baorong
I. Infrastructure Team
Director: Xu Binshi
Members (by Chinese phonetic alphabet of surname): Hou Li’an, Ke Wei, Liao Changwen,
Nie Jianguo, Wang Jingquan, Zheng Jielian
Cai Yuebo, Cao Xiaoping, Cao Zhengwei, Fu Yufang, Gan Xiaohua, Gao Xin, Guo Baolin,
Han Bing, Hu Shaowei, Huang Yanliang, Kang Zhuangsu, Li Shuqi, Li Yiyong, Li Yunfei, Li
Zhuwen, Liu Xukai, Long Yue, Ma Huaxiong, Peng Yusheng, Shao Xinpeng, Shen Xiaodong,
Shui Zhonghe, Su Quanke, Wang Donglin, Wang Liuying, Wang Shengnian, Wang Yuxing,
Wang Zhanhui, Wen Yongxiang, Wu Xiaoning, Xia Jin, Xiong Jianbo, Yang Tainian, Ye
Guoliang, Yue Qingrui, Zha Bolin, Zhang Guozhi, Zhang Jian, Zhang Jinquan, Zhang
Xiaoyang, Zhang Boqiang, Zhao Chongjiu, Zhao Jun, Zhi Xiao, Zhou Guoran, Zhu Qingjun,
Zhu Sheng, Zhu Shijian, Zhu Xichang
vii
viii Editorial Committee
II. Transportation Team
Director: Xu Huibin
Members (by Chinese phonetic alphabet of surname): Ding Wenjiang, Gu Xinyi, Jian
Xigao, Li Zhongping, Xue Qunji, Zhou Chenghu
Chen Xinyi, Chen Zhuoyuan, Cheng Xuequn, Dai Yigang, Du Cunshan, Fan Meimei, Gao
Weifeng, Gong Shengkai, Guan Jing, Gui Taijiang, Huang Ping, Jia Baolin, Jiang Yunchun,
Jin Zhemin, Li Jianjun, Li Jingui, Li Songmei, Li Tingting, Li Xiangbo, Lin Huaqiang, Liu
Jianhua, Lu Feng, Luo Enzhou, Ma Chaoli, Pei Yanling, Sun Lin, Sun Mingxian, Tan
Zhenzhou, Wang Hao, Wang Honglun, Wang Hua, Wang Jun, Wang Xiutong, Wang Yujiang,
Wu Jianhua, Wu Weifeng, Xu Likun, Yao Qiong, Ye Zhangji, Yu Mei, Zhang Bangshuang,
Zhang Ping, Zhao Xia, Zhao Xiaohong, Zhu Hequan
III. Energy Team
Director: Zhang Jianyun

Members (by Chinese phonetic alphabet of surname): Guo Jianbo, Hao Jiming, Li Helin,
Li Yang, Niu Xinqiang, Zhou Xiaoxin
Ba Zhixin, Bai Jia, Gao Jin, Ge Honghua, Ge Yan, Gong Jianxin, Han Wenli, Hu Guofeng, Li
Qinghua, Li Shaoxiang, Li Wenbo, Li Yan, Li Zhixiang, Liu Guichang, Liu Jianguo, Liu
Xiaohui, Liu Xiaodong, Peng Yunchao, Qin Yongkun, Ren Haohan, Wang Jing, Wang
Renkun, Wang Siyong, Xu Jialong, Xu Weichen, Yang Lihui, Yin Chengxian, Ying
Guangwei, Zhang Peng, Zhang Weimin, Zhang Wenfeng, Zhang Xuehong, Zhang Yu, Zhao
Wenming, Zheng Penghua, Zhu Wensheng, Zhu Liwei
IV. Water Environment Team
Director: Hou Baorong

Members (by Chinese phonetic alphabet of surname): Ding Yihui, Gao Congjie, Qu Jiuhui,
Song Junqiang, Zeng Hengyi, Zhang Cai, Zhou Shouwei
Bai Xiaohui, Cao Yang, Chang Wei, Chen Hui, Chen Huihua, Du Min, Duan Jizhou, Gui
Taijiang, Han Bing, Huang Xin, Li Ding, Li Hu, Li Linmei, Li Weihua, Li Yantao, Li Yan,
Lin Cunguo, Liu Guichang, Liu Ruiping, Liu Wenqing, Lu Lin, Lv Qingchun, Ou Li, Qi Peng,
Ruan Guoling, Shao Yisheng, Song Jiwen, Tian Huiwen, Wang Ke, Wang Peng, Wang
Xigang, Wang Yi, Wang Zaifeng, Wang Zhanhua, Wang Zhitao, Wu Jiajia, Xia Chuanhai,
Xing Xinhui, Xu Donggang, Xu Ke, Yang Zhaohui, Yu Liangmin, Zhang Dun, Zhang Jie,
Zhang Ping, Zheng Meng, Zheng Xiaoming, Zhou Feng
V. Manufacturing and Public Utilities Team
Director: Li Xiaogang
Members (by Chinese phonetic alphabet of surname): Chen Kefu, Deng Xiuxin, Hu
Zhenghuan, Mao Xinping, Pang Guofang, Weng Yuqing, Xie Jianxin, Zhou Kejun, Zhou Lian
An Jiangfeng, Chen Guolong, Chen Xilei, Cheng Xuequn, Deng Leping, Du Cuiwei, Fan
Guoliang, Feng Hao, Fu Ling, Gao Jin, He Jiquan, Hou Zhiyu, Huang Yunhua, Jie Ganxin, Jin
Gong, Li Jike, Li Jiuqing, Li Miao, Li Wen, Liu Zhiyong, Long Guojian, Lu Zhaoxia, Lu
Zhonghui, Lv Longyun, Mei Xiaohong, Qin Qianyun, Qiu Xiaofeng, Ren Zhenduo, Shao
Anlin, Shi Peijing, Sun Huyuan, Wan Hongxia, Wang Guoan, Wang Jing, Wang Julin, Wang
Editorial Committee ix
Lisheng, Wang Yu, Wei Dan, Wei Shicheng, Wu Jun, Wu Junsheng, Wu Laiming, Xiao Kui,
Xiao Xiaoxin, Xiong Jinping, Xu Chunchun, Xue Feng, Xue Shouren, Yan Ying, Yang
Qingdong, Ye Haihui, Yong Xingyue, Zhang Dawei, Zhang Sanping, Zhao Bin, Zhao
Fengmin, Zheng Penghua, Zhou Xuejie, Zong Xuemei, Zuo Yu
VI. Comprehensive Team
Secretary General: Ma Xiumin

Members (by Chinese phonetic alphabet of surname): Hou Baorong, Xu Binshi, Xu
Huibin, Zhang Jianyun
Bai Tianshu, Chen Haifan, Chen Shibo, Cheng Qingli, Cong Yuezeng, Fu Hongtian, Fu
Xiangke, Gao Zhongqi, Gong Min, Guan Fang, Hong Yuming, Hou Jian, Huang Guiqiao, Ju
Weimin, Lan Xijian, Li Hongling, Li Leduan, Li Xiaogang, Li Xinzhong, Liang Zhenzhen,
Liu Qiang, Liu Xin, Liu Xuehui, Liu Yanzhong, Liu Zuozhen, Lu Dongzhu, Ma Fubin, Ma
Fengmei, Ning Dongtao, Pan Xiaojie, Ruan Baojun, Shi Yueming, Sun Jiting, Tang Haiying,
Wang Junfeng, Wang Aihong, Wang Fuhui, Wang Haizeng, Wang Jingyi, Wang Nianjun,
Wang Shirong, Wang Shuli, Wang Yanan, Wang Yuanjing, Wu Jingsheng, Wu Peng, Xie
Bingyu, Xu Likun, Yao Hua, Yi Jian, Yu Yifa, Zhang Jian, Zhang Xiaojun, Zhao Mingyin,
Zhao Sitao, Zheng Liqun, Zuo Jiahe
Foreword
Corrosion is a phenomenon in which chemical, electrochemical, or other reactions of materials

and environment cause damage or deterioration of the materials themselves. Corrosion may
lead to the damage of materials and failure of facility function, thus causing structural damage
to engineering facilities, shortening their service life, and possibly resulting in the leakage of
hazardous articles such as oil and gas, which causes catastrophic accidents and environmental
pollution and further poses a major threat to the safety of people’s lives and property.
Due to the wide application of materials, especially metallic materials, corrosion problems
almost involve all walks of life. Therefore, corrosion protection is related to many industries
and departments in a country or region, such as infrastructure engineering, traditional and
emerging energy equipment, transportation means, industrial equipment, and water supply and
drainage systems. The corrosion safety of all kinds of facilities is directly related to the
development of the national economy, and is a common problem as well as a public welfare
problem. Some scholars have pointed out that corrosion is as serious as earthquake, fire, and
pollution. The responsibility for the safety of corrosion protection is weightier than Mount Tai.
The research and application of corrosion protection in China is in the development stage,
which is not only in the aspect of corrosion protection technologies but also in the aspects of
corrosion protection awareness and relevant laws and regulations. For example, as to many
foreign houses, the government authorities require owners to provide regular maintenance
according to the laws, for which the simplest way is to paint the surface of the house to prevent
corrosion. The house owner or the proprietor may entrust the professional maintenance per-
sonnel to carry out the protection work at the expense of the proprietor. Due to proper
protection, many houses that have been used for hundreds of years are still in good condition
and beautiful. Looking back at the present situation in China, first, with weak consciousness of
corrosion protection, people have an unclear understanding of the damage of corrosion and fail
to take account of the corrosion safety problem from design to maintenance; second, the lack
of laws and mechanisms is related to the maintenance and the lack of supervision and
investment in corrosion protection across the country. These reasons lead to a relatively
backward situation of China in the field of corrosion protection on the whole.
It is urgent to carry out the major consultation project of the Chinese Academy of Engi-
neering, a study on corrosion status and control strategies in China, which is especially
important at the stage of rapid economic development in China. By taking this opportunity, we
can find out the degree of loss caused by corrosion problems in China, the degree of
understanding of corrosion protection by designers, engineers, and nonprofessionals in China,
and how to strengthen the awareness of corrosion protection by improving technical regula-
tions and relevant laws and regulations.
The project team has submitted a complete investigation report and published the scientific
investigation results, and put forward practical anticorrosion schemes and measures. This will
effectively promote the development of corrosion protection in China, which not only may
improve people’s awareness of corrosion protection but can also make the progress of cor-
rosion protection technologies, raising the corrosion protection work to a new height from the
national level. In addition, the Chinese Academy of Engineering is the highest engineering
xi
xii Foreword
consulting organization in China and doesn’t have scientific research units directly under its
administration, so it can assess China’s engineering technology problems in a more inde-
pendent and objective manner. It is worthy of the trust of the state and the people to give such
a project to the Chinese Academy of Engineering.
This is a comprehensive, normative, and detailed corrosion investigation and consulting
report of China based on basic national conditions. The publication and distribution of the
corresponding series of books is a focus of the major consultation project. As far as I know,
many famous domestic experts and scholars in many fields are involved in the compilation and
publication of this series of books. I believe that it can provide references for corrosion
protection workers in various fields and use theories and examples to guide China’s corrosion
protection work, and I also hope that graduate students and even undergraduates majoring in
corrosion protection can read this series of books since it is a good opportunity to broaden
their horizons and it’s hard to find many examples presented in the series in textbooks.
I sincerely hope that it will be recognized by the industry and contribute to the development of
corrosion protection in China.
Beijing, China Xu Kuangdi

September 2015
Preface
It is well-known that corrosion is a common problem faced by all countries in the world.
Wherever materials are used, there are corrosion problems to varying degrees. Corrosion is
irreversible as soon as it occurs. It is estimated that one ton of steel turns rust every 90 s around
the world. As quietly as the corrosion goes, it will shorten the service life of the structures,
increase the repair and maintenance cost, cause the shutdown, and even result in the collapse
of the building structure, leakage of toxic substances, fire, explosion, or other major accidents.
Therefore, it is very necessary to find out comprehensively the corrosion and control situation
in China through systematic investigation, analyze and study the existing problems in the field
of corrosion control in China at the macro strategic level, and put forward scientific and
feasible solutions to improve people’s awareness of corrosion protection. It’s also essential to
provide feasible support opinions and suggestions for central, local governments and enter-
prises, scientific basis for formulating relevant policies and regulations by the state and rel-
evant standards and norms of the industry, and technical support and theoretical guidance for
corrosion control technologies and industrial development in China.
Therefore, in early 2014, the Chinese Academy of Engineering established the project of
“Pre-Research on Economic Analysis of Corrosion Cost and Research on Anti-corrosion
Strategies”, which involves the preliminary research on the history, methods, and fields of
corrosion investigation. Based on the domestic and foreign experience, it designed a scientific
questionnaire and set up an investigation committee. At the end of 2014, the Chinese
Academy of Engineering established a major consultation project “Research on Corrosion
Status and Control Strategy in China,” which was carried out jointly by the Institute of
Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Society for Corrosion and Protection,
Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, and
Chinese People’s Liberation Army Armored Force Engineering Institute, and I served as the
chief scientist of the project. The project team obtains a large number of reliable data through
questionnaires, on-the-spot investigation, expert consultation, telephone interview, academic
discussion, conference exchange, literature review, and foreign investigation. Based on the
investigation of more than 30 industries in five fields, and with reference to the experience of
analysis and calculation at home and abroad, it carries out the data analysis and calculation
together with Chinese Society for Corrosion and Protection, obtains the corrosion cost data of
China in 2014, learns the basic situation of corrosion and control in China, and puts forward
the countermeasures of corrosion protection according to the specific situation of different
industries.
The study finds that the cost of corrosion in China in 2014 was about RMB 2,178.82
billion, accounting for about 3.34% of the gross domestic product of that year, which is a very
striking figure, i.e., each citizen shall bear the corresponding corrosion cost of RMB 1,555 in
the current year. It can be said that corrosion is a safety problem, an economic problem as well
as an ecological civilization problem. Corrosion protection is an important content of devel-
oping “the Belt and Road” strategy, and the intensity of corrosion protection and control
manifests the national civilization and prosperity.
xiii
xiv Preface
The project has received strong support from state organs such as the Chinese Academy of
Engineering, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology of the People’s Republic of China, more than 30 academicians of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering, and more than 500 experts in
related fields. The General Office of the Chinese Academy of Engineering and the General
Office of the Chinese Academy of Sciences jointly issued the Letter on Requests to Assist the
Investigation Activities of the Project on the Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China,
and the Ministry of Industry and Information issued the Letter on Supporting the Investigation
Activities of the Project on the Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China. Prior to the
commencement of this project, University of Science and Technology Beijing and Chinese
Society for Corrosion and Protection have undertaken the basic work of the Ministry of
Science and Technology, i.e., Investigation on the Status Quo of Material Corrosion and
Natural Environment Pollution Caused by Material Corrosion in China, which plays an
important role in the successful completion of this project.
Here, I would like to thank the Chinese Academy of Engineering, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and all units undertaking the
subjects for their strong support as well as the relevant government departments, project team
members, industrial organizations, enterprises and institutions, and domestic and foreign
counterparts for their great help. I would also like to appreciate Science Press which has
contributed a lot for the successful publication of this book.
The book is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the background and methods
of the investigation, corrosion cost statistics, corrosion protection strategies, and suggestions.
Chapters 2–6 deliver the corrosion investigation results in more than 30 industries of the five
fields such as infrastructure, transportation, energy, water environment, manufacturing, and
public utilities, respectively. I believe that the publication of this book is of great significance
to the basic research, technology development, achievement promotion, and personnel training
in the field of corrosion protection in China, and will certainly promote the progress of the
pillar industries in all fields of China. I also hope that with this book the readers will pay more
attention to the development of corrosion protection technologies in China, better find out the
corrosion problems, and propose anticorrosion strategies of various industries in China.
The content of this book covers a wide range of fields, so it is inevitable that there are
inaccuracies or deficiencies. Readers are kindly requested to point out errors.
Qingdao, China Baorong Hou

September 2017
Contents
1 Introduction to A Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies

in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Baorong Hou
2 Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in Infrastructure
Field in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Binshi Xu
3 Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in Transportation
Field in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Huibin Xu
4 Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in Energy Field
in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Jianyun Zhang
5 Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in Water Environment
Field in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Baorong Hou
6 Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in Manufacturing
and Public Utilities Field in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
Xiaogang Li
xv
Abstract
As a major consultation project of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the study on cor-
rosion status and control strategies in China carries out a comprehensive and systematic
investigation on the corrosion status and its control strategy in more than 30 key industries of
China’s national economy, and calculates the corrosion cost of China in 2014, with dozens of
industry reports prepared and a series of books containing more than 30 monographs pub-
lished. This book is a summary of the entire corrosion investigation.
The book is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the corrosion investigation at
home and abroad, background and methods of the investigation, corrosion cost statistics,
corrosion protection strategies, and suggestions. Chapters 2–6 deliver the corrosion status and
control measures in the five areas such as infrastructure, transportation, energy, water envi-
ronment, manufacturing, and public utilities, respectively.
Rich in contents and strong in readability, this book provides information related to cor-
rosion protection for many industries and facilitates to take appropriate corrosion protection
measures predictably and pertinently, thus reducing the loss caused by corrosion. It can also
provide support for life-cycle management and overall cost optimization of related significant
facilities. This book can be used for reference in institutions of higher learning, research
institutes, industrial organizations, government departments, enterprises and institutions.
xvii
Introduction to A Study on Corrosion Status
and Control Strategies in China 1
Baorong Hou
Material corrosion widely exists in various fields of social corrosion across the world for the first time. In his book
and economic construction. All kinds of accidents caused by Metallurgy and Its Information on Modern Progress pub-
corrosion are shocking and seriously affect the development lished in 1925, he referred to the production of pig iron and
of the social economy. With the advance of “the Belt and the number of losses caused by corrosion. Although only the
Road”, all walks of life in China are developing vigorously. corrosion losses of steel are counted, instead of the corrosion
Material corrosion is an important problem that should not costs of a variety of corrosion protection techniques or
be ignored. It is necessary for corrosion scientists to make a multiple industries, it is the embryonic form of a series of
deeper study on the corrosion theories and corrosion control more comprehensive corrosion investigations conducted
technologies of various materials and equipment under dif- thereafter.
ferent environmental conditions. The Chinese Academy of Up to now, many countries have conducted investigations
Engineering is far-sighted and holds the major needs of the on their own corrosion status. The United States, Japan, and
country. In 2015, it set up a major consultation project, other countries have also conducted several corrosion
“Research on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in investigations to understand and analyze the impact of cor-
China”. The project team combines hundreds of institutions rosion on national economic and social development at
of higher learning, scientific research institutes, enterprises, different stages of development and in the international
and public institutions to form a team of nearly 500 experts context. Corrosion investigations carried out in several
to carry out the research on corrosion status and control countries involve direct losses while indirect losses are often
measures of more than 30 industries in five major fields such significantly higher than direct losses; but because of the
as infrastructure, transportation, energy, water environment, complexity of the conversion relationship between their
manufacturing, and public utilities in China. The develop- impact on personnel, time, and environment, and economic
ment of this project is of great significance to the develop- cost, it is often more difficult to estimate indirect losses. The
ment of the National Corrosion Protection Industry [1–14]. following describes the corrosion investigation activities
carried out by some countries, respectively, and the data
acquisition and economic analysis methods adopted in the
1.1 Introduction to Corrosion Investigation corrosion investigation.
at Home and Abroad
1. The United States
1.1.1 International Corrosion Investigation
In 1949, H. H. Uhlig from the United States published The
Corrosion investigation is an important way for many Cost of Corrosion to the United States, which is the earliest
countries in the world to know their own corrosion status study to estimate corrosion losses throughout the country.
through a series of investigation activities and to measure the The study indicates that the United States lost about $5.5
economic and social effects caused by corrosion. As early as billion every year on corrosion, accounting for about 2.1%
in 1922, British Handfield calculated the loss caused by the of its gross domestic product in 1949. The study measures
steel corrosion from the steel production and the amount of the total loss by summing up the loss of corrosion to the
owners/operators (direct cost) and the loss of the users
B. Hou (&) (indirect cost). The owners/operators’ loss is estimated by
The Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Qingdao, Shandong, China summing the total cost of corrosion protection products and
e-mail: [email protected] corrosion protection services used throughout the country.
© Science Press 2019 1

B. Hou (ed.), The Cost of Corrosion in China,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9354-0_1
2 B. Hou
The corrosion protection products and services in the eco- The final results of this investigation are provided by NBS
nomic field include coatings, corrosion inhibitors, after revising the Battelle report: the corrosion loss of metallic
corrosion-resistant metals, and cathodic protection costs. materials in the United States was about $70 billion in 1975,
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) conducted a accounting for 4.5% of the GDP of that year, among which
nationwide investigation on the corrosion loss of metallic 14% (about $10 billion) of corrosion loss can be avoided by
materials in 1975 under the recommendation of the Con- the use of existing corrosion protection technologies.
gress, and the Battelle Laboratory (Battelle Columbus Between 1999 and 2001, CC Technologies, in conjunc-
Division) analyzed the data of the corrosion investigation, tion with the United States Department of Transportation,
with two research reports finally published, and a series of National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and the
papers published in the journal Materials Performance. For National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) con-
the first time, this study gathered economic experts to esti- ducted an investigation into corrosion losses in the United
mate the impact of corrosion on the US economy with the States, which is the seventh corrosion investigation in the
input/output (IO) economic model, in which the US econ- United States. In that investigation, Uhlig method and Hoar
omy is divided into 130 industrial sectors, and the cost of method were used to estimating the corrosion loss, and the
each industrial sector for corrosion protection (coatings, etc.) results were compiled as Corrosion Cost and Preventive
and corrosion repair or replacement is estimated, including Strategies in the United States, which details the total eco-
the following direct corrosion losses: replacement of nomic costs of metallic corrosion in the United States at the
equipment or structures, production losses, maintenance and time, and discusses prevention strategies for corrosion
repair costs, excess production capacity, equipment idle, management.
corrosion protection costs (corrosion inhibitors, organic and The report focuses on the investigation of corrosion costs
metal coatings, etc.), corrosion-resistant material costs, cor- in five fields including infrastructure, public utilities, trans-
rosion margins, insurance, spare parts, and equipment. portation, manufacturing, and government departments
Corrosion cost data for each economic sector are listed in (Hoar method), and estimates direct corrosion cost, which is
one row (or corresponding column) in the input/output defined as the cost of corrosion borne by the owner or
matrix, and when a certain column (e.g., industrial sector X) operator of the enterprise, including the more expensive cost
is selected as the research object, each row reflects the cor- of corrosion-resistant materials, the human costs required for
responding input from each of the other relevant departments corrosion management, the cost of equipment related to
for producing a $1 output by sector X. For example, for the corrosion, cost loss due to deterioration of material corrosion,
steel industry, the input/output matrix can indicate that etc. The investigation calculates and sums up corrosion cost
producing the steel of $1 requires the coal of $0.15 and iron data of 26 specific industries in five fields (highway bridges,
ore of $0.10 (0.15 and 0.10 are referred to as coefficients). oil and gas transportation, power grid, electronic communi-
A row of the matrix is the sector that sells the steel industry cations, automobiles, aircraft, mining, oil and gas exploita-
products. For example, the revenue of every dollar comes tion, agriculture, food processing, nuclear waste storage,
from selling the steel of $0.13 to the automobile industry, the etc.), with a total cost of $137.9 billion, which resulted in a
steel of $0.06 to the truck industry, and so on. total direct corrosion cost of approximately $276 billion per
In this study, three “worlds” are defined: year for various industries throughout the country, account-
ing for 3.1% of US gross domestic product in 1998. The
World I: Real world with corrosion investigation found that the corrosion cost of the drainage
World II: Imaginary world without corrosion system, motor vehicle, national defense, and other industries
World III: Imaginary world in which corrosion is prevented is the main direct corrosion cost. The decrease in time cost
to the greatest extent possible. and productivity caused by production interruption, supply
delay, legal dispute, and others is the main indirect loss.
On this basis, the Battelle-NBS study further divides the According to the report, better corrosion management can
total corrosion costs into avoidable corrosion cost and be achieved through the implementation of reasonable pre-
unavoidable corrosion cost, which are defined as follows: the vention strategies. These strategies include reinforcing cor-
avoidable corrosion cost is the difference between World I rosion protection education, enhancing corrosion cost
and World III, or the loss that can be reduced by adopting awareness, improving corrosion protection design,
the most economical and effective corrosion control tech- strengthening corrosion protection research, spreading the
nology; the unavoidable corrosion cost is the difference concept of resource conservation, and reasonably formulat-
between World II and World III, or a loss that cannot be ing policies, regulations and standards on corrosion
reduced by existing corrosion protection technologies. protection.
1 Introduction to A Study on Corrosion Status … 3
2. Japan is attributed to the complexity and uncertainty of investi-

gation on corrosion cost.
In 1977, funded by the Ministry of International Trade and The investigation shows that the losses in 1974 caused by
Industry for the revitalization of machinery, the Japan corrosion in Japan accounted for about 2% of the GNP of
Anti-rust Technology Association and the Japan Corrosion Japan in that year. However, this study only assessed the
and Prevention Association set up a corrosion loss com- direct loss of corrosion, and the overall loss of corrosion
mittee headed by Chairman Okamoto to carry out a would be higher if the indirect loss was included.
year-long in-depth study of various fields in Japan, in The investigation report gives a supplementary descrip-
combination with the investigation methods of the United tion of indirect loss. In extreme cases, such as a shutdown of
States and the United Kingdom, which was the first inves- a nuclear reactor due to corrosion of stainless steel piping,
tigation on corrosion conducted in Japan. the indirect loss of one reactor in a day amounts to Y100
With the Uhlig method for reference, a Comprehensive million. Among the loss caused by such accidents, the
Branch Committee was set up to make statistics on the cost amount of indirect loss is much larger than that of direct loss,
of corrosion countermeasures from the aspects of production but it is not the subject of investigation because it is difficult
and manufacturing; with Hoar method for reference, six to be measured.
branches of energy, transportation, construction, chemistry, The investigation considers that the corrosion loss in
metal, and machinery were set up to count the cost of direct Japan is relatively high, and puts forward the following
loss and corrosion countermeasures. suggestions on corrosion protection:
The Uhlig method used in this investigation is to estimate
corrosion costs primarily based on corrosion protection • Strengthen information publicity, set up a corrosion
products and technologies (i.e., coatings, corrosion inhibi- protection service center composed of technical experts,
tors, corrosion-resistant materials, cathode protection, etc.). reinforce the communication between scientific research
The overall corrosion cost estimated by this method is institutions and industrial enterprises, and enhance the
approximately Y2.5 trillion, with coatings and protective training of professional engineers;
coatings accounting for nearly 2/3. The Hoar method is used • In term of education, it is proposed to develop an
to calculate the corrosion cost of a particular industry, and awareness of environmental protection and resource
estimates a total corrosion cost of about Y1.0 trillion, with conservation at different stages of education, from pri-
the highest corrosion cost ratio in the mechanical manufac- mary schools to universities;
turing field. The corrosion cost estimated with these two • Regarding research and technology development of
methods is quite different. The estimated value of the Uhlig corrosion, it is necessary to improve the monitoring and
method is Y1.5 trillion higher than the Hoar method, which inspection technologies for corrosion protection and add
is due to the omission of Hoar method. In the food industry, corresponding R & D equipment.
for example, the cost of corrosion protection is not included,
and the surface treatment cost of tin-plated steel (for canned Since 1976, for more than 20 years, Japan’s economy has
products) estimated with the Uhlig method is Y79 billion. In developed rapidly, and the industrial structure has corre-
addition, the cost of corrosion protection for tin-free steel spondingly undergone earth-shaking changes. Under the
(TFS) (for soft drink cans) is also not included. Thus, in the premise of full consideration of economic changes, the Japan
Hoar method, the food industry alone ignores more than 100 Anti-rust Technology Association and the Japan Corrosion
billion. and Prevention Association established the Corrosion Cost
Another important difference lies in the coating treatment Investigation Committee in 1999 to conduct the second
cost in the transportation industry (ships, railways, and corrosion investigation in Japan. Chaired by Professor Shi-
automobiles) estimated with two methods, i.e., the cost of bata Toshio of Osaka University, a Comprehensive Branch
corrosion protection coatings estimated with the Uhlig Committee and six branches of energy were set up with
method is more than Y800 billion while that with the cor- member experts from the Japan Machinery Industry Feder-
rosion loss estimated with the Hoar method is less than Y200 ation, the Japan Iron and Steel Federation, the Japan Ship-
billion, so there is a difference of Y600 billion. Another building Industry Association, and the Japan Paint
important difference relates to the construction industry Manufacturers Association, and other associations. The
(Y150 billion), with many factors leading to lower estimates investigation focuses more on reducing costs through cor-
with the Hoar method. Even with these differences in mind, rosion protection technologies, so the name was changed
there is a Y400-billion gap between the two methods, which from “corrosion loss” to “corrosion cost”.
4 B. Hou
Based on the Uhlig and Hoar methods of the previous the end of the investigation, a series of schemes on corrosion
investigation on corrosion, this investigation uses the cost reduction is proposed, including
input/output method to calculate the corrosion cost accord-
ing to the 5-year industrial association table issued by the (1) Development of basic research on corrosion and
Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry. This method can protection;
estimate the sum of direct cost and indirect cost, and the (2) Attention should be paid to the role of corrosion pro-
value obtained is larger than that of the Uhlig method and tection in resource-saving society;
Hoar method. The investigation estimates that the direct and (3) Implementing a strategy to minimize the corrosion cost;
indirect corrosion costs amount to Yen 9.7 trillion, (4) Enlightenment education of knowledge related to cor-
accounting for 1.88% or more of GNP. The report points out rosion and protection, and establishment and improve-
that if a more detailed investigation is carried out, the cal- ment of occupational qualification certification system
culated corrosion cost must be greater than the abovemen- for corrosion protection;
tioned value, and may even reach 3–4% of GNP. (5) Attaching importance to the role of corrosion and pro-
The results of the Uhlig method show that the total cor- tection in the process of social informationization;
rosion cost is Yen 3.9 trillion, which is 1.54 times of the (6) Promoting the establishment of corrosion and protec-
previous result and less than the growth rate of GNP tion professional associations and organizations, and
between 1976 and 2001. Among the itemized expenses, the strengthen the use of knowledge on corrosion.
increase rate of corrosion-resistant materials, anti-rust oil,
and corrosion inhibitor is relatively high, so it is known that Japan’s third investigation on corrosion cost was also
these measures are more common in the application of launched in 2016, with Professor Shinohara Tadashi serving
corrosion protection. as chairman of the Corrosion Investigation Committee and
The investigation adopts a uniform method, for example, researcher Tanabe Hiroyuki serving as chairman of the
in order to calculate the cost of coating construction, Branch of the Corrosion Investigation Committee.
assuming a proportion of the same construction cost, i.e., the
cost of coating construction associated with marine trans- 3. Britain
portation is 10 times that of the coating cost, and the other
construction cost is 5 times that of the coating cost. In In March 1966, Professor T. P. Hoar chaired the establish-
addition, the statistics of surface treatment system is con- ment of the British Corrosion Protection Commission. In
servative, for example, the aluminum for building materials 1969, the commission identified corrosion losses in a num-
such as doors, windows, and exterior materials is taken as a ber of industries, including construction, food, engineering
statistical object of surface treatment of metal aluminum, machinery, government departments, offshore platforms,
while the surface treatment of aluminum for automobiles is metal smelting and processing, petrochemicals, energy
not included in the calculation of corrosion cost. sources, transportation and water environments, and carried
The investigation result of the Hoar investigation shows out an investigation on corrosion loss of more than 200
that the total cost of the various fields is Y5,258.2 billion enterprises, with the report on Corrosion Investigation and
(accounting for 1.02% of GNP), with a greater growth com- protection status published in 1971. The report identifies the
pared with Japan’s previous investigation results, which corrosion losses in major industries in Britain and estimates
results from the broader fields involved in the investigation. the total corrosion loss in Britain by summing up the cor-
For example, for the investigation of the electric power sector, rosion loss of each industry. These losses include the direct
the corrosion cost in the construction cost is Y112.3 billion, loss of the owners/operators and, in some cases, the loss
which is 4 times that of the investigation result in 1977, and incurred by the users of the products due to repair or
the corrosion cost in the maintenance management is Y1,007 replacement parts. The results show that the annual corro-
billion, which is 5.8 times that of the result of the previous sion loss in Britain is ₤1.365 billion, accounting for 3.5% of
investigation, indicating the transfer of corrosion costs from the GNP of Britain. Hoar points out that approximately 20–
initial construction to maintenance management. Also for the 25% of the corrosion loss can be avoided by better utiliza-
chemical industry, the corrosion cost of existing equipment is tion of existing corrosion protection knowledge and tech-
greater than the cost of corrosion for new equipment. nologies. The percentage that can be avoided in different
According to the subjective judgment of the respondents industries varies from 10 to 40% of the industry’s corrosion
from most enterprises, the corrosion cost can be reduced by losses. Estimates suggest that a total of ₤310 million could
20–30% with appropriate corrosion protection measures. At be avoided.
The British Corrosion Protection Commission has listed Sweden carried out an investigation on corrosion in 1964,
many ways and methods to reduce the corrosion loss; these in which anticorrosive coatings cost between SKR 300
methods include strengthening the propaganda of the cor- million and 400 million (US $58 million–$75 million).
rosion protection information, enhancing the people’s cor- Finland carried out a study on corrosion cost in 1965, which
rosion protection consciousness, increasing the education indicates that its corrosion cost ranges from about FMK 150
investment in corrosion protection, better spread and dis- million to 200 million ($47 million–$62 million).
semination of existing knowledge and technologies on cor- A study on corrosion carried out in Germany in the late
rosion protection, promoting the effective implementation of 1960s estimated that the total cost of corrosion between
existing measures on corrosion protection, improving the 1968 and 1969 is about DM 19 billion ($6 billion), almost
design of the existing materials, using a new type of 3% of the GNP of West Germany in 1969. Of this, DM 4.3
corrosion-resistant materials, optimizing the selection of raw billion ($1.5 billion) is considered to be avoidable,
materials and protection measures based on the life-long accounting for 25% of the total cost of corrosion.
cost/benefit analysis, pre-assessment of material durability, Relevant Australian authorities carried out an investiga-
continuing to strengthen the basic research on corrosion tion on corrosion in 1982. Based on the Battelle-NBS cor-
mechanism, promoting the communication between the rosion investigation method, the study estimated that the cost
corrosion protection industry and the government depart- of corrosion in Australia reached $2 billion in that year,
ments, developing nondestructive testing techniques, and close to 1.5% of the GNP of Australia in 1982. Based on the
promoting the standardization of components. results of the investigation, Australia has identified the
The British investigation also takes into account the establishment of the National Corrosion protection and
impact of taxes on corrosion losses. The tax system actually Control Center and defined three different functions of the
forces some industries to reduce investment costs, which in center as rapidly delivering advisory services for enterprises
turn increases maintenance costs. As a result, some and government agencies, carrying out long-term application
short-sighted companies, while are clearly aware of the studies related to corrosion, and technical training for sup-
consequences of corrosion, still choose inferior materials to porting technological transfer and corrosion protection.
reduce capital expenditure. Hoar reports that the tax system In 1992, Kuwait used the revised Battelle-NBS
actually increases corrosion losses in disguised form. The input/output model to estimate its corrosion costs in 1987,
research also finds that although corrosion and protection with corrosion-related factors primarily involving the
involve many industries, many enterprises often lack access replacement of facilities and equipment, product loss,
to technologies and suggestions on corrosion protection. In maintenance and repair, corrosion control, etc. The total cost
addition, the lack of awareness of corrosion protection has of corrosion is estimated at $1 billion, representing 5.2% of
led many enterprises and individuals to seek corrosion pro- Kuwait’s GDP in 1987, and the avoidable corrosion cost is
tection methods only after encountering serious problems, about $180 million, accounting for 18% of the total corro-
and this kind of passive corrosion protection will lead to sion cost.
great economic losses. Hoar’s report summarizes the cor-
rosion losses as four main causes: lack of vision in man- 5. First international corrosion investigation
agement, poor dissemination of information, minimization
of initial investment, and lack of knowledge on corrosion In October 2013, IMPACT (the International Measures of
protection. Prevention, Application, and Economics of Corrosion
Technologies), an international corrosion investigation
4. Other countries activity, was launched by the National Association of Cor-
rosion Engineers (NACE) and jointly completed by Det
India conducted an investigation on corrosion cost in 1961 Norske Veritas-Germanischer Lloyd (DNV GL) and the
and estimated the cost of corrosion between 1960 and 1961 American Productivity & Quality Center (APQC) under the
at about Rs. 1.54 billion ($320 million). In 2011, India leadership of NACE, together with enterprises and scientific
carried out an investigation on corrosion again, in which the research institutions in China, Canada, India, and other
input/output method was used to calculate the national cor- countries. The project focuses on the impact of corrosion
rosion costs. India’s direct corrosion cost was $26.1 billion, management on different industries and governments and
about 2.4% of India’s GDP. The avoidable corrosion cost is attempts to find a better corrosion control and management
about $9.3 billion, about 35% of the direct corrosion cost. Its model. Additionally, the tasks of the IMPACT project
indirect corrosion loss amounted to $39.8 billion, about include updating global corrosion cost data, assessing the
3.6% of India’s GDP. effectiveness of corrosion management in different industries
6 B. Hou
and regions, establishing Corrosion Management System 1.1.2 Domestic Corrosion Investigation
(CMS), guiding corrosion management, and providing an
economic calculation method for life cycle cost and return Compared with the European and American countries, Chi-
on investment. na’s corrosion investigation started later. The earliest corro-
In 2014, the delegation of IMPACT Project Manager sion investigation in China began in July 1980. The corrosion
came to China to conduct a large number of investigations discipline group of the State Scientific and Technological
and finally confirmed that Hou Baorong from the Institute of Commission issued the Investigation Form of Corrosion
Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Sciences serves the Management and Corrosion Loss to seven sectors such as
Chairman of Global Corrosion Investigation in China. chemical industry, oil refining industry, metallurgy industry,
The corrosion management system is an important part of and chemical fiber industry, and carried on-the-spot obser-
this investigation and research. Its core is a series of policies vation and investigation. The scope of this investigation is
and regulations to gradually improve the management and narrow, and the investigation method is not perfect, so it only
control ability of enterprises to corrosion problems, includ- obtains the result of some sectors. The result of the investi-
ing optimizing corrosion control measures, minimizing the gation shows that the corrosion loss of the chemical industry
life cycle corrosion cost, and meeting safety and environ- accounts for about 3.97% of its total output value, that of the
mental requirements. In fact, reducing corrosion costs refining industry accounts for about 0.08% of its total output
requires not only corrosion control technologies but also the value, that of the metallurgical industry accounts for about
incorporation of corrosion control into the enterprise man- 2.4% of its total output value, and that of the chemical fiber
agement system with strict implementation throughout the industry accounts for about 1.5% of its total output value.
life cycle. To achieve this, IMPACT also provides corre- In 1986, the Wuhan Institute of Materials Protection was
sponding management mode and guidelines, which is responsible for the investigation on the corrosion loss of the
regarded as an important innovation of this study. machinery industry in China. The investigation involves 27
The IMPACT project estimates the cost of global corro- provinces, cities, and autonomous regions of China. In the
sion by using the original investigation data from several project, a comprehensive investigation on the corrosion loss of
typical countries and the economic composition of different the machinery industry is carried out through correspondence,
countries. Examples of investigation on corrosion status key on-the-spot investigation, expert discussion and consul-
used in the study include the result of investigation on cor- tation, reference of relevant data and literature, and visits to the
rosion 2011–2012 in India, the result of investigation on national statistical bureaus of some provinces and munici-
corrosion in 1998 in the United States, the result of inves- palities. Several aspects were counted including corrosion loss
tigation on corrosion in 1997 in Japan, the result of inves- data of metal materials required for the required for the
tigation on corrosion in Kuwait in 1987, and the result of manufacture of mechanical industrial products, corrosion loss
investigation on corrosion in Britain in 1970. In each case, of mechanical industrial products, corrosion loss of exported
the data covered three basic fields of agriculture, industry, commodities of various mechanical industrial products, and
and services. In addition, in order to complete the global the corrosion and scrap loss data of machine instrument for
corrosion cost analysis, the economic data from a number of production. The research shows that the corrosion loss of
countries are also collected. The United States, Britain, and China’s machinery industry reached RMB 11,624.5 million in
Japan have relatively developed industries and services, and 1986, accounting for 5.64% of its total output value.
their economic structures are similar. In India, agriculture According to the proposal and application made by
accounts for a significantly greater share of its economy. In Academicians Ke Wei and Cao Chunan, and others, the
Kuwait, the proportion of the oil industry is prominent. Standing Committee of the Department of Chemical Engi-
According to the economic data from the World Bank, neering, Metallurgy and Materials, Chinese Academy of
regions of the global economy can be divided into the Engineering, decided to formally start the consultation pro-
United States, India, Europe, Saudi Arabia, mainland China, ject of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, “Investigation
Russia, Japan, Four Tigers of Asia, Macau, China, and other and Countermeasures on Corrosion Problems of Industry
areas. The global corrosion cost in 2013 is estimated at about and Natural Environment in China” on April 6, 1999. This
$2,505 billion, roughly 3.4% of the global GDP of that year. project is organized and carried out by relying on the Chi-
This cost does not include the impact of corrosion on safety nese Society for Corrosion and Protection and under the
and the environment. Nevertheless, it is stressed that the administration of the Institute of Metal Corrosion and Pro-
impact of corrosion on safety and the environment must be tection of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (currently the
taken into account when making decisions or optimizing Institute of Metal Research of the Chinese Academy of
management. Sciences). Based on the foreign investigation experience and
the actual situation of China, the investigation is carried out 1.2 Background, Significance,
by means of typical investigation and statistics. The inves- and Development Process
tigation involved natural environment (atmosphere, soil), of the Corrosion Investigation
industrial environment (petroleum industry, electric power,
automobile, etc.), military equipment, etc. In the investiga- 1.2.1 Era Background of the Corrosion
tion, Uhlig method and Hoar method were used to estimat- Investigation
ing the corrosion loss in China, which was RMB 200.782
billion and RMB 228.843 billion, respectively. Hoar method In the twenty-first century, especially since 2008, great
only investigated the corrosion loss of some industries, while changes have taken place in both the global economy and
Uhlig method only calculated the direct corrosion loss. The the Chinese economy.
investigation shows that the indirect corrosion loss of China The outbreak of the international financial crisis in 2008
is 1.5–2 times of its direct corrosion loss, so the total cor- made the developed economies generally suffer a lot, and the
rosion loss of China is more than RMB 500 billion, equiv- focus of the world economy has shifted further from the West
alent to more than $60 billion. Taking 2000 as an example, to the East. The United States, Europe, and other developed
China’s gross national product (GNP) is $1,071 billion, and countries and regions are strongly aware of the importance of
its annual corrosion loss accounted for about 6% of GNP. manufacturing to improve the economy and employment,
The report points out that corrosion has caused huge and successively have launched “re-industrialization” pro-
losses to the national economy, and that we should pay as gram, in the hope of promoting industrial restructuring to
much attention to the corrosion as to environmental pro- restore the economy.
tection, disaster reduction, and medicine. In the climax In recent years, China’s economy has developed rapidly
period of large-scale economic construction, special atten- and people’s living standards have been improved continu-
tion should be paid to the corrosion and protection of ously (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). In 2010, China became the world’s
infrastructure; prevention should be given priority, second largest economy. During the 5 years, from 2008 to
short-term behavior should be avoided, and the concept of 2013, China’s contribution to world economic growth has
“technical/economic comprehensive analysis of total cost reached 37.6%. At the same time, the spillover effect of
within the service life cycle” should be advocated, so that the China’s economy becomes more and more obvious, the
level of corrosion control in China can be put into the top pressure of economic growth decreases greatly, the demand
ranks of the world as soon as possible; we will continue to for ecological environment protection is urgent, the task of
strengthen the basic and public welfare research related to upgrading industrial structure is heavy, and China’s eco-
corrosion, improve the database and realize the sharing of nomic development assumes a new normal state. In 2013,
corrosion data and resources. the Party Central Committee, with Comrade Xi Jinping as its
RMB 100 million

GDP
/ GDP/RMB 100 million
Year
% GDP growth rate
Fig. 1.1 China’s GDP during 1996–2015
8 B. Hou
RMB 1
Income and expenditure of urban residents
/ Per capita disposable income of urban residents/RMB 1
Year
/ Per capita consumption expenditure of urban
households/RMB 1
Fig. 1.2 Per capita disposable income and per capita consumption expenditure of urban residents in China from 1996 to 2015
core, historically put forward the Belt and Road strategy, only affects the working precision of national defense
injecting new vitality into China’s reform and opening-up facilities and equipment but even causes the failure of key
policy and putting forward new requirements for the precision devices, thus seriously threatening national
development of infrastructure, production, and manufactur- security.
ing in China. However, due to a lack of understanding of Corrosion and protection are related to the economy.
corrosion protection, many corrosion problems occurred Every industry involves corrosion, whose effective control
during the large-scale construction, resulting in a serious and solution play an important role in improving the pro-
threat to the durability of materials and the safety of duction efficiency and controlling the overall cost of the
facilities. enterprises. In some developed countries, rust is extremely
rare due to effective corrosion protection and control mea-
sures. As a result, the development of a corrosion protection
1.2.2 Significance of Corrosion and Protection industry is an important indicator of the level of national
economic development and civilization.
Corrosion protection is a 100-year plan related to national Corrosion and protection are related to the national
construction. In the progress of the Belt and Road strategy economy and people’s livelihood. The corrosion of water
and the economic development of “transforming mode and supply pipeline may deteriorate such indicators as the tur-
adjusting structure”, it is necessary to thoroughly understand bidity, chroma, and bacteria quantity of drinking water,
and comprehensively grasp the existing corrosion protection cause the phenomena such as “red water”, “black water”, or
technologies and its development level in China, put forward “colored water” in the pipeline network, which endangers
the pertinent strategies and measures, and strengthen the the safety of drinking water. Such phenomena as running,
level of corrosion protection in China, so as to ensure the bubbling, dripping, and leaking caused by corrosion and the
smooth development of the Belt and Road and the opti- poisonous and harmful substances produced seriously affect
mization of “transforming mode and adjusting structure”. the daily life and health of the masses.
Corrosion and protection are related to safety. The leak- Corrosion and protection are related to an ecological
age and explosion of dangerous substances caused by cor- civilization. A large number of oil spills caused by pipeline
rosion and the rupture and collapse of structural buildings corrosion and rupture once made rivers, lakes, and hundreds
bring unexpected accidents to the people and endanger the of hectares of land seriously polluted, resulting in the death
property and personal safety of the masses. Corrosion not of a large number of dead plants and extinction of animals.
The leakage of radioactive material caused by the corrosion IMPACT China–US Cooperation Agreement Signing Cer-
of nuclear power facilities can not only damage the physi- emony was held in Beijing. Academician Hou Baorong
ological function of the surrounding organisms but even signed the agreement with Mr. Bob Chalker, CEO of NACE
damage the genetic materials and cause gene mutation. and Ms. Elaine Bowman.
Corrosion and protection are related to resource conser- IMPACT is an investigation focused on corrosion man-
vation. Corrosion can accelerate the aging decommissioning agement. Due to domestic demand for an investigation of
process of built facilities and equipment, shortening their life corrosion cost and control countermeasures, Academician
cycle; while these facilities and equipment use a lot of raw Hou Baorong has taken this opportunity to submit sugges-
materials and energy during the construction, corrosion tions on nationwide corrosion investigation to the Depart-
results in indirect waste. Corrosion can cause a series of ment of Environment and Textile Engineering of the
pollution problems such as water pollution, air pollution, and Chinese Academy of Engineering. In 2014, the Chinese
soil pollution, which make these precious resources scarcer. Academy of Engineering established the project of
In view of the importance of corrosion and protection and “Pre-Research on Economic Analysis of Corrosion Cost and
the economic situation in the new period, it is very important Research on Anti-corrosion Strategies,” which involves the
and urgent to carry out nationwide corrosion investigation. preliminary research on the history, methods, and fields of
Only by knowing the corrosion cost of China, understanding corrosion investigation. Based on the domestic and foreign
the corrosion protection condition of each industry, analyz- experience, it designed a scientific questionnaire and pre-
ing the industry with more prominent corrosion pertinently, liminarily determined the plan and method of corrosion
and studying from corrosion protection consciousness, cor- investigation. In 2015, the Chinese Academy of Engineering
rosion protection technologies, enterprise corrosion protec- established a major consultation project “Research on Cor-
tion countermeasure, industry standard, and national rosion Status and Control Strategies in China,” which was
policies, it is expected to reach the goal of simultaneously headed by the Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of
addressing both the symptoms and root cause of the corro- Sciences, and jointly developed by the Chinese Society for
sion and effectively reducing the corrosion cost of China. Corrosion and Protection, University of Science and Tech-
The investigation can comprehensively know the corro- nology Beijing, Beijing University of Aeronautics and
sion and control situation under the new economic situation Astronautics, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, and
in China, analyze and study the existing problems in the field Chinese People’s Liberation Army Armored Force Engi-
of corrosion control from the macro-strategic level, put neering Institute.
forward scientific and feasible solutions, raise people’s The scope of investigation is divided into five fields,
awareness of corrosion protection, provide feasible support among which the infrastructure field includes highway
opinions and suggestions for central and local governments bridges, port terminals, water conservancy projects and other
and enterprises, formulate relevant policies and regulations fields, which are under the charge of Academician Xu Binshi
for the state, offer scientific basis for formulating relevant from the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Armored Force
standards and norms for the industry, and provide technical Engineering Institute; the transportation field includes air-
support and theoretical guidance for corrosion control craft, ship, automobile, rail transit, and others, which are
technologies and industrial development in China. under the charge of Academician Xu Huibin from Beijing
University of Aeronautics and Astronautics; the energy field
includes petrochemical industry, coal industry, power grid,
1.2.3 Development Process of the Corrosion clean energy, and others, which are under the charge of
Investigation Academician Zhang Jianyun from Nanjing Hydraulic
Research Institute; the water environment field includes
In 2013, IMPACT (the International Measures of Preven- urban water supply and drainage, marine platform, seawater
tion, Application, and Economics of Corrosion Technolo- desalination, and others, which are under the charge of
gies), the first international corrosion investigation activity, Academician Hou Baorong, the Institute of Oceanology,
which was launched by the National Association of Corro- Chinese Academy of Sciences; the manufacturing and public
sion Engineers (NACE) was completed jointly by the United utility field include chemical industry, cultural relics, paper
States, China, Canada, India, and other countries. In making, engineering machinery, medical materials, metal-
February 2014, Elaine Bowman, a former chairman of the lurgy and mining, agricultural machinery, and food indus-
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) and tries, which are under the charge of Professor Li Xiaogang
Project Manager of IMPACT, and others visited several from the Chinese Society for Corrosion and Protection.
relevant research institutes in China. Finally, academician According to the needs of their respective work, relevant
Hou Baorong was appointed as Chairman of the IMPACT universities, scientific research institutes, and enterprises are
China Corrosion Investigation Committee. On May 20, the invited to participate in each subject. The project teams meet
10 B. Hou
to study and appoint the leaders and members of each experience in the field of corrosion protection for many
industry investigation team and the writer of the industry years, and publish the Series on Studying Corrosion Status
report. and Control Strategy in China, totaling 32 monographs,
The project has received strong support from state which can provide valuable reference to technicians and
organs such as the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the engineering management personnel in the corrosion protec-
Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the Ministry of Industry tion industry, some noncorrosive professionals as well as the
and Information Technology of the People’s Republic of relevant professional students in universities. The project
China, more than 30 academicians of the Chinese Academy team presents academicians’ Recommendations on Incor-
of Sciences and Chinese Academy of Engineering, and porating Corrosion protection of China’s Infrastructure and
more than 500 experts in related fields. The General Office Major Equipment into the National Strategies to the State
of the Chinese Academy of Engineering and the General Council, jointly with more than a dozen of academicians.
Office of the Chinese Academy of Sciences jointly issued Propagandizing the corrosion protection through the news
the Letter on Requests to Assist the Investigation Activities media, the project set up a creative team of popular science,
of the Project on the Corrosion Status and Control and spread the knowledge on corrosion protection to the
Strategies in China, and the Ministry of Industry and primary and middle school students; published the 17-issue
Information issued the Letter on Supporting the Investi- project progress briefing, and regularly introduced the pro-
gation Activities of the Project on the Corrosion Status and gress of the work to the Chinese Academy of Engineering,
Control Strategies in China. Experts of the project team experts of the project team, and leaders of related enterprises.
designed a mass version of the questionnaire, which was
distributed in the major media, to know the common
people’s awareness of corrosion protection. At the same 1.3 Corrosion Investigation Method
time, for different industries, referring to foreign question-
naires and combining with the recommendations of The internationally accepted methods of investigation on
industry experts, it designed a number of industry ques- corrosion cost include Uhlig method, Hoar method, and
tionnaires, which were mailed and distributed through a Battelle method.
variety of ways such as mailing and distributing at aca- The Uhlig method directly sums up the cost of corrosion
demic conferences, so as to know the corrosion cost, cor- protection measures for production and manufacture. Cor-
rosion problem, protection measures, and protection effect rosion protection measures include coatings and painting,
of each industry in detail. The project team has conducted surface treatment, corrosion-resistant materials, anti-rust oil,
field investigation on hundreds of typical enterprises in corrosion inhibitor, electrochemical protection, corrosion
various industries and obtained the first-hand data on cor- research, corrosion detection, etc.
rosion cost. It held and participated in academic meetings The Uhlig method yields the overall corrosion cost by
and exchanges more than 80 times, studied and deployed summing up the costs required for corrosion control and
related work. It went to the United States, Japan, and other services. The cost of materials is derived from a variety of
countries to exchange and study, to obtain relevant expe- sources, including government departments, the Commerce
rience on research and data analysis. Bureau, trade organizations, industrial groups, and group
Based on the investigation of five major fields and more companies. The collection of cost data on corrosion pro-
than 30 industries, the project team made a lot of careful tection materials and products largely relies on access to
work, and with reference to domestic and foreign experience published information, and the collection of cost data on
on analysis and calculation, it carried out data analysis and corrosion protection technologies and services, including
calculation in association with the Chinese Society for engineering services, is primarily from trade organizations,
Corrosion and Protection to obtain the data on corrosion cost educational institutions, and expert advice.
of 2014 in China, knows the basic status of corrosion and Hoar method is to estimate the cost by summing up the
control in China, and put forward the countermeasures for costs of corrosion loss and corrosion protection in various
corrosion protection according to the specific conditions of industries, obtaining the reliable data by means of investi-
different industries. The study finds that the cost of corrosion gation through correspondence and field investigation, and
in China in 2014 was about RMB 2,178.82 billion, estimating the corrosion cost with mathematical–statistical
accounting for about 3.34% of the gross domestic product of method.
that year, i.e., each citizen shall bear the corresponding Hoar method derives data on corrosion cost from specific
corrosion cost of RMB 1,555 in the current year. In addition, industries and estimates the country-wide corrosion costs
the project team completed more than 30 research reports of based on the data obtained. The data on corrosion cost col-
various industries; invited experts and scholars of various lected from different units and different industries are sig-
industries to compile the research achievements and nificantly different, and the difficulty of obtaining data from
different industries is also different. Usually, for many public The annual production of corrosion protection technolo-
departments, such as infrastructure and public utilities, cor- gies is calculated with statistical data of government depart-
rosion cost-related information is publicly available and can ments, and the unit cost of coating materials and other products
be obtained from government reports and other public doc- is obtained through consulting industry experts or data anal-
uments. At the same time, it is also possible to enrich the ysis. The whole market scale of a certain corrosion protection
information on corrosion cost of a particular industry by technology is calculated with the industrial scale and the
consulting industry-specific experts for relevant data and market share of some manufacturers. The data sources of
advice. Some enterprises do not have ready-made data on corrosion protection technologies and products include gov-
corrosion cost, and under the action of some special factors, ernment organs, trade organizations, and enterprises.
even if there are some data on corrosion cost, enterprises and The corrosion cost calculated with the Uhlig method
units may not disclose, for which the consultation of experts excludes the cost caused by such factors as production
and scholars from the industry has become an important way interruption or decrease in production efficiency, accidents
to obtain information on corrosion cost. According to the such as oil and gas leakage and pipeline fracture, toxic and
experts’ assistance, the corrosion cost of the industry can be harmful substances, product pollution, excessive surplus of
estimated with scientific and rigorous ways. corrosion protection material technologies. The overall cost
The Battelle method uses the input/output matrix (enter- of these important corrosion factors varies from industry to
prise production contingency table) to get the industry and may be several times the direct corrosion cost.
corrosion-related cost of various sectors of the national
economy, and then calculate the corrosion loss, including 1.4.1.1 Coating Materials and Coatings
direct loss and indirect loss. This section covers only the costs associated with organic
coating materials and painting. According to data released
by the National Bureau of Statistics, the total output of
1.4 Corrosion Cost Statistics coating materials in 2014 was 16.481,900 tons. According to
the research on the products of the main coating companies
The investigation obtains a large amount of accurate and and the estimation of the experts in the industry, the average
reliable data through various methods such as questionnaire price of coating materials is RMB 24,400/ton. In general, the
distribution, field investigation, expert consultation, tele- painting cost is twice to triple times that of the cost of the
phone interview, academic exchange, conference discussion, coating material itself. In this study, this multiple is esti-
literature review, and foreign investigation. On the basis of mated to be 2.5. In addition to the role of corrosion pro-
corrosion investigation in more than 30 industries of five tection, coating materials are also used for other purposes
major fields, the data analysis and calculation are carried out such as decoration. The corrosion protection coating mate-
in conjunction with the Chinese Society for Corrosion and rials account for 50% of the total coating materials. Thus, the
Protection by referring to experience on analysis and cal- annual output value of corrosion protection coating materials
culation at home and abroad, so as to get the total corrosion can be calculated as follows:
cost in China.
16;481;900 tons 50% RMB 24;400=ton ð2:5 þ 1Þ
¼ RMB 703:78 billion
1.4.1 Statistical Results of Uhlig Method
Uhlig method is used to calculate the gross annual value of 1.4.1.2 Surface Treatment Fee
China’s main corrosion protection technologies. The corro- This section describes the cost of surface treatment associ-
sion loss determined by the Uhlig method mainly includes the ated with steel and aluminum-based materials.
cost of preventing corrosion of materials, that is, the material
cost increased compared with plain carbon steel, excluding the 1. Galvanization
material cost of carbon steel caused by corrosion. The direct
corrosion loss in China can be estimated with the cost of major In 2014, the domestic output of galvanized steel was 47.2
corrosion protection technologies, including coating materials million tons, and the imported galvanized steel was 2.882
and coatings (painting cost is also included), surface treatment million tons. Export of galvanized steel is 7.565 million tons.
(plating, etc.), corrosion protection materials (stainless steel, The consumption of galvanized steel is 42.517 million tons.
weathering steel, titanium and titanium alloys, engineering The average cost per ton of galvanized steel and cold-rolled
plastics, rubber, etc.), corrosion inhibitors, anti-rust oil, steel is RMB 5,200 and RMB 3,500, respectively. Thus, the
anti-rust paste, and electrochemical protection. corrosion protection investment associated with galvanized
12 B. Hou
steel can be calculated by multiplying the unit price by the average price of cold-rolled steel, the corrosion protection
total usage: cost associated with stainless steel is as follows:
RMB 1;700=ton 42;517;000 ton ¼ RMB 7:228 billion RMB ð14;000 3;000Þ=ton 15;720;000
¼ RMB 172:92 billion
2. Tin plating
2. Weathering steel
In 2014, the consumption of tin-plated steel in China was
about 4.4 million tons. The average price of tin-plated steel In 2014, about 7.95 million tons of weathering steel was
is RMB 7,000/ton. Similar to galvanized steel, the difference used in China. The average price of weathering steel is about
between tin-plated steel and cold-rolled steel is RMB RMB 4,000/ton. Thus, the total corrosion cost of weathering
3,500/ton, which is the unit cost of tin plating. Thus, the total steel is as follows:
investment cost of tin plating is as follows:
RMB ð4;000 3;000Þ=ton 7;950;000 ton
RMB 3;500=ton 4;400;000 tons ¼ RMB 15:4 billion ¼ RMB 7:95 billion
3. Electroplating
3. Titanium and titanium alloys
Small to medium-sized electroplating factories in China are
investigated. In 2014, the gross output value of these The annual consumption of titanium and titanium alloys in
enterprises was RMB 28.9 billion, 60% of which was related China is 44,500 tons. The price difference between titanium
to the surface treatment. Therefore, the total cost of elec- alloy and cold-rolled steel per ton is RMB 90,000. The total
troplating is RMB 17.34 billion. corrosion cost is thus estimated at RMB 4 billion.
4. Surface treatment of aluminum alloy 4. Engineering plastics and rubbers
In 2014, China’s aluminum alloy output was 6.4 million tons. In 2014, the output value of rubber and plastic was RMB
The total import and export volume was 80,000 tons and 2,991.9 billion. Engineering plastics and rubbers used for the
521,000 tons, respectively. The total consumption was 5.966 purpose of corrosion protection account for about 0.7% of
million tons. The average price of aluminum and aluminum the total output value. Thus, the cost of corrosion protection
alloy after surface treatment is RMB 18,000/ton while the associated with these materials is about RMB 20.94 billion.
aluminum ingot is RMB 12,000/ton. Calculate the surface
treatment cost of aluminum alloy based on the above data: 5. Subtotal
RMB(18;000 12;000Þ=ton 5;966;000 ton To sum up, the cost of corrosion protection materials in 2014
¼ RMB 35:8 billion was RMB 205.81 billion.
5. Subtotal 1.4.1.4 Corrosion Inhibitors

Generally speaking, the corrosion inhibitors are a kind of
With these costs, the cost associated with surface treatment material which can effectively reduce the corrosion rate of
is about RMB 140.82 billion. materials at low concentration. The costs related to corrosion
inhibitors include RMB 700 million of volatile corrosion
1.4.1.3 Corrosion Protection Materials inhibitor, RMB 100 million of pickling corrosion inhibitor,
In this investigation, corrosion protection materials include and RMB 2.8 billion–3.5 billion of other corrosion inhibi-
stainless steel, weathering steel, titanium and titanium alloys, tors. Therefore, the total cost of corrosion inhibitors is RMB
engineering plastics, rubbers, and so on. 4.5 billion–5.2 billion.
1. Stainless steel 1.4.1.5 Anti-rust Oil and Anti-rust Paste

There are many kinds of anti-rust oil and anti-rust paste. The
In 2014, the consumption of stainless steel in China was investigation shows that the unit price is between RMB
15.72 million tons. There are many kinds of stainless steel, 8,000 and 20,000. In 2014, China’s demand for anti-rust oil
with an average price of RMB 14,000. Deducting the and anti-rust paste was 200,000 tons. The unit price is RMB
2058.1 19.34% Cost of corrosion protection materials: RMB 205.81 19.34%

22 0.21% Cost of anti-rust oil: RMB 2.2 0.21%
1408.2 13.23% Cost of surface treatment: RMB 140.82 13.23%
50 0.47% Cost of corrosion inhibitors: RMB 5 billion 0.47%
63 0.6% Cost of electric corrosion protection: RMB 6.3 billion 0.6%
7037.8 66.15% Cost of coating materials and painting: RMB 703.78 66.15%
Fig. 1.3 Corrosion cost calculated with the Uhlig method
11,000. In 2014, the cost related to anti-rust oil and anti-rust the total cost of corrosion calculated using the Uhlig method
paste is about RMB 2.2 billion. is at least RMB 2,127.82 billion, accounting for 3.34% of
China’s gross domestic product in 2014 (Fig. 1.3).
1.4.1.6 Electrochemical Protection
The costs associated with electrochemical protection include
the production of sacrificial anodes, and the cost of cathodic 1.4.2 Statistical Results of Hoar Method
protection engineering, is difficult to measure with specific
yield data. Therefore, in order to determine the cost of The Hoar method is used in this study to investigate the cost
electrochemical protection, we investigated a large company of corrosion in five economic fields, namely, infrastructure,
in the cathodic protection market, which had an annual transportation, energy, water environment, manufacturing,
output value of RMB 113 million in 2014. The company’s and utilities. The questionnaires are distributed in typical
market share was 1.8%. Based on the above data, the total national economic fields and industries, and the cost of cor-
industry is estimated to be RMB 6.3 billion. rosion is calculated based on the collected questionnaires. In
most of the collected questionnaires, there is only a clear
1.4.1.7 Total Cost with Uhlig Method numerical value of the direct loss, because in most cases,
The results show that the direct corrosion cost is about RMB indirect losses such as environmental pollution and personal
1,063.9 billion. Among the direct corrosion cost, corrosion injury and death cannot be measured by money. At the same
protection coatings account for the largest proportion, fol- time, some enterprises are not willing to clearly disclose the
lowed by corrosion protection materials and surface treat- accidents and indirect losses caused by corrosion. Thus, the
ment. The results are consistent with the corrosion next section estimates the direct corrosion costs for each field.
investigation in China and other countries in 2002. It is In the Hoar method, the total corrosion cost is the sum of
important to note that the cost of the corrosion monitoring corrosion cost in a single industrial field and is estimated
industry is not taken into account for reasons such as the usually by investigating some representative enterprises in a
difficulty of obtaining accurate data. Referring to the previous single industry and measuring their market share. The choice
domestic and foreign corrosion investigation, the indirect of representative enterprises is the key because it is based on
corrosion cost includes the costs caused by the decline in these enterprise samples to calculate the corrosion loss of the
yield, the decrease in product quality, environmental pollu- whole industry, while the corrosion cost structure and the
tion, casualties, and others induced by corrosion. The indirect ratio of different types of enterprises and their relationship
corrosion cost is generally double to several times that of the with the gross domestic product are different.
direct corrosion cost. Conservatively estimated, the indirect In order to obtain extensive and representative data on
corrosion cost is the same as the direct corrosion cost. Thus, corrosion cost, this investigation selects the key subjects for
14 B. Hou
corrosion cost analysis. These subjects can be divided into about 4.03% of the total investment scale for the cost of road
five fields: infrastructure, transportation, energy, water and bridge construction. This figure is quite considerable.
environment, manufacturing, and public utilities. These five
fields are further divided into more than 30 specific indus- 2. Port terminals
tries. The infrastructure field mainly includes highway
bridges, port terminals, water conservancy project, and In 2014, the direct corrosion cost of China’s port terminal
others; the transportation field mainly includes aircraft, industry was RMB 2.63 billion, of which RMB 2.44 billion
ships, automobiles, rail transit, and so on; the energy field was used for the corrosion protection of the new port ter-
mainly includes oil and gas storage and transportation, coal minals and additionally about RMB 190 million was used
industry, power transmission and transformation, clean for the maintenance and repair of the corrosion-related work
energy source, hydropower, thermal power, etc.; the water at the port terminals. However, China invested RMB 145.99
environment field mainly includes urban water supply and billion in construction of port terminals along rivers and
drainage, offshore oil platforms, seawater desalination, etc.; coastal ports in 2014, so the direct corrosion cost of port
the manufacturing and public utility field mainly includes terminal industry accounted for 1.80% of the total invest-
chemical industry, cultural relics, paper making, engineering ment of the industry in that year.
machinery, medical materials, electronic household appli-
ances, metallurgical mining, agricultural machinery industry, 3. Water conservancy project
food machinery, and so on.
The infrastructure field is under the charge of Academi- In 2014, China invested RMB 488.1 billion in the con-
cian Xu Binshi from the Chinese People’s Liberation Army struction of water conservancy projects. The result of this
Armored Force Engineering Institute; the transportation field investigation shows that the direct corrosion cost of China’s
is under the charge of Academician Xu Huibin from Beijing water conservancy industry is RMB 9.91 billion, and the
University of Aeronautics and Astronautics; the energy field application of corrosion protection technologies and the use
is under the charge of Academician Zhang Jianyun from of metal device components in the construction process are
Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute; the water environment the main sources of corrosion protection. This expense
field is under the charge of Academician Hou Baorong, the accounts for 4.03% of the investment scale of water con-
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences; the servancy industry.
manufacturing and public utility field is under the charge of
Professor Li Xiaogang from the Chinese Society for Cor- 1.4.2.2 Energy
rosion and Protection. During the investigation, it is difficult
to obtain data on the corrosion cost of some cases, and the
relevant personnel lack professional corrosion awareness 1. Coal industry
and expertise, which require experts to provide professional
technical support to help determine corrosion costs from Through investigation on 30 coal mines of different sizes, it
repair and maintenance costs. is estimated that the direct corrosion cost of the coal industry
in China is RMB 84.7 billion. The corrosion cost of coal
1.4.2.1 Infrastructure industry mainly comes from underground construction,
repair, inspection, maintenance, depreciation of assets, and
others. In 2014, the total output value of China’s coal
1. Highway bridges industry was RMB 1,813.74 billion. It can be estimated that
the direct corrosion cost of China’s coal industry accounts
In 2014, the total corrosion cost of highway bridges in China for about 4.67% of the total coal output value of the industry.
was RMB 62.37 billion, of which RMB 51.49 billion was
used for corrosion protection in new roads and bridges, and 2. Thermal power
RMB 10.89 billion was used for corrosion protection main-
tenance of roads, which is only more than one-fifth of the cost Plastic coatings and linings are the most widely used cor-
for the newly built ones. However, in 2014, China invested rosion protection materials in thermal power plants.
RMB 1,546.9 billion in the construction of roads and bridges According to the investigation, the direct corrosion cost of
(this investment was mainly spent on the costs of concrete the thermal power industry in 2014 was RMB 30.53 billion,
materials, drainage system laying, pavement paving, survey, of which RMB 4.37 billion was used for corrosion protec-
design, management, supervision, and labor service). Thus, tion of new structures and RMB 26.16 billion for the
the corrosion cost in the highway bridge area accounts for maintenance and repair of the completed structures. In 2014,
the total installed capacity of thermal power in China was maintenance industry was about RMB 500 billion. Corro-
RMB 911.33 million kilowatt-hours, and the annual output sion problems have a serious impact on the automotive
value was RMB 1,598.43 billion. Therefore, the direct cor- industry. Based on the results of the investigation, the annual
rosion cost of thermal power industry accounts for 1.91% of direct corrosion cost is about RMB 187.25 billion,
its annual output value. accounting for 2.82% of the output value of the automobile
industry.
3. Oil and gas
2. Ships
The oil and gas industry mentioned in this investigation
covers all exploration, exploitation, and transportation. In In 2014, China completed the shipbuilding volume of 39.05
2014, China’s crude oil output was RMB 210 million tons, million deadweight tons. There were 1,491 shipyards of
natural gas production was RMB 128 billion m3, and its gross various sizes in China, with an annual income of RMB 633.4
output value reached RMB 1,230.50 billion. Corrosion is the billion. Because of the corrosive service environment, the
main factor affecting the reliability of engineering structure in shipbuilding industry spent a lot of costs to pay for corrosion
this industry. The direct corrosion cost of oil and gas industry protection investment, maintenance, and depreciation of
is estimated to be RMB 34.7 billion (corrosion protection shipyard. The industry’s corrosion costs are estimated at
investment is mainly used to pay for corrosion allowance, RMB 58 billion, about 9.16% of the industry’s total revenue.
coating materials and coatings, cathodic protection, corrosion
inhibitors, inspection and maintenance, corrosion-related 3. Railways
human costs, and other related expenditures), accounting
for about 2.82% of the industry’s gross product. In this section, the corrosion cost of the railways is mainly
considered, excluding the corrosion cost of railway car-
4. Power transmission riages. China’s railway line is one of the longest rail trans-
port networks in the world. In 2014, the railway mileage was
The corrosion cost of power transmission industry mainly 110,000 km, and the annual total investment was RMB
comes from the corrosion problems caused by transmission 808.8 billion. As a result of the investigation, the direct
lines and substations and their protection. In 2014, the total corrosion cost of the industry was RMB 18.88 billion.
investment for the corrosion problems and protection of
transmission lines and substations was RMB 79.4 billion. 4. Aircraft
The annual direct corrosion loss of transmission lines (in-
cluding corrosion protection investment and equipment The major corrosion costs in the aircraft industry stem from
depreciation) is RMB 76.1 billion, and the annual direct the use of expensive corrosion protection materials and
corrosion loss of substations is RMB 3.3 billion. According coatings as well as equipment depreciation. The investiga-
to the statistics of the total output value of China’s electric tion results show that the direct corrosion cost of the aircraft
power industry in 2014 of about RMB 2,217.87 billion, it industry in 2014 was RMB 4.59 billion.
can be calculated that the corrosion cost of this industry
accounts for about 3.58% of the annual total output value. 1.4.2.4 Water Environment
In this section, only urban water supply and drainage works
1.4.2.3 Transportation were considered. In 2014, the urban water supply volume in
China was 546.7 billion m3, and the annual output value was
RMB 218.7 billion. The total urban displacement in China in
1. Automobiles 2014 was 40.22 billion tons, with a cost of RMB 54.7
billion.
In the past few decades, the automobile industry has been In 2014, a total of 31,000 km of different types of water
one of the fastest growing industries in China, and China is pipelines were built in China. Corrosion protection costs
also the second largest automobile consumer market and the associated with new facilities accounted for approximately
third largest automobile manufacturing country. In 2014, the 30–70% of the total investment. Other direct corrosion costs
total number of private cars in China was about 145.98 arose from pipeline replacement, depreciation, corrosion-
million, an increase of nearly 15% from 2013. In 2014, the induced metal loss, and the cost of water supply companies
transaction value of China’s automobile industry was RMB on corrosion protection measures. The investigation results
648.1 billion, and the output value of the automobile show that the direct corrosion cost of this industry is RMB
16 B. Hou
9.69 billion. It should be noted that the loss caused by water 4. Electronic industry
leakage (which is an indirect corrosion cost) may be much
higher than the direct corrosion cost described above. In The problem of material corrosion in electronic devices
2014, China lost RMB 13.12 billion from leaking water has been increasing over the past few decades. For example,
according to the investigation. corrosion of the printed circuit boards may cause malfunc-
tion or even failure of the entire electronic devices. The
1.4.2.5 Manufacturing and Public Utilities consequences and indirect corrosion costs may be enormous.
In this study, questionnaires were issued to major manu-
facturers of consumer electronic products and household
1. Metallurgy appliances (typical). The results show that the direct corro-
sion cost of this industry in China in 2014 was RMB 224.8
In the iron and steel metallurgical industry, the corrosion billion. However, these losses can be reduced by recycling
cost mainly comes from the material loss during of the waste electronic products.
high-temperature oxidation and pickling, which account for
60% and 20% of the total corrosion cost, respectively. Direct 5. Agriculture
corrosion costs in 2014 accounted for about 1.40% of the
industry’s output, i.e., RMB 104.02 billion, based on data This section mainly considers the corrosion of agricultural
collected from large Chinese steelmakers. machinery. Agricultural machinery is often used in outdoor
In comparison with the steel materials, the corrosion environments with sun exposure and high humidity, and is
problems in the preparation process of the nonferrous often in contact with corrosive media such as soil and fer-
materials are relatively less. The data collected from typical tilizer while withstanding mechanical shock and wear.
aluminum and copper manufacturers show that the direct However, agricultural machinery usually employs ordinary
corrosion cost was about 0.60% of the total output value of materials and very few protective measures. The results of
the industry, that is, RMB 30.78 billion. our investigation indicate that the direct corrosion cost of
China’s agricultural machinery industry in 2014 was RMB
2. Chemical industry 9.89 billion, accounting for about 2.50% of the total output
value of the industry.
Based on the statistical results of questionnaires issued to
and collected from the manufacturers of the acid chemical 6. Cultural relics and historic sites
industry, chlorine chemical industry, alkali chemical indus-
try, and fertilizer manufacturers and manufacturers providing China has a long history and the protection of cultural relics
protective coating materials to these industries, this investi- is more and more important. The deterioration of the natural
gation sorted and analyzed the direct corrosion cost of the environment has an impact on not only metal products but
chemical industry. The results show that the cost of also on stone tools, wood, leather, paper products, and so on.
corrosion-resistant alloy and coating is the main component Factors that may affect cultural relics and historic sites
of direct corrosion cost. According to the investigation, the include humidity, illumination, temperature, wind, biologi-
direct corrosion cost of the chemical industry in 2014 was cal activities, etc. In 2014, RMB 36.4 billion was spent in
RMB 147.1 billion, accounting for about 1.67% of the the process of protecting cultural relics and historic sites,
overall market scale. Compared with the direct cost, the including direct corrosion loss estimated to be RMB 12.2
indirect corrosion cost of shutdown, accidents, and envi- billion.
ronmental pollution caused by corrosion may be several Combining the corrosion cost data of the representative
times that of the direct corrosion cost. industries mentioned above, the total corrosion cost esti-
mated by Hoar method in five major fields of the national
3. Papermaking economy is RMB 1,109.02 billion (because it is difficult to
determine the overall output value of cultural relics and
China is one of the world’s largest producers and consumers historic sites, the corrosion cost of cultural relics and historic
of pulp and paper. In 2014, there were more than 3,000 sites has been eliminated). Extrapolated from the proportion
enterprises in the paper industry. Corrosion of papermaking of these industries in China’s GDP, the direct corrosion cost
equipment may cause production interruptions or reduce the calculated by Hoar method is RMB 1,348.98 billion. It is
quality of paper products. In 2014, the market size of Chi- worth noting that this value is higher than the results
na’s paper industry was RMB 787.9 billion, and the direct obtained by the Uhlig method. According to the previous
corrosion cost was estimated to be RMB 9.78 billion. investigation and analysis of the same kind of corrosion, the
difference mainly comes from two aspects: (1) the Hoar 1.4.3 Comparison of Results
method considers both the corrosion protection investment
as well as the maintenance cost, while the Uhlig method Based on the Uhlig method, China’s total corrosion cost
only considers the former: (2) the inevitable repeated cal- (direct cost + indirect cost) accounts for 3.34% of gross
culation caused by the overlap among different industries. domestic product (GDP), which is slightly lower than the
As can be seen from the direct corrosion costs and their proportion of the global corrosion cost issued by the
proportions in the five major economic fields, the manu- National Association of Corrosion Engineer (NACE) in
facturing, and public utility field accounts for the highest, March 2016 (3.4%). However, corrosion costs from different
that is, 47% (Fig. 1.4). China has the world’s largest man- countries are also difficult to compare simply and directly,
ufacturing output (about 20%), and the high corrosion cost for which the reasons include at least the following two
in manufacturing and public utilities is understandable. aspects:
China’s large population and large, rapid depreciation of First, the investigation on corrosion in different countries
equipment have also contributed to higher corrosion cost in uses different methods. The Uhlig method is more direct and
the field. Among the industries surveyed, the industries with requires credible and detailed national economic data, which
the highest corrosion cost are transportation and electronics are difficult to obtain in some countries. For the Hoar
(Fig. 1.5), unlike the result of the investigation in 2002 method, the division of direct cost and indirect cost will
(construction and machinery). This difference has to do with directly reflect the data of the final total corrosion cost, and
changes in China’s economic structure. In the past decade, also affect the comparison of corrosion cost data among
the transportation industry (including automobiles, railways, different countries. In 2012, for example, India’s research
etc.) and electronic industry have made great progress and showed that its direct corrosion cost accounted for 2.4% of
development, forming a huge market scale. In the trans- its gross domestic product, excluding the additional costs of
portation industry, the huge corrosion is also related to the reduced production and production efficiency caused by
strong corrosiveness of the service environment and the high corrosion. If the above costs are included, the direct corro-
maintenance cost (such as ships). Coal mining and highway sion losses in India will reach 4.5%.
bridges are the two industries with the highest ratio of cor- Second, the economic structure of different countries is
rosion cost to the total output value. This is related to the different, which will also affect the quantitative comparison
widespread use of ordinary materials of low cost and poor of corrosion cost data among different countries. In some
corrosion protection in these industries and the resulting import-dependent countries, for example, corrosion loss in
rapid depreciation and replacement of equipment. the industrial sector is relatively low.
814.5 7% Infrastructure 81.45 billion 7%

5285.4 47% Manufacturing and public utilities 528.54 billion 47%
2293.3 20% Energy 229.33 billion 20%
2687.2 24% Transportation 268.72 billion 24%
186.5 2% Water environment 18.65 billion 2%
Fig. 1.4 Statistical corrosion cost by the Hoar method

18 B. Hou
Coal industry
Highways and bridges
Power grid
Transportation industry
Oil and gas
Water conservancy project
Thermal power
Electronic industry and household appliances
Chemical industry
Metallurgy and mining
Direct loss/RMB 100 billion
% Proportion of corrosion loss to industry output value %
Fig. 1.5 Corrosion cost in different industries and its proportion in the output value of the industry
Draft the safety guidance on corrosion protection of

1.5 Suggestions on Strengthening Corrosion infrastructure and major equipment in China as soon as
Protection possible, and organize to formulate the near, medium,
and long-term development plan for corrosion protec-
Infrastructure and major equipments are important carriers of tion of infrastructure and major equipment in China.
Chinese national economic development and national Increase the investment and supervision in the field of
defense security construction and the most important corrosion protection, make the safety problem of cor-
strategic assets, but suffer long-term material corrosion rosion protection become a common understanding of
threats. the society, and enable the corrosion safety of infras-
The safety countermeasures of corrosion protection are tructure and major equipment of China to embark on a
related to the healthy development of the national economy new track of safety and corrosion protection.
and the long-term stability of national defense construction (2) Intensify research on corrosion protection technologies
and have important strategic and realistic significance. and establish major national scientific and technological
Therefore, we suggest that the corrosion protection safety of projects to promote technological innovation and
Chinese infrastructure and major equipment should be development of corrosion protection in China.
integrated into the national strategies, and the corrosion In the light of major scientific and technological prob-
protection safety system should be established at the national lem and major engineering requirement for corrosion
level. protection of infrastructure and equipment in China,
major national scientific and technological projects are
(1) Prepare the guidelines and plans for corrosion protec- set up to strive for fully knowing the corrosion
tion of infrastructure and major equipment as soon as destruction law in 5 to 10 years in terms of corrosion
possible, and integrate the corrosion protection safety law, corrosion-resistant mechanism, special equipment
issues into the national strategies. for corrosion, large-scale corrosion simulation, big data
on corrosion, long-term corrosion protection technolo- (5) Strengthen the corrosion protection management, and
gies, corrosion safety supervision and detection tech- set up a national permanent institution for corrosion
nologies, new materials of corrosion protection, new cost investigation and protection strategy research.
technologies of corrosion protection, corrosion safety Corrosion protection is a long-term work.
management and others, break through the core tech- It is suggested to set up a permanent institution for
nologies, key and common technologies and special corrosion investigation and protection strategy research
protection technologies in the field of corrosion pro- in China, which may regularly monitor the corrosion
tection safety, and comprehensively promote the cor- status and corrosion cost of major projects in key
rosion safety progress of facilities and equipment in industries, and release the data on corrosion status and
various industries. corrosion cost in China, and accelerate the flow of
(3) Establish and improve the laws, regulations, and stan- corrosion safety information technologies and the con-
dard system of corrosion protection safety as soon as version speed of production, university, and research.
possible. We should urge each enterprise or legal person to
Establish and improve the laws and regulations on implement life cycle corrosion control management on
corrosion protection and relevant corrosion protection major public facilities and infrastructure, establish a
safety standards system, and strengthen the manage- periodic reporting system on corrosion status and cor-
ment and supervision of corrosion safety. Urge enter- rosion control status of major public facilities and
prises and institutions to adopt targeted safety standards infrastructure, so as to ensure the safe and stable
for corrosion protection at various stages of engineering operation of major facilities.
design, material selection, construction, operation, and (6) Strengthen education and publicity of popular science,
maintenance. Guide enterprises and institutions to carry set up the National Corrosion Protection Safety Day,
out long-term corrosion safety management and control and raise the corrosion protection awareness of all
in a coordinated manner, integrate the whole-life ser- people.
vice safety and cost control of facilities and equipment The results of this investigation on corrosion show that
into the assessment and evaluation standards for the biggest difficulty of corrosion protection in various
specific facilities and equipment, and enforce it in industries is the lack of corrosion professionals.
sensitive industries where corrosion concerns the safety Therefore, the national strategies of corrosion protec-
of people’s lives and property. tion safety not only need to strengthen the research on
(4) Increase the integration, demonstration, promotion, and advanced corrosion protection technologies, corrosion
application of advanced corrosion protection technolo- safety regulations, and corrosion safety management
gies. but also needs to vigorously carry out corrosion edu-
After years of development, China has established a cation and publicity of popular science. It is necessary
number of research and application development teams to strengthen the teaching of corrosion protection in
in the field of corrosion protection and has developed a undergraduate and graduate education so as to provide
number of internationally leading technologies. How- professional talents for the first line of corrosion pro-
ever, the development level of corrosion protection tection in various industries. Set up the National Cor-
technologies in countries along the Belt and Road is rosion protection Safety Day; strengthen the ordinary
uneven. Therefore, we should focus on the development people’s knowledge accumulation on corrosion pro-
of infrastructure and major equipment construction in tection and life-long cost awareness through education,
China, and promote the demonstration, promotion, and media publicity, public welfare activities and other
application of advanced corrosion protection safety ways. Make the public, government departments,
technologies on new and in-service facilities and entrepreneurs and young students be aware of the
equipment, facilitating the transformation of “Made in importance of corrosion hazards and corrosion
China” from quantity to quality. We should improve the protection.
internationalization level of corrosion protection
industry in China and cooperate with the development By implementing the corrosion safety control strategies at
of the Belt and Road strategy in China, and contribute the national level, China will comprehensively improve the
to realizing the “going out” plan of China and the corrosion control and management level in various fields of
innovative, green, efficient, coordinated, and shared corrosion protection, which will promote the development of
development of other countries along the Belt and the national economy and is of great significance for China
Road. to become an innovative country in the new era, build a
20 B. Hou
well-off society in an all-round way, realize modernization, personnel structure of the National Corrosion Investigation
and make the “Chinese Dream” come true, so that China has Commission and the scope of the corrosion investigation.
taken a solid step in realizing the great rejuvenation of the
Chinese nation.
Top-Level Design Seminar
Appendix: Events of Corrosion Investigation Top-level design seminar of the major consultation project
Process of the Chinese Academy of Engineering “A Study on Cor-
rosion Status and Control Strategies in China” was held in
Launch of Pre-research Project for Corrosion Beijing (Fig. 1.7), and more than 20 experts attended the
Investigation meeting, including Academicians Zhou Lian, Xue Qunji and
Hou Baorong, and Professor Wang Fuhui and Professor Li
In early 2014, the Chinese Academy of Engineering set up a Xiaogang, respectively Director-General and Secretary-
department-level consultation project Pre-Research on Eco- General of the Chinese Society for Corrosion and Protec-
nomic Analysis of Corrosion Cost and Research on tion. The meeting discussed the candidates of various
Anti-corrosion Strategies. On June 27, the launch meeting of industry leaders and key experts, how to obtain valuable
the project was successfully held at the Institute of first-hand data on corrosion cost, how to conduct data
Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (Fig. 1.6). More analysis, and how to carry out corrosion protection publicity.
than 50 leaders and experts attended the meeting, including
Ruan Baojun, Deputy Director of the Second Bureau of the
Chinese Academy of Engineering, Academician Hou Baor- Launch Meeting of Major Consultancy Project
ong from the Chinese Academy of Engineering, Professor Li
Xiaogang, Secretary-General and Professor Du Cuiwei, In June 2015, the initiation meeting and seminar of the major
Deputy Secretary-General of Chinese Society for Corrosion consultation project of the Chinese Academy of Engineer-
and Protection, Professor Liu Guangye, Vice President of ing, A Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in
Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Professor China, was ceremoniously held in the Beijing Conference
Zhao Tiejun, Vice President of Qingdao University of Center. Academician Xu Kuangdi, Honorary Chairman of
Technology, Zhang Dun, Researcher of the Institute of the Presidium of the Chinese Academy of Engineering,
Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yang Chaohui, attended the meeting and delivered a speech (Fig. 1.8).
Vice Director of Qingdao Research Institute for Marine Deputy Director Liu Xu delivered a speech on behalf of the
Corrosion, Zhao Jun, Director of Marine Chemical Research Chinese Academy of Engineering (Fig. 1.9), warmly con-
Institute, and Professor Du Min of Ocean University of gratulated the convening of the meeting and granted the
China. On the meeting, there was a heated discussion on the letter of appointment to more than 30 academicians of the
Fig. 1.6 Launch of pre-research on economic analysis of corrosion cost and research on anti-corrosion strategies
Academician Hao Jimin, Director of the Science Department

of Environment and Textile Engineering (Fig. 1.10). At the
meeting, Project Head Hou Baorong, Academician of the
Chinese Academy of Engineering and Researcher at the
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
gave a detailed report on the progress and future deployment
of the project (Fig. 1.11). He pointed out that the project will
carry out investigation and research on corrosion costs and
protection strategies in more than 30 industries including rail
transit, airports, highway bridges, port terminals, water
conservancy projects, construction, ships, aircraft, railways,
automobiles, oil and gas industry, coal industry, power
system (thermal power), clean energy, municipal pipe net-
Fig. 1.7 Top-level design seminar on-site
work, papermaking, metallurgical mining, home appliances,
telecommunications, agriculture, and cultural relics under
five major fields such as infrastructure, transportation,
energy, water environment, and manufacturing, and public
utilities. Through this investigation, the project team will get
the corrosion cost of China, and on this basis, summarize the
advanced corrosion control technologies and management
experience, and put forward feasible strategies and sugges-
tions on corrosion control. Academician Xu Kuangdi poin-
ted out that China’s legal system led to the failure of paying
attention to the late maintenance and repair after completion
in the fields of construction and industrial equipment. It is
easy to apply for the cost of new equipment and techno-
logical transformation, but it is hard to apply for the corre-
sponding maintenance cost. In his view, these contradictions
have a lot to do with the long-term neglect of “corrosion” in
Fig. 1.8 Academician Xu Kuangdi, Honorary Chairman of the China. He hoped that this major consultation project should
Presidium of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, attended the
not only focus on the technical consultation level but also
project launch meeting and delivered a speech
provide good service on the policy consultation, finally
enabling the results of the project investigation to manifest
the national legislation and financial administration regula-
tion, and making China’ equipment and devices with
Fig. 1.9 Academician Liu Xu, Vice President of the Chinese

Academy of Engineering, attended the project launch meeting and
delivered a speech
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of

Fig. 1.10 Academician Hao Jiming, Director of Environment and
Engineering and more than 100 experts in the field of cor- Textile Engineering Department, Chinese Academy of Engineering,
rosion and protection. The meeting was chaired by chaired the meeting
22 B. Hou
Fig. 1.11 Academician Hou Baorong reported the project at the

launch meeting
Fig. 1.12 The project team sent questionnaires on corrosion investi-
gation to more than 5,000 enterprises and units nationwide by mail
“longevity”. At the following seminar, experts and scholars
in the field of corrosion protection from all over the country The Project Team Went on a Field Investigation
as well as relevant leaders and engineers of enterprises and all Over the Country
organizations, put forward valuable opinions and sugges-
tions on the development of this major consultation project. Since the pre-research project was launched in 2014, the
experts of the project team went to more than 100 typical
enterprises and departments of various industries for field
The Project Team Distributing the Questionnaires investigation and research, collected data on the operation of
on the Corrosion Investigation equipment and facilities, inputs in various corrosion pro-
tection in the beginning period, the maintenance and repair
In early 2015, the project team experts consulted a large costs caused by corrosion, and the investment in corrosion
number of industry experts and formulated public and pro- protection engineering, and exchanged and communicated
fessional questionnaires on corrosion investigation after with the person in charge of relevant units and front-line
repeated scrutiny. The public questionnaire aims to find out workers to understand the policies and technologies related
the ordinary people’s understanding of corrosion protection. to corrosion protection in detail.
They can directly enter the answer page through scanning the
two-dimensional code of WeChat. The questionnaire was
widely distributed, reproduced, and disseminated on major Conference on the Deployment of Series
news, social media, mobile phones, computers, and other Publishing Work
terminals, receiving a positive response and widespread
support from the entire society. In terms of the professional The project plans to invite experts in the field of corrosion
questionnaire, several questionnaires were designed for dif- protection in China to compile many years of work results and
ferent industries, such as port terminal industry, offshore experience into a book, and publish a series of books—“A
platform industry, power system industry, water conservancy Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China.”
industry, papermaking industry, oil and gas industry, coal From January 26 to 27, 2015, the Conference on the
industry, urban water supply, and drainage industry, auto- Deployment of Series Publishing Work was held in the
mobile industry and others, and specifically distributed to Chinese Academy of Engineering (Fig. 1.13), and the main
more than 5,000 enterprises and units in the form of mail and experts of all subjects discussed the work plan of series
telephone interview in order to find out the corrosion prob- publishing together. The experts attending the meeting
lems, protection measures, and effects of each enterprise in introduced their respective monograph writing plans and
detail, obtaining valuable data on corrosion cost (Fig. 1.12). catalog, and reached a consensus through discussion, that is,
In addition, the project members also publicized the signifi- the publication of the series should follow the principles of
cance and the progress of corrosion investigation at the “finishing one and publishing a book” and “blind review”.
meeting by participating in relevant academic conferences After a period of about 2 years, the project team selected
and distributed questionnaires on corrosion investigation to excellent manuscripts, and gradually completed the publica-
participating experts and enterprise representatives. tion of the project series. After the meeting, Academician Hou
Fig. 1.13 Conference on the deployment of series publishing work
Baorong, the head of the project, signed a publishing agree-

ment with the authors of the relevant monograph.
The publication of the series has received great attention
and warm response from experts and scholars in the field of
corrosion protection. It is agreed that it is incumbent for
scientific and technical workers to disseminate knowledge
on corrosion protection. In addition, the publication of the
series can not only systematize the knowledge and tech-
nologies on the relevant corrosion protection field but also
improve the influence of corrosion protection work, deepen
the understanding of the whole society on the corrosion
protection, and enhance the corrosion protection level of the
whole society.
NACE’s Experts on Global Corrosion Investigation Fig. 1.14 NACE’s experts on global corrosion investigation talking
Visited China with Chinese experts in port terminals
From June 9 to 11, 2015, Ms. Elaine Bowman, Project China (Fig. 1.14). In the view of NACE, as the second
Manager of IMPACT and former Chairman of the NACE, largest economy in the world and the largest developing
Ms. Helena Seelinger, Executive Director of NACE country in the world, China is typically representative,
Institute, and Ms. Gu Bei, General Representative of and thus it is of great significance to get China’s corrosion
NACE China talked with the experts in corrosion inves- cost data, corrosion protection level, and corrosion man-
tigation in China’s port terminal field on the current sit- agement status for this international investigation on
uation of corrosion management in port terminal field in corrosion.
24 B. Hou
The Chinese Academy of Engineering Zhou Ji, Ding Zhongli, and Wang Yupu will serve as the
and the Chinese Academy of Sciences Strongly advisers of the editorial board.
Support the Project of Corrosion Investigation
In June 2015, the General Office of the Chinese Academy CCTV Reports the Corrosion Investigation Project
of Engineering and the General Office of the Chinese
Academy of Sciences jointly issued the Letter on Requests In June 2015, CCTV gave a detailed broadcast of the
to Assist the Investigation Activities of the Project on the background and progress of the corrosion investigation
Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China, which project (Fig. 1.16). In addition, relevant media such as the
states: “In order to fully understand the corrosion and its Central People’s Broadcasting Station, Economic Daily,
control in China, promote the development of corrosion Science and Technology Daily, China Youth Daily, Xin-
protection industry, improve the level of corrosion protec- huanet, People.cn, and Sohu.com also rushed to report.
tion technologies, and provide scientific evidence for the
formulation of relevant policies and regulations, the Chi-
nese Academy of Engineering launched a major consulta- Seminar on Corrosion Investigation in the Field
tion project on ‘A Study on Corrosion Status and Control of Transportation in China
Strategies in China’ in 2015. The project team will collect
relevant information on corrosion cost data and corrosion On September 24, 2015, the Working Seminar on Corrosion
control strategies in all relevant fields across the country Investigation and Control Strategy Research Project in Chi-
(including nearly 30 industries such as infrastructure, na’s Transportation Field was held in Beijing (Fig. 1.17). The
transportation, energy, water environment, and manufac- conference was hosted by Beijing University of Aeronautics
turing, and public utilities). We are looking forward to your and Astronautics, and was chaired by Academician Xu
active organization and participation to assist in the com- Huibin. Participants were Beijing Institute of Aeronautical
pletion of the research work, and making valuable com- Materials, China Academy of Railway Sciences, Society of
ments and suggestions. According to feedback of the Automotive Engineers of China (SAE-China), Chinese
investigation and the information provided by corrosion Society for Corrosion and Protection, No. 725 Research
experts in many industries, the project team will complete Institute of CSIC, Marine Chemical Research Institute, CSR
the project report of ‘A Study on Corrosion Status and Qingdao Sifang Locomotive & Rolling Stock Co. Ltd.,
Control Strategies in China,’ thus providing technical Chongqing Chang’an Automobile Co., Ltd., University of
support and theoretical guidance for corrosion control Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing University of
technologies and industrial development in China. Then, Aeronautics and Astronautics as well as related experts. They
the research report will be submitted to the State Council, listened to the work report of the project team and the report
and the results of the study will also be released to the of each professional group leader and fully discussed the
public free of charge. We look forward to your assistance contents of the questionnaire, investigation methods, statis-
and thank you for your strong support”.
The Project Team Signed a Series Publishing

Agreement with the Science Press
At the beginning of 2015, the project team has held a work

meeting on publication of a series. After the meeting, the
project team began to negotiate with the publishing units,
and finally reached a cooperation agreement with the Sci-
ence Press. On June 11, 2015, Academician Hou Baorong,
head of the project, and Mr. Peng Bin, Deputy General
Manager of Science Press, formally signed the publication
agreement of the series (Fig. 1.15). The series of “A Study
on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China” will be
published by the Science Press. The two sides will work
together to complete the publishing task of the series in Fig. 1.15 Project Head Academician Hou Baorong (right) signing the
strict accordance with the publishing requirements and series publishing agreement with Mr. Peng Bin (left), Deputy General
Manager of Science Press (now General Manager)
procedures. At the meeting, Academicians Xu Kuangdi,
the obtained results. This symposium discussed the problems

encountered in the investigation and their solutions and
deployed the work arrangements and plans for the next step,
serving as a link between the preceding and the following.
The experts from the subject groups reached a consensus and
held a press conference during the Academician Conference
in 2016 to release the results of the corrosion investigation to
the whole society.
Seminar on Investigation of Port Terminals
The investigation of the port terminal industry is one of the

key points of this project. In November 2015, the Seminar
on Investigation of Port Terminals was held in Tianjin, and
Mr. ZHAO Chongjiu, Leader of Port Terminal Investigation
Fig. 1.16 CCTV interviewing Project Leader Academician Hou
Group and Chief Engineer of Ministry of Transport attended
Baorong, who reports on the progress of project work
the seminar (Fig. 1.19). At the seminar, the main experts in
the port terminal industry reported in detail the corrosion
cost of each investigated enterprise and department,
respectively. Through the summary and analysis of the
existing data, the first draft of the report on the investigation
of the port terminal industry was formed.
217th China Engineering Technology Forum

of the Chinese Academy of Engineering
On November 16, 2015, the 217th China Engineering

Technology Forum of the Chinese Academy of Engineering
—High-end Forum on Corrosion Control Strategies and
Engineering Safety was held in Xiamen (Fig. 1.20). The
opening ceremony of the forum was attended by Academi-
cian Liu Xu, Vice President of the Chinese Academy of
Engineering, Academician Xu Binshi of Chinese People’s
Fig. 1.17 Seminar on corrosion investigation in the field of trans-
portation in China
Liberation Army Armored Force Engineering Institute,
Academician Jin Xianglong of the Second Institute of
Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Academician
tical analysis, and compilation of related professional Song Junqiang of the National University of Defense
monographs of this project at the seminar. Technology, and relevant leaders of the Chinese Academy of
Engineering. Academician Hao Jimin, Director of the
Department of Environment and Textile Engineering, Chi-
Mid-term Symposium on the Project nese Academy of Engineering and Professor at Tsinghua
University, presided over the opening ceremony of the
On October 29, 2015, the Mid-term Symposium on the forum. Academician Hou Baorong of the Institute of
Project of “A Study on Corrosion Status and Control Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, hosted the
Strategies in China” was held in the Beijing Conference forum. In addition, more than 100 people attended the
Center. Academicians Hou Baorong, Xu Binshi, Xu Huibin, forum, including the relevant leaders of the Chinese Acad-
and Zhang Jianyun and Professor Li Xiaogang, heads of the emy of Engineering, the leaders of the Academician Office
five fields, attended the symposium, together with leading of the Fujian Association for Science and Technology, the
experts on the subjects and leaders of the Science Press relevant persons in charge of the subjects and the main
(Fig. 1.18). The person in charge of each subject reported project experts. The edging and technological development
the progress of the investigation in detail and summarized of corrosion and protection over the past 2 years has been
26 B. Hou
Fig. 1.18 Mid-term symposium on the project held in Beijing, Academicians Hou Baorong (3rd on the right of the 1st row), Xu Binshi (4th on
the right of the 1st row), Xu Huibin (4th on the left of the 1st row), Zhang Jianyun (3rd on the left of the 1st row), Professor Li Xiaogang (2nd on
the right of the 1st row), and other key project experts attending the meeting
Fig. 1.19 Seminar on investigation of port terminals held in Tianjin
discussed and exchanged in-depth at the forum. Experts and 2016 Annual Project Work Conference Held
scholars from various universities, enterprises, and institutes in Qingdao
throughout the country have provided advice and discussed
in depth in the fields of corrosion safety and control strate- In January 2016, the annual work conference of the major
gies, the infrastructure, transportation, energy, water envi- consultation project of the Chinese Academy of Engineering
ronment, manufacturing, and public utilities as well as “A Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in
military equipment involved in the project of “A Study on China” was held (Fig. 1.21). Academicians Wang Jingquan,
Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China.” Song Junqiang, Li Jiabiao, Song Weibo, Li Zechun, Mu Mu,
Fig. 1.20 217th China Engineering Technology Forum of the Chinese Academy of Engineering—high-end forum on corrosion control strategies
and engineering safety held in Xiamen
Fig. 1.21 2016 annual project work conference held in Qingdao
and Hou Baorong took part in the conference, together automobiles, port terminals, and other industries, and
with Professor Sugawara Masahiro and researcher Tanabe Japanese experts introduced the general situation of cor-
Hiroshi who participated in the Japanese corrosion rosion investigation in Japan, relevant investigation
investigation. In addition, more than 160 experts and experiences, and data analysis methods. The conference
insiders from the field of corrosion and protection atten- discussed and assigned the writers for an industry report,
ded the conference. The theme of this conference is and identified the report template of the industry investi-
“Investigating the cost of corrosion in China and gation. The writers are responsible for organizing the
improving the awareness of corrosion protection.” Experts writing of the industry report as soon as possible
at the conference were briefed on the investigation pro- according to the requirements of the template and
gress of agricultural machinery, food processing, checking and filling the data on corrosion cost.
28 B. Hou
Symposium on Industry Corrosion

Investigation Report
With discussion by the Standing Committee of the Depart-

ment of Environment and Textile Engineering, Chinese
Academy of Engineering, it is decided to hold a press con-
ference on project results during the Academician Conference
in June 2016, to release the data on corrosion cost in China.
On April 12, the project team held a phased meeting of
investigation work, sorted out, and summarized various
investigation work since the project was launched, reviewed
the form and content of the industry report, and planned the
work from April to June (Fig. 1.22). After this conference, the
project team received more than 30 reports of corrosion
investigation from various industries, with the original data
exceeding 8 million words. Among them, the project team has Fig. 1.23 Preparatory meeting for press conference
selected 1.8 million words of the report content, and planned
to compile into The Cost of Corrosion in China, with its
compilation and publication to be on the agenda. cessing and analysis. All the data completed by the inves-
tigation groups shall be collected to the Chinese Society for
Corrosion and Protection for unified collation and calcula-
Preparatory Meeting for Press Conference Held tion, and then the project team; the person in charge of the
in the University of Science and Technology subject and the experts concerned shall make final confir-
Beijing mation. For the industry report with incomplete data, the
project team shall collect and improve the data from the
The Preparatory Meeting for Press Conference was held on person in charge of this field/industry as soon as possible.
May 4, 2016 (Fig. 1.23). At the meeting, each subject group The recommendations from academicians were discussed
summarized and reviewed the work of the pre-research in detail at the meeting and a preliminary draft of aca-
project since it was started more than 2 years ago, and demicians’ recommendations, entitled Recommendations on
combed information and data on the investigation in detail. Integrating Corrosion protection and Safety of Infrastructure
The conference also carried on the review and the discussion and Major Equipment in China into National Strategies, was
of the major events of the project from the project estab- established.
lishment to the present day. Chinese Society for Corrosion
and Protection introduced the collection of investigation data
and the calculation and analysis of corrosion cost. After full Confidentiality Review Conference
discussion with the experts attending the conference, the of Investigation Report
conference decided to adopt a unified method for data pro-
The Confidentiality Review Conference of Investigation
Report was held on May 4, 2016 (Fig. 1.24). Relevant
experts were invited to attend the conference, carefully lis-
tened to the report of each subject group, and conducted a
careful review. To do a good job of confidentiality review is
an inevitable requirement for ensuring state secret security
and safeguarding national security and benefits. The project
team has always attached importance to confidentiality
review. Experts at the conference carefully discussed the
investigation report and the data on corrosion in China to be
released, and carefully checked the data and information
involved, especially relevant information related to the
military, so as to ensure that the key information is not
leaked out. The panel agreed that the contents to be released
after the review do not involve confidential information and
Fig. 1.22 Symposium on industry corrosion investigation report could be released publicly.
Fig. 1.24 Confidentiality review conference of investigation report Fig. 1.25 Academician Hou Baorong and Professor Li Xiaogang
reporting the progress of the corrosion investigation to Honorary
Chairman Xu Kuangdi
The Project Team Reported the Progress
of the Corrosion Investigation to Academician
Xu Kuangdi
On May 16, 2016, Academician Hou Baorong, who takes

charge of the major consultation project of the Chinese
Academy of Engineering, “A Study on Corrosion Status and
Control Strategies in China,” Research Fellow of Institute of
Oceanography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Li Xiaogang,
Head of the Fifth Subject Group, Deputy Director-General
and Secretary-General of Chinese Society for Corrosion and
Protection, and Professor of University of Science and
Technology Beijing, and Professor Du Cuiwei, Deputy
Secretary-General of Chinese Society for Corrosion and
Protection, reported the progress of the project research to
the former Vice-President of the CPPCC National Com-
mittee, the former President of the Chinese Academy of Fig. 1.26 Academician Hou Baorong (2nd on the right), Professor Li
Engineering and Academician Xu Kuangdi, and Honorary Xiaogang (1st on the left), and Professor Du Cuiwei (1st on the right)
Chairman of the Presidium of the Chinese Academy of visiting Honorary Chairman Xu Kuangdi with a warm group photo
Engineering (Figs. 1.25 and 1.26).
On behalf of the project team, Academician Hou Baorong technology strategy. Only in this way can material corrosion
gave Academician Xu Kuangdi a detailed introduction to the and its harm be effectively contained. In particular, the issue
overall progress of the whole project. First of all, Aca- of corrosion protection of materials should be considered
demician Hou talked about the collected investigation from the angle of national laws and regulations, and serial
materials and data on corrosion cost in more than 30 national standards and even national laws should be for-
important fields. Then, through the most rigorous and mulated to restrict the corrosion protection of major equip-
complete investigation in history, it was found that material ment on the level of national laws and regulations,
corrosion widely existed in various fields of social and considering the formulation of laws and regulations relating
economic construction, which was a widely shared basic to corrosion protection of major equipment. The project
problem, and all kinds of accidents caused by corrosion were team has basically formed the report on total corrosion cost
shocking and had a serious impact on socioeconomic and held the press conference in early June 2016 to release
development. Therefore, the corrosion protection of major the cost of corrosion investigation. The investigation results
equipment materials should be incorporated into the national would completely and accurately reflect the actual situation
overall development strategies, especially the science and of material corrosion in China.
30 B. Hou
After listening to the report, President Xu Kuangdi

affirmed the progress of the corrosion investigation project
and its important achievements and pointed out that material
corrosion is a major event related to the national economy
and people’s livelihood, resulting in huge economic losses
and many disastrous accidents. We must always attach
importance to it, the project team must do a good job in
summing up and spreading popular science, on the one hand,
disseminating the harm of corrosion materials to the leaders
at all levels, causing high attention, and on the other hand,
doing a good job in spreading popular science to arouse
people’s awareness of material corrosion. In the face of the
social and economic development in the new period of
China, we should pay special attention to marine corrosion. Fig. 1.27 Academician Xu Kuangdi, Honorary Chairman of the
The corrosion in the South China Sea is quite serious and Presidium of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, carefully listens
should be paid attention to. In the Belt and Road strategy, to the reports at the press conference
materials are essential and material corrosion is critical, since
the corrosion of the majority of the materials in the Belt and
Road environment is aggravated, which we did not under-
stand before. In order to view the issue of material corrosion
loss from an international perspective, we should pay
attention to the methods and results of corrosion investiga-
tion in the world, especially in the United States, the Euro-
pean Union, and other countries and regions, especially the
research on their countermeasures, bringing their good
experience and advanced corrosion protection technology to
China, so as to promote the development of corrosion pro-
tection technologies in China and effectively reduce the total
loss of corrosion of materials in China.
Press Conference on the Results of the Project Fig. 1.28 Academician Hou Baorong who takes charge of the project
reports the achievements of the investigation at the press conference
On June 1, 2016, the press conference of the major con-
sultation project of “A Study on Corrosion Status and
Control Strategies in China” was held at the Beijing Con- made a report on behalf of the project team. According to the
ference Center, at which the cost of corrosion in China was investigation, in 2014, the total cost of corrosion in China
announced. Academician Xu Kuangdi, Honorary Chairman was more than RMB 2,100 billion, accounting for 3.34% of
of the Presidium of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, the GDP of that year, equivalent to the corrosion cost of
Academician Liu Xu, Vice-President of the Chinese Acad- RMB 1,555 that every Chinese undertook. The results of the
emy of Engineering and Wang Fan, Director of Institute of investigation were striking. The conference pointed out that
Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, attended the corrosion is a safety problem, an economic problem, and an
conference and delivered speeches and Academician Hao ecological civilization problem; corrosion protection is a
Jiming, Director of Department of Environment and Textile major content of developing the Belt and Road strategy, and
Engineering, Chinese Academy of Engineering presided the intensity of corrosion protection and control is a reflec-
over the conference. More than 30 academicians of the tion of national civilization and prosperity. The project team
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of would gather more than 20 academicians to submit to the
Engineering and more than 50 project experts attended the State Council the Recommendations on Integrating Corro-
conference (Figs. 1.27, 1.28, 1.29 and 1.30). Hou Baorong, sion Protection and Safety of Infrastructure and Major
the chief scientist of the project, and Academician of the Equipment in China into National Strategies, which calls for
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, comprehensively improving the level of corrosion protection
and Mr. Bob Chalker, Chief Executive Officer of the NACE,

and Ms. Elaine Bowman, Manager of Global Corrosion Cost
Research Project, attended the ceremony (Fig. 1.31).
Academician Hou Baorong, Mr. Bob Chalker, and Ms.
Elaine Bowman jointly signed the cooperation agreement,
which marked the beginning of the global corrosion investi-
gation in China. NACE CEO Bob Chalker introduced the
significance of the IMPACT project, saying it was the first
global, systematic, large-scale and welfare investigation on
corrosion cost and would be accomplished by the concerted
efforts of several countries. According to Academician Hou
Baorong, the investigation on corrosion cost in China was an
important part of IMPACT research and it is hoped to con-
Fig. 1.29 Director Wang Fan of the Institute of Oceanology, Chinese
tribute to corrosion protection in China and the world by
Academy of Sciences, delivers a speech at the press conference participating in IMPACT research. After the launch of the
project, a unified approach and standards would be adopted
around the world at the same time, and the results would be
released publically and shared free of charge around the
world. The study would provide corrosion scientists and
business and government decision makers around the world
with a scientific and detailed set of corrosion cost data and
corrosion protection strategies with public credibility, which
would help to raise and enhance awareness of corrosion
hazards and the importance of corrosion protection, and
enable decision makers in relevant departments to take cor-
rosion protection as an important factor to consider, thereby
minimizing the impact of corrosion on the economy, public
safety, and the environment. Also present at the Signing
Ceremony were Researchers Zhang Dun and Huang Yan-
liang, Director and Assistant Director respectively of the Key
Laboratory of Marine Environmental Corrosion and
Bio-fouling, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of
Sciences; Professor Li Xiaogang, Associate Professor Qiao
Fig. 1.30 Academicians Xu Kuangdi (2nd on the right), Liu Xu (2nd
on the left), Hou Baorong (1st on the left), and Hao Jiming (1st on the Lijie and Professor Du Cuiwei, Secretary-General, Deputy
right) took a group photo at the press conference Director-General, and Deputy Secretary-General respectively
of Chinese Society for Corrosion and Protection; and Ms. Gu
Bei, General Representative of NACE China, Professor Lu
technologies in China, scientifically reducing corrosion loss, Minxu, Chairman of NACE Shanghai Branch, and Dr. Tan-
and promoting the rapid and scientific development of abe Hiroshi, Chairman of NACE East Asia Pacific Region,
China’s corrosion protection industry. Xinhuanet, People.cn, Ms. Helena Seelinger, Executive Director of the NACE
CNR, NETEASE, news.ifeng.com, and other media reported Institute, Mr. Matt Miller, Chief Operating Officer of NACE,
the press conference. Mr. Chris Fowler, former Chairman of NACE, and others.
Signing an Agreement with the NACE NACE Visited the Institute of Oceanology,
Chinese Academy of Sciences
On May 20, 2014, the Signing Ceremony for the Sino-US
Cooperation Agreement of IMPACT was held in Beijing. On the afternoon of February 25, 2014, the delegation of the
Hou Baorong, Academician of Chinese Academy of Engi- National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) visited
neering and Researcher at the Institute of Oceanology, the Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dr. Harvey Hack, Chairman and had academic exchanges with researchers from the Key
of the National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), Laboratory of Marine Environmental Corrosion and
32 B. Hou
Fig. 1.31 Academician Hou Baorong and Chairman of NACE signing the global corrosion cost investigation agreement
NACE, and Ms. Helena Seelinger, Executive Director of the

NACE Institute, Dr. Hiroyuki Tanabe, Chairman of
NACE EAP, and Ms. Gu Bei, General Representative of
NACE China, and introduced the overall situation of the
Institute and the scientific research of the laboratory. Aca-
demician Hou Baorong introduced the basic situation of the
National Corrosion and Protection Engineering Center and
all the corrosion investigation in the world; Assistant
Director Huang Yanliang made a report on the importance of
corrosion investigation in China; and Dr. Ma Xiumin has
introduced the main corrosion protection technologies of the
National Engineering Research Center at present.
Ms. Elaine Bowman introduced the “IMPACT” Global
Corrosion Research Project to be planned and launched by
the NACE, providing reliable and detailed data to corrosion
experts, and government and business decision makers
through investigations, so as to enhance and improve peo-
ple’s understanding of corrosion protection, so that relevant
department decision makers would take into account corro-
sion protection as an important factor. In addition, the dif-
Fig. 1.32 NACE visiting Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy ferent strategies of corrosion prevention and protection in
of Sciences different countries would be summarized and compared, and
countries would exchange information and improve toge-
Bio-fouling, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of ther. This study was a public welfare project and would be
Sciences (Fig. 1.32). Researcher Duan Jizhou, Assistant completed by NACE and the cooperators in industry, science
Director of the laboratory, presided over the meeting. and technology fields all over the world. The result would be
Researcher Zhang Dun, Director of the laboratory, wel- released to the whole world and would be shared all over the
comed the visit of Ms. Elaine Bowman, former Chairman of world for free. The delegation hoped that the Institute of
Oceanography would play an important role in conducting 7. Economic effects on metallic corrosion in the United
corrosion investigations in China. States-Update. Battelle Report, 1995
8. Jotisschky H, Whitehouse NR (2000) From Hoar to the millen-
nium: continuity and change in the U. K. corrosion scene. An
introduction to a current DTI funded project, EuroCorr 2000.
References London, UK
9. Koch GH, Brongers MPH, Thompson NG, Virmani YP, Payer JH
(2001) Corrosion costs and preventive strategies in the United States
1. Hoar TP (1971) Report of the committee on corrosion protection— 10. Koch G, Varney J, Thompson N, Moghissi O, Gould M, Payer J
a survey of corrosion protection in the United Kingdom (2016) International measures of prevention, application, and
2. Al-Kharafi F, Al-Hashem A, Martrouk F (1995) Economic effects economics of corrosion technologies study. NACE International
of metallic corrosion in the state of Kuwait, KISR Publications, 11. JSCE, JACC, Cost of Corrosion in Japan, 2001
Final Report No. 4761 12. 国家科委腐蚀科学学科组第三分组. 腐蚀损失调查报告 (1982).
3. Cherry BW, Skerry BS (1983) Corrosion in Australia—the report The third group of corrosion science discipline section of national
of the Australian National Centre for Corrosion protection and science and technology commission. Fu shi sun shi diao cha bao
Control Feasibility Study gao (Investigation report of corrosion loss), 1982
4. Okamoto G (Chairmen of Japan Society of Corrosion Engineering 13. 中国化工防腐蚀技术协会. 中国化工腐蚀信息 (1999) (11):4.
and Japan Association of Corrosion Control) (1977) Report of the China chemical industry anti-corrosion technology association.
committee on corrosion and corrosion protection—a survey of the Zhong guo hua gong fu shi xin xi (corrosion information of China
cost of corrosion in Japan chemical industry) (1999) (11):4
5. Uhlig HH (1952) The cost of corrosion in the United States. 14. 柯伟. 中国腐蚀调查报告. 北京: 化学工业出版社 (2003). Ke W
Corrosion 6:29 (2003) Zhong guo fu shi diao cha bao gao (Corrosion investigation
6. Cost of corrosion in the power industry, Report No. 1004662. report of China). Chemical Industry Press, Beijing
Electric Power Research Institute, PaloAlto, CA, 2001
Study on Corrosion Status and Control
Strategies in Infrastructure Field in China 2
Binshi Xu
The mileage of rural roads around the country (including

2.1 Report on Corrosion Investigation
county roads, township roads, and village roads) is 3.8816
in the Highway and Bridge Engineering
million km (Fig. 2.4), of which village road is 2.2245 mil-
lion km. The townships with highways account for 99.98%
2.1.1 Current Situation of Highway and Bridge
of the total number of townships and the townships with
Development
hardened road surface accounts for 98.08% of the total
number of townships. The organizational villages with
2.1.1.1 Current Situation of Highway Traffic
highways account for 99.82% of the total organizational
Development
villages in the country, and the organizational villages with
hardened road surface account for 91.76% of the total
1. The scale of highway infrastructure is huge and the
organizational villages in the country.
development is stable
There are 0.7571 million national highways and bridges
with a total length of 42.7589 million m. Among them, there
By the end of 2014, the total mileage of highway had been
are 3404 extra-large bridges with a total length of 6.1054
4.4639 million km and the density of highway had been
million m, and 72,979 large bridges with a total length of
46.5 km/100 km2. The maintenance mileage of highway had
18.6301 million m. There are 12,404 national highway
been 4.3538 million km, accounting for 97.5% of the total
tunnels with a total length of 10.7567 million m.
mileage of highway (Fig. 2.1).
The total mileage of grade highway is 3.9008 million km,
2. Breakthroughs have been made in bridge construc-
accounting for 87.4% of the total mileage of highway. The
tion technology, forming the ability to build long-span
total mileage of highway of Grade II and above is 0.5457
bridges
million km, accounting for 12.2% of the total mileage of
highway (Fig. 2.2).
China has become the first in the total size of bridges in the
According to each administrative grade, the mileage of
world and has made great achievements in the construction
highway of in China is 0.1792 million km for national roads,
technology of extra-large bridges, as well as has built a large
0.3228 million km for provincial roads, 0.5522 million km
number of large-span girder bridges, arch bridges,
for county roads and 1.1051 million km for township roads,
cable-stayed bridges, and suspension bridges. China’s con-
0.0803 million km for special highway. The total mileage of
struction technology level and construction quality step into
expressway around the country is 0.119 million km
the forefront of the world. There are 127 bridges built on
(Fig. 2.3), of which the national expressway is 0.0731 mil-
Yangtze River and 162 bridges on the Yellow River. Besides
lion km. The total lane mileage of expressway is 0.4956
the completed Hangzhou Bay Cross-sea Bridge, Zhoushan
million km.
Island Connecting Project, Donghai Bridge and Qingdao
Bay Bridge, Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge and Shen
Zhen-Zhong Shan Bridge are under construction, and the
large-scale bridge projects across the sea such as Qiongzhou
Bay, Taiwan Strait, and Bohai Bay are planned for con-
B. Xu (&) struction. The construction and planning of these bridges
Army Academy of Armored Forces, Beijing, China reflect the construction capacity and level of large-scale
e-mail: [email protected]

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9354-0_2
36 B. Xu
year
Total mileage of highway
Density of highway
Fig. 2.1 Total mileage of highway (2010–2014)
High speed
Grade I
Grade II
Grade III
Grade IV
Overgrade
Fig. 2.2 Total mileage of grade highway in 2014
2 Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies … 37
year
Mileage of expressway by the end of previous
year
New mileage of expressway in the current year
Fig. 2.3 Total mileage of expressway (2010–2014)
County roads,
Township roads
Village roads
Fig. 2.4 Mileage composition of rural highways in 2014
38 B. Xu
bridges in China, which is the symbol of China’s transition suspension bridges, Xihoumen Bridge with a span of
from a big bridge country to a strong bridge country. 1650 m is the second long-span suspension bridge in the
In the construction of girder bridges, Chongqing Shi- world. China has 10 among top 20 suspension bridges in the
banpo Yangtze River Bridge is the world’s largest span world (Fig. 2.6). In the aspect of construction of arch
girder bridge with the span reaching 330 m. A number of bridges, Chongqing Chaotianmen Bridge (Fig. 2.7) and
continuous girder and continuous rigid frame bridges with Wanxian Yangtze River Bridge have the spans of 552 m and
spans above 200 m have been constructed, such as Humen 420 m, respectively, becoming the largest steel arch bridge
Auxiliary Channel Bridge (continuous rigid frame of 270 m) and reinforced concrete arch bridge in the world. China
and Sutong Yangtze River Highway and Bridge (continuous occupies 6 among top 20 steel arch bridges. In terms of
rigid frame of 268 m). China has 12 among the world’s top structural system innovation, there are two three-tower sus-
20 girder bridges. In the construction of cable-stayed pension bridges with span exceeding 1000 m. Both Taizhou
bridges, Sutong Bridge with a span of 1088 m is the sec- Yangtze River Bridge and Maanshan Yangtze River Bridge
ond span cable-stayed bridge in the world (Fig. 2.5). There have a main span of 1080 m. China’s steel tube concrete and
are 14 in China among top 20 steel cable-stayed bridges in masonry arch bridge construction technology is also in the
the world, and 9 in China among top 10 concrete forefront of the world for inventing double-curved arch and
cable-stayed bridges in the world. In terms of construction of rigid frame arch bridges.
Fig. 2.5 Sutong Yangtze River

Highway and Bridge (ranking
second in the world)
Fig. 2.6 Runyang Yangtze

River Highway and Bridge
Fig. 2.7 Chongqing

Chaotianmen Bridge (ranking
first in the world)
3. The investment scale of highway construction is huge, Program Outline of Traffic Construction and Poverty Alle-
and the investment continues to grow viation (2011–2020) in Central and Continuous Poverty-
stricken Areas was RMB 344.292 billion, accounting for
In 2014, the total investment in highway construction was 22.3% of the national investment in highway construction.
RMB 1546.094 billion (Fig. 2.8), of which, RMB 781.812 In 2014, the total investment in fixed assets of railways,
billion was invested in expressway construction, RMB highways, and waterways totaled RMB 2525.951 billion,
4611.82 billion was invested in the construction of ordinary accounting for 4.9% of the total investment in fixed assets of
national and provincial roads, and RMB 303.099 billion was the whole society. The investment in highway construction
invested in rural highway construction. The newly rebuilt accounted for 61.2% of the national investment in fixed
rural highway is 0.2321 km. The road construction invest- assets of railways, highways, and waterways and accounted
ment of 505 poverty-stricken counties included in the for 3% of the investment in fixed assets of the whole society.
Year
Investment in highway construction
Increase over the previous year
Fig. 2.8 Increase of investment in highway construction (2010–2014)

40 B. Xu
4. Highway transportation is the main force of trans- of civil aviation transport airport was 832 million, and the
portation and shoulders the important task of devel- cargo and mail throughput was 13,561 million t.
oping transportation economy In the whole year, the urban passenger transport system
carried 131.566 billion passengers, of which 78.188 billion
In 2014, the total highway passenger volume of the national were completed by public buses and motorcars and 1.476
operating passenger vehicles was 19.082 billion, the passen- billion passengers were carried by BRT. The operating
ger turnover volume was 1208.41 billion person km, and the mileage of public buses and motorcars was 34.669 billion
average transportation distance was 63.33 km. The freight km. Rail transit completed 12.666 billion persons with an
volume of the national operating freight vehicles was 33.328 operating mileage of 327 million car km. Taxis completed
billion t, the cargo turnover volume was 6101.662 billion t 40.606 billion passengers, and the operating mileage was
km, and the average freight distance was 183.08 km. 161.811 billion km. Passenger ferry completed 107 million
In the whole year, the railways around the country persons, an increase of 0.7%.
transported 2.357 billion passengers, and the passenger To sum up, in 2014, the total number of passengers
turnover volume was 1160.4075 billion person km, of which transported by highways, railways, waterways, and airlines
2.324 billion were completed by the national railways, and was 22.092 billion. The completed freight volume accounted
the passenger turnover volume was 1155.636 billion person for 86.4%. The total freight volume of highways, railways,
km. The total freight delivery volume of the national railway waterways, and airlines was 43.144 billion t, and the freight
was 3.813 billion t, and the total freight turnover volume was volume completed by highways accounted for 77.2%.
2753.019 billion t km. Among them, the national railways Highway transportation has become an important part of the
completed 3.069 billion t and the turnover volume was national transportation system, as well as an important
2510.342 billion t km. guarantee for the national transportation industry and social
The waterway completed 263 million passenger volume and economic sustainable development. It plays a leading
and the passenger turnover was 7.434 billion person km role in infrastructure scale, construction investment, and
with an average transportation distance of 28.27 km. The passenger and freight volume.
national waterway completed freight volume of 5.983 billion
t, the cargo turnover volume was 9277.456 billion t km, and 2.1.1.2 Structure Type of Highways and Bridges
the average transportation distance was 1550.68 km. According to the use, bridges are divided into railway bridges,
In the whole year, the total passenger transportation vol- highways, and bridges, dual-purpose bridges, footbridges,
ume by civil aviation was 390 million, and the passenger water transport bridges (aqueducts), special bridges (such as
turnover volume was 633.42 billion person km, of which pipelines, communication/power cables, etc.). According to
passengers carried by international routes and domestic routes the material system, bridges are divided into reinforced
were 31.55 million and 370.05 million (including 10.052 concrete/prestressed concrete/steel tube concrete bridges,
million of Mainland to Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan masonry structure bridges (brick, stone, concrete bridges),
routes), respectively. The transportation volume of cargo and steel structure bridges (including steel-mixed composite
mail was 5.941 million t, and the turnover volume of cargo and structure bridges), wood structure bridges, and FRP bridges.
mail was 18.78 billion t km. The passenger handling capacity According to the structural system, bridges are divided into
Fig. 2.9 Girder bridge

Fig. 2.10 Arch bridge
Fig. 2.11 Cable-stayed bridge
Fig. 2.12 Suspension bridge

42 B. Xu
Table 2.1 Total length Category Length of single-hole span L0/m Length of porous span L/m
classification of single-hole span
or porous span of bridge Culvert L0 < 5 –
Small bridges 5 L0 < 20 8 L 30
Medium bridges 20 L0 < 40 30 < L < 100
Large bridges 40 L0 150 100 L 1000
Extra-large bridges L0 > 150 L > 1000
girder bridges (Fig. 2.9), arch bridges (Fig. 2.10), rigid frame account for 92.2%, large bridges account for 7.5%, and
bridges, cable bearing bridges (cable-stayed bridges, sus- extra-large bridges make up 0.3%.
pension bridges) (Figs. 2.11 and 2.12). According to the lane As far as bridge span is concerned, medium and
position, bridges are divided into upper bearing bridges, lower small-span bridges are the main components of highway
bearing bridges, and middle bearing bridges. The porous bridges in China.
long-span bridges are divided into small bridges, medium In the proportion of the superstructure material compo-
bridges, large bridges, and extra-large bridges. Table 2.1 sition of highways and bridges in China, the
shows specific span and total length. reinforced/prestressed concrete bridges account for 85%, the
masonry bridges account for 13% and the steel structure
2.1.1.3 Structural Materials for Highways bridges and other material bridges account for about 2% of
and Bridges the total. Reinforced concrete is mainly used for the bridge
In the proportion of highway and bridge superstructure types substructure. The statistics of the upper structure material of
in China, the girder structure accounts for 74%, the arch the bridge in China (Table 2.2) shows that in the girder
bridge structure accounts for 17%, and the cable-stayed and bridge, the reinforced concrete, and the prestressed concrete
suspension bridges account for less than 1%. According to bridges constitute the absolute main body. In the aspect of
the distribution proportion of bridge service life, most of arch bridges, brick, stone, concrete, and reinforced concrete
China’s highways and bridges are permanent bridges and structure occupy the main body. In the cable-stayed bridges
2.5% of bridges are semi-permanent and temporary bridges. and suspension bridges, prestressed concrete and steel
In the permanent bridges, medium and small-span bridges structure account for the main part.
Table 2.2 Statistics of structural materials of highways and bridges (m3)

Type of bridge Material
Concrete Reinforced Steel Steel-concrete Prestressed Stone Other Steel Wood Other
concrete tube combination reinforced masonry materials
concrete concrete materials
Hollow slab 7146 95,291 135 241 46,242 292 160 10 5 1009
girder
Integral 1930 32,408 45 10 1795 312 51 7 0 652
cast-in-place
slab
Girder 694 8447 71 72 5856 97 15 2 0 44
I-type girder 102 1342 5 11 506 10 1 2 0 15
II-type girder 13 216 0 1 121 3 0 0 0 21
Box girder 305 3952 12 17 4354 151 2 3 0 48
Truss girder 9 127 1 6 6 1 2 179 0 1
Continuous 617 2747 8 0 3050 460 537 0 1 355
T-type girder
Continuous box 368 3021 9 19 5202 16 12 3 0 673
girder
Cantilever 4 22 0 4 12 7 2 1 0 4
bridge
Plate arch 5025 7658 109 49 2363 25,004 3173 8 3 1376
(continued)
Table 2.2 (continued)

Type of bridge Material
Concrete Reinforced Steel Steel-concrete Prestressed Stone Other Steel Wood Other
concrete tube combination reinforced masonry materials
concrete concrete materials
Ribbed arch 510 969 11 2 101 1836 249 1 0 86
Double 823 3275 100 15 64 1050 241 1 0 251
curvature arch
Box arch 46 259 1 0 68 83 13 0 1 3
Truss arch 40 399 18 2 43 51 10 12 0 35
Rigid frame 48 525 14 17 46 57 7 30 0 29
arch
Tied arch 4 100 26 4 74 1 0 4 0 1
Other arch 152 56 0 0 0 77 16 0 0 101
Portal rigid 3 0 38 0 0 7 0 0 0 0
frame
Slant-legged 14 164 0 0 53 0 0 0 0 2
rigid frame
T-type rigid 49 518 1 7 392 1 1 15 0 5
frame
Continuous 5 163 0 1 409 0 0 33 1 1
rigid frame
Suspension 3 27 0 2 18 0 0 19 12 9
bridge
Self-anchored 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2
suspension
bridge
Cable-stayed 4 44 1 10 37 4 1 10 0 2
bridge
Other structure 1203 13,358 29 15 1776 6210 1690 33 295 2280
In terms of bridge structural material and structural sys- international bridge projects. Weather-resistant steel bridges
tem, concrete girder bridge is the main part of highways and in the United States and Japan account for 45 and 10% of the
bridges in China. The technology of precast concrete bridge total amount of steel-structured bridges. Besides, stainless
has been developed rapidly in the world, formed a complete steel has also been used in the construction of complex
technical standard and equipment system, and has been Cross-sea bridges. For example, stainless steel bars are used
widely used in developed countries. In recent years, along in the main tower piers of the Oakland Bay New Bridge in
with the construction of super-huge bridges, short-term the United States. In China, the construction of
assemble technology and equipment has been applied and weather-resistant steel bridge has not yet begun, but stainless
developed in Sutong Yangtze River Highway and Bridge, steel has begun to be used in the construction of cross-sea
Hangzhou Bay Cross-sea Bridge, Xiamen-Zhangzhou passage. The main tower (175–290 m) of Hong Kong
Cross-sea Bridge, and Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Stonecutter Bridge (1596 m) adopts stainless steel shell
Cross-sea cluster engineering and Wangdong Yangtze (EN100881.4462), and the main piers adopt stainless steel
River Highway and Bridge in Anhui Province. The precast bars. The bearing platforms, piers, and tower blocks of the
and assembling of concrete segments will become the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Cross-sea Cluster Engineering
development trend of highway and bridge construction all adopt stainless steel bars, and the steel consumption
technology in China (Fig. 2.13). reaches 3462 tons (Figs. 2.14 and 2.15).
In recent years, weather-resistant steel and stainless steel
have been applied and developed rapidly in major
44 B. Xu
Fig. 2.13 Prestressed concrete

bridge segment of Wangdong
Bridge
Fig. 2.14 Steel structure bridge

segment of Hong
Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge
Fig. 2.15 Application of

stainless steel in main tower and
pier construction of Stonecutter
Bridge
2.1.2 Investigation on Corrosion Problems bridges is 42 years. The bridges built in the 1950s and 1960s
and Current Situation of Highways basically reach the designed service life, and are faced with
and Bridges the difficult problem of reuse or decommissioning. Accord-
ing to the American ASCE’s assessment on the infrastruc-
2.1.2.1 Technical Status of Highways and Bridges ture, the GPA score for bridge facilities is C+. According to
The damage of bridge structure, the degradation of service this estimate, FHWA will require $20.8 billion of mainte-
function, and the lack of bearing capacity have become the nance funds per year by 2028. European developed countries
common problems faced by the international community. such as France, Germany, Norway, and the United Kingdom
Among the 607,380 bridges in the United States, 25% of have also entered the peak period of maintenance with
highways and bridges have structural defects or applicability bridges that require maintenance accounting for 39%, 37%,
problems, and the average service life of highway concrete 26%, and 30%, respectively. Bridge construction in North
Table 2.3 Summary table of Technical status Administrative grade

technical status classification of
national, provincial, and county National Provincial County
bridges Number Length Number Length Number Length
Class I 81,836 8,295,686 53,584 4,236,746 33,788 1,528,744
Class II 29,693 2,535,242 30,090 1,892,723 38,340 1,368,930
Class III 2607 252,232 3262 184,843 25,340 782,330
Class IV 738 59,877 1753 92,991 9617 327,899
Class V 148 8146 554 26,197 5879 205,811
Un-assessed 84 6525 106 2294 125 2382
Total 115,106 11,157,708 89,349 6,435,794 113,089 4,216,095
America and Europe is faced with severe problems such as administrative grade of roads decreases. In the statistics of
improvement of service capacity and maintenance and the technical status of highways and bridges, 5.89% of the
reinforcement: large scale of service bridges, prominent bridges were rated as Class IV and V. Among the bridges of
aging problems, and high maintenance cost. Class IV and V, more than 56% of the bridges have served
According to the statistics of technical status of highways for more than 20 years (Fig. 2.16). Bridges of Class IV and
and bridges by the Ministry of Transport of the People’s V are mainly caused by structural design defects, construc-
Republic of China, in 2010, there were 169,208 Class I tion quality, design expiration, structural damage, material
bridges, 98,123 Class II bridges and 31,209 Class III aging, and reinforcement corrosion. According to the cal-
bridges, 12,108 Class IV bridges, and 6581 Class V bridges. culation, the proportion of bridges that reach/exceed
Among the national highways and bridges, the total number 30 years in 2035 is more than 60%, and the influence of
of bridges assessed as Class I, II, and III is 114,136, aging on bridge technology will be very prominent, which
accounting for 99.16%. There are 738 bridges of Class IV, should not be ignored.
accounting for 0.64% of the total, and 148 bridges of Class In 2011, during the reconstruction of the dangerous
5, accounting for 0.13% of the total. Among the provincial bridges of the Ministry of Transport of the People’s
highways and bridges, there are 86,936 whose technical Republic of China, the provincial and urban areas reported
status is assessed as Class I, Class II, and Class III, information on 9746 bridges of Class V (there were 7875
accounting for 97.30% of the total, 1753 bridges of Class IV, bridges with the exact construction date). If the technical
accounting for 1.96% of the total, and 554 bridges of status grade is rated as Class V and the first overhaul is taken
Class V, accounting for 0.62% of the total. Among the as the statistical criterion for the actual service life, the
county bridges, there are 97,468 bridges of Class I, II, and average service life of the highway and bridge is calculated
III, accounting for 86.19% of the total. There are 9617 to be 30.23 years.
bridges of Class IV, accounting for 8.50% of the total, and The statistics of the actual service life of highways and
5879 bridges of Class 5, accounting for 5.20% of the total. bridges show that the average service life of all kinds of
Among the township bridges, the total number of bridges is highways and bridges in China is about 30 years. However,
156,221, among which 31,927 bridges are Class IV and V, the average service life of bridges in Tibet Autonomous
accounting for 20.44% of the total. Among the special Region is 16.84 years and the average service life of bridges
purpose highways and bridges, there are 4994 bridges, and in Qinghai Province is only 16 years because of bad natural
624 bridges are Class IV and V, accounting for 12.5% of the environment. The traffic flow in these two areas is far lower
total. Among the village bridges, the total amount is than that in the southeast coastal area. The influence of traffic
179,367, and 42,285 are Class IV and V, accounting for load on the damage and degradation of bridge structure is
23.57% of the total (Table 2.3 shows specific classification). relatively small, and the main causes of the problems are
insufficient design protection measures against the bad nat-
① ASCE. Report Card for America’s Infrastructure, ural environment, poor construction quality, and the envi-
USA, 2013. ronmental erosion.
According to statistics, the main body of the reconstruc-
In terms of bridge technical status, the proportion of bridges tion of dangerous and old bridges is medium and small-span
of Class IV and V has increased from 0.77 to 23.57% as the bridges, and most of them are reinforced concrete and
46 B. Xu
Grade
Proportion
% of bridges
Year
Fig. 2.16 Technical status grade of highways and bridges
within 5 years of service, accounting for 55%, 4 bridges for

Table 2.4 Design service life of highway and bridge and culvert
structure (GB 50153-2008)
7–9 years and 4 bridges for 12–14 years. The actual service
life of the suspender/sling is much lower than that specified
Structure category Design service life
in the design specification (Table 2.5).
(year (s))
The short service life of the suspender/sling is caused by
Small bridge, culvert middle bridge, 30
important small bridge, extra-large bridge,
structural design defects, construction quality, and mainte-
50 nance management. All these causes generate a common
large bridge, important middle bridge
100 result: severe corrosion of steel bars/cables (Figs. 2.17 and
2.18), resulting in stress corrosion under cyclic repeated
loads, which further aggravates and accelerates damage to
prestressed concrete bridges, and a few of them are masonry structural components.
bridges. In combination with the information in Table 2.3,
with the decrease of the administrative grade of road, the 2.1.2.2 Climate and Environmental Conditions
proportion of the corresponding medium and small-span The damage type and deterioration degree of durability of
bridges and the reconstruction bridge increases. The service highways and bridges are closely related to the natural
life of important small and medium bridges is lower than the environmental conditions and industrial environmental
50-year design requirements of the Unified Standard for conditions. For the highway and bridge structure projects
Reliability Design of Engineering Structures (GB crossing the seas, rivers, and mountains, they are directly
50153-2008) (Table 2.4), which reflects that the problems of exposed to various natural geographical and climatic envi-
service function and bearing capacity degradation of ronmental conditions, and the quantity and scope affected by
small-span bridges of lower grade roads are prominent, and the natural environment are large. In the industrial developed
the maintenance and improvement of service capacity need areas, the quantity affected by industrial environmental
to be strengthened. pollution depends on the industrial development and layout.
The shortage of technical reserves for bridge construction The total number of bridges is relatively small, and the scope
of early suspension system in China leads to a series of is limited to individual areas. The characteristics of natural
bridge safety accidents, resulting in loss of social property environment and industrial environment affecting bridge
and casualties. In the end of 1980s, the suspender and sling durability in China are summarized in Table 2.6.
were investigated, and 20 bridges built from 1987 to 2001 In the plateau atmospheric environment area or the
were surveyed. There were 11 bridges with serious damage tropical ocean area, the air quality is good with little floating
Table 2.5 Service life statistics of bridge cables

No. Engineering name Completion Problems and the time of its occurrence Service
time life
(year)
1 Xiqiao Bridge in South China 1987 Tested in 1995, cracking of PE sheath <8
Sea,in Guangdong
2 Jiujiang Bridge in South China 1988 Cracking of PE sheath, full change of cable in 2001 <12
Sea in Guangdong
3 Haiyin Bridge in Guangzhou 1988 In 1995, a cable was corroded and broken, and all the cables were replaced <7
4 Xiangjiang North Bridge in 1990 Inspection of the whole bridge in 2002 showed local corrosion of steel <12
Changsha wire in the cable
5 Yuantong Bridge in Kunming 1991 Cracking and post-wrapping treatment of cable sheaths in 2000 <9
6 Niguo Bridge in Panzhihua 1994 Inspection of suspender in 2002, serious corrosion, full replacement of <14
suspender system in 2003
7 Wenhui Bridge in Liuzhou 1995 In 1998–1999, the PE sheath of the suspender was cracked, the low end <4
was seriously filled with water, and the anchor head and steel wire were
corroded seriously
8 Tongling Bridge in Anhui 1995 After opening to traffic, it is found that water enters the lower end of the <1
cable, and the anchor head and embedded pipe are corroded
9 Qiao Bridge in Zhuhai 1995 Severe cracking of PE sheath of cable
10 Zidong Bridge in South China 1996 PE sheath cracked in 1997, water entered into embedded pipe at lower end <1
Sea in Guangdong Province
11 Lijiatuo Bridge in Chongqing 1996 PE sheath cracked, cable wrapping treatment in 1999 <3
12 New Bayi Bridge in Nanchang 1997 Cable PE sheath cracked, serious corrosion at the lower end of anchor head <12
Full change of cable in 2009
13 Yuehu Bridge in Wuhan 1998 In 2003, the full-bridge inspection showed that the cable PE sheath was <5
seriously cracked
14 Shawan Bridge in 1998 Serious corrosion of suspender in 2001, replacement of suspender and <3
Leshan suspender system in 2003
15 Sanan Bridge in Nanning 1998 the PE sheath of suspender was cracked, the lower end was seriously filled <3
with water, and the anchor head and embedded pipe were corroded
16 Liujing Bridge in Nanning 1998 Inspection in 2001 showed serious water ingress at the lower end of the <3
cable
17 Jiefang Bridge in Fuzhou 1998 In 2001, it was checked that the lower end of the anchor head was filled <3
with water, and the anchor head and steel wire were seriously corroded
18 Haicang Bridge in Xiamen 1999 Cracking of sling PE sheath in 2002 (microcrack) <3
19 Sun Island Bridge in Harbin 2001 In 2002, it was observed that function of the waterproof cover failed and, <1
the lower end of the anchor head was filled with water
20 Minjiang Bridge in Fuzhou 2001 More than 80% of the lower anchor head was filled with water in 2010 <9
Fig. 2.17 Full view of Wenhui

Bridge in Liuzhou
48 B. Xu
Fig. 2.18 Damage of Wenhui Bridge in Liuzhou
Table 2.6 Industrial and environmental conditions and durability damage

Environmental conditions Distribution area Characteristics Durability damage
Natural Marine Liaoning, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu, High salt mist content Chloride ion erosion
environment atmospheric Shanghai, Zhejiang, Fujian,
environment Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan
Cold and warm Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Jilin, Low temperature, large Freeze-thaw and salt-thaw
environment Liaoning, Qinghai, Xinjiang, Tibet temperature difference
between day and night
Saline soil Qinghai and Xinjiang Sulfate enrichment Sulfate erosion
Tropical Hainan High temperature, high Steel corrosion
rainforest humidity, heavy rain
environment
Plateau Tibet, Qinghai, Yunnan Intense ultraviolet radiation Aging of polymer materials
atmospheric
environment
Arid atmosphere Xinjiang, western Inner Mongolia Dry with little rainfall, Wind erosion and salt
environment in strong wind damage; aging of high
desert molecular weight materials
Industrial Acid rain Guizhou, Sichuan, Chongqing, Acidic wet deposition and Acid etching
environment atmospheric Qingdao, Zhejiang acidic dry deposition
environment
(pH < 5.6)
dust and the solar radiation is strong. The total direct solar concrete and steel react with calcium aluminate hydrate to
radiation of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is 3000–6000 MJ/m2, form calcium sulphoaluminate whose volume is 2.27 times
which is 2000–3000 MJ/m2 higher than that of the plain area that of original calcium aluminate, which causes the concrete
of the same latitude, greatly accelerating the aging rate of the to swell and destroy and further causes steel bar corrosion
bridge surface protective material or other polymer materi- and rust expansion, leading to more severe longitudinal
als. In the dry desert atmosphere, strong wind and dust cause cracking. At present, the areas affected by acid rain in China
the surface or paint erosion of the bridge component, and a account for 30% of the country’s land areas. The areas with
large amount of salt compounds carried in the sand and dust high acid rain incidence are all heavy industry-intensive
are adsorbed on the surface of the component whose passi- areas, the number of bridges is large, and the problem of acid
vation layer is damaged, thus aggravating the corrosion corrosion of bridges is prominent (Fig. 2.19).
reaction process. Because of the long-term effect of seawater and sea wind
The damage of industrial environment or pollution to erosion in the coastal area, the problem of steel bar corrosion
durability is mainly reflected in the corrosion of materials by on the upper and lower structure of bridges is prominent.
acid rain. In the action of acid rain (SO2 and sulfate), Caused by low design standard and poor construction
Year
% Frequency of acid rain
pH Precipitation pH mean value
Fig. 2.19 Annual variation of precipitation pH value and frequency of acid rain in the main urban area of Chongqing
quality, this problem is common in the eastern and southern concrete mixing doesn’t meet standard, resulting in internal
coastal areas. Due to the small thickness of concrete pro- corrosion of concrete. The corrosion rate of saline soil to
tective layer and construction deviation on the bridge on bridge components is fast and serious, but such cases are
Yantai-Weihai Expressway, steel bar corrosion is common confined to individual areas, and the number of bridges is
in the water level fluctuation area, and the steel bar corrosion small.
of some bridge beams is serious, and the exposed steel bar
and concrete are peeled off. The corrosion of steel bar and 2.1.2.3 Research on the Basic Situation
concrete flaking are common in atmospheric area and splash of Bridges
zone, and the anti-corrosion measures are insufficient. The
coastal highways and bridges built in Tianjin in the 1990s 1. Concrete bridge
were demolished and rebuilt 14 years after they were com-
pleted because of inadequate design consideration for From 2006 to 2012, with the support of the Ministry of
durability and protection. Transport of the People’s Republic of China, Research
For the northeast and northwest of China, the problem of Institute of Highway Ministry of Transport organized a
bridge component damage caused by freeze-thawing for series of special researches on the durability of highways and
temperature cycling is prominent. What’s more, the concrete bridges, and investigated the existing problems of girder
flaking and steel corrosion of bridge deck slab pavement and bridges, arch bridges, cable-stayed bridges, and suspension
other adjacent components are caused by snow removing bridges.
salt. When structural cracking occurs, ice water expansion From 2007 to 2008, with the support of the “Key Tech-
further exacerbates freeze-thawing and salt erosion. In the nology Research on Bridge Durability” of the Ministry of
seasonal permafrost regions (Heilongjiang, Qinghai, Xin- Transport of the People’s Republic of China, Research
jiang, northeast Inner Mongolia), freeze-thawing of piers and Institute of Highway Ministry of Transport completed the
abutments is serious due to the action of water. investigation on the durability of highways and bridges in 13
The erosion problem of saline soil to bridge piers and provinces and cities, including Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guang-
abutments is prominent in Xinjiang and Qinghai. dong, Heilongjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Anhui,
Saline-alkali soil exists in one-third of Qinghai Province. In Sichuan, Chongqing, Hunan, Hubei, and Tianjin, and 132
areas rich in chloride and sulfate, concrete piers and abut- bridges were inspected on the spot. The investigation data of
ments are damaged very fast, and even concrete has fallen durability damage of bridge structure and
off or softened completely in less than 3 years with asphalt environment-related climatic, hydrological, and chemical
coating protection. In addition, there is a shortage of fresh- erosion materials are collected and analyzed to find the causes,
water in such areas, and the water quality required for characteristics, and laws of corrosion. The results of analysis
50 B. Xu
shall be classified by regions, categories, and parts according In 2009, a survey was conducted on the maintenance and
to the corrosion behavior (Figs. 2.20 and 2.21). management of in-service highways and bridges. 253 sectors
In 2007, field investigation was conducted and engi- of highway and bridge management in 31 provinces,
neering inspection data were collected, and literature review municipalities or autonomous regions, including Hunan
at home and abroad was collated and compared, obtaining Province and Shanxi Province, were interviewed. In order to
the technical status and damage data of more than 1200 find out the actual operation conditions of the current road
concrete bridges in the western provinces and some coastal network vehicles, the research group conducted a nationwide
provinces in eastern China. On this basis, the investigation survey on the actual operation conditions of road vehicle
and analysis report on the reasonable durable structure of loads from 2009 to 2010, and analyzed the vehicle traffic
highways and bridges was completed in 2008 (Fig. 2.22). data of 13 national highways in 6 provinces (cities and
Fig. 2.20 Field investigation on

bridge 1 (2007–2008)

bridge 2 (2007–2008)
15% Bar damage 15%

0% Pedestrian damage 0%
0% Expansion joint damage 0%
6% Bridge deck slab pavement damage 6%
9% Riverbed damage 9%
0% Protective fence damage 0%
18% Upper general member 18%
22% Upper bearing member 22%
0% Support damage 0%
3% Damage of abutment cap beam 3%
9% Basic damage 9%
9% Abutment damage 9%
9% Slope protection damage 9%
0% Wing wall damage 0%
0% Waterproof and drainage system 0%
14% Bar damage 14%
0% Pedestrian damage 0%
5% Expansion joint damage 5%
3% Bridge deck slab pavement damage 3%
14% Riverbed damage 14%
3% Protective fence damage 3%
0% Upper general member 0%
34% Upper bearing member 34%
3% Support damage 3%
3% Damage of abutment cap beam 3%
3% Basic damage 3%
15% Abutment damage 15%
3% Slope protection damage 3%
0% Wing wall damage 0%
0% Waterproof and drainage system 0%
Fig. 2.22 Categories of bridge damage

52 B. Xu

bridge vehicle loads (2009)
Fig. 2.24 Field investigation of

long and large bridge
regions), such as Guangxi, Jiangsu, Hebei, Shandong, Jilin, Republic of China from 2006 to 2011, Research Institute of
and Beijing, as well as systematically summarized the Highway Ministry of Transport and Nanjing Hydraulic
characteristics of vehicle loads carried by highways and Research Institute jointly organized investigation on corro-
bridges in China (Fig. 2.23). sion problem and protection technology of highway steel
In 2011, combined with the technical status of long and bridges. 110 extra-large steel structure bridges (92 in China
large bridges in China’s arterial highway network, sampling, and 18 in foreign countries) and 56 concrete bridges (45 in
and inspection were carried out (Fig. 2.24). The research China and 11 in foreign countries) are selected to study the
group investigated 40 bridges in China, including 15 corrosion problem, anti-corrosion coating system, and
cable-stayed bridges, 8 suspension bridges, 10 arch bridges, coating protection status, and the applicability and technical
and 7 girder bridges. In view of the maintenance manage- development trend of anti-corrosion coating system for steel
ment, technical status, main damage, main maintenance, and bridges and concrete bridges are systematically analyzed and
reinforcement measures and the traffic volume of the long compared.
and large bridges in China, a comprehensive investigation is Under the support of Jiangsu CUMT Dazheng Surface
carried out to study the maintenance management and the Engineering Technology Co., Ltd., the surface coating
overall technical status of the bridges. technology, construction technology, and anti-corrosion
effect of steel structure bridges in China were investi-
2. Steel structure bridges gated, and investigation and statistics were completed on
steel structure coating system, construction technology,
Supported by the “Key Technology Research on Bridge and engineering expenses of 20 extra-large bridges
Durability” of the Ministry of Transport of the People’s (Fig. 2.25).
Fig. 2.25 Coating investigation

of steel structure bridge
2
Table 2.7 General service life of typical anti-corrosion coating systems

Types of coating Coating system
System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4 System 5 System 6
Number Thickness Number Thickness Number Thickness Number Thickness Number Thickness Number Thickness
of lanes (lm) of lanes (lm) of lanes (lm) of lanes (lm) of lanes (lm) of lanes (lm)
Red salvianolic 2 2 35 2 2 35 2 2 30 2 2 30 2 2 35 2 2 35
primer
Epoxy zinc-rich 3–4 3-4 30
primer
Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies …
Inorganic zinc-rich
primer
Aluminum zinc 2–3 2–3 40
alkyd phosphorus
paint
Mica iron alkyd
Phosphor Paint
Chlorinated rubber 3–4 3–4 35 2 2 40
top coat
Epoxy mica iron 2 2 40 2 2 50
Acrylic top coat 2 2 40
Aliphatic 2 2 50 2 2 50
polyurethanes
(aliphatic
polyurethanes
Service life (year) 2–3 2–5 3–6 8–15 8–15 8–15
53
54 B. Xu
Table 2.8 Service life of typical coating steel structure bridges

Bridge
Index Second Zhongshan Bridge in Guangdong Xupu Bridge in Shanghai Tyne Bridge in England
Province
Part Outer surface of steel structure Outer surface of steel box girder Outer surface of steel
structure
Corrosive enviroment Urban atmosphere C3 medium Marine atmosphere
Design of coating system Epoxy zinc-rich primer Waterborne inorganic zinc-rich silicate Red lead primer
Epoxy mica iron intermediate paint primer Alkyd top coat
Chlorinated rubber top coat Epoxy mica iron intermediate paint
Polyurethane top coat
Coating thickness (lm) 70
100
80
Designed service life (year 15
(s))
Actual service life (year(s)) 10 7 15
The service life of coating system is influenced by deformation of structural components and increase of
environmental factors, different materials, different thick- cracks. The rusting of steel bar is an electrochemical pro-
ness, and construction quality, so it is difficult to estimate the cess. The two main reasons for rusting steel bars are
service life of coating system. concrete carbonization and chloride ion corrosion. The
Table 2.7 summarizes and analyzes the general service main parts of concrete bridge with corrosion expansion and
life of typical anti-corrosion coating systems, and Table 2.8 cracking surface are: stress components (such as arch,
lists the actual service life of some anti-corrosion coating girder, slab, pier, platform) and railing; the outer edge of
systems of steel structure bridges. the bridge deck slab and the beam bottom of the edge
beam and outer web; improper set drain hole. The prob-
2.1.2.4 Type of Corrosion Damage of Concrete lems of steel bar corrosion and concrete corrosion expan-
Bridges sion and cracking are distributed in various climatic
environments and geographical environments throughout
the country with a wide range of influence (Figs. 2.26, 2.27
1. Corrosion of steel bars and concrete’s cracking due to and 2.28).
corrosion expansion
2. Carbonization of concrete
The corrosion of steel bars is accompanied by volume
expansion, which causes longitudinal cracks of concrete Carbonization of concrete is a process in which CO2 per-
along the steel bars, reduces the bonding force between the meates into the interior of concrete and neutralizes with
steel bars and concrete, and reduces the cross-sectional area alkaline substances dissolved in its pore solution to form
of the steel bars, thereby reducing the bearing capacity of carbonate or other substances, which causes the decrease of
structural components or undesirable consequences such as pH value of concrete and corrosion of steel bars. Under
Fig. 2.26 Corrosion of steel and

cracking due to corrosion
expansion of bridge piers
Fig. 2.27 Prestressed steel bar

corrosion caused by grouting
problem of prestressed pipe
industrial environment. The corrosion of chloride ion on

concrete is mainly reflected in two aspects. Chloride ion
penetrates into the surface of steel bar in concrete to reduce
the surface pH value, damaging passivated protective film of
steel bar and corrosion of steel bar. The other one is elec-
trochemical effect of chloride ion. Chloride ions adsorb and
destroy the local passive film, which results in the formation
of corrosion cells in the exposed area of steel substrate and
the surrounding passive film, leading to electrochemical
corrosion. Chloride ion can also improve the conductivity of
the corrosion cells and accelerate the electrochemical cor-
rosion process.
Fig. 2.28 Corrosion of prestressed anchor head and tendon
In the eastern coastal area of China, within 20 km from
the coastline from the northernmost Liaoning to the south-
atmospheric environment, carbonization of concrete is usu- ernmost Hainan, the content of Cl− is high and the relative
ally the precondition of corrosion of steel bar in concrete humidity is high, so the corrosion of chloride ion is serious.
bridge, and carbonization of concrete and corrosion of steel In cold northern areas such as Heilongjiang, Jilin, Xinjiang,
bar caused by it is one of the main factors affecting the and Gansu, the deicing salt on the bridge deck slab in winter
durability of concrete bridges. will make chloride ion infiltrate into the concrete, leading to
The main factors affecting carbonization of concrete are corrosion of chloride ion on the concrete bridge deck slab
the compactness and alkalinity of concrete itself, as well as (Figs. 2.29, 2.30 and 2.31).
the concentration and humidity of CO2 in the external
environment. 4. Sulfate corrosion
3. Corrosion of chloride ion On the one hand, sulfate salts of various metals (such as
sodium, magnesium, calcium, and potassium) are present in
Chloride ion exists widely in marine environment, deicing the soil and are dissolved in groundwater. On the other hand,
salt environment, salt lake saline-alkali environment, and sulfates also frequently exist in industrial and municipal
56 B. Xu
Fig. 2.32 Sulfate corrosion of Qinghai Bridge’s piers

Fig. 2.29 Corrosion of steel bar of beam bottom plate caused by
chlorine salt
5. Alkali–aggregate reaction
The alkali–aggregate reaction causes the concrete to swell

and crack or even destroy. After the alkali–aggregate reac-
tion crack occurs, it will accelerate the destruction of con-
crete (Fig. 2.33). The intrusion of external oxygen, water,
and carbon dioxide will accelerate carbonization of concrete
and corrosion of steel bar, leading to more serious cracking.
In cold areas, cracks can also exacerbate freeze-thaw damage
of concrete. The destruction of alkali–aggregate reaction is
characterized by integrity, rapid development, serious
destruction, and difficulty in treatment.
6. Freeze-thaw damage
Fig. 2.30 Corrosion of steel bar caused by chloride in T-beam of
Tianjin coastal highway and bridge Freeze-thaw damage refers to the phenomenon of surface
flaking, cracking, and strength decrease of concrete under
the cyclic action of negative temperature and positive tem-
perature. It is a necessary condition that concrete is in sat-
urated water state and alternating action of freeze-thaw cycle.
The freeze-thaw damage of concrete bridge usually occurs in
the cold area where it often comes into contact with water.
The freeze-thaw damage is mainly characterized by frost
heave cracking and surface flaking (Figs. 2.34 and 2.35).
In China, freeze-thaw damage of concrete bridge mainly
occurs in frozen areas in northern China, such as Beijing,
Shandong, Heilongjiang, where salt is often used for deicing
because the salt freezing damage caused by the interaction of
Fig. 2.31 Concrete corrosion of deicing salt bridge flange
salt and freeze-thaw cycle is a special form of freeze-thaw
cyclic destruction. The salt freezing damage is the result of
sewage. Sulfate corrosion is mainly caused by the reaction of the interaction of hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
sulfate ions with concrete to generate volume expansion, and crystallization pressure of salt solution. Therefore, salt
thus causing concrete expansion and cracking and resulting freezing damage is much more serious than freeze-thaw
in the destruction of concrete bridges (Fig. 2.32). damage.
Fig. 2.33 Alkali–aggregate

reaction destruction of bridge
concrete cover beam and
abutment
Fig. 2.34 Salt freezing damage

of concrete bridges on the
Gardiner Expressway in Toronto
Fig. 2.35 Freeze-thaw damage

of No. 4 Tianjin Bridge’s piers
2.1.2.5 Types of Corrosion Damage of Steel corrosion depth, but with a gradual reduction in cross-sectional
Structure Bridges size and metal properties (Fig. 2.36). In general, atmospheric
corrosion usually appears as uniform corrosion, but not all of
1. Uniform corrosion them are uniform corrosion. Since the corrosion rate is uniform
and easy to predict and protect, no sudden corrosion accident
Uniform corrosion is characterized by uniform distribution of will occur as long as strict engineering management and rea-
corrosion throughout the metal surface without significant sonable anti-corrosion measures are taken.
58 B. Xu
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.36 Uniform corrosion of steel deck
2. Local corrosion for crevice corrosion, and the most sensitive crack width is in
the range of 0.025–0.1 mm. However, such corrosion may not
Local corrosion can be divided into pitting corrosion, crevice necessarily occur with a crevice, but may also occur due to
corrosion, galvanic corrosion, stress corrosion, erosion cor- corrosion products, dust, and sand covered on the metal sur-
rosion, selective corrosion, intergranular corrosion, and fil- face. Almost all corrosive media, including freshwater, can
amentous corrosion. cause crevice corrosion of metals, and solutions containing
Pitting corrosion is one of the most common local cor- chloride ions are usually the most sensitive media.
rosion forms, which often occurs on self-passive metal or Stress corrosion is a kind of corrosion phenomenon
alloy surfaces and is more likely to occur in caused by the interaction of stress and corrosive environment.
chloride-containing media. Pitting corrosion is characterized The formation and mechanism of stress corrosion are com-
by concealment, strong destructiveness, and sudden occur- plicated with many influence factors. Usually, high-strength
rence, and is the most harmful local corrosion (Fig. 2.37). steel, wire rope, and cable are easy to appear stress corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a kind of serious local corrosion. The in humid industrial atmosphere and marine atmospheric
bridge parts where crevice corrosion often occurs include environment. When the material undergoes stress corrosion,
joints between the metal components, riveting part, welding the stressed structural components suddenly break under the
part, screw connection part, anchor cable connection part, strength much lower than that of the material without any
joint between metal component and nonmetal component, prewarning signs, resulting in a catastrophic accident.
expansion joint of bridge, rubber pad, inside part of the pro- Galvanic corrosion refers to the fact that in a corrosive
tective layer of pull (suspension) cable, and surface of com- electrolyte, when two metals or alloys are in contact, the
ponent where corrosion products and deposits or deposits such corrosion rate of the metal at the negative potential increases
as dust, sand, and salt accumulate. One crevice is the condition and the metal at the positive potential is protected. The
Fig. 2.37 Local corrosion of

steel structure
6% Other reasons 6%
4% Alkali-aggregate reaction 4%
5% Sulfate erosion 5%
10% Corrosion 10%
13% Freeze thaw 13%
30% Chloride ion erosion 30%
32% Carbonization 32%
9% Other reasons 9%
12% Constructional problems 12%
13% Waterproof failure 13%
19% Lack of thickness of protective layer 19%
21% Unreasonable material selection 21%
26% Poor construction quality 26%
Fig. 2.38 Distribution of durability damage
factors affecting galvanic corrosion include environment, The main causes of durability damage are: 26% of poor
conductivity of media, and area ratio of anode to cathode. In construction quality, 21% of unreasonable material selec-
the marine atmospheric environment, the air humidity is tion, 19% of lack of thickness of protective layer, 13% of
high and the water membrane electrolyte has good conduc- waterproof failure and 12% of structural design defects, as
tivity, making it easy for the galvanic corrosion to occur. shown in Fig. 2.39.
Concrete bridges in China account for 98% of the total,
2.1.2.6 Corrosion Problems and Causes but the proportion of surface corrosion protection measures
of Concrete Bridges is very low. Foreign engineering experience shows that the
According to the statistical study, the main durability dam- use of surface corrosion protection in complex environ-
age and the proportion of highway concrete bridges in China mental conditions can prolong the life of more than 10 years.
are as follows: 32% of concrete carbonization, 30% of
chloride ion erosion, 13% of concrete freeze-thaw damage, 2.1.2.7 Corrosion Problems and Causes of Steel
10% of concrete abrasion and 5% of sulfate erosion, as Structure Bridges
shown in Fig. 2.38. The steel structure bridges account for less than 2% of the
total highways and bridges in China. Among the bridges
60 B. Xu
6% Other reasons 6%
4% Alkali-aggregate reaction 4%
5% Sulfate erosion 5%
10% Corrosion 10%
13% Freeze thaw 13%
30% Chloride ion erosion 30%
32% Carbonization 32%
9% Other reasons 9%
12% Constructional problems 12%
13% Waterproof failure 13%
19% Lack of thickness of protective layer 19%
21% Unreasonable material selection 21%
26% Poor construction quality 26%
Fig. 2.39 Causes of durability damage
with anti-corrosion coating, the shielding, corrosion inhibi- Europe, America, and Japan in the composite coating material
tion, and composite corrosion protection technologies are system, long residual action of material and coating technical
mainly used. The actual service life of the shielding coating equipment. There is a certain gap in the technical system of
system, such as the red lead antirust primer + alkyd finish anti-corrosion coating, the quality of coating materials, and
coating system, is about 7–8 years. The Tyne River Bridge, coating technology, which leads to a large gap in the protective
which was built in 1928, is in the marine atmospheric effect of anti-corrosion coating.
environment. It adopts red lead antirust primer + alkyd fin-
ish coating system and its actual service life is up to
2.1.3 Development Status of Corrosion
15 years. The practical life of corrosion inhibition coating is
Protection Technologies for Highways
10 years and the life of composite coating system is more
and Bridges
than 15 years. The life of these two coating systems is 30–
50% of that of developed countries.
2.1.3.1 Durability Design Technology of Highway
The anti-corrosion coating system adopted by the steel
and Bridge Structure
bridges in China is consistent with that of foreign steel bridges,
For the anti-corrosion of engineering structure, material is the
but lags behind the developed countries and regions such as
foundation and design is the soul. In order to ensure the design
service life of engineering structure, the design materials must corrosion resistance of the steel, for example, epoxy-coated
be selected according to the requirements of environmental steel bar, galvanized steel bar, aluminized steel bar, stainless
conditions. Based on the corrosion resistance capacity of steel bar, stainless steel coated steel bar (Fig. 2.40). The tensile
materials, a theoretical model of the relationship between the strength of FRP/GFRP reaches 1500 MPa and elastic modulus
aging/corrosion and the service environment of materials is reaches 40–60 GPa (AISI) (Fig. 2.41).
established, and the critical state of durability and the criterion Stainless steel refers to steel bars which are resistant to
are proposed. On the premise of satisfying the safety design of corrosion by weak corrosion media such as air, steam, water,
structural components, the design theory and method of dura- and chemical corrosive media such as acid, alkali, and salt. The
bility limit state are introduced to meet the requirements of corrosion resistance of stainless steel depends on the alloying
service life design of engineering structure. In addition, in view elements contained in the steel. The basic alloying elements
of the severity of the corrosive environment and the operational also include nickel, molybdenum, titanium, niobium, copper,
maintenance requirement of the engineering structure, addi- and nitrogen, which can meet the requirements of various uses
tional corrosion protection design and maintenance design for for the structures and properties of stainless steel.
the operational maintenance period are required. The Haynes Inlet Slough Bridge in Oregon is located in the
At present, this kind of durability design system has been marine environment. During the demolition and reconstruc-
established by Japan’s Design Criteria for Durability of tion project in 2004, the main bearing components were made
Concrete Structure and fib Model Code 20101 of the Inter- of 400 tons of duplex stainless steel bars (type 2205) with a
national Structural Concrete Federation. Other national stan- design life of 120 years, which is 2.5 times the life of the old
dards still follow the provisional law, and China’s durability bridge. The total cost of the new bridge is $12.5 million.
technical standards of infrastructure industry are the same. The Stainless steel accounts for 13% of the total cost, but no
provisional law has strong operability and protection mea- overhaul is required throughout the service period. Compared
sures can play a certain protective role, but it lacks guidance with the ordinary reinforced concrete bridge, the service life is
basis for guiding engineering structural service life design and extended by 50 years, which is equivalent to construction of a
can’t guarantee the implementation of design service life. new ordinary reinforced concrete bridge worth $25 million.
2.1.3.2 Corrosion Protection Technologies 3. Protection technology of coating

of Concrete Bridges
The anti-corrosion coating mainly protects the concrete
1. High performance concrete (HPC) technology bridge from corrosion, but can’t repair the concrete cracks.
For the coating of concrete surface anti-corrosion coating
Improving the corrosion resistance of cement and the com- with surface cracks, the surface treatment method and
pactness of concrete is the foundation for improving the grouting method shall be adopted first to treat the cracks
durability of concrete. The main technologies include before the coating is applied (Fig. 2.42).
improving the compactness of concrete, reducing the num- The sealing or isolation of anti-corrosion coating on the
ber of coarse pores, voids, and cracks in concrete, adopting surface of concrete bridge is an economical and effective
HPC and compact concrete. The thickness of the concrete anti-corrosion measure, which can effectively prevent the
protective layer is increased to prevent the crack of the ingress of corrosive media such as chloride ion, water, and
concrete to the maximum extent. Adding rust inhibitor to oxygen. This can slow down the corrosion rate of steel bar
concrete can improve corrosion resistance of steel bars. while reducing the damage of reinforced concrete caused by
repeated thermal expansion and cold contraction. However,
2. Anti-corrosion technology of steel bars at present, the use of coating protection for highway concrete
bridges in China is limited to the construction of extra-large
According to the electrochemical principle of corrosion of bridges along the coast, or the repair of concrete bridges in
concrete reinforcement, it is possible to protect the internal part bad coastal environment, but has not been widely applied in
of concrete reinforcement from corrosion by preventing the the whole country.
corrosive medium from contacting the surface of reinforcement
and preventing the electrochemical reaction of reinforcement as 4. Cathodic protection technology
anode. The main method is to galvanize the steel bar and add
powder coating to form special steel bar to improve the Cathodic protection does not have the function of repairing
concrete cracks. Therefore, for concrete bridges with surface
cracks, it is necessary to adopt surface treatment method and
1
Fib Model Code for Concrete Structure 2010. Fib Federation Inter- grouting method to treat the cracks before carrying out
national Edubeton. Ernst & Sohn, 2013. cathodic protection.
62 B. Xu
Fig. 2.40 Epoxy-coated steel

bar and stainless steel bar
Fig. 2.41 GFRP bars and GFRP

cages
18
8
20
16
Fig. 2.42 Coating corrosion

protection of concrete box girder
of auxiliary channel bridge of
Humen Bridge
Table 2.9 Comparison of anode materials

Type of anode Scope of application Service life
materials (year)
Graphite pitch Bridge deck slab >20
Conductive cement Everywhere 10–20
Galvanization Substructure <10
Conductive Substructure >10
coating
Titanium All structural parts are >20
applicable
The protective current generated by potential difference

of sacrificial anode protection is small, and it is difficult to
pass through in large area and high-resistance environment. Fig. 2.43 Surface coating of main girder steel truss of Akashi Kaikyo
It is not suitable for maintenance and protection of rein- Bridge, Japan
forced concrete of bridge, but it can be used to protect
concrete structure in medium with good conductivity, such coating and middle coating as the time of coating mainte-
as seawater. Impressed current method protection includes nance, realizing the effect of long-term anti-corrosion and
anode system design, testing system, and power supply ensuring the design life of steel structure bridges. Fluororesin
system. Table 2.9 shows several common anode materials. coating is a high performance anti-corrosion coating devel-
oped in Japan, which can significantly improve the resistance
2.1.3.3 Corrosion Protection Technology of Steel to environmental erosion and greatly prolong the re-coating
Structure Bridges period. Figure 2.43 shows the 18-year coating of the main
bridge steel truss of the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge whose coating
1. Protection technology of coating system is complete and film color and gloss don’t change.
Anti-corrosion coating is one of the most convenient and 2. Cathodic protection technology
effective methods of steel bridge anti-corrosion. The pro-
tective effects of coating on bridge steel are mainly in three Cathodic protection is to make steel become cathodic and
aspects: shielding, corrosion inhibition, and cathodic pro- polarized to reduce or prevent corrosion. It is divided into
tection. The anti-corrosion coating system and protective sacrificial anode protection and impressed current protection.
effect at home and abroad are listed in Table 2.10. The common sacrificial anode materials are zinc alloy and
Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan introduces the concept of aluminum alloy. The impressed current protection is realized
life cycle cost, and a coating combination system of zinc-rich by applying a protective current to the protected body
inorganic coating (base coat) + epoxy resin (bottom coat) + through the auxiliary anode by a DC power supply so that
fluororesin coating (surface coat) is designed. In the mainte- the protected body becomes a cathode to obtain polarization
nance system of the steel structure bridges in Japan, a complete so as to protect against corrosion (Fig. 2.44).
film maintenance system is stipulated. On the basis of field
investigation and testing, the deterioration curve of film is 3. High-performance steel
drawn. It is proposed to take the deterioration of surface
Steel with high strength, toughness, weldability, cold
Table 2.10 Common anti-corrosion coating system and protective working, and corrosion resistance is commonly referred to
effect internationally as high-performance steel. Many series of
Anti-corrosion coating system Protection life high-performance steel products for bridges have been
(year) developed abroad, such as HPS485W/690W jointly devel-
Low-grade coating based on natural raw materials 2–3 oped by FHWA, Navy, and AISI (Table 2.11) in America,
Red lead antirust primer and gray aluminum zinc 10
BHS500/700 in Japan, S460M/690M in Europe. So far, 500
alkyd top coat or gray mica iron oxide alkyd top high-performance steel bridges have been built in 47 states
coat in America (Fig. 2.45).
Epoxy zinc-rich antirust primer, epoxy mica iron 15 High-performance steel is a technology that improves the
intermediate paint, acrylic top coat resistance of steel itself to environmental corrosion. By
Epoxy zinc-rich anti-rust primer, epoxy mica iron 30 adding a small amount of corrosion-resistant elements such
intermediate paint, fluorocarbon coating top coat
64 B. Xu
Fig. 2.44 Electrochemical protection system and titanium anode of concrete bridge steel bars
Table 2.11 Performance indexes (mass fraction) of HPS485W high-performance steel and ordinary steel
Type Component
C Mn P S Si Cu Ni Cr Mo V B Al
A709485W 0.19 0.8–1.35 0.035 0.04 0.02–0.65 0.2–0.4 0.50 0.4–0.7 – 0.02–0.1 – –
HPS485W 0.1 1.2 0.006 0.001 0.39 0.33 0.31 0.52 0.06 0.06 0 0.013
Fig. 2.45 Superstructure of Bailey Bridge uses high-performance steel
as cop and nickel into the plain carbon steel, the weathering highways and bridges in China. Weathering steel is used as
steel with toughness, plastic extension, shaping, welding and exterior wall material in the construction of Zhongfa Center
cutting, abrasion, high temperature, high fatigue resistance of Tongji University. Figure 2.46 shows usage and effect.
and high performance is 2–8 times that of the environment
corrosion resistance of the plain carbon steel. The coating 2.1.3.4 Status Quo of Anti-corrosion Technical
property is 1.5–10 times that of plain carbon steel. Standards for Highways and Bridges
Weathering steel is mainly used for long-term exposed steel Since the “9th Five-Year Plan”, the compiling work of civil
structures such as railways, vehicles, bridges and towers, and engineering durability technology and standards has been
for manufacturing structural components such as oil der- greatly developed, and a series of national, industrial, local
ricks, harbor buildings, oil production platforms, and vessels and enterprise technical standards have been promulgated in
containing hydrogen sulfide corrosion media in chemical succession, which has played an important role in the
petroleum equipment. High-performance weathering steel is development of infrastructure construction. Technical stan-
widely used in the construction of steel bridges in North dards are mainly divided into two categories: ① standards
America, Europe, and Japan, but has not been used in for engineering construction, technical standards for
Fig. 2.46 Weathering steel exterior wall of Zhongfa Center of Tongji University
Table 2.12 List of relevant engineering construction standards

No. Name of standard Promulgation department Category
1 Code for Design of Durability of Concrete Structure (GB/T 50476-2008) Ministry of Housing and Design
Urban-Rural Development
2 Code for Design of Concrete Structure (GB 50010-2010) Ministry of Housing and Design
Urban-Rural Development
3 Code for Design of Durability of Railway Concrete Structure (TB Former Ministry of Railways Design
10005-2010)
4 Code for Design of Highway Reinforced Concrete and Pre-stressed Ministry of Transport of the Design
Concrete Bridges and Culverts (JTG D62-2004) People’s Republic of China
5 Technical Code for Anti-corrosion of Concrete Structure of Highway Ministry of Transport of the Design/maintenance
Engineering (JTG/T B07-01-2006) People’s Republic of China
6 Technical Conditions for Anti-corrosion of Surface Coating on Concrete Ministry of Transport of the Design
Bridge Structure (JT/T 695-2007) People’s Republic of China
7 Technical Specification for Anti-corrosion of Concrete Structure in Harbor Ministry of Transport of the Design/maintenance
Engineering (JTJ 275-2000) People’s Republic of China
8 Technical Specification for Electrochemical Anti-corrosion of Reinforced Ministry of Transport of the Design/construction
Concrete Structure in Harbor Engineering (JTS 153-2-2012) People’s Republic of China
9 Technical Specification for Anti-corrosion Coating of Highway and bridge Ministry of Transport of the
Structure (JT/T 722-2008) People’s Republic of China
10 Code for Anti-corrosion of Hydraulic Metal Structure (SL 105-2008) Ministry of Water Resources Design/construction
11 Technical Code for Construction of Concrete Cut-off Wall in Water Ministry of Water Resources
Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (SL 174-1996)
12 Technical Conditions for Anti-corrosion of Steel Components in The State Bureau of Quality and
Expressway Traffic Engineering (GB/T 18226-2000) Technical Supervision
13 Code for Corrosion protection of Industrial Buildings (GB/T 50046-2008) The State Bureau of Quality Design/maintenance
Inspection and Quarantine
14 Guide to Design and Construction of Durability of Concrete Structure China Civil Engineering Society Design/construction
(CCES 01-2004)
15 Standard for Evaluation of Durability of Concrete Structure (CECS 200: China Association for Engineering Maintenance
2007) Construction Standardization
16 Code for Design of Durability of Concrete Structure (DBJ 14-S6-2005) Shandong province Design
17 Code for Design and Construction of High Durability Concrete for Bridge Heilongjiang Province Design/construction
Structure (JGJ 3-2015)
66 B. Xu
engineering construction and maintenance, and technical In the past 30 years, the construction of major highway and
standards for guiding engineering design, construction, and bridge projects in China has been developed rapidly, accom-
maintenance engineering (Table 2.12); ② product and panied by Xiamen Haicang Bridge, Donghai Bridge, Hang-
equipment standards that serve the material-technical per- zhou Bay Cross-sea Bridge, Sutong Bridge, Xiamen Xiang’an
formance and equipment technical requirements required for Cross-sea Tunnel, Qingdao Bay Bridge, Shenzhen-Hong
engineering construction, and guide the manufacture and Kong Western Corridor, Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge
engineering application of materials and equipment and other Cross-sea projects. A series of highway and bridge
(Table 2.13). durability design and protection enterprise standards have
Table 2.13 List of standards for anti-corrosion material products and equipment
No. Name of standard Promulgation department
1 Test Code for Polymer Modified Cement Mortar (DL/T 5126-2001) Former State Economic and Trade Commission
2 Technical Specification for Construction of Polyurea Coating for Water National Energy Administration
Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (DL/T 5317-2014)
3 Technical Specification for Anti-corrosion of Metal Structure Equipment in National Development and Reform Commission
Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (DL/T 5358-2006)
4 Steel Bar Reinforced Solidified Soil Rust Inhibitor (JT/T 537-2004) Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of
China
5 Technical Conditions for Anti-corrosion Coating of Main Cable System of Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of
Suspension Bridges (JT/T 694-2007) China
6 Permeable Formwork Cloth for Concrete Engineering (JT/T 736-2009) Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of
China
7 Protection Coating of Railway Steel Bridges (TB/T 1527-2004) Former Ministry of Railways
8 Technical Conditions for Supply of Anti-rust Primer for Railway Steel Bridges Former Ministry of Railways
(TB/T 2772-1997)
9 Technical Conditions for Supply of Topcoat and Intermediate Paint for Former Ministry of Railways
Railway Steel Bridges (TB/T 2773—1997)
10 Durability Repair and Protection of Railway Concrete Structure (TB/T Former Ministry of Railways
3228-2010)
11 Cement-based Penetrating Crystalline Waterproof Material (GB 18445-2012) The State Bureau of Quality Inspection and
Quarantine
12 Polyurethane Waterproof Coating (GB/T 19250-2003) The State Bureau of Quality Inspection and
Quarantine
13 Spray Polyurea Waterproof Coating (GB/T 23446-2009) The State Bureau of Quality Inspection and
Quarantine, Chinese Standardization Administration
14 Epoxy-coated Steel Bars for Reinforced Concrete (GB/T 25826-2010) The State Bureau of Quality Inspection and
Quarantine, Chinese Standardization Administration
15 Steel Structure Bridge Paint (HG/T 3656-1999) National Bureau of Petroleum and Chemical Industry
16 Cross-linked Fluororesin Coating (HG/T 3792-2005) National Development and Reform Commission
17 Spraying Polyurea Protective Material (HG/T 3831-2006) National Development and Reform Commission
18 Water-borne Fluorine Coating for Buildings (HG/T 4104-2009) Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
19 Technical Specification for Coating Engineering of Spraying Polyurea Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
Protective Materials (HG/T 20273-2011)
20 Silicone Waterproofing Agent for Building Surface (JC/T 902-2002) Former State Economic and Trade Commission
21 Polymer Cement Waterproof Mortar (JC/T 984-2005) National Development and Reform Commission
22 Technical Specification for Application of Steel Bar Rust Inhibitor (JCJ/T Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
192-2009)
23 Anti-corrosion Coating for Steel Structure in Buildings (JG/T 224-2007) Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
24 Film-forming Coating for Protection of Concrete Structure (JG/T 335-2011) Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
25 Permeable Coating for the Protection of Concrete Structure (JG/T 337-2011) Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development
been formulated, which has greatly promoted the development investment in the research on concrete durability, and a batch
of highway and bridge durability design and corrosion proof key scientific research projects was established, including
tection technology in China. key national scientific and technological research project of
the “9th Five-Year Plan” “Research and Engineering Appli-
2.1.3.5 Research and Development of Corrosion cation of Concrete Durability” and national basic research
Protection for Highways and Bridges major project of the “9th Five-Year Plan” (Climbing Plan B)
As a part of the national natural environment corrosion “Basic Research on Safety and Durability of Major Civil
research plan, the research on concrete durability in China Engineering and Water Conservancy Project” and key sci-
begun in the 1950s. In the late 1950s, a national website for entific and technological project of the “9th Five-Year Plan”
atmospheric, seawater, and soil corrosion testing including “Research on Safety of Key Engineering Concrete”. After
concrete materials was established. The research of concrete more than 20 years of intensive research on durability, the
material corrosion mainly aims at the chloride ion corrosion deterioration mechanism and law of concrete has been basi-
problem in the southern coastal area, the concrete freeze-thaw cally recognized and accumulated in the engineering field of
problem in the north area and the sulfate corrosion problem in China: the quantitative mathematical model for the problem
the saline soil area in the northwestern area. After 1978, the of chloride ion corrosion that can be used in engineering
research on concrete material corrosion was restarted. How- design; the quantitative model calculation method of concrete
ever, the systematic study on concrete durability began in the carbonization corrosion; the quantitative design method for
1990s, which was synchronized with the development of the destruction process of concrete in freeze-thaw environ-
large-scale infrastructure construction in China. ment. From the “10th Five-Year Plan” to the “12th Five-Year
In China, the construction scale of concrete infrastructure Plan”, the Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of
is huge, and the quality of project construction is related to China supported a number of highway and bridge durability
the healthy and stable development of national economy. In research projects through the Western Transport Construc-
the 1990s, the national “9th Five-Year Plan” made great tion Science and Technology Project (Table 2.14) [1].
Table 2.14 Statistical list of science and technology plan projects of Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of China (including
engineering construction standard projects)
No. Project name
1 Study on Durability Design Method and Design Parameters of Concrete Bridge
2 Study on Surface Protective Durability Materials for Bridge Structure
3 Study on Countermeasures for Concrete Deterioration Performance and Durability of Large Bridge Structure Across River and Sea
4 Study on Reasonable Durable Structure of Concrete Bridge
5 Study on Durability Structure and Repairable and Replaceable Technology of Sling Structure
6 Study on Durability Index System, Testing Method, and Evaluation Standard of Concrete Bridge
7 Study on Construction Improvement Technology and Quality Control Method for Improving Bridge Durability
8 Study on Long-term Evolution Law of Bridge Concrete Performance and Tracking and Observation Technology
9 Study on Preventive Maintenance Technology of Common Highways and bridges
10 Investigation on the Durability of Highways and bridges
11 Study on the Development of Stainless Steel Wire Rope for Bridge Life
12 Development and Application of Stainless Steel Bar for Bridge
13 Study on Influence of Cement Fineness and Composition on Performance of Bridge Concrete and Countermeasures
14 Research and Demonstration on Key Technology of Cross-sea Cluster Engineering Construction of Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge
15 Study on Key Technology and Engineering Demonstration Technology of Cross-sea Large-span Steel Box Girder Suspension Bridge
16 Study on Key Technologies of Jiashao Bridge
17 Study on the Freeze-thaw Resistance Durability of Cement Concrete
18 Study on Key Technologies of Durability Cement Concrete Pavement in Western Region
19 Detailed Rules for Durability Design of Highway Engineering Concrete Structure
68 B. Xu
2.1.4 Cost and Benefit Analysis of Corrosion steel bar corrosion resistance, electrochemical cathode pro-
Protection of Highways and Bridges tection) to ensure structural design service life under extreme
or severe corrosive environmental conditions.
The decision-making of the bridge project shall take the For general atmospheric environment or low-corrosive
whole life period of the project as the time domain, covering environment, normal structural strength design and durabil-
the whole process of planning, design, construction, opera- ity design can meet the actual needs of the project. Under the
tion, maintenance, reinforcement, scrapping, and disman- condition of normal design, construction and maintenance,
tling, and adopt appropriate theories, methods, and technical the concrete bridges work well in the mild climate area in the
measures. The bridge should not only meet the requirements inland of China, and the main bearing components have no
of the design strength, but also meet the requirements of the serious steel bar corrosion problem.
normal use function and maintenance of the designed service In addition to the normal structural strength design and
life. Highway transportation plays an important role in the durability design, necessary anti-corrosion auxiliary mea-
national economy and social development, so it has become sures shall be adopted under the high-corrosive environment
an important issue to guarantee the service life and reduce (such as ocean). The Gimsoystraumen Bridge of Norway,
the maintenance cost of bridges. [2, 3] built in 1981, has a chloride ion content of up to 1% at a
According to American statistics and estimation, the test distance of 40 mm from the concrete surface after 11 years
charge of highway concrete bridge and steel structure bridge of operation with a large area of steel bar in prestressed
is 0.15 and 0.2% of the initial investment respectively, and concrete box girder being seriously corroded. In the same
the anti-corrosion coating cost of steel structure bridge sur- coastal area, the prestressed concrete box girder of Stor-
face is 7% of the initial construction cost. According to seisund Bridge built in 1988, has a chloride ion content
40 years of concrete overhaul time frequency, 35 years of reaching 0.1% at a distance of 40 mm from the concrete
steel structure bridge overhaul time frequency and 0.75% surface after 15 years of operation with a large area of severe
increase rate of traffic flow, the maintenance cost of concrete corrosion [5]. In the marine corrosive environment of
and steel structure bridges is 20 and 22% of the initial Shantou, the annual salt content in seawater is 10,742 mg/L,
construction cost, respectively. When the concrete bridge and the highest is 13,629 mg/L. The investigation of the
and the steel structure bridge expires or fails in service, and concrete wharf in the area found that the concrete protective
the removal cost is 10% of the initial construction cost, the layer cracked and steel corrosion occurred after 5–8 years of
residual value of the steel structure bridge is 2% of the initial construction. In view of this problem, the main tower cap
construction cost while the concrete bridge has no residual and tower column of Shantou Bay Bridge, which was built
value [4]. The actual operating and maintenance costs of in 1996, adopted the basic measures of durability design.
bridges will be even higher if user costs (costs associated The test results of chloride ion content in concrete after one
with traffic stop or disruption due to bridge maintenance) and and a half years of pouring show that: The chloride ion
discount rate related to interest rate and inflation are taken content within 2.5 cm from the concrete surface in the wave
into account. splash zone of the cap has exceeded the admissible value of
If the bridge structure design fails to take effective tech- 0.2%; the Bailang River Bridge in Weifang, Shandong
nical measures to delay material aging or structural deteri- Province, was built in saline soil area. Although it was
oration, the high maintenance cost will restrict or hinder the constructed according to the general standard map of high-
development of highway and bridge maintenance manage- ways and bridges of the Ministry of Transport of the Peo-
ment, and even will affect the sustainable development of ple’s Republic of China, it was seriously corroded by salt
national economy. The total amount of highways and freeze after 8 years of operation and was partially demol-
bridges in China has reached 750,000, and the huge hedging ished and rebuilt. The engineering practice shows that in the
and appreciation of the stock assets has posed unprecedented severe corrosive environment, in addition to strengthening
challenges to the safe operation, durable operation, and the durability design of the structure, additional measures of
economic operation of bridges. active or passive corrosion protection must be taken to fur-
ther suppress the corrosion of steel bars.
2.1.4.1 Construction Cost and Anti-corrosion In the current code for durability design of concrete
Cost of New Bridges structure, the concrete protective layer is the main measure
In the fib Model Code of concrete structure, the complete to protect the steel bars from corrosion, and the limit of the
structural design includes strength design, durability design, thickness of the protective layer is based on the requirement
and maintenance design. Durability design generally that the steel bars don’t rust during the design period. The
includes material durability design, structural durability premise of this design method is that both the permeability
design, and anti-corrosion auxiliary design (surface coating, of concrete and the thickness of protective layer can meet the
design requirements. However, due to the nonuniformity of used as the design scheme. For the superstructure exposed to
concrete materials and the difficulty of quality control, it is the atmosphere, the coating cost is less than 1% of the
difficult to meet the requirements of uniform material per- project cost; for the piers and abutments in wave splash zone
meability and uniform thickness of protective layer for sur- and water level fluctuation area, the costing cost is about
face concrete of concrete bridge structure. Under extreme or 1.5–2% of the project cost; for the bridge foundation sub-
heavily corrosive environmental conditions, a wide range of merged under water, the cost of electrochemical corrosion
corrosion will generally occur within less than 15 years protection is about 2–3% of the construction cost. When
Under this condition, it is the most effective, convenient, and taking the whole structural components as a statistical unit,
economical method to prevent corrosion by adding concrete the cost of anti-corrosion coating accounts for 2–4%. In
surface coating. In accordance with the grade condition of terms of life cycle cost, the direct cost for 60 years of
corrosive environment and coating property, the operation is at least 40% less than that for bridges without
anti-corrosion life of the surface coating system is deter- anti-corrosion coating. If the indirect cost influence such as
mined. Combined with the service life of concrete bridge the cost of ensuring safe passage of the bridge during
structure design, the cost analysis method is used to deter- maintenance of girder, reduce in bridge charge, user cost,
mine reasonable frequency of overhaul life so as to realize and regional transportation economy are considered,
the best life cost of the whole cycle. social-economic benefit will be more remarkable.
Taking Hangzhou Bay Cross-sea Bridge as an example,
1. Concrete bridges the investment budget for bridge construction is RMB 11.8
billion, of which the cost for concrete coating accounts for
In the concrete bridge construction stage, the surface 1%. According to the analysis of cycle life cost, the bridge
anti-corrosion composite coating will increase the initial can be free from maintenance within 20 years and has a little
construction cost. According to the statistics of construction maintenance within 40 years. If only the durability design of
cost of extra-large bridge projects along the coast of China the conventional marine concrete is carried out and the
(Table 2.15), the local environmental action grade is taken anti-corrosion measures of the surface coating are not taken,
as statistical basis under the condition that long-term although the initial construction cost can be reduced by 1%,
anti-corrosion coating (heavy anti-corrosion coating) is the first repair work will be started after about 10 years.
Table 2.15 Anti-corrosion cost of main bridge components

No. Project name Completion Type of structural Project Anti-corrosion measures Anti-corrosion Anti-corrosion
time components cost/RMB area (m2) cost/RMB
10,000 10,000
1 Hong 2016 Reinforced 127,420 Coating 293,823 2350
Kong-Zhuhai-Macao concrete pier and system/corrosion-resistant
Cross-sea Bridge abutment concrete
Reinforced 110,303 Electrochemical protection 230,125 2532
concrete
foundation
2 North Navigable Passage 2008 Reinforced 4703 Surface wet zone coating 31
Bridge of Hangzhou Bay concrete cable
Cross-sea Bridge tower bearing
platform
3 Hangzhou Bay Cross-sea 2008 Steel pipe pile Cathodic protection 6343
Bridge
4 Bridge of North Bank of 2008 Prestressed 12,425 Surface dry zone coating 730
Hangzhou Bay Cross-sea concrete beam
Bridge in Mud Flat Area
Reinforced 3001 Surface dry 210
concrete pier zone + surface wet zone
coating
5 Xihoumen Bridge of 2009 RC main tower 11,633 Composite coating 78,781 568
Zhoushan Island
Connecting Project
6 Jintang Bridge of 2009 RC main tower 8852 Composite coating 26,068 190
Zhoushan Island
Connecting Project
70 B. Xu
Table 2.16 Corrosion types in atmospheric area

Corrosion type Corrosive environment
Grade Name Relative humidity (annual average) (%) Atmospheric environment
I Weak corrosion <60 Rural atmosphere, urban atmosphere, or industrial atmosphere
60–75 Rural atmosphere or urban atmosphere
>75 Rural atmosphere or urban atmosphere
II Medium corrosion 60–75 Industrial atmosphere
III-1 Strong corrosion >75 Industrial atmosphere, especially acid rain atmosphere
III-2 Strong corrosion – Marine atmosphere, deicing salt or high salt soil environment
Note 1. Under the action of some special corrosive environment and cross-corrosion load, the corrosion is aggravated
2. In marine atmospheric environment, corrosion is aggravated with the increase of humidity and temperature
After that, repair is required every 3–5 years, and mainte- method, this design will make the structural maintenance cost
nance and repair costs are high. during the service period high, and derusting construction of
China’s Technical Conditions for Anti-corrosion of Sur- in-service steel structure bridge surface is more difficult.
face Coating of Concrete Bridge Structure classifies corro- What’s more, the floating rust will cause environmental
sion grades (Table 2.16), holding that the anti-corrosion life pollution and the derusting construction also seriously affects
of the coating system depends on the application environ- the traffic, increasing the user traveling cost. Long-term
ment, coating system, substrate condition, and surface anti-corrosion coating system (heavy anti-corrosion) design
treatment effect and construction technology. The can make steel structure bridge free from maintenance within
anti-corrosion life of coating system is divided into ordinary 20 years of operation and have a little maintenance within
type (10 years) and long-term type (20 years). 40 years. Therefore, the anti-corrosion coating of the steel
structure bridge can guarantee the safe passage of the bridge
2. Steel structure bridges and reduce maintenance, producing considerable economic
and social benefits.
The properties of steel materials are stable, the environ- Statistics of civil engineering cost and anti-corrosion
mental corrosion laws are clear, and the development of coating cost of extra-large bridge components in China show
anti-corrosion materials and coating system is mature. that the coating cost of coastal extra-large steel structure
According to the stipulations of ISO 12,9442 for corrosive bridges is RMB 80–190/m2 on average. The average coating
environment grade and coating life, proper coating system cost of inland extra-large steel structure bridge is RMB 50–
that can realize the target maintenance life of main bearing 130/m2 (Table 2.17). According to incomplete statistics of
components is selected. The service life of Yellow River the coastal extra-large bridges, the cost of anti-corrosion
Bridge of Lanzhou (1907) and Garden Bridge of Shanghai coating system of steel structural components in China
(1907) have reached more than 100 years. The Forth Bay accounts for about 10% of the construction and installation
Bridge in Scotland (1878) and the Golden Gate Bridge in cost of structural components. Humen Bridge in Guangdong,
San Francisco (1937) can run for nearly 100 years or more completed in 1997, has adopted a composite coating system
after being subjected to regular and professional corrosion of inorganic zinc-rich primer, epoxy sealing paint, epoxy
protection by coating. Both bridges are in good condition mica iron intermediate paint, and acrylic polyurethane finish
and still in operation. The service life of these steel bridges is paint, and has been in operation for nearly 20 years. At
nearly 100 years, which proves the maturity and effective- present, the film condition of steel box girder is good as a
ness of anti-corrosion coating system of steel bridges. whole.
Surface anti-corrosion coating can prolong the service life Junshan Yangtze River Bridge in Wuhan, built in 2000,
and maintenance period of steel bridges, significantly adopts the composite coating system of arc spraying alu-
reducing the cost of bridge maintenance. Without the minum, epoxy mica iron sealing paint, epoxy mica iron
anti-corrosion coating system design, the general steel intermediate paint, and aliphatic polyurethane finish paint,
structure bridges will be maintained for the first time after 8– and the film of steel box girder is in good condition at
10 years of operation, and then need to be maintained every present.
3–5 years. According to the abovementioned cost calculation Since 1974, Japan Steel Pipe Applied Technology
Research Institute has carried out real bridge coating dura-
2
bility test on the new bridge connecting Seto Inland Sea, and
ISO 12944. Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures by Protective
has carried out long-term continuous follow-up trace and
Paint Systems, 1998.
Table 2.17 Anti-corrosion cost of main bridge components

No. Project name Completion Structural Project Anti-corrosion Anti-corrosion Anti-corrosion
time components cost/RMB measures area (m2) cost/RMB
10,000 10,000
1 Sanchaji Bridge in Changsha 2006 Steel box girder Composite coating 244,000 1200
2 Yangtze River Bridge in Yangluo 2007 Steel box girder Composite coating 350,000 8742
3 Xihoumen Bridge of Zhoushan 2009 Steel box girder 37,600 Composite coating 530,652 3227
Island Connecting Project
4 Jintang Bridge of Zhoushan 2009 Steel box girder 30,922 Composite coating 289,293 2903
Island Connecting Project
5 Liede Bridge in Guangzhou 2009 Steel box girder Composite coating 139,200 786
RC main tower Composite coating 7440
6 Liaohe Bridge 2010 Steel box girder Composite coating 263,500 653
7 Dashengguan Bridge in Nanjing 2010 Steel truss arch Composite coating 360,000 1712
8 Yangtze River Highway and 2010 Steel box girder Composite coating 432,917 4297
bridge in Jingyue, Hubei
9 Qingdao Bay Bridge 2011 Steel box girder Composite coating 284,000 3277
10 Cao’e River Paojiang Bridge 2011 Steel tube arch Composite coating 86,400 1099
11 Jiubao Bridge in Hangzhou 2011 Steel truss/arch Composite coating 310,000 2563
12 Jishou Aizhai Bridge 2012 Steel truss Composite coating 150,000 2760
girder
RC main tower Composite coating 13,960
13 Nanxi Yangtze River Bridge 2012 Steel box girder Composite coating 199,270 1127
14 Jiashao Bridge in Zhejiang 2013 Steel box girder Composite coating 549,000 6130
15 Yangtze River Highway and 2013 Steel box girder Composite coating 445,200 3017
bridge in Maanshan Steel tower Composite coating 154,800
16 Jiujiang Yangtze River Highway 2013 Steel box girder Composite coating 376,650 4,178
and bridge in Jiangxi Reinforced Composite coating 48,500
concrete main
17 Xiamen-Zhangzhou Bridge in 2013 Steel truss/steel Composite coating 527,400 6,301
Fujian Province box girder
RC main tower Composite coating 77,000
18 Qiansimen Jialing River Bridge 2014 Steel truss Composite coating 441,270 1,263
in Chongqing girder
19 Dongshuimen Yangtze River 2014 Steel truss Composite coating 267,500 1,546
Bridge in Chongqing girder
20 Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao 2016 Steel box girder 356,395 Composite coating 3,001,84 0 56,770
Cross-sea Bridge Pre-stressed Corrosion resistant
concrete beam concrete
21 Huotou Bay Canal Bridge 2017 Steel truss 2,872 Composite coating 13,801.7 119.3
check for 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 5 years, 7 years, 10 years anti-corrosion coating system. At present, the operation
and 15 years to evaluate the durability of the coating com- effect is good, the paint film is in good condition and the
posite system. In 1991, the Steel Highway and Bridge color and gloss is stable.
Coating Brief was revised, and the inorganic zinc-rich In 1998, on the basis of systematically summarizing and
primer + super-thick film epoxy coating + fluorocarbon top analyzing a large number of long-term material performance
coating as the coating system was formally listed in the test data and engineering practice experience, ISO 12944
bridge coating specification. The subsequently completed Corrosion protection of Steel Structure by Colored Paint
Tokyo Bay Cross-sea Bridge (1993), Akashi Kaikyo Bridge and Varnish-Protective Coating Systems issued by the
(1998) and Tatara Bridge (1999) all adopted the International Organization for Standardization. ISO 12944-1
72 B. Xu
Table 2.18 ISO 12944-1 anti-corrosion coating life requirements for the working state, so the maintenance difficulty and cost of
steel structure concrete bridge structure is much higher than the bridge in
No. Durability level Design life (year) initial construction period. On the one hand, under the stress
1 Low durability <5 state of the structure, the old and new structures have the
2 Medium durability 5–15 problem of uncoordinated deformation, so the maintenance
3 High durability >15
quality and effect are difficult to reach the level of initial
construction. On the other hand, the new and old concrete
will form natural potential difference (the repaired area is the
Table 2.19 ISO 12944-2 classification of typical corrosive environ- cathode, the unrepaired area is the anode) after the bridge
ments for steel structures disease is repaired. Under the condition of the electrolyte in
Grade of Typical environment (for reference only) the concrete, the potential difference will accelerate the
corrosion External Internal corrosion of steel bars.
C1, very – In clean-air buildings with
The external water is the carrier of environmental corro-
low heating facilities such as sive medium (deicing salt, sulfate, etc.) entering the con-
offices, shops, schools, crete, and preventing or reducing the external water from
and hotels entering into the concrete is the basic means of reducing the
C2, low Mild air pollution, mostly Places where electrolyte content and reducing the corrosion rate of steel
in the countryside condensation occurs and bars. Therefore, to improve the maintenance quality of the
heating facilities are not
available, such as old bridges, timely maintenance of the concrete bridge
warehouses and damage is necessary and the concrete surface should be
gymnasium coated so as to reduce the damage of environmental erosion
C3, Urban and industrial High humidity and some and delay the development speed of damage. It is an indis-
medium atmosphere, medium polluted air production pensable measure to prolong the service life of the structure,
sulfur dioxide pollution, sites,
prolong the maintenance period of the concrete structure and
low salinity coastal areas such as food processing
plants, laundry plants, save the maintenance cost.
wineries, At present, there are many kinds of surface coating that
and milk farms can shield, block, and delay the entry of external water into
C4, high High salinity industrial Chemical plants, the concrete protective layer. Table 2.20 summarizes the
and coastal areas swimming pools, sea properties and service life of these materials. In term of the
boats, and shipyards
service life of the coating itself, it can meet the requirement
C5-I, very Industrial areas with high Buildings and areas that
of 10–20 year, even more than 25 years, but can’t effectively
high humidity and aggressive always have condensation
(industrial) atmosphere and high humidity overstep the crack. Therefore, there is a mismatch between
C5-M, High salinity coastal and Building or other areas
the service life of the coating and the anti-corrosion life of
very high offshore areas always in high humidity the concrete structure.
(marine) and high pollution In the practice of bridge construction and maintenance,
Japan summarizes and puts forward the concept and method
specifies the durability grade and corrosive environment of preventive maintenance, and draws the corrosion deteri-
grade of steel structure coating (Table 2.18). ISO 12944-2 oration curve of bridge structure materials through on-field
provides coating material, combination mode, and paint film investigation and actual bridge inspection. Figure 2.47 shows
thickness data for a variety of corrosive environment grades the development rule of chloride ion content in concrete
and corrosion protection coating life (Table 2.19), as well as protective layer. According to the measured value (20 years
provides a solid foundation for guiding the coating life after completion), the evolution curves of chloride ion con-
design and maintenance of steel structure bridges. tent for 55 years and 80 years are put forward. Maintenance
shall be started at the time when chloride ions are about to
2.1.4.2 Maintenance Charge and Anti-corrosion cause corrosion or have caused slight corrosion so as to
Charge of Old Bridges ensure normal service of the bridge during the design service
period with the optimal maintenance cost strategy.
1. Concrete bridges
2. Steel structure bridges
After the corrosion of concrete bridges occurs, the general
maintenance methods include crack sealing, concrete To remove floating rust and old paint on the surface of a
replacement, steel bar derusting, steel bar replacement, FRP built steel bridge is very difficult and seriously disturbs the
repair, and electrochemical protection. In-service bridge is in traffic. The removed floating rust and old paint will also
Table 2.20 Comparison of concrete surface protective material schemes

Property Type of material
Penetrant High-performance cement-based High elastic film-forming Flexible cement-based
waterproof waterproof protective coating coating material coating materials
sealant
Convenience of Very simple Simple Simple Relatively complex
construction
Cracking No No Good Very good
resistance
Corrosion Good Good Good Good
resistance
Service life/year 10 20 20 >25
Cost/(RMB/m2) 20 20 70 120
(kg/m3) Chloride ion content (kg/m3)

20 20 years after completion (now)
55 55 years after completion
80 80 years after completion
1.2 kg/m3 Corrosion limit 1.2 kg/m3
9.3 m Steel bar position 9.3 m
/cm Depth/cm
Fig. 2.47 Calculation curve of corrosion degree in highway and bridge maintenance in Japan
cause environmental pollution for many times and the cost is Road Maintenance Association. The deterioration curve of
high. The cost of re-coating accounts for more than 10% of paint film of steel structure bridge is drawn through on-field
the initial construction cost of the steel structure bridges. investigation and actual bridge testing (Fig. 2.48). In
In the practice of bridge construction and maintenance, accordance with the aging rule of surface coating and the
Japan proposes a preventive maintenance method instead of middle coating layer, the reasonable time for re-coating is
the follow-up maintenance method. Using the former, the calculated to avoid the appearance of the coating film in the
coating cycle can reach 20 years, while the latter is only lower layer, thereby greatly reducing the problems such as
10 years. The concept and method of preventive mainte- the complexity of the prime coating process and the diffi-
nance are summarized and put forward by Japan Four-Link culty in operation. At the same time, automatic coating
74 B. Xu
Coating thickness/μm
Lower coating layer μm
Re-coating time
75μm Inorganic zinc-rich paint 75 μm
Lower coating layer
Upper, middle coating layer
Exposure time of the coating film of the lower
coating layer
Number of years passed
Fig. 2.48 Deterioration curve (calculation of re-coating time)
2.1.4.3 Corrosion Protection of Engineering

Materials
1. Anti-corrosion property of concrete materials
(1) Concrete materials of bridges before the 1990s
The Code for Design of Bridges in China of 1979 edition

stipulates that the concrete strength is the main index for
guiding the structural design, the prestress strength grade
shall not be lower than 300, and concrete grade of the main
bearing members and members with the carbon steel wire
and notched steel wire as prestressed steel bars shall not be
lower than 400. The Code for Design of Bridges of 1985
Fig. 2.49 Dynamic paint film re-coating equipment
edition stipulates that the concrete grade of prestressed
concrete components shouldn’t be less than 30 (C28). When
equipment (Fig. 2.49) is introduced into the field coating carbon steel wire or notched steel wire is used for prestressed
quality, greatly reducing the cost of re-coating. steel bars, the concrete grade shall not be lower than 40
Table 2.21 Strength grade of concrete and mix ratio of concrete are summarized and studied to
No. Type of bridge Grade of improve the service performance and durability of highway
concrete structures. Every state puts forward the technical scheme to
1 Prestressed simply supported girder and 40 improve the durability of concrete, and specifies the oper-
slab ating requirements of efficient water reducer, admixture, and
2 T-type rigid frame bridge 40–45, 40 air-entraining agent. Table 2.25 summarizes the concrete
prevails material schemes for the main bearing components (pre-
3 Continuous girder bridge 40–45 stressed concrete girders) and the loaded components (bridge
4 Concrete girder of cable-stayed bridge 30–50 deck slab) in some states.
2. Corrosion resistance of steel

(C38). According to the investigation of relevant documents,
the strength of concrete used in superstructure is summarized Under general atmospheric environment, the factors causing
in Table 4.9, and the durability of concrete bridges at the corrosion of steel structure mainly include atmospheric
same time is shown in Table 2.21. composition, relative humidity, and temperature. Under the
In Table 2.22, the measured strength of reinforced con- marine environment, the steel structure is mainly corroded
crete bridge material is 15–27 MPa, and the measured by the chloride ion in the marine gas and the corrosion is the
strength of prestressed concrete bridge material is 28– most serious. Under the environment of industrial atmo-
51 MPa. The concrete strength meets the requirements of sphere and urban atmosphere, the steel structure is mainly
design specifications. However, the problem of insufficient corroded by high air humidity and serious pollution, and
durability is very prominent. corrosion is serious. The surface corrosion damage of steel
structure mainly includes uniform corrosion and local cor-
(2) Concrete bridge materials from 1990s to 2000 rosion (pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, galvanic corro-
sion, stress corrosion, erosion corrosion, selective corrosion,
Table 2.23 statistically calculates the mix ratio data of some intergranular corrosion, and filiform corrosion).
bridge concrete. The water reducer was widely applied in the It is the most basic and important link for improving the
1990s, effectively reducing the water consumption and the reliability of metal materials and prolonging the service life
water–binder ratio, which improves the working perfor- of bridges to select the metal materials correctly according to
mance of concrete and durability. the use environment. To solve the steel corrosion problem,
the most effective technical solution is to use more
(3) Bridge concrete materials after the year 2000 corrosion-resistant materials or increase the corrosion
allowance. Statistics of corrosion resistance of common
Table 2.24 shows the concrete mix ratio of some bridges. metal materials are given in Table 2.26.
After 2000, the use of water reducer and admixture is Humidity is an important factor that determines the type
becoming more and more mature, which plays an important and rate of atmospheric corrosion of metal structure. In
role in improving the performance and durability of concrete. general, the critical humidity of the metal is 50–70%
(Fig. 2.50). The corrosion rate is very slow and can be
(4) Concrete materials of foreign bridges considered to be hardly corroded when it is less than the
critical humidity. The environmental humidity in most areas
In the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) of China (especially in the south) is greater than the critical
implemented in the United States, the mechanical properties relative humidity (Table 2.27) and the environmental
Table 2.22 Durability of concrete bridges built before the 1990s

No. Time Name of bridge Structural style Concrete Durability status Place
strength (MPa)
1 1979 Heping Bridge Plate arch 15–27 Surface protection, local steel bar corrosion Guangdong
2 1982 Old Foshan Plate arch 15–25 Surface protection, local steel bar corrosion Guangdong
Bridge
3 1970s Guanghe Bridge Prestressed 37–49 The steel bar is badly corroded and has been Shandong
T-girder removed
4 1970s Hanhe Bridge Prestressed 28–51 The steel bar is badly corroded and has been Shandong
T-girder removed
76 B. Xu
Table 2.23 Bridge concrete materials from 1990s to 2000

No. Year Name of bridge Structural style Strength Water– Environmental condition
grade cement ratio
of
concrete
1 1992 Dongming Yellow River Bridge Prestressed box girder C50 0.36 General atmosphere in
north China
2 1995 Longshan Overpass Bridge Prestressed box girder C40 0.40 General atmosphere in
T girder C30 0.47 south China
Pier C25 0.46

3 1996 Xinjitian Overpass Bridge Prestressed T-girder C50 0.33 General atmosphere in
Cast-in situ web C30 0.40 south China
Pier C25 0.52

Pile foundation C25 0.52
4 1996 Beijiang Bridge Prestressed box girder C50 0.37 General atmosphere in
Prestressed box girder C50 0.38 south China
Prestressed I-girder C50 0.32

Prestressed circular orifice C40 0.39
plate
Pier C25 0.52
Abutment C20 0.55
Pile foundation C25 0.48–0.52
Bridge deck slab pavement C35 0.38
5 1992 Weihai Shuangdao Bay Bridge T girder C50 – Marine environment in
north China
6 1992 Jinshan Port Bridge Prestressed girder and slab C40 0.37 North coastal
Coping C25 0.51 environment
Tied girders and piles C20 0.55

7 1997 Auxiliary Channel Bridge of Prestressed box girder C55 0.35 South coastal
Humen Bridge environment
humidity of steel bridges crossing rivers, lakes, and seas is 2.1.4.4 Corrosion Protection Status of Protective
more than 80%, so the corrosion is more serious. Materials
The concentration of SO2 in urban atmosphere in China is
0.023% for Grade 2 and 0.096% for Grade 3 (Fig. 2.50). The 1. Concrete bridge surface anti-corrosion material and
corrosion rate of carbon steel in Grade 3 standard atmo- application effect
sphere is 4 times that of Grade 2 standard atmosphere. The
main distribution areas of acid rain in China are shown in The complete coating system of concrete bridge surface
Table 2.28. The main components are SO42−, followed by includes base putty, sealing paint, intermediate paint, and top
NO3− and Cl−, etc. The concentration ratio of SO4− to NO3− coat. The function of putty is to fill the surface defect and the
is 64: 1. Metals such as iron and zinc tend to form sulfate contour line of the component and improve the flatness of
compounds with SO42−. The more polluted the atmospheric the surface so as to achieve the surface strength and beauty.
SO2, the more severe the corrosion of metal materials such The sealing paint should have good wettability, permeabil-
as steel, zinc, and aluminum in humid air is, increasing by ity, alkali resistance, and excellent adhesion to the concrete
tens or hundreds of times. base material, and play a role of filling the surface pores of
Table 2.24 Concrete materials for typical environmental bridges after 2000
No. Year Name of bridge Structural Strength grade Water– Admixture Environmental
style of concrete cement condition
ratio
1 2006 Hangzhou Bay Sea-cross Girder C50 0.33 Fly ash and Marine environment
Bridge mineral powder
2 2006 Zhangjiakou-Shijiazhuang Girder C50 0.35 No General atmosphere
expressway Coping C40 0.39 No in north China
3 2009 Shunde Interchange Prestressed C50 0.33 No General atmosphere

Viaduct box girder in south China
4 2010 Qingdao Bay Bridge Prestressed C50 0.33 Fly ash and Marine Environment
box girder mineral powder
Cable tower C60 0.29 Fly ash and
mineral powder
Pier column C40 0.35 Fly ash and
mineral powder
Cap C35 0.34 Fly ash and
mineral powder
5 2011 Zhijiang Bridge Coping C55 0.28 Fly ash General atmosphere
Pier shaft C30–C40 0.44–0.38 Fly ash in south China
Land cap C30 0.43 Fly ash

Cap in water C30 0.39 Fly ash
6 2016 Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Girder C50–C55 0.30–0.32 Fly ash and slag Marine Environment
Sea-Cross Bridge Pier shaft C50 0.32–0.35 Fly ash and slag in south China
Table 2.25 Concrete material research result of SHRP in the United States
Concrete material Region
Colorado Los Angeles Ohio Virginia Washington
Concrete compressive strength Prestressed tensile strength/MPa 45 48 41 45 51
Prescribed strength grade 70 70 70 70 70
Strength grade age/d 56 56 56 56 56
Concrete composition material Cement (kg/m3) 433 402 502 446 432
3
Fly ash (kg/m ) – 176 – – 132
Silica fume (kg/m3) 20.7 – 59 44.5 29.7
3
Fine aggregate (kg/m ) 808 673 550 801 528
Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) 1053 1070 1052 991 1109
Water binder ratio 0.3 0.25 0.28 0.28 0.27
Chemical admixture Air-entraining agent (L/m3) – – 0.81 –
Retarder (L/m3) – – 1.1 1.0 –
Efficient water reducer (L/m3) 1.7–5.1 5.8 8.3 8.0 8.3
the concrete and laying a good foundation for the subsequent including fluorine resin paint, polyurethane top coat, and
coating. Epoxy varnish, acrylic alkali-resistant primer, and acrylic top coat.
polyurethane varnish are commonly sealing paints. Inter- Through material aging test and engineering practice,
mediate paint should have good shielding performance. The epoxy and polyurethane coating have a good protective
commonly used intermediate paints are epoxy coating, effect on improving the permeability of concrete
polyurethane coating, and acrylic polymer coating. The top (Tables 2.29 and 2.30). The minimum chloride ion diffu-
coat shall have corresponding weatherability, mainly sivity can be controlled to zero, that is, it can completely
78 B. Xu
Table 2.26 Corrosion resistance of common metals

Type of material Property
Corrosion resistance
Steel The corrosion resistance of ordinary steel is poor while that of weathering steel is good
Stainless steel In oxidizing medium, such as nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, and alkali, the corrosion resistance is good; In
reducing medium, such as medium concentrated sulfuric acid, high temperature diluted sulfuric acid, corrosion
resistance is poor; No corrosion resistance in alkaline acid
Aluminum and In an industrial environment, the aluminum alloy has an average corrosion rate of about 1 µm/a over 20 years.
aluminum alloys Under different corrosive environments, the maximum corrosion degree of aluminum alloy in 20 years is much
more serious, the rural environment is 10–55 µm; urban environment is 100–190 µm; marine environment is 85–
260 µm
Zinc Excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance, zinc coating can provide long-term protection for steel for many years
Copper and copper alloys In the atmospheric environment, the uniform corrosion mainly causes only the change of the surface color but no
serious loss of mechanical properties. It is difficult for marine organisms to grow on copper surfaces, and
copper-containing antifouling paints can be used to prevent marine organisms from adhering to ship hulls
Titanium and Titanium Titanium has good corrosion resistance and can resist the corrosion of many kinds of oxidizing media. The
alloys titanium alloy has no corrosion even being exposed for 10 years whether in the rural atmosphere or in the marine
or industrial atmosphere. In sulfur-containing gases, titanium also has good corrosion resistance, whether wet or
dry sulfur dioxide or hydrogen sulfide can’t cause corrosion to titanium
Nickel and nickel alloys Nickel has good corrosion resistance and is not resistant to atmospheric corrosion containing SO2. At high
temperature, nickel is not resistant to sulfur and sulfide corrosion. Ni–Cr–Mo alloy is one of the few materials
resistant to dry and wet chlorine gas corrosion
(mg/m2 ) Mass increase (mg/m2 )

(μg/dm2 ) Amount of corrosion (μg/dm2 )
% Relative humidity %
SO2 % Content of SO2 in the atmosphere %
Fig. 2.50 Effect of humidity and SO2 on corrosion
prevent chloride from intrusion, and the coating material can on the surface of concrete bridge in practical engineering,
have a service life of 10–20 years [6]. It shows that the which is also one of the problems need to be solved in
anti-corrosion coating system can guarantee the design ser- concrete bridge surface coating materials in the future.
vice life of concrete bridge and significantly reduce the China’s concrete bridge coating technology started late,
maintenance cost of concrete bridge. The properties of but develops fast. Since the Shantou Bay Bridge in 1996, the
coating materials in Table 2.30 show that concrete surface reinforced concrete structures of a number of extra-large
coating can’t overstep active cracks, while cracks often exist bridges have been coated with corrosion protection
Table 2.27 Temperature and humidity of some cities

City Monthly mean Monthly highest Monthly lowest Average relative humidity (%)
temperature (°C) temperature (°C) temperature (°C)
January July July Whole year January Whole year Month of highest Whole year
Beijing −4.8 25.9 30.9 17.5 −9.6 6.3 79.0 59.0
Shanghai 3.5 28.0 32.3 20.1 0.4 12.4 83.0 80.0
Guangzhou 13.7 28.3 32.6 26.2 10.1 18.7 85.0 80.0
Chongqing 7.4 28.5 33.5 22.3 5.3 15.4 84.0 79.0
Wuhan 2.7 29.1 33.0 10.4 −0.8 12.7 80.0 78.0
Table 2.28 pH value of acid rain in some cities

Table 2.30 Chloride penetration resistance of concrete surface
City pH City pH City pH
coating
value value value
Type of coating Type of coating Thickness Chloride
Beijing 5.96 Guiyang 4.07 Wuhan 5.47
material (lm) diffusivity
Tianjin 5.96 Chongqing 4.14 Nanjing 4.57 [mg/(cm3 d)]
Jinan 6.10 Yibin 4.87 4.72 Wet-curing Composite layer 900 0
Shijiazhuang 5.36 Changsha 4.30 epoxy resin Single layer 600 0–0.48 103
Solvent-free Composite layer 1000 0–0.48 103
polybutadiene Single layer 500 0–0.48 103
(Table 2.31). In the 1990s, chlorinated rubber and acrylic elastomers
acid were mainly used as the anti-corrosion top coat. The Glass flake Composite layer 1000 0
coating system of Shantou Bay Bridge was: epoxy sealing epoxy resin single layer 500 0–0.87 103
primer + epoxy thick paste intermediate paint + acrylic acid Glass flake Composite layer 1500 0
thick paste top coat. The coating system of Zhaobaoshan vinyl ester resin Single layer 500 0
Bridge in Ningbo is: epoxy sealing primer + chlorinated
Epoxy resin for Composite layer 2000 0.48 103
rubber blending putty + epoxy thick paste type sealing glass grit
paint + chlorinated rubber top coat. In the early twenty-first Single layer 800 0–0.48 103
century, the anti-corrosion top coat was mainly poly-
urethane. In 2001, the coating system of Junshan Bridge was
epoxy sealing paint + scraping epoxy putty + epoxy mica Aeronautical Materials (BIAM), it is considered that the
iron intermediate paint + acrylic polyurethane top coat. effective protection period of the system to reinforced con-
Through the experimental research of Wuhan Institute of crete can reach 15–20 years or more [7]. Most of China’s
Materials Protection and AECC Beijing Institute of extra-large bridge concrete coatings use this system.
Table 2.29 Protective effect of concrete surface coating

Type of coating Dry film Number Effect Service
thickness of lanes life
(µm) (year)
Oxycoal tar or epoxy pitch coating (black) 250 1 Good effect, good coating, and no 20
pinholes, but not covered with active
cracks
Epoxy, two-component polyurethane 250 2 Very good, but can’t repaint or overstep 10–15
active cracks
Solvent-based organic glass, acrylate, butyl acrylic 250 Several Good, multi-pass coating is required to 10
resin, one-component polyurethane, chlorinated rubber reduce pinholes, no straddling of active
cracks
Styrene-butadiene latex or acrylic/copolymer 250 Several Certain water-resistance permeability and 10
emulsion/other inorganic materials cannot overstep active cracks
80 B. Xu
Table 2.31 Anti-corrosion coating system of concrete bridges

No. Name of bridge Anti-corrosion Coating system
coating parts
1 Shantou Bay Bridge Tidal range area and Epoxy sealing paint/thick paste epoxy paint/acrylic thick paste top coat
wave splash zone epoxy sealing paint/thick paste epoxy paint/acrylic thick paste top coat
2 Xiamen Haicang Bridge Cable tower area Waterborne acrylic acid alkali-resistant primer/water-based acrylic
intermediate paint/water-based acrylic top coat
3 Junshan Yangtze River Cable tower area Epoxy sealing paint/squeegee type epoxy putty/epoxy mica iron
Highway and bridge in Wuhan intermediate paint/acrylic polyurethane top coat
4 Taoyaomen Bridge of Cable tower area Epoxy sealing paint/squeegee type epoxy putty/epoxy mica iron
Zhoushan Island-connecting intermediate paint/acrylic polyurethane top coat
Project
5 Jiangyin Yangtze River Cable tower area Epoxy sealer/base putty/top coat/sealer/fluorocarbon middle
Bridge/Nantong Bridge coat/fluorocarbon top coat
6 Qinghai–Tibet Railway Bridge Concrete box girder Epoxy sealing paint/flexible fluorocarbon paint
7 Zhaobaoshan Bridge in Main girder Epoxy sealing paint/chlorinated rubber blended putty/epoxy thick paste type
Ningbo sealing paint/chlorinated rubber top coat
8 Yangtze River Highway and Underwater area Epoxy sealing primer/epoxy coal tar primer/epoxy coal asphalt top coat
bridge in Badong Aquatic area Epoxy sealing primer/epoxy mica iron intermediate paint/acrylic
polyurethane top coat
9 Xiamen Port Bridge in Class I Epoxy asphalt primer/epoxy asphalt intermediate paint/chlorinated rubber
Xiangshan anti-corrosion area top coat
Class II Epoxy asphalt primer/epoxy asphalt intermediate paint/chlorinated rubber
anti-corrosion area top coat
Class III Chlorinated rubber primer/chlorinated rubber top coat
anti-corrosion area
10 Hangzhou Bay Sea-cross Surface wet area Wet-curing epoxy resin sealing paint/wet-curing epoxy resin paint/acrylic
Bridge polyurethane top coat
Surface dry area Epoxy resin sealing paint/epoxy resin paint/acrylic polyurethane top coat
Cable tower area Epoxy resin sealing paint/epoxy resin paint/fluorocarbon top coat
High-performance fluorocarbon top coat is developing anti-corrosion life design. Under severe corrosive environ-
rapidly at present and its application effect is good in the ment, long-term effective anti-corrosion coating system and
construction of sea-cross bridges in Japan. The paint film of protection life are summarized as follows:
the project is in good condition for 20 years of actual
operation. China’s Hangzhou Bay Sea-cross Bridge, Jian-
gyin Yangtze River Bridge, and Qinghai–Tibet Bridge also
begin to use fluorocarbon as the coating system of top coat.
Table 2.32 Protective effect of common anti-corrosion coating
2. Surface anti-corrosion material of steel structure systems
bridge and its application effect No. Anti-corrosion coating system Protection
life (year)
Anti-corrosion coating is one of the most convenient and 1 Low-grade coating based on natural raw 2–3
effective methods of steel bridge corrosion protection. The materials
protective effect of coating on bridge steel is reflected in 2 Red lead anti-rust primer + gray aluminum 10
three aspects: ➀ shielding effect; ➁ corrosion inhibition; ➂ zinc alkyd top coat/gray mica iron oxide
alkyd top coat
cathodic protection effect. The protective effect of common
anti-corrosion coating systems is listed in Table 2.32. 3 Epoxy zinc-rich anti-rust primer + epoxy >15
mica iron intermediate paint + acrylic top
After about 50 years’ efforts, the surface corrosion of coat
highway steel bridges in China has been remarkably
4 Epoxy zinc-rich anti-rust primer + epoxy >30
improved. Anti-corrosion coating system of steel bridge and mica iron intermediate
anti-corrosion effect is related to corrosive environment and paint + fluorocarbon coating top coat
(1) From the late 1960s to 1980s, red lead anti-rust primer (3) At present, the widely used coating system of epoxy
and gray aluminum zinc alkyd top coat or gray mica zinc-rich primer + epoxy mica iron intermediate
iron oxide alkyd finish were used in the coating system, paint + fluorocarbon coating top coat is expected to
and the anti-corrosion life was about 10 years. In 1968, serve for more than 30 years. The metal thermal
Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge adopted the coating spraying composite coating system can be free from
system of alkyd red lead antirust paint + 66 gray alu- maintenance for 20 years and has a little maintenance
minum zinc exterior top coat, and the actual service life for 40 years in atmospheric corrosive environment. In
was 8 years. 2000, Junshan Yangtze River Bridge in Wuhan was in a
(2) In the 1990s, the coating system of epoxy zinc-rich humid monsoon climate with a transition from the south
antirust primer + epoxy mica iron intermediate subtropical zone to the north subtropical zone. The
paint + chlorinated rubber or polyurethane top coat was composite coating system of arc spraying alu-
adopted, and the anti-corrosion life was over 15 years. minum + epoxy mica iron seal coating + epoxy mica
In 1995, Zhongshan No. 2 Bridge in Guangdong pro- iron intermediate paint + aliphatic polyurethane top
vince was in the atmospheric corrosive environment coat metal thermal spraying is adopted. The test result
mainly due to the sulfur dioxide effect of automobile shows that the coating system can meet the quality
exhaust. The bridge adopted the anti-corrosion coating requirement of coating protection design life of
system of epoxy zinc-rich primer + epoxy mica iron 30 years and the coating system is in good condition.
intermediate paint + chlorinated rubber top coat and the (4) Cathodic protection doesn’t have the function of
actual service life was 15 years. In 1999, Jiangyin repairing concrete cracks. Therefore, for concrete
Yangtze River Bridge was located in the lower reaches bridges with surface cracks, it is necessary to treat the
of the Yangtze River. In the high temperature, high cracks by surface treatment method and grouting
humidity and high salt corrosive environment, the method before carrying out cathodic protection.
coating system of inorganic zinc-rich silicate primer +
epoxy sealing coating + epoxy mica iron intermediate The potential difference of sacrificial anode protection
coating + aliphatic polyurethane top coat is adopted. produces less protective current, which is difficult to pass
The on-site inspection and evaluation of the coating under large area and high-resistance environment. It is not
quality in August 2004 showed that the coating is in suitable for the maintenance and protection of reinforced
good condition and the protective effect meets the concrete of bridges, but can be used to protect concrete
design requirements. For the coating system of epoxy structure in conductive medium such as seawater. The
sealing paint + epoxy intermediate paint + chlorinated impressed current method protection includes anode system
rubber or acrylic top coat, the service life is about design, testing system, and power supply system. Table 2.33
10 years. For example, Xiangshan Limen Port Bridge is shows several common anode materials.
subjected to marine atmospheric environment and wave Cathodic protection is to make iron and steel cathodic and
splashing, so piers and other parts of concrete bridge polarized to reduce or prevent corrosion. It is divided into
adopt the coating system of epoxy asphalt primer + sacrificial anode protection and impressed current protection.
epoxy asphalt intermediate paint + chlorinated rubber The common sacrificial anode materials are zinc alloy and
top coat. The test results show that the coating system aluminum alloy, and the impressed current protection is a
can meet the requirements of 8–12 years of the design protection technology in which a DC power supply applies a
life of the coating protection of Xiangshan Limen Port protective current to the protected body through the auxiliary
Bridge, and the coating system is in good condition at anode so that the protected body becomes a cathode to
present. For the anti-corrosion coating system of epoxy obtain polarization, thereby being protected from corrosion.
sealing paint + epoxy mica iron intermediate paint +
acrylic polyurethane (fluorocarbon) top coat, the service
life is expected to reach 15–20 years. For example,
Table 2.33 Anode materials
Hangzhou Bay Sea-cross Bridge is under the action of
ocean and storm surge environment, so the coating Type of anode Scope of Service life
materials application (year)
system of epoxy resin sealing paint + epoxy resin
paint + acrylic polyurethane (fluorocarbon) top coat is Graphite pitch Bridge deck slab >20
adopted in the surface dry area. The test result shows Conductive cement All applicable 10–20
that the coating system can meet the requirement of Galvanization Substructure <10
coating protection design life of 20 years. Besides, the Conductive coating Substructure >10
application state of the coating system is good at Titanium All applicable >20
present.
82 B. Xu
Table 2.34 National/industrial standards for corrosion index testing industrial testing technical standards (Table 2.34). The traffic
No. Name of standard Promulgation department industry has formulated industrial management measures,
1 Standard for Testing and Ministry of Housing and requiring that testing and diagnostic evaluation work should
Evaluation of Concrete Urban-Rural Development be carried out by an organization qualified for testing. The
Durability Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development and the
2 Standard for Testing Ministry of Housing and Ministry of Finance issued the Construction and Installation
Methods for Long-term Urban-Rural Development Engineering Cost Project Composition and Methods for
Durability of Ordinary
Budget of Highway Engineering Capital Construction Pro-
Concrete
jects. What’s more, the Price Bureau and Department of
3 Standard for Quality Ministry of Housing and
Testing and Evaluation of Urban-Rural Development
Finance at all levels have issued the charging standard for
Anti-corrosion Coating for the testing expenses in the technical service charge of the
Industrial Building Steel transportation system. Generally speaking, there is no
Structure charging standard specially set for corrosion index testing.
4 Technical Specification for Ministry of Housing and According to the existing charging standard, it is lower than
Anti-corrosion of Building Urban-Rural Development that for durability or corrosion index testing.
Steel Structures
The detection institutions such as the National Center for
5 Verification Specification Former Ministry of
Quality Supervision and Test of Building Engineering have
for Railway Bridges Railways
also established the corresponding charging standards for the
6 Code for Testing and Ministry of Transport of the
Evaluation of Bearing People’s Republic of China testing of the building structures.
Capacity of Highways and
bridges
7 Technical Specification for Ministry of Transport of the 2.1.5 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases
Anti-corrosion of Steel People’s Republic of China of Highways and Bridges
Structures in seaports
8 Standard for Evaluation of China Association for 2.1.5.1 New Bayi Bridge in Nanchang
Durability of Concrete Engineering Construction
New Bayi Bridge in Nanchang (Fig. 2.51) in Jiangxi Pro-
Structure Standardization
vince is composed of main bridge, approach bridge, and
9 Code for Construction and State Bureau of Technical
Acceptance of Building Supervision and Ministry of approach road, with a total length of about 6 km and an
Anti-corrosion Engineering Construction effective bridge deck slab width of 26 m. It has two-way
four lanes and design speed of 60 km/h. It was completed
and opened to traffic on September 29, 1997. The main
2.1.4.5 Cost of Corrosion Testing/Monitoring bridge is 1040 m long and the bridge hole is
In terms of steel durability indexes such as concrete pro- [(50 + 2 160 + 3 50) + (3 50 + 2 160 + 50) m]
tective layer thickness, concrete resistivity, corrosion m. The stay cable adopts double cable-plane and fan-shaped
potential, chloride ion content, sulfate erosion, alkali–ag- dense cable arrangement. The cable distance on girder is
gregate reaction, frost resistance, crack, chloride ion per- 8 m. The cables are PE jacket cold cast anchor cables. The
meability, air permeability and water permeability, and bridge has 144 cables and reinforced concrete prestressed
corrosion, China has established relevant national and girders.
Fig. 2.51 New Bayi Bridge in

Nanchang
Fig. 2.52 Corrosion of cable

anchor head and cracking of cable
PE sheath
In 2005, the Traffic Engineering Quality Testing Center

in Jiangxi Province conducted damage detection and struc-
tural health assessment on the main bridge of New Bayi
Bridge in Nanchang. The cables were found to be severely
corroded. In 2009, the cables were fully replaced. The actual
service life of the cable was 11 years, and the replacement
cost was about RMB 100 million.
Corrosion of anchor head of lower end cable: the corro-
sion amount of metal on the inner and outer surfaces of
anchor cup reaches 10%, and the natural peeling rust block
reaches more than 25 mm (Fig. 2.52). Reasons for corrosion
of anchor head: ➀ no effective corrosion protection is carried
out during construction; ➁ the waterproof cover at the end of Fig. 2.53 Bridge deck slab collapse of Xiaonanmen Jinsha River
Bridge in Yibin
the bridge deck slab fails, and the rainwater flows into the
anchor head at the lower end for a long time, resulting in
high humidity in the embedded pipe at the lower end; ➂ destroyed. It was opened to traffic after half a year of repair
Lack of management and maintenance. During the eight on June 28, 2002. The total direct economic loss caused by
years from the completion on September 29, 1997 to the the accident is about RMB 10 million.
testing of the bridge in December 2005, the cable was never Corrosion fracture of suspenders: the suspender is com-
maintained, and the lower end anchor head was never posed of 19 1570 MPa 15.24 high-strength and
opened for routine inspection and maintenance. low-relaxation smooth steel strands wrapped with steel pipe
Cracking of cable PE sheath: among 144 cables of the that is filled with cement mortar for corrosion protection.
whole bridge, 15 cables’ PE sheaths were seriously damaged The steel pipe and the crossbeam are not effectively con-
and cracked, and the crack width was more than 50 mm. The nected, so the bridge deck slab system is longitudinally
cable body steel wire surface is damp and has slight rust displaced under the action of temperature, and cracks gen-
spots. Due to the influence of cable PE sheath cracking, the erate at the joint of the steel pipe and the crossbeam
cable body steel wire surface is wet and rainwater flows into (Fig. 2.54c) so that acid rain corrodes steel wire of suspender
the cable body. Cracking reasons of PE sheath include body. When the suspender is broken, only 28 of 133 wires in
construction damage; stress cracking of polymer materials; suspender are left, and the rest are corroded since the bridge
lack of management and maintenance. is built. Corrosion fracture is caused by unreasonable
structural design and inadequate management and mainte-
2.1.5.2 Xiaonanmen Jinsha River Bridge in Yibin nance measures.
The Xiaonanmen Jinsha River Bridge in Yibin, Sichuan
Province is a half-through concrete arch bridge with a main (1) There are a lot of corrosion products in the steel strand
span of 240 m. The bridge was completed and opened to near the fracture and the steel strand has been seriously
traffic in June 1990. On November 7, 2001, 8 suspenders on corroded with about 50% of the steel strand occurring
both sides broke due to corrosion and part of the bridge deck old fracture, and the steel wire has obvious corrosion
slab collapsed (Figs. 2.53 and 2.54). In the accident, two pits. Corrosion of three sampling slings is shown in
people were missing, two were dead, three were injured, and Table 2.35.
three vehicles crashed into the river and one ship was
84 B. Xu
Fig. 2.54 Corrosion fracture of suspenders
Table 2.35 Statistics of corrosion of three sampling slings

No. of steel strand Sling position
North bank N1 sling (downstream side) South bank S1 sling (upstream side) South bank S1 sling (downstream side)
Medium rust Serious rust Rust breaking Medium rust Serious rust Rust breaking Medium rust Serious rust Rust breaking
1 0 1 6 2 2 3 0 5 2
2 2 1 3 4 1 2 1 6 0
3 3 3 1 1 5 1 0 6 1
4 2 4 1 1 5 1 0 4 3
5 0 3 4 2 3 2 0 4 3
6 4 2 1 3 3 1 1 4 2
7 2 3 2 4 0 3 0 2 5
8 3 3 1 1 5 1 0 3 4
9 0 1 6 2 3 2 2 3 2
10 1 1 5 1 4 2 0 1 6
11 0 1 6 1 3 3 0 3 3
12 0 1 6 1 3 3 0 3 4
13 0 0 7 1 3 3 0 1 6
14 0 0 7 1 4 2 0 3 4
15 0 0 7 1 4 2 0 6 1
16 0 0 7 1 3 3 0 6 1
17 0 0 7 1 4 2 0 6 1
18 0 0 7 0 2 5 4 3 0
19 0 0 7 0 0 7 1 5 1
20 0 0 7 0 0 7 2 4 1
21 0 0 7 0 0 7 0 6 1
Total 17 24 105 28 57 62 11 84 51
Fig. 2.55 Overall view of

Yuping Bridge in Nanping
Fig. 2.56 Corrosion fracture of

suspender
(2) The fracture of the steel strand is basically brittle frac- between the top of the crossbeam and the sidewalk board is
ture (one-time loading), and most of the seriously cor- tied with iron wire and wrapped with cotton rope. Therefore,
roded steel wires have no obvious plastic deformation, the steel wire of the suspender is not subjected to any
and some relatively intact steel wire fractures have anti-corrosion measures, and is exposed to humid air for a
plastic deformation. long time, resulting in corrosion and fracture of the sus-
(3) There is no bright area on the fracture, which does not pender. Corrosion fracture is caused by unreasonable struc-
belong to fatigue or corrosion fatigue fracture under tural design and inadequate anti-corrosion, management, and
repeated stress. maintenance measures.
2.1.5.3 Yuping Bridge in Nanping 2.1.5.4 Wenhui Bridge in Liuzhou

Yuping Bridge in Nanping, Fujian Province is a half-through Wenhui Bridge in Liuzhou, Guangxi is a half-through steel
concrete arch bridge with a main span of 100 m (Fig. 2.55). tube concrete arch bridge with a three-hole net span of
The bridge was completed and opened to traffic in 1996. In 108 m. The bridge was completed and opened to traffic in
January 2010, due to rust corrosion, a rupture accident 1995. During the inspection of the bridge in 2002, it was
occurred on a mid-span suspender (Fig. 2.56), and then the found that the bridge appeared cracking of PE sheath of
cables were completely changed. The direct economic loss suspender, corrosion of steel wire of cable body and serious
caused by the accident is about RMB 5 million. ponding at the lower end of suspender. In 2007, 34 sus-
Corrosion fracture of suspenders: the suspender is com- penders of the bridge were replaced, and the direct cost was
posed of 37 1570 MPa 5 high-strength and low-relaxation about RMB 3 million.
smooth steel strands wrapped with steel pipe that is filled Damage of suspender: the suspender is composed of 127
with cement mortar for corrosion protection. The suspender 1570 MPa 5 high-strength and low-relaxation smooth steel
86 B. Xu
Fig. 2.57 Full view of Jiefang

Bridge in Fuzhou
wires, and is externally wrapped with PE sheathed pipes, and and the steel pipes at the upper and lower ends are filled with
the steel pipes at the upper and lower ends are filled with cement mortar for corrosion protection. Due to long-term
cement mortar for corrosion protection. Corrosion of sus- ponding at the lower end of the suspender, the corrosion of
pender is serious for serious cracking of PE sheath and the suspender is serious. Causes of damage: unreasonable
long-term ponding at the lower end. Causes of damage: structural design; improper drainage measures of the sus-
unreasonable structural design; improper drainage measures pender at the lower end; construction quality problem.
of the suspender at the lower end; inadequate management
and maintenance measures. 2.1.5.6 Haiyin Bridge in Guangzhou
Haiyin Bridge is a double-tower quasi-single cable-plane
2.1.5.5 Jiefang Bridge in Fuzhou cable-stayed bridge (Fig. 2.59), with a total length of
Jiefang Bridge in Fuzhou, Fujian is a five-span steel tube 1114 m, a main span of 175 m, and a tower height of
concrete half-through arch bridge (Fig. 2.57) with a total 57.4 m. The bridge has 186 high-strength steel cables. It was
length of 324 m (61 2 + 80 + 61 2 m). The bridge completed in 1988 with a total investment of about RMB 50
was completed and opened to traffic in October 1996. Dur- million (estimated). Corrosion occurred on the upper part of
ing the inspection of the bridge in 2001, it was found that all cables due to improper anti-corrosion measures. In 1995,
there was ponding at the lower end of the suspender, anchor a cable broke due to rust at the upper end, and all the cables
head, and steel wire of cable body were corroded (Fig. 2.58). were replaced. The direct cost of the whole bridge is esti-
In 2008, 84 suspenders of the bridge were replaced, and the mated to be more than RMB 10 million.
direct cost was about RMB 6 million.
Damage of suspender: the suspender is composed of 84
1570 MPa 5 high-strength and low-relaxation galvanized 2.1.6 Problems and Thoughts on Corrosion
steel wires, is externally wrapped with PE sheathed pipes, Protection of Highways and Bridges
After 30 years of reform and opening-up, China has devel-

oped into a big country of highways and bridges. From the
point of view of technical progress, the construction and
development of highways and bridges have promoted the
development of anti-corrosion design, construction, and
maintenance technology system in China, forming a rela-
tively complete technical standard system. From the aspect of
development stage, the highways and bridges in China have
entered the stage of both construction and maintenance. The
contradiction between bridge aging and sustainable devel-
opment, the contradiction between the serious corrosive
environment and the long-term anti-corrosion demand, the
coordination of structural safe operation and maintenance
cost will be an important challenge for bridge maintenance.
In the late 1980s and 1990s, the development mode of
“focus on construction instead of maintenance” and
Fig. 2.58 Damage of suspender
Fig. 2.59 Haiyin Bridge
“construction in research” of highways and bridges was very of bridge concrete (Shantou Bay Bridge) was not carried out
prominent. Importance was attached to strength rather than until 1996, but it developed rapidly, and great progress was
durability in design and focus was put on speed instead of made in the coating technology and construction of concrete
quality in construction. This resulted in short service life of anti-corrosion. The difference between anti-corrosion coat-
bridges in the same period. Since the beginning of the ing technology of concrete bridge surface in China and
twenty-first century, the durability has been paid more and foreign technology is mainly reflected in coating property,
more attention, and the technical specification system of coating quality, and technical standards.
highways and bridges in China has been improved and In terms of technical standards, China has established
developed by drawing lessons from foreign experience. The many standards. The Technical Conditions for Anti-corro-
applicability and long-term use of durability technology sion of Surface Coating of Concrete Bridge Structure
have not been effectively solved due to the lack of research (JT/T695-2007) systematically recommends the
and development reserves, systematic long-term observation anti-corrosion coating system for the types, locations, and
data, and refined design. In the condition of severe corrosive years of anti-corrosion, and specifies the construction quality
environment, the corrosion problem of highways and bridges requirements. However, there is no uniform standard for
running for 5–10 years appears day by day, and is out- concrete surface treatment in China at present, which leads
standing in 10–20 years, leading to a great rise in the bridge to the lack of guidance requirements for concrete surface
maintenance cost. The maintenance fund pressure is large treatment, affecting the treatment quality and coating effect
and the long-term safe service of the bridge is endangered. of concrete bridge base. Foreign developed countries have
In addition to the lack of understanding of external factors standardized the concrete surface treatment. For example,
such as high traffic volume, natural environment, and ASTM D-4258 Pretreatment Method of Concrete Surface
industrial pollution brought about by the rapid economic before Coating, ASTM D-4259 Spray Roughening Method
development, the causes of these problems also include of Concrete Surface and ASTM D-4260 Acid Etching and
engineering anti-corrosion technology, industrial manage- Roughening Method of Concrete Surface stipulate quality
ment system, and industrial development policy. We should inspection standards for concrete surface treatment, such as
summarize the experience and lessons and discover the the measurement standard of surface moisture content, and
solution to the problem. the determination method of surface pH value.
The main technical problems of anti-corrosion coating of
2.1.6.1 Technical Problems on Anti-corrosion concrete bridge surface in China are as follows: ① coating
Engineering materials and techniques under complicated construction
conditions; ② in the severe corrosive environment, the
anti-corrosion coating system/material life of concrete bridge
1. Anti-corrosion coating of concrete bridge surface surface is too short; ③ the lack of effective service life
assessment and prediction technology of anti-corrosion
Japan and Europe have attached importance to the research coating system restricts the development of anti-corrosion
and practice of anti-corrosion coating system of concrete coating design, construction, and maintenance of concrete
surface for a long time, and established a relatively complete bridge surface; ④ properties of coating materials, environ-
standard and specification system. The anti-corrosion coat- mental protection properties, and construction equipment.
ing of concrete bridge started late in China. The first coating
88 B. Xu
2. Anti-corrosion coating of steel structure bridge anti-corrosion coating system in view of environmental
surface protection and workers’ health.
In the construction technology, the United States, Europe,
The anti-corrosion coating system in China of steel structure and Japan take long-term life as the main objective of the
bridge is consistent with that of foreign countries. However, anti-corrosion coating of steel bridge, so strict requirement is
there exist some differences in the performance of put on surface treatment. Swedish industrial standard SIS
anti-corrosion coating, combination and optimization of 0559000 Standard for Surface Derusting of Steel before
coating system, coating process, and coating quality in Coating and standard Steel Structures Coating Council
China. As a result, there is a big gap in the protective effect (SSPC)’s Specification for Surface Pretreatment of Ameri-
of anti-corrosion coating. The actual service life of the can Steel Structure Coating Association, British Standard BS
coating system of red lead antirust primer + alkyd finish 4232 and International Standard ISO 8501-1 provide strict
paint used in bridges in China is about 7–8 years. However, regulation for steel surface treatment. The relevant standards
Tyne River Bridge in Britain, built in 1928, is in the marine in China mainly include Corrosion grade and Derusting
atmospheric environment and adopts the same coating sys- Grade of Steel Surface before Coating (GB 8923-88) and
tem, but its actual service life reaches 15 years. Evaluation of Roughness Grade of Steel Surface before
In the research and development of high-performance Coating (Comparative Template Method) (GB 13288-2010).
fluorocarbon top coat, there is still a big gap in the artificial Their classification grade of surface cleanliness of steel
accelerated aging resistance of fluorocarbon coating at home structure after derusting is completely consistent with
and abroad (Fig. 2.60). Thus, the research and development international standards (Table 2.36). In addition to the
of fluorocarbon coating, especially fluorocarbon resin, above, foreign standards hold that it is necessary to measure
should be strengthened to produce high-performance the soluble salt and dust on the steel surface with corrosion
fluorocarbon coating. In the combination design of coating grade C and D after spraying derusting.
system, fluorocarbon top coat has excellent anti-corrosion The main technical problems of anti-corrosion coating for
performance, but its environmental protection performance highway steel bridges in China are as follows: ① coating
needs to be further improved. In Europe and the United materials and technologies under complicated construction
States, silicone top coat is mainly used in the steel bridge conditions; ② anti-corrosion coating system/material service
Gloss retention rate/%

Artificial accelerated aging time/h
Fluorocarbon coating at home
Fluorocarbon coating at abroad 1
Fluorocarbon coating at abroad 2
Alkyd top coat
Aliphatic polyurethane top coat
Fig. 2.60 Comparison of performance of artificial accelerated aging resistance of fluorocarbon coating at home and abroad
Table 2.36 GB 8923-88 Correspondence between blast derusting and derusting grade of foreign standards
Name of standard Rating grade
White grade Near-white grade Industrial grade Cleaning grade
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
SSPC SP-5 SP-10 SP-6 SP-7
International Standard ISO 8501-1 Sa3 Sa2.5 Sa2 Sa1
British Standard BS 4232 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
Chinese National Standard GB 8923 Sa3 Sa2.5 Sa2 Sa1
life in marine corrosive environment; ③ high-performance 2.1.6.3 Problem of Industrial Development Policy
and environment-friendly coating materials and construction Industrial support for research and development of
equipment. high-performance and environment-friendly anti-corrosion
materials and processes is insufficient. Although a large
2.1.6.2 Problems of Industrial Management number of anti-corrosion materials exist in the market, the
System entrance standard of anti-corrosion materials is not high.
The anti-corrosion technical requirements are not included in Therefore, the low-performance, high-polluted, and outdated
the compulsory standard as the guarantee measures for the anti-corrosion materials are still in use.
design service life. Tables 2.12 and 2.13 summarize the In respect of environmental protection, there is still a big
technical standards and specifications for anti-corrosion of gap between China and developed countries in Europe and
bridge structures in China. However, the technical require- America. European environmental protection regulations in
ments are only used as the recommended standards for 1996 require that the emission of organic solvents in auto-
severely corrosive environments or seriously polluted envi- mobile coating should not exceed 35 g/m2 while that in
ronments. The phenomenon of natural deficiency or lack of China is 180 g/m2. For the waste residue produced in
anti-corrosion measures is the direct cause of early occur- coating, the control and treatment in foreign countries are
rence of bridge corrosion, difficult maintenance, and high very strict. In terms of coating waste disposal or packing
cost. barrel disposal in the United States, it is stipulated that it is a
The anti-corrosion technology is not included in the hazardous waste-producing product and shall comply with
preventive maintenance system of the bridge. The follow-up all hazardous article precautions and shall not be distributed,
maintenance is still the main mode of bridge maintenance at reused or donated unless the empty barrel is reused for
present. The maintenance system based on the corrosion or storage and transportation of the original product. However,
slight corrosion of concrete bridge steel bars and the aging of China is not so strict with this aspect at present.
steel structure bridge coating has not been established yet. In
the maintenance system of steel structure bridges of
four-connection line project (totally exposed to the marine 2.1.7 Countermeasures and Suggestions
environment) in Japan, the concept of life cycle cost is on Promoting Corrosion Protection
introduced, and the re-coating of top coat is taken as the Development of Highways and Bridges
main measure to realize the preventive maintenance of
bridge. The experience of Japan shows that the aging 2.1.7.1 Countermeasures and Suggestions
re-coating of top coat is an effective measure to realize the on Technological Development
preventive maintenance of steel structure bridges, and is an During the period from the “9th Five-Year Plan” to the “12th
effective way to realize the optimal life cycle cost. Five-Year Plan”, Chinese government has organized a series
Standard management of qualification of anti-corrosion of basic research projects on corrosion laws and structural
quality inspection personnel is insufficient. In the developed degradation of concrete and steel, and achieved important
countries of Europe and America, the inspection personnel achievements. However, there is lack of systematic research
of surface treatment quality are trained in relevant specialties on the properties of concrete and steel bridge surface coating
and can only be engaged in technical evaluation after being materials and anti-corrosion coating system, long-term per-
qualified. China doesn’t require a lot for the quality of formance monitoring technology of anti-corrosion coating
quality inspection personnel after the steel bridge surface system, performance testing and evaluation technology and
treatment, which leads to a big gap between the steel bridge equipment of anti-corrosion coating system. To improve the
surface treatment quality and the foreign requirements. service life of the anti-corrosion coating system of bridge,
90 B. Xu
the basic theory research on the anti-corrosion coating direction. Under the condition of concrete defect, resin
material and the corrosion law of the coating system on the mortar with high adhesive force and sealing property is the
surface of concrete and steel structures should be strength- main research direction. In water level fluctuation area (tidal
ened in the future. Attention should be paid to collection, splash zone), electrochemically active mortar and
arrangement, and comprehensive analysis of long-term per- high-performance polyurea elastomer are the developing
formance data of anti-corrosion coating system of concrete direction of surface anti-corrosion coating.
and steel structure bridges, so as to establish accurate and
reliable correspondence between the accelerated corrosion 3. Coating technology under complicated construction
test data of anti-corrosion coating system and actual engi- conditions
neering performance. Then the performance evaluation
method and index system of the anti-corrosion coating sys- In the working face with complicated structure and affected by
tem of the bridge shall be perfected. tide and seawater, the low quality of surface treatment greatly
affects the quality of anti-corrosion coating and the
1. Composite coating system of metal thermal spraying anti-corrosion effect. In order to improve the anti-corrosion
and coating performance, it is necessary to strengthen the research on
coating technology, technical equipment, and quality inspec-
In engineering practice, the composite coating system of tion technology under complicated construction conditions.
metal thermal spray primer + coating is superior to the In addition to the properties of general antirust coating,
composite coating system of zinc-rich primer + coating. the low surface treatment coating must have two special
Under the general rural atmospheric environment, the conditions: one is to have sufficient permeability to the rust
anti-corrosion life of zinc-rich coating composite system can layer, namely, fully wetting rust layer and penetrating the
be up to 20 years. In the marine environment and industrial whole loose and porous rust layer so that the rust is bonded
pollution areas, the anti-corrosion life generally reaches into a continuous sealing coating to seal the entire rust layer
more than 10 years. The anti-corrosion life of the composite and the steel surface; the other one is to have sufficient
coating system of metal thermal spray primer + coating can reactivity to the rust layer so that the active and harmful iron
be more than 30 years. It is widely used in the steel bridge oxide in the rust layer can be passivated and transformed
anti-corrosion of developed countries in Europe and Amer- into a stable and harmless filler.
ica and Japan. The composite system of metal thermal Low surface treatment coating will be developed to the
spraying system and coating is only used in a few steel following aspects: ➀ in terms of raw materials, reactive
structure bridges in China because of the high cost of metal resins and chelating resins with good stable effect on cor-
thermal spraying system, high requirement of surface treat- rosion will be developed; ➁ from the principle of action, we
ment process, and environmental protection requirement of should develop from the single permeable, stable, and con-
spraying technology. The optimal life cycle cost has become version type to the multi-principle and multifunctional
the development trend of bridge maintenance in the future. It coating so as to improve the performance and effect of the
is suggested to strengthen the technical research and popu- low surface treatment coating; ➂ in terms of anti-corrosion
larization of the composite coating system of metal thermal effect, high-performance long-acting anti-corrosion, and low
spray primer + coating. surface treatment coating will be developed; ➃ from the
perspective of environmental protection, energy conserva-
2. Weathering and long-acting concrete surface protection and improvement of construction environment is the
tive coating development direction. Therefore, thick paste type long-term
anti-corrosion low surface treatment coating and water-based
Concrete bridge is the main body of highways and bridges in low surface treatment coating will become research hotspots.
China. Improving the anti-corrosion ability of concrete Wet-curing spraying technology mainly refers to that the
bridges is one of the important tasks of bridge maintenance coating can be applied and firmly adhered on the surface of
in China. In the atmospheric area of concrete bridges, the the wet and water-bearing substrate. Before the coating is
anti-corrosion coating system of epoxy sealing primer + not cured at the initial stage of application, the coating is
epoxy mica iron intermediate paint + acrylic polyurethane soaked by tide and sea wave, the separated layer is not
top coat is generally adopted with the anti-corrosion life dissolved, and can be cured in water. Finally, a coating film
reaching 10–20 years in the strong corrosive environment. with excellent physical and mechanical properties and cor-
Considering the engineering requirements of environmental rosion resistance is formed.
protection, wet-curing and long life, resin mortar with high For the concrete bridges, the wet-curing coating mainly
adhesive force and sealing property is the main research adopts the wet-curing epoxy coating which can be applied
on the wet surface and has high adhesive strength by mod- anti-corrosion) is an effective measure to deal with severe
ifying the epoxy resin supplemented by the matching curing corrosive environment. In the construction of bridge engi-
agent, fillers, and additives. neering in coastal areas with heavy industrial pollution and
For steel structure bridges, the wet-curing coating mainly heavy corrosion, China should strengthen the popularization
adopts wet-curing polyurethane coating that is simple in and application of long-term anti-corrosion technology.
construction poses low requirement for substrate treatment, In the aspect of anti-corrosion materials and technologies,
and has strong adhesive force. Besides, its drying time is the research on new anti-corrosion coating system design
short and the next round of coating can be applied in 2–4 h, concept and hybrid anti-corrosion system should be accel-
which can be used both as a top coat and as a primer. erated. In the application of anti-corrosion technology, it is
necessary to speed up the development of new technology
4. New technology of high-performance environment- and equipment for high-performance and environment-
friendly coating materials friendly composite coating materials, and to accelerate
research, development, and transformation and populariza-
The coating materials and coating system should not only be tion of coating technology and equipment under complicated
high-performance, multifunction, and environment-friendly, construction conditions. In addition, we should implement
but also pay attention to the study of re-coating technology so the life cycle cost concept into the revision of the technical
as to reduce the manpower, material resources, and cost of standard system, and strengthen the service life design and
later maintenance. It is recommended to focus on the devel- maintenance design on the premise of ensuring the safety of
opment of fluorocarbon coating, engineering polysiloxane the bridge structure. As for engineering construction, it is
coating, and waterborne coating. necessary to further reform the charging standard for engi-
Fluorocarbon coating has exceptional weatherability, neering construction and maintenance, supplement and
outstanding salt fog resistance, excellent chemical medium perfect the regulations and requirement on anti-corrosion of
resistance, and good stain resistance and erosion resistance. engineering, and create conversion conditions for the pro-
The results of EMMAQUA test in Japan and atmospheric motion of long-term anti-corrosion technology, so as to
exposure test for 10 years show that the weatherability and provide safeguard for promoting anti-corrosion ability of
gloss retention of fluorocarbon coating are significantly highway concrete bridges and steel structure bridges in
better than those of acrylic polyurethane coating. At present, China.
there is still a gap between the main properties of fluoro-
carbon coating in China and those of foreign countries, so it 2. Promoting the popularization and application of
is necessary to strengthen the research and development of high-performance steel structure bridges
fluorocarbon coating and make standard performance
requirements for fluorocarbon top coat. Steel structure bridges are characterized by uniform and stable
Engineering polysiloxane coating. The inorganic-organic material, smooth structure bearing system, high mechaniza-
polymer formed by organic modification of polysiloxane has tion degree of construction, short assembly period, and clear
better weatherability than polyurethane top coat, and the maintenance strategy. Steel structure bridges account for
solid content of polysiloxane polymer top coat meets the 40%–50% in the United States and Japan but account for less
requirements of environmental protection. Besides, it has no than 2% in China. The annual output of steel structure in
maximum coating interval requirement. Both the accelerated China only accounts for about 5% of steel output, which is far
QUV-B aging test and the outdoor exposure test of the from that of developed countries. The development space and
fluorinated acrylic polysilane coating show excellent potential of steel structure bridge industry are huge.
weatherability. After 5 years of outdoor exposure in Florida, After years of development, China’s steel production
the gloss of the coating is 95%. technology has made a breakthrough and the production
capacity has been greatly improved with the production
2.1.7.2 Recommendations for Industrial capacity of using low-carbon steel, low alloy steel,
Development Policy high-strength steel, and high-performance steel to make
bridges. Low alloy high-strength steels (16 Mnq, 15 MnVNq
and 14 MnNbq) are mainly used for bridges with yield
1. Promoting the popularization and application of strength of 320–370 MPa. Although China can produce
high-performance heavy anti-corrosion technology WNQ570 (Q420qE) and Q500 grade high-strength steel and
high-performance steels, the application of these steels is
The corrosion status of concrete/steel structure bridges in limited, and the level of bridge steel has obvious difference
China and the anti-corrosion experience of developed compared with the developed countries.
countries show that long-term anti-corrosion (heavy
92 B. Xu
It is one of the important directions of national reform to capability of application technology, and a management
carry out the concept of sustainable development and pro- system to maintain the service capability of infrastructure.
mote the transformation and development of iron and steel Therefore, it is suggested to strengthen the discipline con-
industry. It is of great practical significance to promote the struction of corrosion engineering, increase the research
development of bridge construction technology and to lead investment of service and life-keeping capacity of infras-
the development of high-performance steel industry by tructure, and promote the construction of corrosion database
means of technical innovation of steel bridge construction of national infrastructure engineering.
and establishment of safe, durable, and economic bridge
construction and maintenance technology system. (1) Corrosion has become a basic problem affecting the
sustainable development of infrastructure. It is sug-
(1) According to the need of anti-corrosion of bridge gested that the discipline of engineering corrosion
engineering, high-performance bridge steel with high should be set up in the national discipline system in
strength, weldability, fracture resistance, fatigue prop- order to strengthen the focus and research of the whole
erty, and weatherability is taken as the main develop- society on corrosion.
ment direction of bridge steel. (2) The research of long-term performance of highways
(2) Special steel materials for key bridge components and bridges should be strengthened to form the strategic
should be developed and applied to meet the require- mechanism of data collection, management, and
ments of different corrosive environments and loads. research of structural long-term performance so as to
Stainless steel bars or stainless steel components should promote the development of structural design, con-
be applied for bridges to solve the problem of struction, and maintenance technology of new genera-
anti-corrosion of bridge steel bars in severe corrosive tion of highways and bridges. In the light of the
areas such as the sea. experience of developed countries, the research on
(3) The standard system of highway steel bridges should be “Technical System of Service Life Design for Roads
improved, covering the whole process of design, man- and Bridges” centered on strength and life span will be
ufacture, construction, quality inspection, and incorporated into the planning of the national key
maintenance. research and development project of the Ministry of
Science and Technology to form long-term stable
2.1.7.3 Policy Recommendations for National support.
Development Strategies (3) The corrosion data of infrastructure engineering is
In order to guarantee the designed service life of the new incorporated into the construction system of the
infrastructure and prolong the service life of the service national scientific and technological data platform. The
infrastructure, it is necessary to carry out a series of work by construction of service life evaluation technology sys-
including relevant national system construction, government tem of service infrastructure should be vigorously pro-
industrial policies and new generation technology system moted, and corrosion detection and evaluation means
into the national key research and development plan. for service infrastructure structure should be developed.
Besides, a database of aging process/corrosion process
1. Strengthening the discipline construction of corro- for infrastructure structure should be established to
sion, increasing the investment of infrastructure promote the development of research on the service
engineering performance research capacity of infrastructure and the preventive mainte-
nance of infrastructure structure.
Corrosion has become a restraining factor affecting the ser-
vice capacity and service life of traffic infrastructure. In the 2. Initiating the preparation of management regulations
early stage of the development of transportation infrastruc- on infrastructure maintenance and coordinating the
ture in China, the foundation of corrosion research is weak, work of relevant sectors
the engineering corrosion data is insufficient, and the
anti-corrosion engineering technology is backward. Under To maintain China’s global competitiveness requires
the influence of the increasing traffic flow and corrosive first-class transportation infrastructure, and to maintain the
environment, the problem of inadequate “longevity gene” in sustainable development of the national economy requires
transportation infrastructure is becoming more and more huge national infrastructure to preserve and increase value.
prominent. If China wants to become a strong country of Since 30 years of reform and opening-up, China has
transportation infrastructure, it must have a solid foundation greatly promoted the construction and development of
of application research achievements, an innovation transportation infrastructure and promoted the development
of social economy through mechanism innovation and Stage 2 is the 1970s. During the period, China’s port
encouragement policies. With the large-scale increase of the development focused on improving the handling capacity
stock infrastructure, the infrastructure is facing the increas- and function. Along with the development of China’s for-
ingly prominent aging and service life problem. The inno- eign relations, the foreign trade expands rapidly and the
vation of maintenance technology, maintenance foreign trade shipping volume increases rapidly. However,
management policy, and maintenance fund financing is the the cargo passing capacity of coastal ports is insufficient, so
main way to solve the current problem. the overstock becomes increasingly serious. In early 1973,
We should timely start the compilation of the “Life Premier Zhou Enlai issued a call for “Three Years to Change
Management Regulations for Service Infrastructure Engi- the Ports” and began the first upsurge of port construction.
neering”, and put forward the system requirements for By the end of 1978, the number of berths at major ports
ensuring the long-term, safe and economic use of infras- nationwide increased to 735, including 133 deepwater berths
tructure engineering. What’s more, we should fully imple- at coastal ports. Within six years, China has added over 100
ment the life cycle responsibility system of infrastructure million tons of port handling capacity, and the national port
structure, innovate on the financing mode for infrastructure cargo handling capacity reaches 280 million tons, including
maintenance, establish a national trust fund for infrastructure 190 million tons of coastal port cargo handling capacity and
maintenance, and promote the sustainable development of 0.595 million tons of foreign trade cargo handling capacity.
infrastructure. Stage 3 is the 1980s. During this period, China has
experienced a new stage of economic development in the
“6th Five-Year Plan” and the “7th Five-Year Plan”, and
2.2 Report on Corrosion Investigation ports have also experienced the second upsurge of con-
in the Port and Wharf Industry struction. The layout of the national hub port has been made
clear, and focus is put on the construction of three major
2.2.1 Basic Situation transport systems of coal, container, passenger, and cargo.
China’s government takes the port as a strategic focus of
2.2.1.1 Development of Port and Wharf Industry national economic construction in the “6th Five-Year Plan”.
in China During the period, the coastal ports have completed invest-
ment of RMB 10.7 billion (constant price in 1991), started
1. Development history of port and wharf industry in construction of 132 deepwater berths, completed 54 ones
China and put into operation with the new handling capacity close
to 100 million tons. After five years of construction, the
Since the founding of The People’s Republic of China, number of ports with 10,000-ton berths has increased from
China’s port construction and cargo handling capacity have 11 in 1980 to 15 in 1985, and the number of production
achieved rapid development in five different stages. berths of major coastal ports has increased to 373, including
Stage 1 is from the 1950s to the early 1970s. At this stage, 173 berths of 10,000 tons. In 1985, the handling capacity of
the development of ports is mainly based on technological major coastal ports was 310 million tons, including 130
transformation, restoration and utilization, transportation million tons of foreign trade goods. A total of RMB 14.3
mainly depends on railways and highways, and the devel- billion was invested in the coastal port construction during
opment of sea transportation is slow. Ports around the the “7th Five-Year Plan” and 223 new (expanded) berths
country have completed the transformation of system of were rebuilt, including 91 deepwater berths with 120 million
ownership of the means of production, and established a tons of new handling capacity. The number is larger than
water transport management system of “centralized and that in 30 years after the founding of The People’s Republic
unified and level-based management, government and of China. A total of 18 coal berths, 3 container wharves and
enterprise integration”. Led by the state, ports are con- world-level large-scale berths of ore and fertilizer have been
structed and managed in a planned and focused way. From built. Ports with deepwater berths have grown to more than
1949 to 1972, the number of main ports in China increased 20. There are 9 ports with an annual handling capacity of
from only 161 berths to 617. The number of deepwater over 10 million tons. The handling capacity of major coastal
berths in coastal ports increased to 92, and the cargo han- ports reaches 480 million tons and that of foreign trade cargo
dling capacity of national ports increased from 11 million is 170 million tons. By the end of 1990, the number of
tons in 1949 to 150 million tons in 1972. Among them, the productive berths in major coastal ports reached 967 in 1990,
cargo handling capacity of coastal ports reached 100 million including 284 10,000-ton berths.
tons, and the cargo handling capacity of foreign trade goods Stage 4 is the 1990s. In the early 1990s, the Ministry of
in coastal ports reached 25.47 million tons. Transport of the People’s Republic of China formulated
94 B. Xu
“three main and one support”, namely a long-term devel- of the change of the international situation and the rapid
opment plan of transport infrastructure with the main content development of the national economy and to remain invin-
of building the main framework of highway, the main cible in the fierce competition, major ports throughout the
channel of water transport, the main hub of the port station country are actively carrying out strategic research on port
and support system. Ports began to pay attention to the development, developing, and constructing port information
deepwater and professional construction. Through the “8th systems. A lot of funds are invested in the construction of
Five-Year Plan” and “9th Five-Year Plan”, the hub port of large-scale deepwater and specialized berths, raising another
the main sea passage and the wharf of coal, container, pas- upsurge of port construction. As of 2014, there have been
senger and cargo in China were mainly constructed, which 31,705 berths for production wharves in the whole country,
basically formed a hierarchical layout framework of 20 main including 2110 berths of 10,000 tons and above and the total
hub wharves in Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Tianjin, Qingdao and cargo handling capacity of the ports in the whole year is
Shanghai and Shenzhen as the backbone, supplemented by 12.452 billion tons.
regional important ports, and small and medium-sized ports.
At the same time, the facilities, collection and transportation 2. Current situation of port and wharf industry in China
system, shipbuilding industry, navigation engineering,
communication and navigation, ship inspection and salvage 1) Current situation of port infrastructure construction
system supporting the port and navigation are basically
completed. China’s ports have been developed into an In 2014, China’s port transport production continued to
important hub of the comprehensive transportation system, maintain a small increase and the port foreign trade opera-
providing strong support for the transportation of national tion situation continued to improve. Major cargo handling
energy, foreign trade goods and important raw materials. By capacity of coal, mine, oil, and tanks has maintained a small
2000, there were more than 1400 ports and 33,000 berths for increase. The main features are as follows:
production wharves, including 784 berths of 10,000 tons and
above. The cargo handling capacity of ports in China (1) The number of wharves at and above 10,000 tons of
reached 2.2 billion tons. The container handling capacity is handling capacity continues to increase. At the end of
23.48 million standard boxes, including 1.29 billion tons of 2014, there were 31,705 berths in production wharves
goods in coastal ports and 523 million tons of foreign trade in China, 55 fewer than that at the end of previous year.
goods in coastal ports. Among them, there are 5834 berths in production
Stage 5 is from the beginning of the twenty-first century wharves in coastal ports, an increase of 159 berths;
to the present. With the development of trade liberalization there are 25,871 berths in production wharves in inland
and international transportation integration, modern infor- river ports, a decrease of 214 berths. There are 2110
mation technology and network technology are also rapidly berths of 10,000 tons and above, 109 more than that at
developing with economic globalization. Modern logistics the end of previous year. Among them, there are 1704
industry has rapidly grown into an emerging industry which berths of 10,000 tons and above along the coastal ports,
is full of vitality, unlimited potential and development space an increase of 97 berths; there are 406 berths of 10,000
in the world. A modern port will no longer be a simple place tons and above in inland river ports, an increase of 12
for the exchange of goods, but an important link in the berths. There are 1114 specialized berths, 441
international logistics chain. Since the twenty-first century, general-purpose bulk berths, and 360 general-purpose
the process of economic globalization has been accelerated, break-bulk berths, which is 52, 27, and 15 more than
the scientific and technological revolution has developed that at the end of previous year, respectively.
rapidly, the industrial structure has been optimized and Table 2.37 is the national production wharves.
upgraded constantly, and the overall national strength Table 2.38 shows the number of berths of ports and
competition has increasingly intensified. To meet the needs wharves in China.
Table 2.37 National production wharves in 2014

Type Unit 2014 2013 Increase and decrease in 2014 Proportion of 2014 in 2013 (%)
compared with 2013
Berths for production wharves Berth 31,705 31,760 −55 99.83
Coastal Berth 5834 5675 159 102.80
Inland river Berth 25,871 26,085 −214 99.18
Berths of 10,000 tons and above Berth 2110 2001 109 105.45
Table 2.38 Number of berths in ports and wharves in China 30.94 million tons are newly added to berths of 10,000
Region Berths in Berths in public tons and above. The mileage of inland waterway is
production wharves increased and improved by 2000 km. Investment in
wharves coastal construction was RMB 95.186 billion, down
10,000-ton class 10,000-ton 3.1%. Figure 2.61 shows investment in water transport
class construction from 2010 to 2014.
Total 31,705 2,110 11,928 1608
1. Total of coastal 5834 1704 2775 1356 2) Port production
Tianjin 151 106 151 106
Hebei 197 160 162 144 In 2014, China’s economic growth continued a small
Liaoning 391 205 319 179 downward trend under the influence of decline in internal
and external demand, but China’s port transport production
Shanghai 608 156 216 86
still maintained a small increase. Its main characteristics are
Jiangsu 148 66 99 55
as follows:
Zhejiang 1093 208 223 122
Fujian 472 154 276 124 (1) The growth rate of the total handling capacity of ports
Shandong 540 249 363 219 nationwide has slowed down. The total cargo handling
Guangdong 1839 280 773 228 capacity of ports nationwide was 12.452 billion tons, an
Guangxi 249 74 129 64 increase of 5.8% over the previous year. Among them,
Hainan 146 46 64 29 8.033 billion tons were completed by coastal ports and
4.419 billion tons were completed by inland ports,
2. Total of inland river 25,871 406 9153 252
increasing by 6.2% and 5.1%, respectively. The number
Heilongjiang River 172 – 141 –
System
of ports with cargo handling capacity exceeding 100
million tons increased from 32 in the previous year to
Huaihe River System 2080 – 475 –
33. Among them, there were 22 ports of 100 million ton
Main stream of Yangtze 3722 400 1959 248
of along the coast and 11 ports in inland rivers. Fig-
River
ure 2.62 shows the national port cargo handling
Yangtze River tributaries 14,022 – 4709 –
capacity from 2010 to 2014.
Beijing-Hangzhou Canal 3081 – 775 – (2) The foreign trade handling capacity of ports throughout
Pearl River System 1568 – 459 – the country continues to grow. In 2014, China’s ports
Other river systems 1220 – 631 – completed 3.59 billion tons of foreign trade cargo, an
increase of 6.9 percent over the previous year. Among
them, 3.267 billion tons were completed by coastal
(2) New berths along the coast continue to rise. In 2014, ports and 323 million tons were completed by inland
there were 174 newly built and rebuilt (expanded) ports, increasing by 6.9% and 6.8%, respectively.
berths in coastal ports with a new handling capacity of (3) Port container handling capacity continues to grow. In
362.69 million tons, of which 331.23 million tons will 2014, the container handling capacity of China’s ports
be added for berths of 10,000 tons and above. There are was 202 million TEU, an increase of 6.4% over the
586 berths of 10,000–30,000 tons (excluding 30,000) previous year. Among them, the coastal ports com-
and 261 berths of 30,000–50,000 tons (excluding pleted 182 million TEU and the inland ports completed
50,000) 558 berths of 50,000–140,000 tons (excluding 20.66 million TEU, an increase of 7.1% and 0.6%
100,000) and 299 berths of 100,000 tons and above respectively over the previous year.
along the coast, which is 97, 19, 7, 26, 45 more than (4) The passenger handling capacity of ports continues to
that at the end of previous year, respectively. decline. In 2014, the total passenger handling capacity
(3) The construction of berths of 10,000 tons and above in of ports across the country was 183 million, a decrease
inland river ports continues to be accelerated. In 2014, of 0.9% over the previous year. Among them, coastal
the investment in inland rivers and coastal construction ports completed 81 million and inland ports completed
was RMB 145.998 billion, a decrease of 4.5% over the 102 million, an increase of 3.6% and a decrease of
previous year. Among them, the completed investment 4.2%, respectively.
of inland river construction was RMB 50.812 billion, (5) The handling capacity of all kinds of goods is basically
down 6.9%. There are 253 newly built and rebuilt increasing. In 2014, ports around the country completed
(expanded) berths for inland river ports, with a new the liquid bulk handling capacity of 997 million tons, an
handling capacity of 162.16 million tons, of which
96 B. Xu
Investment/RMB 100 million

Inland construction
Coastal construction
Year
Fig. 2.61 Investment in water transport construction from 2010 to 2014
Coastal ports
Inland ports
Year
Fig. 2.62 National port cargo handling capacity from 2010 to 2014
increase of 5.1% over the previous year; dry bulk Among them, the handling capacity of coal and prod-
handling capacity of 7.246 billion tons, an increase of ucts is 2.189 billion tons, the handling capacity of oil,
4.9%; break-bulk handling capacity of 1.252 billion natural gas, and products is 786 million tons, and the
tons, an increase of 7.3%; container handling capacity handling capacity of metal ores is 1.797 billion tons,
(calculated by quality) of 2.349 billion tons, an increase increasing by 0.7%, 3.7%, and 7.6%, respectively.
of 7.5%; and roll-on vehicle handling capacity (calcu-
lated by mass) of 609 million tons, an increase of 9.4%. 3) Prospect of port and wharf industry
Figure 2.63 shows various types of cargo handling
capacity in 2014. Over the past 60 years since the founding of the People’s
(6) The cargo handling capacity of ports above the scale Republic of China, China’s waterway transport has syn-
continues to increase. In 2014, the cargo handling chronized with the economic and social development and
capacity of ports above the scale was 11.188 billion achieved remarkable achievements, thus effectively guaran-
tons, an increase of 5.1% over the previous year. teeing the rapid development of national economy and
Break-bulk cargo 10%

Container 18.9%
Roll-on vehicle 4.9%
Liquid bulk 8.0%
Dry bulk 58.2%
Fig. 2.63 Various types of cargo handling capacity in 2014
foreign trade. The water transport infrastructure has experi- supporting and leading role of scientific and technological
enced the restoration stage in the early stage of the founding innovation and information construction. In this way, the
of the People’s Republic of China. The “Three-year Port development of transportation can be established on the
Construction” in the 1970s, the initial construction of the basis of optimizing structure, improving efficiency,
reform and opening-up and the leap-over development of strengthening management, and enhancing service to
nearly 20 years make the transportation undergo a historic enhance the balance, coordination, and sustainability of
change. Since the reform and opening-up, the infrastructure development.
construction of water transport has developed rapidly. In After four times of port construction upsurge, China’s port
1978, there were only 735 production berths in China’s ports construction and operational capacity has made rapid devel-
and 133 berths of 10,000 tons and above along the coast. opment. However, China’s port facilities are also gradually
The cargo handling capacity of the ports was only 280 entering the maintenance period. In the early days of the
million. In 1979, the container handling capacity was only founding of the People’s Republic of China, the restored
2521 TEU. The annual cargo handling capacity in China’s wharves have been used for more than 50 years, and some
ports reached 12.452 billion tons, and the container handling have been used for more than 60 years. The wharves built
capacity reached 202 million TEU in 2014. There were 33 during the period of “Three-year Port Construction” have
billion-tonnage ports and 1704 deepwater berths of more been used for more than 30 years, and some have been over
than 10,000 tons in coastal ports. The tremendous achieve- 35 years. The wharves built and put into operation in the
ments made in port construction have provided important 1980s have exceeded 20 years, and some have exceeded
support for the development of the national economy. At the 30 years. In accordance with the design service life of 30 or
same time, it has paid a great price, resulting in the 20 years, there were 774 production berths in 1981, all of
unprecedented shortage of shoreline resources and weaken- which basically exceed the design service life. In 1991, there
ing of the impetus of sustainable development. were 4407 production berths nationwide, some of which
According to the current situation, the Ministry of reach the design service life, and some are close to the design
Transport of the People’s Republic of China proposes that service life and gradually enter the maintenance period. In the
the key is to continue to promote the “three changes” is to past 20 years, the wharf construction in China has entered the
change the development mode and speed up the develop- stage of leapfrog development. The number of port berths has
ment of modern transportation industry. We should pay changed from 4407 in 1991 to 31,705 at the end of 2014,
more attention to optimizing transportation organization and which is seven times that in 1991. Although the wharves built
improving service efficiency, and pay more attention to in recent 20 years have not reached the design service life, it
coordinated development of overall planning, maintenance, is also necessary to strengthen the maintenance in the use
operation, and management, and to giving play to the process in order to make full use of their function.
98 B. Xu
4) Significance of port shipping in the construction of Table 2.39 Classification standard and categories of wharves
national economy Classification Category
According to function Comprehensive wharf, professional
Port is the window and bridge for a country or region to wharf
open to the outside world, and an important support for According to location Coastal wharf, inland wharf
regional economy to participate in international division of According to the Near-shore wharf, offshore wharf
labor, cooperation, and competition. With the rapid devel- relationship to the
opment of economy and foreign trade under the trend of shoreline
economic globalization, ports have become the growth poles According to the plan Quay type wharf, jetty type wharf,
of regional economic development. Port is the hub of traffic layout island type wharf
and is the center of various means of transportation. A large According to the section Vertical wharf, sloping wharf,
number of goods gather here, driving economic develop- shape semi-vertical wharf, and semi-sloping
wharf
ment. At the same time, the processing industry which is the
hub of global resource allocation has been developed around According to the High-pile wharf, sheet pile wharf,
structure gravity wharf, and hybrid wharf
the ports, driving the development of industry and promot-
ing the development of international trade. The current trend
of globalization is increasingly marked. Resources flow in a
2) Classification of wharf building
global scale and are shared around the world, all of which
are supported by sea transport because of its largest volume,
There are many kinds of wharves, and there are many
highest efficiency, and lowest cost. It has become a hub for
classification methods. The main classification methods are
resource allocation around the ports. Therefore, in the con-
shown in Table 2.39.
struction of national economy, ports are very important to
The front line of quay type wharf is arranged along the
integrate various factors of production and develop various
shoreline direction. The line of jetty type wharf is at a certain
industrial clusters.
angle to the shoreline. There are two kinds of jetty type
wharf: narrow jetty type wharf and wide jetty type wharf.
3. Type, structure, and form of wharf
The narrow jetty type wharf is an integral structure along the
width direction. The wide jetty type wharf is generally a
1) Components of wharf building
wharf structure on both sides in the width direction, and the
middle part is filled with earth to form the wharf floor. Island
Wharf building is used for berthing of ships, cargo loading,
type wharf is a far offshore isolated wharf building, generally
and unloading and for passengers to go up and down. It is
used only as an oil wharf which is connected to the shore by
composed of main structure and wharf equipment.
the submarine oil pipeline.
The main structure usually includes an upper structure, a
Vertical wharves are used in ports whose water level has
lower structure, and a foundation.
not changed much, such as seaports, river ports, and canal
The function of the upper structure is to connect the
ports. This type of wharf is convenient for ship berthing and
components of the lower structure as a whole; to directly
operation. Sloping wharves are suitable for ports where the
bear the ship force and ground service load and transmit it to
water level varies greatly, such as ports in the middle and
the lower structure. In addition, it is also used for the
upper reaches of natural rivers. Semi-sloping wharves are
installation of auxiliary equipment of the wharf. The func-
suitable for ports with long periods of low water levels and
tion of the lower structure is to make the wharf become an
short periods of high water levels, such as ports in the
upright wall and to transmit the forces acting on the upper
upstream of natural rivers. Semi-vertical wharves are suit-
structure and itself to the foundation. The foundation is the
able for ports with long time of high water level and short
base of the wharf building, which receives the forces
time of low water level, such as reservoir port. The
transmitted from the lower structure and spreads over a wide
semi-sloping wharf and semi-vertical wharf are seldom used.
range of foundations. The wharf equipment refers to the
Classification according to the structure type is the most
equipment required for berthing, loading, and unloading,
commonly used classification method in engineering at
including mooring equipment, buffering equipment, safety
present, and the above categories can be subdivided, which
equipment, process equipment and road surface, etc.
is mainly introduced below.
High-pile wharf consists of a series of foundation piles Sheet pile wharf: A pile wall is formed by driving a series
and the upper structure thereon, as shown in Fig. 2.64. The of continuous sheet piles into the foundation to block the
upper structure forms the wharf ground and connects the soil, so it is subjected to great soil pressure. In order to
foundation piles as a whole, which directly bears the loads reduce the upper displacement of the sheet pile wall and the
and external forces acting on the wharf and transmits them to bending moment borne by the sheet pile, the upper part of
the foundation through the pile foundation. High-pile wharf the sheet pile is usually pulled by rods which transmit the
is generally suitable for soft soil foundation. Its advantages tensile force to the rear anchorage structure. Since the sheet
are light structure, good wave attenuation effect and low pile wall is thin-walled and subjected to great soil pressure,
consumption of sand and gravel material while its disad- the sheet pile wharf is suitable for medium and small-sized
vantages are poor adaptation to overload and change of wharfs where the wall is not too high.
loading and unload process, poor durability, easy damage of Gravity wharf is a retaining structure that relies on the
components, and difficulty in repair. self-weight of the structure to ensure its sliding and dumping
stability. Gravity wharf is suitable for the foundation with
Fig. 2.64 Structural form of wharf

100 B. Xu
Fig. 2.64 (Continued)

Parapet
Unloading plate
Riprap machine
Decompression riprap prism
Inverted filter layer
Back fill
(a) Gravity wharf
Guide beam
Sheet pile
Pull rod
Back fill
Anchorage structure
(b) Sheet pile wharf
Pile platform
Sheet pile
Foundation pile
Back fill
(c) High-pile wharf
High-pile wharf
Cap beam
Foundation pile
Sheet pile
Pull rod
Anchorage structure
(d) Mixed type wharf (beam-slab high-pile structure
combined with sheet pile)
Vertical plate
Foundation plate
Pull rod
Anchorage structure
) Composite wharf (L type wallboard of anchorage)
good soil quality because of its heavy weight. The wall of 4. A summary of the main materials used in wharf
gravity wharf is mostly solid structure, so its durability is
good. The wharf is usually composed of reinforced concrete
Hybrid wharf: According to the local conditions of structure and steel structure, and the materials used in wharf
foundation, hydrology, building materials, requirements of are explained below.
wharf use, and construction conditions, various forms of In port engineering, because of the harsh environment of
hybrid structure may also be adopted, such as gravity wharf concrete and reinforced concrete component and structures,
whose the lower part is gravity pier and the upper part is it is necessary to have corresponding frost resistance,
beam-slab structure; rear sheet pile high-pile wharf with impermeability or corrosion resistance, as well as the ability
sheet pile retaining wall at the rear; hybrid wharf consisting to prevent corrosion of steel bars and to resist ice impact
of a foundation plate, a vertical plate, a pull rod, and an friction according to the environmental condition in addition
anchorage structure. to the strength requirement compared with general concrete
and reinforced concrete. Therefore, the construction of
concrete and reinforced concrete port engineering should be cathodic protection is used for corrosion protection of
strictly controlled to improve its overall quality. ordinary steel structures.
The ordinary concrete takes the strength as the most basic Weathering steel refers to the steel whose surface can
characteristic. In other words, the strength is the only index gradually form a very dense and strong adhesive stable rust
required for the design and production of the mix ratio of the layer to prevent the invasion of external corrosive media so as
ordinary concrete. However, HPC takes the durability as the to slow the rate of continued corrosion of metals when
primary index while strength, workability, and volume sta- exposed to atmospheric conditions. It is made of plain carbon
bility are taken into account. Engineering examples show steel with a small amount of anti-corrosion elements such as
that a large number of ordinary concrete is destroyed due to copper and nickel. It has the characteristics of toughness,
poor durability rather than insufficient strength. For port plastic extension, forming, welding and cutting, abrasion,
engineering buildings, the durability of concrete is more high temperature and fatigue of high-quality steel. The add-
important and attractive than its strength. It is in this way ing of trace elements such as phosphorus, copper, chromium
that HPC is produced. and nickel into the steel can form a dense and adhesive
The basic conditions for HPC are strength, durability, protective film on the surface of the steel, which hinders the
workability, volume stability and economy that are com- diffusion and development of rust, protects the substrate
patible with the use conditions and environment. HPC is under the rust layer, and slows down the deep development of
characterized by low water–cement ratio, high-efficiency corrosion to the steel material, greatly improving the atmo-
water reducer and mineral fine admixture, thus changing the spheric corrosion resistance of steel material.
sub-microstructure of set cement, changing the interface When the amount of chromium atom in the steel is not
structure between set cement and aggregate, and improving less than 12.5%, the electrode potential of the steel can be
the compactness of concrete. The preparation of HPC also abruptly changed from a negative potential to a positive
includes properties of aggregate, mix ratio design, mixing, electrode potential to prevent electrochemical corrosion of
transportation, pouring, curing, and quality control of con- the steel. In corrosive media, chromium can quickly form a
crete, which is also the important content that HPC is dif- dense passivated film on the steel surface to prevent the
ferent from the ordinary concrete technology with strength metal matrix from being damaged. Steel that has the ability
as its main characteristic. The task of mix ratio design of to resist corrosion by air, water, acid, alkali, salt, or other
HPC is to correctly select raw materials and mix ratio media is commonly referred to as stainless steel. It can be
parameters so as to unify their contradictions, and to obtain divided into martensitic steel, ferritic steel, austenitic steel,
economic and reasonable HPC. austenitic-ferritic (diphasic) stainless steel, and precipitation
Reinforced concrete is a kind of block material with hardening stainless steel.
common force and common deformation, which is com- Titanium alloy is composed of titanium and other ele-
posed of steel bars and concrete with completely different ments. Titanium can quickly form thin and dense titanium
mechanical properties. By combining the two materials of oxide film on its surface in air below 550°C, so its corrosion
steel bars and concrete organically, the bearing capacity and resistance is better than that of most stainless steel in oxi-
deformation capacity of components can be greatly dized media and strong alkali such as atmosphere and sea-
improved. The study shows that the corrosion of steel bars in water. Titanium alloy material has good fracture toughness,
reinforced concrete is closely related to the structural corrosion resistance, high temperature strength, anti-fatigue,
porosity, compactness, cement admixture, humidity, alka- and creep resistance. It is a new type of structural material
linity, and cement type of concrete. Under the harsh working with great development potential and application prospects
environment of the wharf, higher requirements are put for- for its excellent comprehensive properties.
ward for the corrosion resistance of reinforced concrete.
Compared with the traditional building materials such as
reinforced concrete, the steel structure has the advantages of 2.2.2 Corrosion and Protection
good mechanical properties, strong bearing capacity, simple
manufacture, easy industrial production and short construc- 2.2.2.1 Main Corrosion Problems Faced
tion and installation period. In addition, steel can be reused, by the Terminal
which fully reflects the construction concept of green envi-
ronmental protection and sustainable development. How- 1. Major types of corrosion of wharf
ever, steel is susceptible to corrosion by chemical,
electrochemical, or physical interaction with the environ- The corrosion types of metal components in marine envi-
mental medium. Under the conditions of high humidity, high ronment mainly include uniform corrosion and local corro-
salt, and alternation of dry and wet of wharves, the corrosion sion. Local corrosion includes pitting corrosion, crevice
of steel structure is especially prominent. Coating and corrosion, and galvanic corrosion [8].
102 B. Xu
2. Corrosion status of different areas Solar radiation is another factor that affects corrosion
behavior. Such radiation promotes photosensitive corrosion
Generally speaking, according to the depth of seawater reaction on surface of metals such as copper or iron and
immersion, the marine corrosive environment is usually biological activity of fungi which contribute to the accu-
divided into five areas: atmospheric area, splash area, water mulation of corrosive water particles and dust. In the tropics,
level fluctuation area (tidal range area), underwater area (full coral dust, and sea salt are particularly corrosive together.
immersion area), and sub-mud area (sea mud area). Long-term solar radiation will accelerate the aging and
failure of the coating, which is disadvantageous to the
(1) Atmospheric area coating.
Rainfall is also another important factor affecting the rate
The marine atmospheric area is the part that does not directly of corrosion in the marine atmosphere. A large amount of
contact the seawater in the marine environment, and the rainwater will wash away the salts deposited on the metal
corrosion of the marine atmospheric area is often affected by surface, thus reducing the corrosion of metals. In addition,
various factors and is caused by the interaction of various the corrosion of the metallic materials facing away from the
factors. The marine atmosphere is much more corrosive than surface of the sun is more severe than the surface facing the
terrestrial atmosphere due to the presence of salty droplets sun, as observed in the field. This is due to the fact that
on the metal surface, so the corrosion of this part is much although the metal materials facing away from the sun is
more severe than inland (Fig. 2.65). kept away from the direct sunlight and the temperature is
In the atmospheric area, the deposition of sea salt is relatively low, the surface dust and sea salt and pollutants in
related to the wind wave, the height from the sea surface and the air are not washed away in time and the humidity is high,
the length of exposure time in the air. In particular, sea salt which makes the corrosion more serious.
particles such as calcium chloride and magnesium chloride Fungi and mold often deposit on the surface of the metal
are hygroscopic and tend to form a wet film on metal sur- in the marine atmosphere, which increases the corrosivity of
face, especially when diurnal or seasonal climate changes a the environment because it retains moisture on the surface.
lot. In deep inland, the amount of salt particles in the The corrosion of marine atmospheric environment is
atmosphere rapidly decreases, and salt content is approach- strengthened with the increase of temperature. The higher
ing zero in the absence of strong storm at about 2 km-deep the temperature is, the more corrosive it is.
inland.
Surface moisture also affects atmospheric corrosion, (2) Splash area
which directly affects the rate and process of corrosion of
metals. In a very dry atmospheric environment, the corrosion In marine environments, droplets of seawater can be sprayed
of metallic materials is very slight. In contrast, in a humid onto the surface. The area that can’t be submerged by sea-
environment where dew condensation occurs on the surface, water at high tide is commonly referred to as splash area.
the corrosion rate becomes relatively large. The surface of steel structure in the splash area is often
wetted by the seawater containing saturated air, which is
similar to the marine atmospheric area. There are no attached
organisms in this area, but the amount of salt particles and
the alternation degree of dry and wet seawater are larger than
that of marine atmospheric area. The corrosion in the splash
area is more serious than that in the marine atmosphere area
because of sufficient oxygen supply, sufficient sunshine,
high frequency of alternation between dry and wet, and large
amount of salt particles. The steel in this part is continuously
subjected to the impact of seawater droplets and waves. The
supply of seawater and oxygen is abundant, so the surface
rust layer will physically peel off. In addition, the impact will
also aggravate the damage of the coating. In general, the
anti-corrosion coating layer is more likely to fall off in this
area than the other areas (Fig. 2.66).
(3) Water level fluctuation area

Fig. 2.65 Corrosion status of atmospheric area
Fig. 2.66 Corrosion status of splash area
The water level fluctuation area refers to the area between Fig. 2.67 Marine biological corrosion in water level fluctuation area
the average high tide level and the average low tide level. In
this area, the diffusion of oxygen is slow relative to the
corrosion is serious. The equipment in the far sea area is
splash area and the temperature of the metal surface is
mainly located in the surface seawater area. There are many
influenced both by the air temperature and water tempera-
factors affecting the corrosion of steel in seawater, including
ture, but is usually close to or equal to the temperature of
chemistry, physics, and biology.
seawater. In this area, the steel structure is submerged by
The main chemical factors are dissolved oxygen, salinity,
aerated seawater at rising tide, causing corrosion of the
pH value and so on. For carbon steel and low alloy, the
seawater, and is exposed to the air at falling tide, producing
higher the dissolved oxygen content in seawater is, the faster
corrosion similar to the atmospheric area under the wet
the corrosion rate of the steel is. The influence of salinity is
membrane. At the same time, large tidal movement will
mainly divided into two categories: one is the strong cor-
accelerate corrosion speed for cavitation corrosion caused by
rosive ion Cl−, which can destroy the metal passive film and
physical erosion and high-speed water flow. In this area, tide form complex with metal ion, improving the acidity of
varies depending on the location of the ocean. However, for
seawater. Therefore, a high concentration of Cl− can cause
steel materials, tidal movement will cause an increase in the
serious corrosion of various metals. The other is Ca2+ and
corrosion rate. In addition, marine organisms can inhabit the Mg2+ contained in seawater that can precipitate calcium
metal surface in the water level fluctuation area, and if the
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide on the metal surface,
adhesion is uniform and dense, a protective film can be
which can protect the metal. The pH value of seawater
formed on the steel surface to alleviate the corrosion of the generally varies little and has less effect on corrosion.
steel structure. In the case of local adhesion, an oxygen
Physical factors mainly include flow rate, tide, and tem-
concentration cell may be generated because the steel at the
perature. When the flow rate of seawater increases, the dis-
attachment site is difficult to come into contact with oxygen, solved oxygen diffuses to the cathode more rapidly,
so that the steel under the attachment site is strongly cor-
increasing the corrosion rate of the steel. If there are particles
roded. The effects of different biological species on the
such as sediment in the seawater, the corrosion will be fur-
corrosion of metals are also different (Fig. 2.67). ther aggravated. If the temperature rises, the corrosivity of
the seawater will also increase.
(4) Underwater area
Biological factors are also important factors affecting
corrosion. Many organisms often attach themselves to the
The underwater area refers to the part immersed in seawater surface of metals in seawater. Calcium deposits have a
all the year-round. According to the depth, it is divided into certain protective effect on metals, but the metabolites and
shallow water area (shallower than 200 m) and deep water cadaveric decomposition of attached organisms can aggra-
area (deeper than 200 m). In the shallow water area, the vate the corrosion of metals because they contain acidic
water within 20 m below the sea surface is called surface components such as hydrogen sulfide. In addition, barnacle
seawater. The dissolved oxygen in the surface seawater is will leave crevice on the metal surface, and crevice corrosion
nearly saturated. The biological activity is strong and the is easily formed (Fig. 2.68).
water temperature is high in surface seawater where
104 B. Xu
passive metals are unstable. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in

sub-mud area will reproduce in anaerobic environment, and
hydrogenase can remove hydrogen in cathodic region, accel-
erating the depolarization process during corrosion, therefore
SRB will induce severe corrosion of steel components
embedded in sub-mud area. Table 2.40 shows different corro-
sion characteristics of different marine environment areas.
2.2.2.2 Types of Anti-corrosion Methods
1. Anti-corrosion measures for different areas
The anti-corrosion measures shall be considered from the

whole structure, and corresponding anti-corrosion measures
shall be selected according to different parts of the structure,
Fig. 2.68 Condition of seawater attachment in underwater area protection years, construction, maintenance management,
safety requirements, and technical and economic benefits.
(5) Sub-mud area Corrosion protection in atmospheric area shall be con-
ducted by coating or metal spraying coating. Thin-walled
The sub-mud area is located below the underwater area and is steel structure with complicated land structure or less than
mainly composed of seafloor sediments. The dredged soil 1 mm in thickness may be protected by hot dip galvanizing
blown up is mainly taken from this area. The physical, chem- or galvanizing with coating.
ical, and biological properties of seafloor sediments vary with Protection measures such as heavy anti-corrosion coating,
sea area and sea depth. The sub-mud is actually saturated sea- metal thermal spraying coating and sealing coating shall be
water soil, which is a complex corrosive environment with both adopted in the splash area and water level fluctuation area. On
soil corrosion characteristics and seawater corrosion character- the basis of technical and economic demonstration, cladding
istics. The salinity and resistivity in the sub-mud area are low, organic composite layer, resin mortar, and cladding composite
but oxygen supply is also low, so passive films of common anti-corrosion metal layer can also be used for protection.
Table 2.40 Corrosion characteristics of different marine environment areas

Corrosion area Environmental condition Corrosion characteristics
Atmospheric The influence factors of fine sea salt particles brought by wind The downsun side is more damaged than the sunny side.
area include height from sea surface, wind speed, wind direction, The rain can wash away the salt from the top. Coral
dew falling period, rainfall, temperature, sun irradiation, dust, dust, along with sea salt, can also be particularly
season and pollution, etc. corrosive to steel equipment, reducing corrosion away
from the coast
Splash area Surfaces that are moist and adequately oxygenated, free from Many metals like steel have the most severe erosion in
marine biofouling this area, and protective coatings are more prone to
damage than in other areas
Water level Dry and wet alternating with the ebb and flow of the tide, In the case of integral steel piles, the steel located in the
fluctuation area usually with sufficient oxygen tidal range can act as a cathode (fully inflated) and can
(tidal range) be protected to some extent by corrosion of the steel
below the tidal range where the individual steel template
is more severely corrosive
Underwater area The shallow water on the shore is usually saturated with Corrosion may be more rapid in shallow water than in
(full immersion oxygen. Pollution, sediments, marine biofouling, and the marine atmosphere. Corrosion can be controlled by
area) seawater velocity may all play an important role. In the deep protective coatings and cathodic protection. In most
sea area, the oxygen content becomes smaller. Deepsea areas shallow waters, a layer of hard shells and other
tend to have much lower level of oxygen than the surface biological fouling prevents oxygen from entering the
surface, thereby reducing corrosion. The corrosion of
steel in the deep sea area is relatively low
Sub-mud area Bacteria such as sulfate-reducing bacteria are often present. Seafloor sediments are usually corrosive. It is possible
(marine mud The sources, characteristics, and characteristics of seafloor to form a water corrosion cell in the sediment
area) sediments are different gap. Partially embedded steel samples have an
accelerated corrosion tendency. Sulfide and bacteria
may be contributing factors
Cathodic protection combined with coating shall be as the cathode. The coating is simple in construction, easy to
adopted for corrosion protection in underwater areas, or control in quality, wide in adaptability and high in cost
cathodic protection shall be adopted alone. When cathodic performance, and can form a complete anti-corrosion system
protection is used alone, anti-corrosion measures during with other anti-corrosion measures (such as cathodic pro-
construction shall be considered. tection and metal spraying). The coating is mainly com-
Cathodic protection shall be adopted for corrosion proposed of primer, intermediate paint, and top coat. Primer is
tection in the sub-mud area. When the sacrificial anode is used to protect the base iron and steel parts with excellent
buried in the sea mud, an appropriate anode material should corrosion resistance, good mechanical properties, low toxi-
be selected, and the decrease of its driving voltage and city, and excellent protection for substrate of construction
current efficiency should be taken into account. equipment. The intermediate paint can perfectly fill the
For steel structures buried in seaport such as steel sheet pile sanding marks and is easy to polish with good flatness,
bank side, anchorage pile, and pull rod, it is advisable to adopt which can improve the gloss and fullness of the top coat.
combined protection measure of impressed current cathodic The top coat has high decoration, bright appearance, full-
protection and coating, or combined protection of sacrificial ness, bright color, and good light and color preservation
anode protection and coating. For stressed steel pull rod, performance.
combined anti-corrosion measure of wrapped organic anti-
corrosion material and cathodic protection can be adopted. 4. Cathodic protection
2. Metal thermal spraying Cathodic protection can reduce the corrosion potential so as to
protect the components from corrosion. Cathodic protection
A method of forming a coating by spraying molten metal or technology is mature and widely used in transportation, petro-
other material at a certain speed onto a protected metal sur- leum, chemical industry, and other fields. It is mainly used for
face through a spray gun by gas under pressure is called anti-corrosion of structures or equipment in underwater area,
thermal spraying. At present, flame spraying, plasma spray- sub-mud area, and soil. The cathodic protection is particularly
ing, arc spraying, and explosion spraying are widely used. important and effective for the water equipment such as con-
Metal, nonmetal and ceramic coating can be obtained by this struction ships. The essence of cathodic protection is to conduct
method, which is widely used in wear-resistant, temperature- a certain cathodic polarization current to the protected metal
resistant, and strong corrosion-resistant parts. The metal structure so that the potential of the protected metal structure is
spraying layer is especially suitable for the steel structure or reduced to a stable area to be protected. According to the
small steel components in the atmospheric area, as well as is manner in which the current is supplied, it can be divided into
applied in large-scale projects such as television towers, sacrificial anode protection and impressed current protection.
bridges, highway facilities, water gates, high-voltage trans- Sacrificial anode protection is a method of selecting a metal
mission towers, buoy floating drums, and vertical shafts. material with a low potential to connect to a protected metal in
Many materials can be used for metal spraying, such as zinc, an electrolyte so as to protect other metals by the current
aluminum, stainless steel, etc. Among them, the stainless steel generated by its own corrosion. This metal or alloy, which is
coating has the characteristics of wear resistance and eroded itself in order to protect other metals, is called a sac-
medium-term protection. The zinc and aluminum spraying rificial anode. Aluminum and its alloys, zinc and alloys,
coating not only has the function of covering and corrosion magnesium, and alloys are commonly used. The impressed
resistance, but also has the function of cathodic protection. current cathodic protection provides the required protective
current through the impressed DC power supply. The metal
3. Coating structure is protected by using a protected metal as a cathode
and selecting a specific material as an auxiliary anode.
A coating is a protective layer formed by a coating in one or Table 2.41 shows the comparison between the sacrificial anode
more single coating operations and is suitable for various protection and the impressed current cathodic protection.
marine corrosive areas. The main mechanism is as follows: The main parameters of cathodic protection are protec-
① shielding: preventing the direct contact between the tive potential and protective current. The protective potential
corrosive medium and the metal surface; ② passivation: is the potential required to stop the corrosion of the metal
changing the potential performance of the metal surface and during cathodic protection. To stop the corrosion com-
making the electrode potential move to the positive direc- pletely, the potential of protected metal must be polarized to
tion; ③ anti-rust: protecting the metal surface from corro- the active anode “equilibrium” potential. For steel struc-
sion; ④ cathodic protection: the electrode potential of the tures, this potential is the equilibrium potential of iron in a
anti-corrosion coating is lower than that of the metal pro- given electrolyte solution. The protective potential value is
tected by the anti-corrosion coating, and is gradually cor- often used as the basis for judging whether the cathodic
roded as the anode while protecting steel structure material protection is completed. By measuring the potential value of
106 B. Xu
Table 2.41 Comparison of cathodic protection methods

Type Advantages Disadvantages
Sacrificial anode • There is no need for external power source • Not suitable for use in high resistivity
protection • Interfere little with adjacent structures environments
• No management is needed after very small • The protective current is almost unadjustable
commissioning • Consumption of nonferrous metals
• Uniform distribution of protective current is
• High utilization ratio
Impressed current – Output current is continuously adjustable – Need for external power supply
protection – Wide scope of protection – Large interference with adjacent metal structures
– Not limited by environmental resistivity – Need for specialized maintenance and
– Long life of protective device management
Table 2.42 Electrochemical performance of three kinds of sacrificial anode materials

Anode Open circuit potential (V) Driving potential (V) Capacitance (A h/kg) Current efficiency (%) Consumption rate
[kg/(A a)]
Zinc –1.05 0.2 780 95 11.8
Magnesium –1.5 0.65 1220 50–55 7.2
Aluminum –1.1 0.25 2300–2610 80–90 3.8–3.4
each part of the protected structure, the protection situation that the anode can work steadily for a long time. This
can be understood. Therefore, the protective potential value not only ensures high current efficiency, but also pro-
is an important index for designing and monitoring cathodic longs the service life of the anode.
protection. (6) The corrosion products produced during the operation
of the sacrificial anode shall be nontoxic, harmless, and
1) Sacrificial anode cathodic protection. The sacrificial environment-friendly.
anode material as a key factor for sacrificial anode (7) The sacrificial anode is rich in raw materials, easy to
cathodic protection should satisfy the following produced and processed, and low in price.
conditions:
According to the composition of sacrificial anode, com-
(1) The sacrificial anode must have a sufficiently negative monly used sacrificial anodes include zinc alloy anode,
stable potential, i.e. a sufficiently large open circuit aluminum alloy anode, and magnesium alloy anode, man-
potential between the anode and the protected metal. ganese alloy anode and iron alloy anode. Table 2.42 shows
(2) The sacrificial anode is less prone to anodic polarization the performance comparison of zinc alloy anode, aluminum
during operation so that the potential of the sacrificial alloy anode, and magnesium alloy anode.
anode moves little in a positive direction (anodic The sacrificial anode of magnesium alloy is characterized
polarization). The operating potential of the sacrificial by small density, large theoretical capacitance, negative
anode is sufficiently negative so that a sufficiently large potential, and low polarizability. Its effective potential dif-
driving potential can be maintained while the cathode ference with iron is large (>0.6 V), so it has a large protection
protection system is operating. radius and is suitable for the protection of metals in fresh-
(3) The theoretical capacitance of the sacrificial anode water and soil with high resistance. However, it is not suit-
material is large so that less anode quality is consumed able low-resistance media (such as seawater) because of its
to produce a unit charge of 1 A h. quick corrosion, low current efficiency (usually only about
(4) The self-corrosion rate (self-dissolution) of the sacrifi- 50%), short service life, and frequent replacement. In addi-
cial anode during operation is small and the current tion, when the magnesium alloy anode works, a large amount
efficiency is high, that is, the percentage of the actual of hydrogen gas is generated. The spark is easily induced and
capacitance to the theoretical electrical capacity is large. it is not safe in operation, so the magnesium alloy anode can’t
(5) In the process of operation, the sacrificial anode exhibits be used in an environment easy to induce sparks. There are
uniform activation and dissolution, and the surface three kinds of commonly used magnesium alloys: high-purity
doesn’t precipitate hardly soluble corrosion products so magnesium, Mg–Mn alloy, and Mg–Al–Zn–Mn alloy.
The electrode potential of zinc alloy sacrificial anode is protected by cathode polarization. Its characteristics are as
less negative than that of magnesium, and has only a driving follows:
voltage of 0.25 V compared with the protective potential of
steel. Thus, zinc alloy anode is not suitable in soil or (1) The current can be automatically adjusted according to
freshwater with high resistivity, and is commonly used in the change caused by the external conditions (such as
seawater, certain chemical media, and soil or mudflat with sea area, flow rate, temperature, etc.), so that the
low resistivity. Although the theoretical capacitance of zinc potential of the protected part is controlled within the
alloy sacrificial anode is small, its current efficiency is very preset optimum protection potential range.
high, which can reach 95% in seawater and over 65% in soil. (2) The protection period is long. The use of insoluble
Commonly used zinc alloys are MIL-A-18001H, ASTM high-efficiency auxiliary anode can make the service
B418-37I, Hi-Amp (ASARCO), GB4950-85 and Zn–Al–Cd. life reach 10–20 years.
Aluminum alloy sacrificial anode has the advantages of (3) The auxiliary anode discharge flow rate is large and the
lightweight, large effective current per unit mass, negative action radius is large, which can protect the equipment
potential, abundant resources, and low price. The theoretical with complex structure and large area, port buildings,
capacitance of aluminum is 2980 A h/kg, which is 1.35 and underground pipelines.
times that of magnesium and 3.6 times that of zinc. How-
ever, pure aluminum forms an aqueous oxide on its surface The impressed current cathodic protection system is
in the aqueous solution to cause passivation of aluminum, so composed of auxiliary anode, reference electrode, anode
pure aluminum is not suitable as a sacrificial anode material. shielding layer, and power supply.
The aluminum alloy is formed by adding metals such as
zinc, indium, magnesium, and mercury into the aluminum, (1) Auxiliary anode material. The external electrode con-
which can effectively restrict or prevent formation of connected to the positive pole of the DC power supply in
tinuously dense oxide film on the aluminum surface, thereby the impressed current protection system is called an
promoting the surface activation and dissolution so that the auxiliary anode, and its function is to make the current
aluminum alloy anode has a relatively negative potential and flow from the electrode to the surface of the protected
a high current efficiency. Aluminum alloy anode has been body through the medium. The electrochemical prop-
widely used in the protection of steel structure in marine erties, mechanical properties, technological properties,
environment because it has good performance in seawater structure shape, size, distribution, and installation of the
and media containing chloride ion, and can adjust current auxiliary anode material have influence on its life and
automatically. However, when used in common soil med- protection effect. Ideal anode materials should have the
ium, the performance is not stable, and the current efficiency following properties: ① good conductivity, small
is very low. The main reason is that high-resistance and anode polarization, small surface resistance; (2) large
anti-oxidation film forms on the surface of the anode, which discharge; ③ corrosion resistance, low consumption,
hinders its normal operation. Thus, aluminum alloy anode is and long service life; ④ certain mechanical strength,
not suitable for use in soil. Commonly used aluminum alloy wear resistance, impact resistance, and vibration; ⑤
sacrificial anodes are mainly Al–Zn–In-based alloy, includ- good machinability and easy to be processed into var-
ing Al–Zn–In–Cd, Al–Zn–In–Si, and Al–Zn–In–Sn–Mg. ious shapes; ⑥ easy to obtain and low price. Table 2.43
In addition, an anodic metal (such as Zn, Al, pseudo Zn– shows the performance and geometry of common
Al alloy) coating and a coating rich in anodic metal (such as auxiliary anode materials.
zinc-rich primer) on the surface of the component also have (2) Reference electrode. In an impressed current cathodic
the effect of sacrificial anode cathodic protection. protection system, a reference electrode is used to
measure the potential of the protected body and transmit
2) Impressed current cathodic protection a signal to the control system so as to adjust the mag-
nitude of the protective current so that the potential of
In the impressed current cathodic protection system, the the structure is within a given range. The reference
negative electrode of the external DC power supply is con- electrode shall have the following properties: ① during
nected to the protected metal structure, and the positive long-term use, the reference electrode shall maintain
electrode is mounted on the exterior of the anti-corrosion stable potential and good reproducibility; ② the refer-
side of the metal structure and insulated from the protected ence electrode shall be allowed to pass a slight current
metal structure. When the circuit is turned on, a current loop without causing serious polarization; ③ the service life
is formed from the auxiliary anode through the conductive of the reference electrode should be long; ④ the
medium to the metal structure, and the metal structure is influence of external temperature and environmental
108 B. Xu
Table 2.43 Performance and geometry of common auxiliary anodes

Anode name Density Working current Consumption rate Utilization Geometry Use
(g/cm3) density (A/m2) (kg/(A a)) ratio (%) environment
Carbon steel and cast iron 7.8 10–100 8–10 30–50 – Seawater,
freshwater, soil
High-silicon chromium 7.0 50–300 0.2–1.0 50–90 Rod or Seawater,
iron cylinder freshwater, soil
Lead–silver alloy 11.3 50–250 0.1 80 Long strip Seawater
(containing 2% silver)
Lead–silver alloy 11.3 50–300 0.1 80 Disciform Seawater
(containing 3% silver)
Lead–silver micro 11.3 50–1000 8 10−3 80 Disciform Seawater
platinum
Platinum-plated titanium 5 1250 6 10−6 90 Flaky, Seawater
disciform
Platinum–titanium – 1500 6 10−6 90 Long strip Seawater
composite
Platinum–niobium – 2000 6 10−6 90 Long strip Seawater
composite
Titanium-based metal – 500–1000 5 10−6 – Long strip, Seawater
oxides disciform
conditions should be small, and the temperature coef- it is necessary to coat the insulating shielding layer
ficient should be small; ⑤ it shall have certain around the auxiliary anode to make the current gener-
mechanical strength, resistance to seawater erosion, ated by the anode as uniform as possible. Generally, the
abrasion resistance, and easy installation. Table 2.44 performance requirements of anode shielding materials
shows properties of common reference electrodes. The are as follows: ① high adhesion and toughness, which
relationship between the potential of reference electrode can resist the impact of seawater; ② good resistance to
and the protective potential of the steel is that the ref- seawater and alkali, especially chlorine gas; (3) high
erence electrode is the protective potential range as long insulation; ④ long service life; ⑤ good process per-
as the natural corrosion potential of the steel moves to formance, simple construction, and easy to obtain raw
the negative direction by 200–300 mV. Table 2.44 lists materials. There are three kinds of commonly used
the values of the protective potential of different refer- anode shielding materials: ① coating: epoxy asphalt-
ence electrodes of the steel. Through a lot of tests, it is ing, chlorinated rubbery and glass flake coating; ②
concluded that in the cathodic protection system, the sheet: polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and
protective effect of the steel is the best in the following polyethylene; ③ metal plate covered with the insulating
range. The protective range of the steel is −0.80 to layer.
1.00 V with respect to the silver/silver chloride elec- (4) Power supply. The power supply used in the impressed
trode. For copper/saturated copper sulfate electrode, the current cathodic protection system includes poten-
protective range of steel is −0.85 to 1.05 V. The pro- tiostat, rectifier, DC generator, and solar cell, among
tective potential of the steel is +0.23 to +0.03 V with which potentiostat is most commonly used. In the
respect to the zinc reference electrode. If the protective anti-corrosion project, the performance requirements of
potential of the steel is not within the above range, the potentiostat are as follows: ① according to the
insufficient protection or overprotection may occur. signal provided by the reference electrode, the protec-
(3) Anode shielding layer. When the impressed current tive current can be automatically adjusted so that the
system is operated, a large current is discharged from protected body is always within a predetermined pro-
the anode, and the potential of the protected structure tective potential range; ② the error of potential control
near the anode is very negative, so that hydrogen evo- is less than ±0.01 V; ③ Given potential range is +1.5
lution phenomenon occurs, destroying the nearby to 0 V, 0 to +1.5 V and continuously adjustable; ④
coating and reducing the protective effect. In order to input impedance is >1 MX; ⑤ the ripple voltage is not
prevent this phenomenon and expand the current dis- more than 5% of the custom output DC voltage; ⑥
tribution range to ensure the cathodic protective effect, current-limiting or overcurrent protection device,
Table 2.44 Properties of reference electrode used in seawater

Type Protective Production Stability Polarization Life Use
potential of process performance (year)
steel/V(vs. SCE)
Ag/AgCl −0.80 Complex Stable Difficult to 5–10 Measurement of equipment external electric
polarize current in seawater, and sacrificial anode
potential
Ag/AgX −0.80 Very Constantly No 10–20 Measurement of equipment external electric
complex stable polarization current in seawater, and sacrificial anode
potential
Cu/CuSO4 −0.85 Simple Relatively Difficult to 2–3 Hand-held, for on-site testing
stable polarize
Pure zinc +0.23 Simple Stable Easy to 6–10 External electric current system in seawater
electrode polarize
Table 2.45 Types and characteristics of potentiostat

Rectification Characteristic Scope of application Stability Disadvantage
mode
Silicon Small size, lightweight, Protection of ships, pipelines, High Strong overload capacity, troublesome
controlled high power, and high and platforms stability, debugging, overcurrent protection device
reliability long service needs to be added
life
Magnetic Simple circuit, strong Applicable to all kinds of High Bulky device and complex process
saturation overload ability, easy to cathodic protection systems stability,
maintain long service
life
Transistor Small size, high precision, Applicable to small ships and High Low output power, limited range of use
reliable operation, and small-scale external current stability,
simple operation protection system long service
life
overprotection, and insufficient protection potential

display alarm and power-off alarm device shall be 2.3 Report on Corrosion Investigation
provided; ⑦ insulation resistance (cold state). For in the Water Conservancy Industry
instruments with nominal voltage up to 60 V, insulation
resistance to ground shall not be less than 10 MX; for 2.3.1 Basic Situation
instruments with nominal power supply voltage greater
than 60 V, insulation resistance to ground shall not be 2.3.1.1 Development of Water Conservancy
less than 100 MX; ⑧ the parameters work normally in Industry in China
steady state and can work reliably in transient state. “Water conservancy” is a word with a long history. With the
Table 2.45 shows the types and characteristics of continuous development of social economy and technology,
potentiostat. its connotation is constantly enriched and expanded. The
word “water conservancy” was first seen in Xiaoxinglan
Shenren of Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals in the
late Warring States period. However, “taking water benefit”
2.2.3 Summary of Data and Results of Industry refers to the benefit of fishing. From about 104 BC to 91 BC,
Research Sima Qian, a historian of Western Han Dynasty, wrote
Records of the Historian, of which The Book of Rivers is the
In the investigation of the above anti-corrosion methods in first general history of water conservancy in China. This
2013 and 2014, the proportion of the wharfs using book describes a series of historical facts of flood control,
anti-corrosion technologies of the total number of surveyed channel opening, navigation, and water diversion and irri-
wharves is shown in Fig. 2.69. Table 2.46 is a typical wharf gation in the historical period from Dayu to the flood control
analysis. by Emperor Wu, and points out that “Water is of great
110 B. Xu
Proportion of the total number of surveyed wharves

Cathodic protection
Coating
Corrosion allowance
Cladding anti-corrosion
Cathodic protection monitoring
Number of wharves and their proportion of the total
Allowance + Coating + Cladding + External +
Monitoring
Allowance + Cladding + External + Monitoring
Allowance + Coating + External + Monitoring
Allowance + Coating + Sacrificial + Monitoring
Allowance + Coating + Cladding + Sacrificial
Allowance + Coating + Sacrificial
Allowance + Coating
Allowance
Unprotected
Unit:
Fig. 2.69 Proportion of the wharfs using anti-corrosion technologies of the total number of surveyed wharves
importance”. Since then, people have been arguing about an increase of 90% over the previous year. From the per-
water conservancy. The word “water conservancy” has the spective of investment sources, the central government
meaning of flood control, irrigation, and shipping. invested RMB 180.65 billion, an increase of 2.49% over the
previous year; local government invested RMB 203.35 bil-
1. General situation of investment lion, an increase of 17.8% over the previous year; the uti-
lization of foreign capital was RMB 380 million, 64.8% less
In 2014, the whole society implemented the investment plan than the previous year; domestic loans amounted to RMB
for water conservancy construction of RMB 434.51 billion, 27.74 billion, up 42.9% over the previous year; enterprise
2033.5 , 46.8% Local government investment, RMB 203.35 billion,

46.8%
3.8 , 0.1 % Foreign capital, RMB 380 million, 0.1%
277.4 , 6.4% Domestic loan, RMB 27.74 billion, 6.4%
83.8 , 1.9% Enterprise and private, RMB 8.38 billion, 1.9%
140.1 , 3.2% Other investment, RMB 14.01 billion, 3.2%
1806.5 , 41.6% Central government invested RMB 180.65 billion,
41.6%
Fig. 2.70 Social fixed investment in water conservancy industry in 2014
and private investment totaled RMB 8.38 billion, a decrease landing in China is less than the years past, but the landing
of 43.3% over the previous year; other investment was RMB places are concentrated. The landing frequency and intensity
14.01 billion, up 25.4% over the previous year. Figure 2.70 of a single typhoon is large, causing serious disasters.
is social fixed investment in water conservancy industry in Drought is generally light throughout the country. The
2014. drought-affected area of farmland was 122,720 km2, and the
damaged area was 56,770 km2, with a total direct economic
2. Key water conservancy construction loss of RMB 91 billion. 17.83 million urban and rural
population and 8.83 million large livestock experienced
(1) Flood control and drought relief temporary drinking difficulty due to drought. In 2014,
13,990 km2 of farmland was used for flood control and 93
In 2014, flood disaster throughout the country was generally citied avoided from floods and the economic benefit of flood
mild. A total of 59,190 km2 of agricultural crops were control and disaster mitigation was RMB 37.9 billion. 16.56
affected and 28,300 km2 of agricultural crops were dam- million urban and rural residents and 7.9 million large
aged. 73.82 million persons were affected, 486 persons were livestock’s temporary drinking difficulty was solved. The
killed and 91 were missing. 260,000 houses collapsed. There drought-resistant irrigated area was 193,880 km2 and
were 125 flooded cities above the county level, with a direct drought relief saved food loss of 31.4 billion kg (Fig. 2.71).
economic loss of RMB 157.4 billion, of which the direct
economic loss of water conservancy facilities was RMB 24.9 (2) Treatment of rivers and lakes
billion. The death toll from the disaster in 2014 was the
lowest since 1949, 66% less than the average since 2000. In 2014, there were 5286 river treatment projects under
Flood disaster areas are relatively concentrated, including construction, including 404 dikes, 803 major river and
Yunnan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangdong, Hainan, important tributary treatment projects, and 3896 small and
and Guangxi. The number of deaths caused by mountain medium-sized river treatment projects, and 183 safety con-
torrent disasters throughout the country accounts for 70% of struction and other projects in flood storage area. By the end
the total number of people killed by disasters, which is still of 2014, the total investment in the project under construc-
the main cause of casualties. The number of typhoons tion was RMB 229.14 billion with an investment completion
112 B. Xu
/km2 Area/km2
Disaster-affected
Disaster-damaged
Year
Fig. 2.71 Flood and drought disaster diagram from 2003 to 2014
rate of 52.7%. The length of river improvement for the year (5) Rural water conservancy construction
is 18,676 km, and the competed length is 15,470.6 km.
The investment in rural drinking water safety projects was
(3) Construction of reservoirs and hub projects RMB 80.18 billion with a total investment of RMB 71.02
billion. The problem of drinking water safety for 67.1 mil-
In 2014, 419 hub projects were under construction. By the lion rural residents, and teachers and students in rural
end of 2014, the total investment of the projects under con- schools throughout the year was solved. By the end of 2014,
struction was RMB 180.8 billion with a project investment 78.1% of the population benefited from centralized rural
completion rate of 54.4%. There were 3184 dangerously water supply. In that year, the central government arranged
weak reservoir reinforcement projects under construction. By an investment of RMB 11.4 billion within the budget, which
the end of 2014, the total investment was RMB 23.14 billion was used for the continued construction of 188 large-scale
with a project investment completion rate of 60.9%. There irrigation districts and water-saving transformation, 19 new
were 2957 key small-scale and dangerously weak reservoir irrigation areas, 150 medium-sized irrigation areas, renova-
reinforcement projects under construction in the year. tion of large-scale irrigation and drainage pumping stations
in 14 provinces, demonstration of 97 large-scale
(4) Water resources allocation project construction water-saving irrigation efficiency and construction of 63
pastoral water conservancy projects. The central government
The total investment in the water resources allocation pro- arranged RMB 37.809 billion of funds to the construction of
jects in the whole year was RMB 410.46 billion with a total small-scale irrigation and water conservancy projects. An
investment of RMB 29.46 billion and the project investment effective irrigation area of 16,480 km2 was added in the
completion rate of 71.8%. The first phase of the East and year, and a new water-saving irrigation project area of
Middle Route of South-North Water Transfer Project was 25,120 km2 was added. RMB 200 million was invested in
under construction with a construction scale of RMB 257.8 the implementation of water conservancy and schistosomi-
billion with a total investment of RMB 254.34 billion. asis control projects.
A total investment of RMB 10.92 billion for the whole year
was completed. (6) Hydropower construction in rural areas
2
Table 2.46 Typical wharf analysis
No. of wharf Name of Design Type of Type Quantity, material, and specification of pile Anti-corrosion measures Anti-corrosion Anti-corrosion Problems difficult to solve
wharf life of wharf of (diameter, height, and thickness) and design year of pile measures and effect
wharf wharf design year of
concrete
1 Phase III 50 years High-pile Steel Quantity:H3164 material: Q345B specification: ① Coating protection for Coating Basically meet ① Repair of coating
Project of beam and pipe ① 1456 1200 mm steel pipe piles and 708 25 years; ② impressed protection for specification damage in tidal range
H
North Harbor plate pile 1000 mm steel pipe piles current cathodic 20 years and design area; ② maintenance and
Basin of ② The minimum length of pile is 35 m and the protection for 50 years requirements management of impressed
Tianjin Port maximum length is 62 m H (replacement for 50 years current cathodic
③ The wall thickness of 1200 mm steel pipe after 30 years) protection system
pile is divided into three sections, 20 mm,
18 mm and 16 H mm respectively; the wall
thickness of 1000 mm steel pipe pile is
divided into three sections, 18 mm, 16 mm and
14 mm, respectively
2 Section A of 50 years High-pile Steel Quantity:
H 1151 material: Q345B specification: ① Coating protection for Coating Basically meet ① Repair of coating
Phase III of beam and pipe ① 684 1200 mm steel pipe piles and 827 25 years; ② Sacrificial protection for specification damage in tidal range
H
North Harbor plate pile 1000 mm steel pipe piles; ② the wall anode cathodic protection 20 years and design area; ② buried mud
H
Basin of thickness of 1200 mm steel pipe pile is for 30 years requirements problem of sacrificial
Tianjin Port anode cathodic protection
divided into H20 mm and 18 mm; the wall

thickness of 1000 mm steel pipe pile is system
divided into 18 mm and 16 mm
3 Berth 5#–7# 50 years High-pile Steel Quantity:
H 1346 material: Q345B specification: ① Coating protection for Coating Basically meet ① Repair of coating
of North beam and pipe ① 680 1200 mm steel pipe piles and 666 20 years; ② impressed protection for specification damage in tidal range
H
Harbor plate pile 1000 mm steel pipe piles; ② the wall current cathodic 20 years and design area; ② maintenance and
H
Container thickness of 1200 mm steel pipe pile is protection for 50 years requirements management of impressed
Terminal of divided into H20 mm and 18 mm; the wall (replacement for 50 years current cathodic
Tianjin Port thickness of 1000 mm steel pipe pile is after 30 years) protection system
divided into 18 and 16 mm
4 North Harbor 50 years High-pile Steel Quantity:H 262 material: Q345B specification: ① Coating protection for Coating Basically meet ① Repair of coating
basin beam and pipe ① 158 1200 mm steel pipe piles and 51 20 years; ② impressed protection for specification damage in tidal range
H H
300,000-ton plate pile 1000 mm steel pipe piles and 53 1400 mm current cathodic 20 years and design area; ② maintenance and
Crude Oil steel pipe piles; protection for 50 years requirements management of impressed
H
Terminal The wall thickness of 1200 mm steel pipe pile (replacement for 50 years current cathodic
Project of is 20 mm, 18 mm, 16 mm; wall thickness of after 30 years) protection system
Tianjin Port H
1400 mm steel pipe pile is 22 mm, 20 mm,
18 mm
Name of Phase III Project of North Harbor Basin of Tianjin Port Type of pile Steel pipe pile
wharf
Zone Corrosion Attachment of marine organisms Protection means (please tick) Construction cost of Service life Annual maintenance cost
condition (photos may be attached) initial corrosion
(photos may protection
be attached)
Sea mud area Basically no —— Coating () Impressed current cathodic
corrosion Cathodic protection (√) protection for 50 years (replacement
Other () for 50 years after 30 years)
No ()
(continued)
113
114
concrete
p
Total Basically no Coating ( ) Coating for 25 years
p
immersion corrosion Cathodic protection ( ) Impressed current cathodic
area Other () protection for 50 years (replacement
No () for 50 years after 30 years)
Covered with a large number of

marine organisms
p
Tidal range Basically no Coating ( ) Coating for 25 years
area corrosion Cladding () Impressed current cathodic
p
Cathodic protection ( ) protection for 50 years (replacement
No ()

marine organisms
Splash zone Coating ()
Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
Atmospheric Coating ()
zone Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
Name of Section A of Phase III of North Harbor Basin of Tianjin Type of pile Steel pipe pile
wharf Port
be attached)
Sea mud area Basically no —— Coating () Sacrificial anode cathodic
p
corrosion Cathodic protection ( ) protection for 30 years
Other ()
No ()
p
Total Basically no —— Coating ( ) Coating for 25 years
p
immersion corrosion Cathodic protection ( ) Sacrificial anode cathodic
area Other () protection for 30 years
No ()
(continued)
B. Xu
2
concrete
p
p
area corrosion Cladding ( ) Sacrificial anode cathodic
Cathodic protection () protection for 30 years
Other ()
No ()

marine
Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
zone Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
Name of Berth 5#–7 # of North Harbor Container Terminal of Type of pile Steel pipe pile
wharf Tianjin Port
be attached)
p
corrosion Cathodic protection ( ) protection for 50 years (replacement
No ()
p
Total Basically no —— Coating ( ) Coating for 20 years
p
area Other () protection for 50 years (replacement
p
p
No ()

marine
(continued)
115
116
concrete
Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
zone Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
Name of North Harbor basin 300,000-ton Crude Oil Terminal Type of pile Steel pipe pile
wharf Project of Tianjin Port
be attached)
p
corrosion Cathodic protection ( ) protection for 50 years (replacement
No ()
p
Total A little Coating ( ) Coating for 20 years
p
area exists Other () protection for 50 years (replacement
Some corrosion exists in the

damaged part of coating
p
p
No ()

marine
Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
zone Cladding ()
Other ()
No ()
B. Xu
Table 2.47 Main indexes of national water conservancy development (2009–2014)

Name of index Unit 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
1. Irrigation area 1000 ha 65,165 66,352 66,743 67,780 69,481 70,652
2. Irrigated area of cultivated land 1000 ha 59,261 60,348 61,682 62,491 63,473 64,540
Newly added one in this year 1000 ha 1533 1722 2130 2151 1552 1648
3. Water-saving irrigation area 1000 ha 25,755 27,314 29,179 31,217 27,109 29,019
4. Irrigation area of more than 10,000 mu Place 5844 5795 5824 7756 7709 7709
Of which: More than 300,000 mu Place 335 349 348 456 456 456
Farmland irrigation area of over 10,000 mu 1000 ha 29,562 29,415 29,748 30,087 30,216 30,256
Of which: More than 300,000 mu 1000 ha 15,575 15,658 15,786 11,260 11,252 11,251
5. Population of rural drinking water safety solution 10,000 persons 7295 6717 6398 7294 6343 6600
6. Waterlogging control area 1000 ha 21,584 21,692 21,722 21,857 21,943 22,369
7. Areas under control of water and soil loss 10,000 km2 104.3 106.8 109.7 103.0 106.9 111.6
8. Reservoir / 87,151 87,873 88,605 97,543 97,721 97,735
Among which: large reservoirs / 544 552 567 683 687 697
Among which: medium reservoirs / 3259 3269 3346 3758 3774 3799
Total capacity of reservoir 0.1 billion m3 7064 7162 7201 8255 8298 8394
A total investment of RMB 25.6 billion was put in the (8) Capacity building of industry
construction of rural hydropower stations throughout the
country, with 313 new hydropower stations and an installed A total of RMB 5.66 billion was invested in capacity
capacity of 2.55 million kW. A total investment of RMB 6.1 building in the water sector. Among them, RMB 2.84 billion
billion was completed in the construction of the supporting was invested in flood control communication facilities, RMB
power grid for rural hydropower stations in the country with 650 million in hydrological construction, RMB 0.0075 bil-
a capacity of 2.52 million kV A for substations of 110 kV lion in scientific research and education facilities, RMB 1.86
and above. The newly added capacity of 35 (63) kV sub- billion in pre-stage water conservancy, and RMB 310 mil-
station was 1.94 million kV A, and the capacity of distri- lion in other projects.
bution transformer was 5.38 million kV A. New Table 2.47 is the main indexes of national water con-
high-voltage lines of 10 kV and above was 28,000 km and servancy development
low-voltage lines was 38,000 km.
3. General situation of units in water conservancy
(7) Soil and water loss control industry
The construction scale of soil and water conservation and (1) Staff and wages
ecological projects was RMB 32.51 billion, with a total
completed investment of RMB 19.36 billion. The new The number of staff in the water conservancy system
comprehensive control area of soil and water loss was nationwide was 999,000, a decrease of 3.9% over the pre-
55,000 km2, of which the newly added water and soil loss vious year. Among them, there were 971,000 on-post
control area of key national soil and water conservation employees in the water conservancy system nationwide, a
projects was 16,500 km2. An protected area of 19,000 km2 decrease of 3.4% over the previous year. Among the on-post
was added in the whole year. Comprehensive control of soil staff, there were 67,000 staff in the subordinate units of the
and water loss was carried out for 1916 small watersheds Ministry, 4.3% less than in the previous year, and 904,000
and 196 warp land dams on the Loess Plateau were con- staff in the local water conservancy system, 3.3% less than in
structed. In the whole year, 6290 km2 of basic farmland is the previous year. The total wages of the on-post staff in the
newly built (among which 4730 km2 of terraced fields and water conservancy system nationwide totaled RMB 45.14
300 km2 of dams fields were added), and 1507 hm2 of water billion, an increase of 8.7% over the previous year. The
conservation forest and 3610 km2 of grass were newly average annual salary of on-post staff in the water conser-
planted. More than 700 project counties have carried out vancy system nationwide was RMB 46,569, an increase of
national key governance. 12.3% over the previous year (Table 2.48).
118 B. Xu
Table 2.48 Staff and wages in water conservancy industry

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Number of on-post 118.2 110.5 109.2 106.8 105.6 103.7 106.6 102.5 103.4 100.5 97.1
staff/10,000
persons
Among which, in 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.4 7.5 7.4 7.0 6.7
subordinate units
of the Ministry
10,000 persons
Local water 111.8 103.9 102.3 99.6 98.4 96.5 96.3 95.0 96.0 93.5 94.0
conservancy
system/10,000
persons
Wages of on-post 157.1 159.8 184.3 211.28 234.37 264.74 297.91 351.37 389.1 415.3 451.4
staff/RMB 0.1
billion
Average annual 13,054 13,969 16,776 19,573 22,143 25,633 28,816 34,283 37,692 41,453 46,569
wage/
(RMB/person)
(2) Survey and design (1) Implementing dual-control action and building a
water-saving society in an all-round way.
In 2014, there were 113 units with Grade A qualification for (2) Overall planning of the current long-term, improving
water conservancy industry design, 395 units with Grade B the water conservancy infrastructure network. We will
qualification for design, 1142 with Grade C qualification, promote the control of the three rivers in the Northeast,
and the total number of staff was nearly 80,000. further harness the major rivers and lakes of the back-
bone projects for comprehensive environmental man-
(3) Water conservancy construction agement, including Huaihe River and Taihu Lake, and
speed up the construction of the control hubs such as
There are 12 enterprises with special qualification for general the West River Datenxia and Huaihe River. Besides, we
contracting of water conservancy and hydropower projects will start a new batch of key control projects and key
in China and 209 enterprises with Grade A qualification for water resources projects, and construct a number of
general contracting of water conservancy and hydropower cross-basin and cross-regional diversion projects in the
projects. There are 13,753 registered constructors with central and western regions.
Grade A professional qualifications for water conservancy (3) Making great efforts to develop water conservancy
and hydropower projects. based on commonweal sharing. We will focus on the
poverty-stricken areas in the central and western
4. Development trend regions, start and implement the rural drinking water
safety consolidation and promotion projects. We will
Water conservancy project construction is a long-term and continue to build the irrigation areas and carry out
systematic project. In the construction of water conservancy water-saving transformation, high-efficiency
projects, the pre-stage project planning, medium-stage pro- water-saving irrigation and water conservancy con-
ject construction, and post-stage project maintenance should struction to solve the “last kilometer” problem of
be taken into consideration to improve the speed and quality farmland irrigation. We will strengthen the construction
of project construction, as well as ensure the long-term and of weak links in flood control and construct a more
efficient operation of projects. In addition, civilian capital is complete system for flood control, waterlogging con-
allowed to enter water conservancy industry and participate trol, wind prevention, and moisture prevention.
in price setting to make civilian capital investment, con- (4) Strengthening the system regulation and connecting the
struction, price setting in an organic whole so as to make river and lake reservoir water system. We will adhere to
profit from water conservancy project truly. Therefore, from the combination of natural connection and artificial
the perspective of water conservancy project construction, connection, speed up the construction of river and lake
the development trend of water conservancy industry is as water system connection system, carry out compre-
follows: hensive treatment of land and rivers, and construct a
green ecological corridor for rivers and lakes. The joint We will actively foster the water rights trading market
operation of reservoir group is optimized according to and promote the reform of river and lake management,
the principle that water conservancy construction obeys water conservancy property rights system and man-
flood control, region obeys river basin, and electricity agement system.
regulation obeys water regulation. (9) Laying a solid foundation for development and pro-
(5) Persisting in green development and strengthening the moting scientific and technological development of
construction of water ecological civilization. We will water control according to law. We will speed up the
promote soil and water loss control, strengthen eco- process of water conservancy legislation and promote
logical protection of important ecological protection comprehensive law enforcement and administration
areas, water conservation areas, and river headwaters according to law. We will improve the water conser-
areas, vigorously promote the establishment of urban vancy planning system, improve the water conservancy
and rural water ecological civilization, and actively science and technology innovation system, and speed
develop rural hydropower. We will comprehensively up the pace of water conservancy informatization.
implement the action plan for water pollution preven-
tion and control, strengthen the treatment of the water 5. Industry prospects
environment in rivers, lakes, and urban and rural areas,
and speed up comprehensive control of groundwater in The annual growth rate of water conservancy investment in
areas with serious overexploitation in North China. the “12th Five-Year Plan” was over 20%, which was higher
(6) Around the targeted poverty alleviation, we will do a than that of 18% in the “11th Five-Year Plan”. Investment in
good job in water conservancy poverty alleviation. We water conservancy increased from RMB 700 billion in the
should establish and improve mechanisms for water “11th Five-Year Plan” to RMB 1.8 trillion in the “12th
conservancy poverty alleviation needs investigation, Five-Year Plan”, with an increase of about RMB 1.1 trillion.
project reserve, investment tilt, statistical analysis, and At the same time, the central investment increased from
work assessment, and closely focus on rural drinking RMB 293.4 billion to RMB 800 billion, with an increase of
water safety, farmland irrigation, flood control, drought about RMB 500 billion. Therefore, the central fund solved
and disaster reduction, water resources development, nearly half of the new investment and ensured the possibility
utilization and conservation and protection, ecological of investment completion. In the local investment sector, in
construction of water and soil conservation and rural addition to 10% of land transfer funds for irrigation and
hydropower development to make up the shortage of water conservancy construction, it is expected that the
water conservancy infrastructure in poverty-stricken government will actively guide social funds to invest in
areas. water conservancy through tax and financial policies.
(7) Adhering to people-oriented, and focusing on On March 5, 2015, Premier Li Keqiang of the State
strengthening urban water conservancy work. In com- Council pointed out in the report on the work of the gov-
bination with that comprehensive construction of ernment that 57 major water conservancy projects that have
sponge city, we will make an overall plan for the con- started should be accelerated and that 27 projects should be
struction of urban water storage facilities, drainage pipe started in 2016. Investment in major water conservancy
network, drainage pumping station, dike and bank projects under construction had exceeded RMB 800 billion.
protection, and make a rational distribution and con- According to the Ministry of Water Resources, during the
struction of a batch of key water source projects and “12th Five-Year Plan” period, 172 major water-saving and
major urban water supply projects. In addition, we will water supply projects in China were accelerated, with an
intensify efforts to cut off pollution, control sources, investment of over RMB 800 billion. According to statistics,
utilize reclaimed water, divert rain and sewage, clear slit during the “12th Five-Year Plan” period, the total invest-
and keep clean, and improve shoreline. ment in water conservancy construction in China exceeded
(8) Deepening reform and innovation, and continuously RMB 2 trillion and reached a new record in history. Rural
improving the water management system. We will drinking water safety, weak links in flood control,
transform the functions of water administration, drought-resistant water projects, farmland water conser-
increase investment in public finance at all levels, make vancy, rural hydropower, and other water conservancy pro-
full use of development financial support policies, jects have achieved remarkable results, benefiting hundreds
encourage, and attract social capital for water conser- of millions of people.
vancy construction, comprehensively promote the On February 17, 2016, the responsible person of the
comprehensive reform of agricultural water prices, and National Development and Reform Commission said that
do a good job in the initial distribution of water rights. the construction of major water conservancy projects would
120 B. Xu
continue to be accelerated in 2016 to ensure that the development of water conservancy, and its scale is getting
investment scale of major water conservancy projects under larger and larger.
construction was maintained at more than RMB 800 billion.
According to the deployment of the National Develop- (1) Water conservancy investment
ment and Reform Commission, in 2016, on the basis of the
construction of 85 major water conservancy projects, China In 2013, the total investment in water conservancy was
would strive to start 20 new major water conservancy pro- RMB 439.7 billion, and the investment in major water
jects within the year, including Lijiayan Reservoir in conservancy projects under construction now amounts to
Sichuan Province, as well as accelerate the water diversion RMB 600 billion.
projects in central Yunnan Province to ensure that the In 2014, investment in water conservancy construction
investment of major water conservancy projects under con- reached RMB 488.1 billion, of which RMB 162.7 billion
struction is over RMB 800 billion. We will further accelerate was invested by the central government, an increase of 11
the progress of construction in a comprehensive manner, and 15.6% over 2013, respectively.
strengthen quality and safety management, and ensure that In 2015, investment exceeded RMB 800 billion, with
the project is completed as scheduled to give full play to its central investment of RMB 168.5 billion and local invest-
benefits. ment of RMB 413.7 billion.
At the same time, we will continue to carry out other
projects as a whole, and continue to strengthen the con- (2) Dikes and sluices
struction of other key water conservancy projects, such as
the control of small and medium-sized rivers, the rein- 284,400 km (Fig. 2.72) of dikes have of Grade I and above
forcement of large and medium-sized dangerous reservoirs been built with a total of 188,700 km reaching the standard
and sluices, the renovation of large irrigation and drainage and with a dike reaching rate of 66.4%. The length of the
pumping stations, and the comprehensive control of water dikes of Grade I and Grade II is 30,400 km, and the reaching
and soil loss control of sloping farmland. rate is 77.5%. A total of 586 million people and 42,800 ha of
cultivated land have been protected by river dikes. There are
6. Industry scale 98,686 sluices with a discharge of 5 m3/s and above, of
which 875 are large-scale sluices. According to the type of
Since the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the sluice, there are 7993 flood diversion sluices, 17,581 dis-
total investment in water conservancy infrastructure has charge sluices, 5831 tide sluices, 11,124 guiding sluices, and
increased rapidly, laying a solid foundation for the leapfrog 56,157 control sluices.
km Dike length/10,000 km
Year
Fig. 2.72 Dike length of water conservancy project (2003–2014)
(3) Reservoirs and hubs equal to 20 m3 or the irrigation electromechanical well with
inner diameter greater than 200 mm was 4.691 million.
There are 97,735 reservoirs in China, with a total reservoir There are 90,982 pumping stations with installed capacity of
capacity of 839.4 billion m3. Among them, there are 697 1 m3/s or installed power of more than 50 kW in China,
large reservoirs with a total storage capacity of 661.7 billion including 366 large-scale pumping stations, 4139
m3, accounting for 78.8% of the total storage capacity. There medium-sized pumping stations, and 86,477 small pumping
are 3799 medium-sized reservoirs with a total storage stations.
capacity of 107.5 billion m3, accounting for 12.8% of the
total storage capacity. The safety rate of reaching the stan- (6) Rural hydropower
dard of large and medium-sized reservoirs in China is
97.7%. By the end of 2014, a total of 47,073 rural hydropower
stations had been built, with an installed capacity of 73.22
(4) Agricultural irrigation million kW, accounting for 24.3% of the country’s hydro-
power installed capacity. The annual power generation of
There are 22,448 irrigation areas with a designed irrigation rural hydropower in China is 228.1 billion kW h, accounting
area of more than 2000 mu (1 mu 666.67 m2) and above. for 21.4% of the national hydropower generation (Fig. 2.74).
The irrigated area of cultivated land is 33.975 mil-
lion hectares (1 ha = 10,000 m2). Among them, there are (7) Water and soil conservation project
176 irrigated areas of more than 500,000 mu, with an irri-
gation area of 6.241 million hectares of cultivated land. By the end of 2014, the comprehensive control area of water
There are 280 large irrigation areas of 300,000–500,000 mu, and soil had reached 1.1161 million km2, and the total area
with an irrigation area of 5.01 million hectares of cultivated under prohibition and control had reached 790,000 km2, and
land. By the end of 2014, the irrigation area of cultivated 340 eco-clean small watersheds had been built. Dynamic
land was 64.54 million hectares, accounting for 53.8% of the monitoring of soil and water loss has been carried out in 18
national cultivated land area. The national water-saving state-level key control areas, 15 state-level key prevention
irrigation project covered an area of 29.019 million hectares, protection areas and one centralized production and con-
including 7.843 million hectares of sprinkler irrigation and struction project area, with a sampling area of about
micro irrigation and 8.271 million hectares of low-pressure 340,000 km2. The management and maintenance were
pipe irrigation (Fig. 2.73). conducted in the national soil and water conservation mon-
itoring network and information system, basically realizing
(5) Electromechanical wells and pumping stations the informatization of reporting, management, and storage of
monitoring point data (Fig. 2.75).
By the end of 2014, the number of water supply elec-
tromechanical wells with daily water intake greater than or (8) Hydrology and informatization
Irrigation area of cultivated land/1,000 hectares

Year
Fig. 2.73 Annual irrigation area of cultivated land of water conservancy project (2003–2014)
122 B. Xu
kW Rural hydropower installed capacity/10,000 kW

Year
Fig. 2.74 Rural hydropower installed capacity of water conservancy project (2003–2014)
km2 Control area of soil and water loss/10,000 km2

Year
Fig. 2.75 A Line chart of water and soil loss area (2003–2014)
By the end of 2014, there were 93,617 hydrological survey survey stations that have issued forecasts. There are 297
stations in China, including 3172 national basic hydrological water environment monitoring (sub) centers, and the water
stations, 1710 special hydrological stations and 9890 gaug- quality monitoring basically covers the main river and lake
ing stations, 46,980 rainfall stations, 21 evaporation stations, reservoirs in the country. In 2014, the number of various
1927 moisture stations, 12,869 water quality stations, 16,990 types of PCs accessed to the water conservancy information
groundwater monitoring stations and 58 test stations. There network by the Ministry of Water Resources above the
are 43,539 hydrological survey stations that have submitted provincial level reached 79,551 and servers amounted to
hydrological information to flood control command depart- 3511. The storage capacity of all kinds of online storage
ments at or above the county level, and 1389 hydrological devices equipped by Ministry of Water Resources above
provincial level has reached 3,939,380.71 GB. There are between the flood season and in the dry period of the year.
110,152 water information collection points that can accept For example, in some areas of inland China, there is little
information from the Ministry of Water Resources above the rain but there is plenty of rain in the southeast coastal
provincial level, of which 78,780 are automatic collection monsoon area. In the same region, 60–80% of the annual
points, and 858 databases are normally operated. The rainfall can be concentrated in the flood season (from June to
amount of stored data is up to 430, 588.78 GB. September in the east and from May to August in the south),
and the rainfall of the largest month in the flood season
7. Distribution accounts for 25–50% of the whole year. Thus, there is a
mismatch between the water supply and water use. In order
According to the Report on Market Forecast and Investment to solve this contradiction and to realize the redistribution of
Strategic Planning of China’s Water Conservancy Project water resources in time and area, water sectors shall store
Industry from 2015 to 2020 issued by Prospective Industrial flood to replenish drought so as to eliminate flood and
Research Institute, 172 major water conservancy projects drought, to develop irrigation, power generation, water
will be started successively from 2014 to 2020, with a total supply, shipping, and aquaculture industry. It is necessary to
investment of over RMB 600 billion. These projects are construct necessary water storage, water diversion, water
mainly concentrated in the central and western regions, extraction or cross-basin water transfer projects according to
involving agricultural water-saving, water transfer, key local conditions so that water resources can be reasonably
water sources, river and lake management, and new developed, utilized, and protected. At present, the main
large-scale irrigation areas. Upon completion of the project, water conservancy facilities in China are reservoirs, dikes,
the annual water supply capacity of 80 billion m3 and the dams, gates, pumping stations, and trash racks.
agricultural water-saving capacity of 26 billion m3 will be
realized, and the irrigation area will be increased by more 1. Reservoir
than 78 million mu.
Meanwhile, according to the 2015 report on the work of Reservoir is generally interpreted as “a water conservancy
the government, the construction of 57 major water con- building that stores flood and regulate water flow, which can
servancy projects will be speeded up, and 27 projects will be be used for irrigation, power generation, flood control, and
started in 2015. The investment scale of major water con- fish farming.” It refers to the artificial lake formed by
servancy projects under construction exceeds RMB 800 building a dam at the narrow mouth of a mountain ditch or
billion. Reform of the shed, railway, water resources should river. After the completion of the reservoir, it can play a role
be simultaneously carried out and focus should be put on the in flood control, water storage and irrigation, water supply,
central and western regions so that the huge domestic power generation, fish farming, and so on. Sometimes nat-
demand has been released more. ural lakes are also called reservoirs (natural reservoirs). The
The focus of investment in 2015 is divided into three reservoir scale is usually divided into small, medium and
parts, including construction of major water conservancy large size according to the reservoir capacity. Dam, spillway,
projects, rural drinking water safety, and water conservancy and drainage structure are usually built in the reservoir,
projects on the surface. Among them, the investment in this which is also called three parts of a reservoir.
year will focus on major water conservancy projects,
amounting to 45% of the total investment. In terms of 2. Gate
regional distribution of major water conservancy projects, 27
projects are planned to be started this year. Nearly half of the The sluice gate is used to close and open the control facility
projects are in western China, and a number of projects in of the drain passage. It is the important part of hydraulic
the “13th Five-Year Plan” will be put in western China to structures and can be used to intercept water flow, control
support the Great Western Development Strategy. water level, regulate flow, and discharge sediment and
floating objects.
2.3.1.2 Main Water Conservancy Facilities
Human beings need the right amount of water at the right 1) Type of gate
time. Too much or little water often cause floods or droughts
and other disasters. Drought and flood have been the world’s There are many methods for classification gates, mainly
two largest natural disasters. Due to the influence of climate, including:
the water resources are not evenly distributed in time and
space. There is a great difference in the amount of water (1) According to its working nature, it can be divided into
between different areas, between the years of the same area, working gate, emergency gate, and overhaul gate. The
124 B. Xu
work gate undertakes the above tasks and can be The gate is mainly composed of three parts (Fig. 2.76): ①
opened and closed in flowing water. In case of accidents The movable part of the main body is used to close or open
in buildings and equipment, the emergency gate can the orifice, commonly referred to as the gate, also called the
close the orifice in the flowing water, block the water gate leaf; (2) buried part; (3) opening and closing equipment.
flow, and prevent the expansion of the accident. After The movable part of the main body includes the bearing
the accident is eliminated, it charges the horizontal structure such as the panel beam system, the supporting and
pressure to the rear of the gate and opens it in the static traveling parts, the guide and water stop devices, and the
water. The gate that can close the orifice in a short time lifting lugs. The buried part includes a main rail, a guide rail,
is called quick gate. The overhaul gate is used for a hinge seat, a lintel, a sill, and a water stop seat that are
temporary water-blocking during the inspection and buried at the periphery of the orifice, are firmly connected
repair of hydraulic structure or working gate. with the concrete of the hydraulic structure by anchor bars to
(2) According to the relative position between the top of form a supporting travel part on the gate leaf and a water
the gate blade and the water surface when the gate is stop, so as to transmit the water pressure and other loads
closed, it can be divided into open-top gate and borne by the gate leaf structure to the hydraulic structure,
submerged-hole gate. For gates of overflow dam, sluice, and obtain good water sealing performance of the gate. The
spillway, their tops generally goes out of the water, so opening and closing mechanism is connected with the lifting
this type of gate is known as the open-top gate. The top lug of the gate leaf to control the movable part, but a few
of the open-top gate shall exceed the normal stored gates automatically open and close by hydraulic power.
water level, and the wind and wave heights and
superelevation shall be considered. Gate whose top is 3) Form selection
below the water surface is called a submerged-hole
gate. The gate that closes the breast wall, the drain hole In that process of selecting the gate form, it is necessary to
and the deep hole of the hydraulic tunnel belongs to the determine it according to the working nature of gate, setting
submerged-hole gate. position, running condition, span of the gate hole, opening
(3) It can be divided into plane gate, radial gate, miter gate, and closing force, project cost and the characteristics of the
fan gate, round gate, float box gate, and stop log gate gate by technical and economic comparison with reference
according to the appearance shape of gate leaf. to existing practical operation experience. The plane gate
(4) According to the material of gate leaf, it can be divided and the radial gate are the most commonly used gates. Radial
into steel gate, reinforced concrete gate, steel mesh gates are mostly used for large and medium-sized open-top
cement gate, wood coil gate, cast (steel, iron) gate, and and submerged gates, especially for high-head and deep-hole
composite gate. The use of reinforced concrete to make working gates. Overhaul gate and emergency gates are often
the door leaf can save steel, but the body of the gate is set in front of a working gate. In order to reduce the vibration
heavy. The reinforced concrete gate is only used in the and cavitation of the high-head work gate due to frequent
low-head medium and small sluice as a working gate, or water operation or partial opening, it is necessary to improve
as one-time closed orifice for construction closure. Steel the hydraulic condition of the gate and consider the influence
gate is commonly used, but it needs to do a good job in of power according to different components, and to study the
anti-rust and anti-corrosion. stiffness and dynamic characteristics of the gate body. The
(5) It can be divided into vertical liftgate, rotary gate, manufacturing and installation accuracy of gate leaves and
horizontal pull gate, rolling gate, and lift horizontal gate embedded parts shall be strictly controlled. When the gate
according to the opening and closing movement mode groove boundary flow state is complicated or the shape is
of gate leaf. special, the vibration and cavitation problems that may occur
(6) According to the gate leaf control mode, it can be shall be solved by hydraulic model test so as to select the
divided into mechanical operation gate (manual or proper shape of the gate and groove in addition to referring
electric) and hydraulic automatic gate. to existing successful tests.
In addition, that gate, which is enclosed inside the pipe 3. Dike

and integrates the gate leaf, shell with the opening and
closing machinery, is usually called a valve. Conical valves 1) Basic concept
and empty injection valves can also be used to regulate the
flow rate on high-head discharge pipes. The water retaining structures built along the edges of rivers,
canals, lakes, coasts or flood-carrying areas, flood diversion
2) Structural composition areas and reclamation areas are called dikes. Dike is one of
Opening and closing equipment

Embedded steel plate
Steel wire rope
Embedded steel plate
Gate leaf
Hydraulic pressure direction
Fig. 2.76 Schematic diagram of gate
the most important flood control projects in the world. Dike and timely removing the water barrier in the riverway
is the main measure to prevent flood and protect residents besides heightening and thickening dikes, should be taken.
and industrial and agricultural production. After the dike In order to consolidate dikes, it is necessary to conduct the
restrains the flood, the flood is confined in the flood passage control and guidance works of the riverway flow potential
so that the water depth of the same flow is increased and the and the protective engineering of the dangerous sections.
flood flow velocity is increased, which is favorable for flood
discharge and sand discharge. In addition, dikes can also 2) Classification
resist wind waves and tide. The construction of dikes is
generally closely related with river regulation. For example, (1) Dikes can be divided into five types according to their
in order to expand the flood discharge capacity of the positions: river dike, sea dike, lake dike, reservoir dike,
riverway, measures such as dredging the riverway, cutting and channel (ditch) dike (Table 2.49).
the bend and straightening, reconstructing and retreating,
126 B. Xu
Table 2.49 Classification of dikes according to their positions to the relevant national regulations. Dams are arranged in
Type Position Main function reasonable positions to cooperate and coordinate with each
River dike Riverbanks Resist floods other so as to realize an organic complex composed of
hydraulic and water conservancy tasks, including water
Sea dike Sea banks Resist tides and the
waves; sea retaining structure and water discharge structure.
reclamation
Lake dike Around the lake Prevent lake water 2) Classification and composition
erosion and
reclamation A. Classification by dam material
Reservoir Around the reservoir Reducing the
dike submerged area of Dams can be divided into concrete dam and earth-rock dam.
reservoir
The type of dams is selected according to the natural con-
Channel Both sides of irrigation Confine flow
ditions of the dam site, construction materials, construction
(ditch) channels and drainage
dike ditches site, diversion, construction period, and cost.
a. Concrete dam
Table 2.50 levels of dikes
Standard for 100 100–50 50–30 30–20 20–10 It is divided into three types: gravity dam, arch dam, and
flood control buttress dam.
[recurrence
period (year)]
(1) Gravity dam: relies on the friction between its
Level 1 2 3 4 5
self-weight and foundation to bear the thrust of water to
maintain stability. Gravity dam has the advantages of
(2) Dikes can be divided into four types according to simple structure, easy construction, and good durability.
building materials: earth dike, sand dike, stone dike, It is suitable for high dam construction on rock foun-
and concrete dike. ① Earth dike is composed of clay dation and easy for installation of water discharge
and loam and is mainly built along the riverbank, structure. However, gravity dam is large in volume and
around the coast and the lake, along the drainage and large in cement consumption, and the material strength
irrigation ditch and around the reservoir in the plain is not fully utilized.
area. ② Sand dyke is composed of clay and loam and is (2) Arch dam is a space shell structure with arch shape on
mainly built along the river in the mountainous area and the plane and convex upstream. The horizontal load
hilly area, around the reservoir and along the coast. ③ borne by the arch is changed to axial pressure and
Stone dike is made of block stone or strip stone and is transmitted to the bedrock on both banks by the action
mainly built on the coast, along the river where soil is of arch, and the arch abutments of both banks support
difficult to be taken and along the reach of urban area. the dam body to keep the dam body stable. The arch
④ Concrete embankment is made of concrete or rein- dam has a high overload capacity. It is more difficult to
forced concrete and is mainly used along the river in the construct an arch dam than a gravity dam due to its high
urban area. requirements for foundation and rock on both banks.
The dam site of narrow river valley with hard and intact
The level of dikes shall be determined according to the rock foundation on both banks is especially suitable for
flood control standard of dike projects. According to Code arch dam construction. Dam with the ratio (T/H) of the
for Design of Dike Projects (GB 50286-98), dikes are dam bottom thickness T to the maximum dam height H
divided into five levels, as shown in Table 2.50. less than 0.1 is generally referred to as a thin arch dam;
between 0.1 and 0.3 is called arch dam; between 0.4
4. Dam and 0.6 is called gravity arch dam. If the value of T/H is
larger, the effect of arch is very small and is close to
1) Basic concept gravity dam.
(3) Buttress dam: consists of inclined cover and buttress.
The dam belongs to the key water control project. It is to The buttress supports the cover, and the water pressure
develop and utilize the water resources of the river, take is transmitted from the cover to the buttress and then to
engineering measures on the river course, construct the the foundation. Buttress dam is one of the most eco-
hydraulic structure for controlling the water flow according nomical and reliable dam types. Compared with gravity
dam, it has the advantages of small volume, low cost, construction of reservoirs and dams. China’s dam con-
and strong ability to adapt to foundation. According to struction technology has also made an important break-
the cover form, the buttress dam can be divided into through, completing world-level projects, such as Three
three types, namely flat plate dam whose cover is flat Gorges, Ertan and Xiaolangdi. In recent years, Xiangjiaba,
plate-shaped, multi-arch dam whose cover is Nuozhadu, Xiluodu, Jinping I, and Jinping II and, other
arch-shaped and big head dam whose cover is formed large-scale hydropower projects have been put into opera-
by thickening the upstream end of the buttress. Buttress tion. According to the China Census for Water (2014), China
dam is generally of concrete or reinforced concrete has built 98,000 various types of reservoir dams, with a total
structure. Compared with the gravity dam, the buttress storage capacity of more than 93 billion m3. Among them,
dam has the following characteristics: the upstream there are 38,000 dams with a height of more than 15 m.
cover is often inclined, and the water weight on the Since the twenty-first century, the government has invested a
cover can help stabilize the dam; the buttress dam huge sum of money in strengthening large-scale damaged
member is thin and the internal stress is even, which can and dangerous reservoirs. At present, danger removal and
give full play to the strength of the material; the lateral reinforcement task have been completed more than 3000
stiffness of the buttress is small, so the working con- large and medium-sized reservoirs and 28,000 small-sized
ditions of the buttress should be checked during the and dangerous reservoirs. The reservoir dams all over the
design; the requirement for foundation condition of country play an important role in resisting flood and drought
buttress dam is higher than gravity dam. disasters, regulating and utilizing water resources, providing
clean electric energy, repairing and compensating river
b. Earth-rock dam ecology. The concrete dam still plays an important role in
the construction of high dams, but the earth-rock dam,
Earth-rock dam, also known as local material dam, include especially the concrete face rockfill dam, has been developed
earth dam, rockfill dam, and earth-rock mixed dam. It has the rapidly. The types and height of a dam with a height of more
advantages of using local materials, saving cement, and low than 30 m that has been built and is under construction are
requirement for foundation condition of dam site. The gen- shown in Table 2.51.
eral local material dam is composed of dam body, imper-
vious body, drainage body, and slope protection. 5. Pumping station
Dam body is the main part of a dam. Under the action of (1) Basic concept
water pressure and self-weight, the dam body mainly relies
on self-weight to maintain stability. The pumping station is a device capable of providing
Impervious body: The main function is to reduce the amount hydraulic power and pneumatic power with a certain pres-
of water permeating from upstream to downstream, gener- sure and flow rate. It consists of water pump unit, electrical
ally including core wall, inclined wall and cover. equipment, pipeline, and gate valve. The main components
Drainage body: The main function is to lead the seepage of the pumping station are oil tank, motor, and pump, and
water from upstream to downstream, so as to enhance the there are many kinds of auxiliary equipment, such as oil
stability of downstream slope protection. supply equipment, compressed air equipment, water filling
Slope protection: can prevent wave, ice layer, temperature equipment, water supply and drainage equipment, ventila-
change, and rainwater runoff from damaging the dam body tion equipment, and lifting equipment.
B. Classification by construction method (2) Classification
According to different construction methods, the dam can Pumping station can be divided into sewage pumping sta-
also be divided into fill dam, riprap dam, conventional tion, rainwater pumping station, river water pumping station
pouring concrete dam and roller compacted concrete dam. three types.
C. Development of dam A. Sewage pumping station
The Chinese government attaches great importance to the Sewage pumping station is an important part of sewage
construction of reservoirs and dams. Since the founding of system, which is characterized by continuous water flow,
the People’s Republic of China, especially since the reform small water flow, but large variation range and high content
and opening-up, great achievements have been made in the of pollutants in water. Therefore, the water collection tank
128 B. Xu
Table 2.51 Types and height of a dam with a height of more than 30 m that has been built and is under construction in 1978–2011
Type Number Number Number Number Number Total
30–60 m 30–60 m 30–60 m 30–60 m 30–60 m
Gravity dam 292 46 10 3 0 351
Roller compacted concrete gravity dam 38 36 21 3 2 100
Arch dam 503 76 11 6 7 603
Roller compacted concrete arch dam 9 21 15 1 0 46
Earth dam 856 45 0 0 0 901
Buttress dam 11 1 0 0 0 12
Rockfill dam 135 33 17 2 2 189
Face rockfill dam 97 108 46 14 3 268
Mixed dam 103 4 0 0 0 107
Sluice dam 18 0 0 0 0 18
Other 30 6 1 0 0 37
Total 2092 376 121 29 14 2632
shall be designed with sufficient storage capacity, and the water transfer function. In addition, there are many social
standby pump shall be considered. In addition, the pollution benefits such as flood control, drainage and environment
to the environment shall be minimized during design, and improvement.
good management and maintenance conditions shall be
provided for the station. 6. Trash rack
Sewage pumping station is divided into two types:
The first is the pumping station installed in the sewage (1) Basic concept
pipeline system for pumping up the municipal sewage. The
function is to raise the elevation of the sewage. Unlike the Trash rack is frame structure set in front of the water inlet,
water supply pipe (tap water), the sewage pipe is which is used to block water plants and floating wood
pressure-free and self-flowing by gravity of the sewage (generally referred to as dirt) carried by the water.
itself. It is impossible to bury the pipeline very deep because
the area of sewage collected by urban sewage interception (2) Constitution form
network is large and it is far away from the sewage treatment
plant, so it is necessary to set up a pumping station to raise A trash rack consists of a frame, a diaphragm, and bars
the sewage elevation. (supported on a concrete pier wall, usually made of steel).
The second is the pumping station in the sewage treat- The spacing of bars depends on the size, quantity and
ment plant to lift the sewage. The function is to provide the application requirements of the dirt. The spacing of bars for
flow power for the subsequent process. Generally speaking, hydropower stations depends on the type and size of the
the lifted elevation of sewage is calculated from the eleva- turbine to ensure that the dirt passing through the trash rack
tion of tailwater discharged after sewage treatment sub- does not get stuck in the turbine flow components. In gen-
tracted by the head loss. eral, there is no trash rack for the spillway tunnel and the
spillway hole. If the diameter of the tunnel or the hole is not
B. Rainwater pumping station large and there is much deposited wood, the spacing of bars
should be increased. Except for the dead weight, the load on
Rainwater pumping station refers to the pumping station the trash rack is mainly the water load caused by the water
which is installed in the rainwater pipeline system or in the level difference before and after the dirt is blocked. Gener-
low-lying area of the city to remove rainwater from the ally, the water head of 2–4 m is considered. The size of the
urban area. The rainwater pumping station can not only frame of the trash rack depends on the flow and the allowed
prevent water accumulation, but also supply water. flow rate. In order to reduce the head loss and facilitate
cleaning, it is generally required that the flow rate is not
C. River pumping station more than 1.0 m/s. The trash rack may be made fixed or
capable of lifting.
It is constructed on the riverway. It can improve the water The trash rack may be arranged in a straight line shape or
supply quality and water supply guarantee rate, and also has a semi-circular folded line shape on a plane, and may be
upright or inclined on an upright surface depending on the developed and applied gradually. Hydraulic structures are
nature, quantity, operation requirements, and cleaning often subjected to water pressure, water erosion, wear,
method of the dirt carried by the water. The intake of freeze-thaw or dry and wet cycles, resulting in concrete frost
hydropower station with high head is usually vertical burst, shrinkage cracking, corrosion, cavitation, chemical
semicircle. The inlet sluice, hydraulic tunnel, and water erosion, marine biological erosion, steel corrosion, wood
transmission pipe are multi-linear. corrosion, and aging of asphalt and synthetic polymer
The height of the trash rack of the deep intake is related to materials. These are more serious than those of other
the water level of the reservoir and the cleaning method. For buildings, so attention should be paid to.
those that don’t need to be cleaned frequently, the top ele- Building materials can be divided into four categories
vation may be slightly higher than the flood control limit according to their constituent substances. ① Mineral mate-
water level (refer to reservoir characteristic value). For those rials, including materials made from natural clay, sand, and
that need to be cleaned frequently, it shall be higher than the stone, such as clay-burnt products (bricks, tiles), inorganic
maximum water level. The trash rack with larger height can cementitious materials (lime, gypsum, various types of
be made into several sections, and the size of each section cement), mortar and various kinds of concrete. ② Organic
can be determined according to the lifting capacity. materials, including wood, bamboo, asphalt, and synthetic
polymer materials (such as epoxy resin and polyethylene
(3) Other aspects resin). ③ Metallic materials include ferrous and nonferrous
materials. ④ Composite materials refer to materials com-
In cold areas in winter, anti-freezing measures are required posed of the combination of two or more materials men-
for trash racks. The common methods are: ① low-voltage tioned above, such as asphalt mortar, epoxy concrete,
(50 V) current is connected to the trash racks to make the geotextile, etc. There are many kinds of building materials
resistance of the metal structure itself heat to prevent used in water conservancy projects. The main materials used
freezing. This method is simple, but the power consumption in typical water conservancy facilities can be divided into
is large. ② Under the water surface in front of racks, the two categories: concrete and metal materials.
compressed air is used to bring the high temperature water
body at the lower layer of the reservoir to the water surface 1. Concrete
so as to prevent the trash rack from freezing. This method is
mostly used in large reservoirs. Concrete refers to a mixture of cementitious material,
Dirt cleaning can be done manually or by dirt cleaner. aggregate, water, and other admixtures in a certain propor-
Manual cleaning is suitable for shallow ones whose depth tion. It is a building material used in a wide range with many
doesn’t exceed 5 m. When the trash rack is deep under the kinds: ① according to cementitious materials, there are
water, dirt cleaner is mostly used to clean the dirt. If it is cement concrete, asphalt concrete, silicate concrete, and
necessary, two trash racks can be set up. When cleaning is polymer concrete; ② in terms of unit weight, there are heavy
required, put the standby trash rack into the access door slot concrete (capacity weight less than 2700 kg/m3), ordinary
first, and then lift out the working trash rack for cleaning. concrete (unit weight of 1900–2600 kg/m3) and light con-
crete (unit weight less than 1900 kg/m3); ③ according to the
2.3.1.3 Main Materials for Typical Water function of use, there are hydraulic concrete, building con-
Conservancy Facilities crete, road concrete, fire-resistant or acid-resistant and
In ancient China, there was a saying of “building earth to radiation-resistant concrete; ④ according to the construction
resist water”. During the Warring States Period, water con- technology, there are conventional concrete, roller com-
servancy was developed. For example, Dujiangyan Irrigation pacted concrete, sprayed concrete, and pumped concrete; ⑤
System built during this period, used large quantities of according to the strength grade, there are low grade, high
bamboo, wood, gravel, and clay. In the 13th year of Liang grade, and super-high grade concrete. In addition, some are
Tianjian in the Southern Dynasties (AD 514), iron pieces named in accordance with certain characteristics (material,
were used to build dikes. In Exploitation of the Works of process, reinforced structure, and performance) to be dis-
Nature in Ming Dynasty, the method of building reservoirs tinguished from other kinds of concrete, such as aerated
with glutinous rice and lime mixed soil. Since the nineteenth concrete, sand-free concrete, impregnated concrete, rein-
century, building steel, cement, concrete, and reinforced forced concrete, fiber concrete, dry concrete, high-flow
concrete came out in succession, becoming the main build- concrete, prefilled aggregate grout concrete, etc. The most
ing materials. In the twentieth century, cement with special widely used in water conservancy facilities are ordinary
properties, concrete admixture, waterproof materials, syn- concrete made of cement, sand, stone and water, reinforced
thetic polymer materials, and prestressed concrete were concrete with steel bars and HPC.
130 B. Xu
1) Ordinary concrete configuration is to use low water–cement ratio, select

high-quality raw materials, and to be mixed with a sufficient
Ordinary concrete generally refers to artificial stone taking amount of admixture (mineral fine admixture) and
cement as the main cementitious material mixing with water, high-efficiency admixture.
sand, stone, or chemical additives and mineral admixtures if HPC is developed from high-strength concrete, but the
necessary according to an appropriate proportion, after uni- technical performance of HPC requires more than that of
form mixing, dense molding and curing hardening. Concrete high-strength concrete. The development of HPC can be
is divided into two stages and states: plastic state before divided into three stages:
setting and hardening, namely fresh concrete or concrete
mixture; hard state after hardening, namely hardened con- (1) HPC formed by vibration and pressure—technological
crete or concrete. The concrete strength grade is divided by innovation;
the standard value of cube compressive strength. At present, (2) Mixing high-efficiency water reducer to configure HPC
Chinese ordinary concrete strength grade is divided into 12 —component innovation;
grades: C7.5, 10, C20, C30, C35, C40, C45, C50, C55, and (3) Using mineral admixtures to prepare HPC—component
C60. innovation.
The ordinary concrete becomes the indispensable material
in the water conservancy project because of its practicability, 3) Reinforced concrete
and its use scope is expanding day by day. However, in
recent decades, premature failure and collapse of concrete Reinforced concrete refers to a composite material by adding
structures due to material deterioration have become more reinforced steel mesh, steel plate or fiber to improve the
and more common. The premature failure of these concrete mechanical properties of the concrete.
projects is not due to insufficient strength, but to the poor Reinforced concrete is a kind of building material which
durability (including poor corrosion resistance) of the con- combines two kinds of materials with different mechanical
crete. In “Study and Mechanism Analysis of Corrosion properties, namely steel bars and concrete as a whole. In
Resistance of Ordinary Concrete”, He Xiaoyan and Liu order to make full use of the properties of the two materials,
Shuguang comprehensively deduce from the change of concrete and steel bars are combined together so that con-
weight and strength of concrete specimen through long-term crete mainly bears the pressure and steel bars mainly bear the
immersion test that the original medium water and concen- tensile force to meet the needs of the engineering structure.
trated medium water provided by the sewage treatment plant The two kinds of materials with different properties can
have no obvious corrosion effect on the ordinary concrete of work together effectively mainly because there is a good
C30 and C35 strength grade. In the course of the test, the bonding force between steel bars and concrete so that the
accelerated test water made of NaCl, NaNO3, NH4Cl, and two materials are integrated into a whole and are deformed
MgSO4 produces corrosion to ordinary concrete to a certain harmoniously under the action of load. Besides, the coeffi-
extent. From the analysis of corrosion mechanism of con- cients of thermal expansion of steel bars and concrete are
crete, it is found that the corrosion caused by MgSO4 is the very close. The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel bars
most serious, NH4Cl is the second, NaNO3 and NaCl are less is 1.2 10−5 °C−1 and that of concrete is 1.0 10−5–
corrosive to concrete. It can be seen that ordinary concrete 1.5 10−5 °C−1. The two don’t destroy their integrity due
has certain corrosion resistance, but it is not corrosion to deformation when temperature changes. What’s more,
resistant to some materials. The hydraulic facilities are in steel bars are inside the concrete so that concrete protects
freshwater, so the environment should be considered com- steel bars properly and steel bars are not easy to rust.
prehensively, and relevant anti-corrosion measures should be
taken. 2. Steel structure
2) HPC is a new type of high-tech concrete, which is made The metal structure and equipment of water conservancy
by modern concrete technology on the basis of greatly projects mainly include water turbine and various steel gates,
improving the performance of ordinary concrete. water diversion penstock, trash rack, hoist, power trans-
mission and transformation tower, track beam of bridge
The durability of HPC is taken as the main index of design. crane, steel structure of factory building, etc. They are in the
The following performance points are guaranteed according environment of atmosphere, dry-wet alternate, submerged
to the requirements of different applications: durability, water, and high-speed water flow. They are exposed to
workability, applicability, strength, volume stability, and various environmental influences such as water quality, gas,
economy. Therefore, the characteristic of HPC in the sunlight, and temperature, as well as chemical, physical, and
electrochemical effects such as impact and friction of sedi- and greatly improves the atmospheric corrosion resistance of
ment, ice and floating matter, as well as the effects of bio- the steel materials. Weathering steel is a kind of steel system
logical attachment and microorganisms in the water. They that can be used to reduce, bare or simplify coating, so that
are inevitably subjected to corrosion and damage or per- the products can resist corrosion, prolong life, save labor and
formance degradation. The steel involved in the metal reduce consumption, and upgrade. It is also a steel system
structure of hydropower station mainly includes ordinary that can be integrated into modern metallurgical new
steel, weathering steel, and stainless steel. mechanism, new technology, and new process to make it
develop and innovate continuously.
(1) Ordinary steel Weathering steel is not only widely used in water con-
servancy industry, but also plays an important role in con-
Ordinary steel is carbon steel, namely, iron–carbon alloy. struction, bridge, ship, and other fields. Due to the use
According to the carbon content, it is divided into environment where the steel materials are in direct contact
low-carbon steel grid plate (commonly known as wrought with the air, the amount of loss of the steel materials because
iron), medium-carbon steel and cast iron. Generally, steel of atmospheric corrosion is very large each year. The
with carbon content of less than 0.2% is called low-carbon developed weathering steel has good atmospheric corrosion
steel, commonly known as wrought iron or pure iron. Steel resistance, greatly prolonging the service life of the steel
whose content is 0.2–1.7% is called steel. Steel whose materials. The metallic iron absorbs water and oxygen in the
content is above 1.7% is called pig iron. Ordinary steel is air, forms a dense oxide layer on the surface of the material,
characterized by high plasticity, low deformation resistance and impedes the continued development of corrosion,
of metal, low energy consumption in production, easy con- thereby protecting the substrate. Atmospheric corrosion
trol of quality, simple process (that basic process only has occurs at the interface between the material and the medium,
three stages of heating, rolling, and cooling, and can be and the nature of the corrosion product—rust layer is most
directly used without heat treatment in general. But the important to the corrosion resistance. At present, the meth-
corrosion resistance of ordinary steel is worse than that of ods of obtaining the stable rust layer of weathering steel
stainless steel). Weathering steel, namely atmospheric include atmospheric exposure, indoor acceleration, and sta-
corrosion-resistant steel, is a low alloy steel series between bilization treatment.
ordinary steel and stainless steel.
(3) Stainless steel
(2) Weathering steel
Stainless steel is the abbreviation of stainless and
Weathering steel is made of plain carbon steel added with a acid-resistant steel. The steel that is resistant to weak cor-
small amount of corrosion resistance elements such as rosion media such as air, steam, and water or that is stainless
copper and nickel. Weathering steel is characterized by is called stainless steel. And the steel that is resistant to
toughness, plastic extension, forming, welding cutting, chemical corrosion media (acid, alkali, salt, and other
abrasion, high temperature, and fatigue resistance. The chemical etching) is called acid-resistant steel. Because of
weatherability is 2–8 times that of plain carbon steel, and the the difference in chemical composition, the corrosion resis-
coating property is 1.5–10 times that of plain carbon steel. In tance of these two kinds of steel is different. Ordinary
addition, weathering steel has the characteristic of rust stainless steel is not resistant to chemical media while the
resistance, corrosion resistance and life extension of com- acid-resistant steel is generally stainless. Stainless steels are
ponents, thin reduction and consumption reduction, labor often classified into martensitic steel, ferritic steel, austenitic
saving and energy saving. steel, austenitic-ferritic (diphasic) stainless steel and precip-
After phosphorus, copper, chromium, nickel, and other itation hardening stainless steel according to their structural
trace elements are added to the steel, a dense and adherent state. In addition, stainless steels can be divided into chro-
protective film is formed on the surface of the steel, which mium stainless steel, chromium-nickel stainless steel, and
hinders the diffusion and development of rust and protects chromium manganese nitrogen stainless steel by composi-
the substrate under the rust layer to slow down the corrosion tion. The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is due to the
rate. The amorphous spinel oxide layer 50–100 lm thick chemical reaction between chromium in stainless steel and
formed between the rust layer and the substrate is dense and oxygen in the atmosphere, which forms a layer of chromium
has good adhesion to the base metal. The presence of the oxide on the surface of stainless steel, effectively preventing
dense oxide film prevents oxygen and water in the atmo- the oxidation of stainless steel. At the same time, even if the
sphere from penetrating into the steel substrate, which slows surface of stainless steel is mechanically damaged, a pro-
down the corrosion development toward the steel material tective film can be formed quickly. However, if subjected to
132 B. Xu
Table 2.52 Corrosion loss statistics of some countries energy, and resources, which makes material strength to
Countries or Statistical Direct loss Accounting decline to directly affect the service life of equipment and
regions time ($billion/year) for GNP buildings, and also leads to environmental pollution and
(%) threats personal safety. According to statistics, the amount of
United States 1949 55 4.4 steel corrosion accounts for about 30% of the total output
1960s–1970s 150–200 4.2 every year, one-third of which can’t be recovered. It is
1975 82a
1995 8000 estimated that the annual steel corrosion loss of China is
more than 10 million tons, equivalent to the annual con-
Soviet Union 1969 67 2
sumption of 20 million tons of high-quality coal and 25
Federal 1969 60 3
Germany 1974 90
million tons of iron ore. According to Japanese data, the
energy consumption of the boiler increases by 8% for every
Japan 1976–1977 92 1.8
increase of 1 mm of scaling due to corrosion. Corroded
Britain 1969–1970 32 3.5
uniformly by environmental media, steel’s thickness is
Canada 1965 10 reduced by 1 mm, and its strength is reduced by 5–10%.
Australia 1973 4.7–5.5 1.5 Equipment such as metal pipes may cause medium leakage
Sweden 1968 4 1.25 due to corrosion, perforation or cracking, environmental
Finland 1965 0.47–0.62 pollution, and even fire and explosion.
India 1960–1961 3.2 In addition, the metal structure and equipment of water
Note aMaterial Performance Vol. 19, No. 5 (1980). The figures reported
conservancy projects are also seriously corroded because of
are corrosion losses in the United States in 1975 were about $70 billion, the particularity of their service conditions. According to the
accounting for 4.2% of GNP, and the data in this table are revised above, the annual expenditure of some domestic sluices for
values published in 1995 steel gate corrosion protection accounts for about half of the
annual maintenance funds, and 25–30% of the corrosion
chemical erosion by ions, such as chloride ions, it may be economic losses can be avoided through effective
difficult to resist corrosion, which may be exacerbated by the anti-corrosion measures.
unhindered ingress of oxygen.
2. Degree of corrosion
2.3.2 Corrosion and Protection (1) Average degree of corrosion
2.3.2.1 Corrosion Status of Water Conservancy The average corrosion amount is usually expressed by the
Industry average thickness reduction amount. The residual thickness
of the structure after corrosion is measured with a special
vernier caliper or ultrasonic measuring instrument. The
1. Problems corrosion rate is calculated according to the difference
between the original thickness and the residual thickness and
The damage caused by corrosion is serious. First of all, it the service life.
will lead to huge direct and indirect economic losses. In the Atmospheric metal structure and equipment are generally
1960s and 1970s, some industrial countries investigated the uniformly corroded, and the degree of corrosion is relatively
economic losses caused by metal corrosion. In 1995, the light. Under the condition of coating protection at present,
United States published the latest survey results, as shown in the corrosion rate can’t be basically measured. The atmo-
Table 2.52. It can be seen from Table 2.52 that the economic spheric exposure test results of several bare steels in Gez-
losses caused by corrosion in developed countries account houba and the middle reaches of Yangtze River are shown in
for 1.5–4.4% of GNP. There is no authoritative investigation Table 2.53.
and statistics on the nationwide corrosion loss in China. In As can be seen from Table 2.50, the corrosion rates of
1980, the preliminary investigation conducted by relevant steels of different materials are different and the corrosion
sectors in China on more than 100 enterprises in chemical, rates of steels of the same materials are also different in
petroleum and chemical fiber industries showed that the total different exposed places, and the corrosion rate at the initial
corrosion losses amounted to RMB 340 million, accounting stage of exposure is large, up to 0.1524 mm/a. The corrosion
for about 2.32% of the total output value of these enterprises. rate of steel decreases gradually with the extension of
Secondly, metal corrosion not only brings huge economic exposure time, and the corrosion rate of bare steel in the
losses, but also causes great consumption of raw materials, atmosphere of middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River is
Table 2.53 Corrosion rate in exposed corrosion test of bare steels (mm/a)
Steel Wuhan Huangshi Yichang Gezhouba
0.5 year 1 year 2 years 0.5 year 1 year 2 years 0.5 year 1 year 2 years 0.5 year 1 year 2 years
WSPA 0.0527 0.0328 0.0285 0.0970 0.0594 0.0421 0.131 0.0757 0.0567 0.0699 0.0477 0.0316
09CuTiRe 0.0485 0.0322 0.0290 0.0875 0.0564 0.0449 0.1231 0.0748 0.0569 0.0618 0.0452 0.0337
A3F 0.0510 0.0338 0.0316 0.0957 0.0747 0.0524 0.1110 0.0768 0.0591 0.0688 0.0495 0.0375
No. 15 0.0595 0.0428 0.0338 0.1174 0.0817 0.0647 0.1524 0.1086 0.0874 0.0757 0.0563 0.0523
in the range of 0.0285–0.0874 mm/a in the second year of 3. Areas prone to corrosion
exposure. Through the exposure test of steel under atmo-
spheric environment, it is found that the following relation There are many components of hydraulic metal structure.
exists between corrosion speed and time of bare steel. For the components located in the atmospheric and water
level fluctuation areas, the degree of corrosion is increased
D ¼ Atn due to the poor structure and its arrangement mode. The
where, D is the corrosion depth, lm; t is the exposure time, corrosion of the structural components is more serious in the
a; a and n are constant. A value of low-carbon steel is about parts prone to accumulation of water (such as channel steel
30 in dry less polluted environment and about 40 in general and angle steel placed horizontally upward) (Figs. 2.77 and
hot-wet environment. n value is greatly influenced by the 2.78), and the multi-flange, multi-angle, and multi-rivet
composition of the material and environmental factors, structure is more serious than that of smooth flat plate and
ranging from 0.21 to 1.97, but mostly in the range of 0.4– steel pipe structure. Between the back-to-back joints of the
0.5. It is concluded that the average corrosion rate after angle steel and the unsealed butt joint of the box steel, the
10 years of exposure is about 0.01 mm/a. corrosion is relatively serious due to the difficulty of initial
protection and later failure to maintain or respray protection.
(2) Degree of local corrosion In addition, galvanic corrosion often occurs between the
substrate and the weld joint when the materials of the two
The degree of corrosion is usually expressed by etch pit adjacent components are different. A metal with a relatively
depth or local thickness reduction. The average local cor- negative potential becomes an anode in the galvanic couple
rosion rate of underwater metal structure is several times to and is strongly corroded.
ten times of the uniform corrosion rate. In addition, the local
corrosion rate of each component is greatly different 4. Major types of corrosion
according to the operating condition. The average local
corrosion of the structural component under the condition of (1) Uniform corrosion
static water and low flow rate is generally less than
0.1 mm/a. The maximum local corrosion rate of the gate The so-called uniform corrosion means that the corrosion is
subjected to high-speed water flow is up to a few hundred distributed over the surface of the entire metal structure,
millimeters per year, and the local corrosion of turbine which may or may not be uniform, as a result of which the
blades subjected to cavitation is the most serious, up to thickness of the component is reduced. The risk of uniform
several millimeters per year, such as about 3 mm/a of corrosion is relatively small. The corrosion allowance can be
Gezhouba. According to different water control projects, the increased in the design according to the corrosion speed of
degree of corrosion of Gezhouba is the most serious. The metal and the required service life of the structure.
lower end of its flood discharge gate has been washed for Uniform corrosion of structures and equipment of water
about 10 years, and the average thickness reduction amount conservancy projects generally occurs in the atmospheric
of the lowest faceplate is 6–8 mm. The maximum thickness environment. The severity of corrosion is related to the
reduction of sill is 13–14 mm. The original thickness of temperature of the climatic zone and the relative humidity in
turbine blade is 25 mm. After 6 years of erosion and cavi- the environment. The corrosion speed of wet parts is much
tation erosion, only 6 mm remains at the thinnest area and higher than the dry ones in the tropics. In general, the uni-
the maximum reduction is 19 mm. form corrosion of the metal structure and equipment is not
134 B. Xu
spraying protection on the metal structure or equipment at

present.
(2) Local corrosion
In addition to uniform corrosion of metal structure in water

conservancy projects, local corrosion of various forms will
occur, and local corrosion of structural parts in water is
particularly serious. Local corrosion is mainly concentrated
in a certain area of the metal surface. There are many types
of local corrosion, including galvanic corrosion, crevice
corrosion, bacterial corrosion and wear corrosion, oxygen
concentration corrosion near the waterline and pitting cor-
rosion caused by coating defects.
Fig. 2.77 Serious corrosion diagram of box steel ponding site
A. Galvanic corrosion
In the contact of different metals in the same medium, the

galvanic current flows and the dissolution rate of the metal
with low potential increases because the corrosion potential
is not equal, resulting in local corrosion at the contact part
and decrease in the dissolution rate of the metal with high
potential. This corrosion is called galvanic corrosion, also
called contact corrosion or bi-metal corrosion. In some
structure of water conservancy projects, different compo-
nents are often composed of two different metals and gal-
vanic corrosion sometimes exist at the joint, which results in
serious corrosion of the components with negative potential.
B. Crevice corrosion
For metal components in the medium, small crevice between

Fig. 2.78 Serious corrosion of ponding area metal or metal and nonmetal makes the medium in the
crevice in a stagnant state, resulting in the accelerated cor-
rosion of the metal in the crevice. This local corrosion is
called crevice corrosion. When there is a crevice in the metal
surface, the medium in the crevice is in a stagnant state, the
substances participating in the corrosion reaction are difficult
to replenish inward and the corrosion products in the crevice
are difficult to diffuse out. The medium in the crevice con-
tinues to undergo corrosion so that the composition, con-
centration and pH value of the medium are more and more
different from the whole medium, resulting in accelerated
corrosion of the metal surface in the crevice and reducing the
corrosion of the metal surface outside the crevice. Thus, pits
or deep holes of varying depths present within the crevice.
Fig. 2.79 Local corrosion under aquatic organisms
Many metal components will cause crevices due to unrea-
sonable design or processing process, such as flange con-
nection surface, nut pressing surface, weld gas holes, rust
very serious due to the relatively weak corrosiveness of the layer. They form crevices on the contact surface of the metal.
environment where the hydraulic project is located, and the Sediment, dirt, debris, organisms, and other deposits on the
effective protection measures such as coating or metal metal surface also virtually form crevices. Therefore, crevice
corrosion is one of the causes of corrosion pits of metal can make the formed corrosion products peeled off and
components in water conservancy projects. carried away by fluid, causing erosion corrosion on the
surface of the component. In addition, there are different
C. Bacterial corrosion amounts of sand in the water of each water control project.
The existence of these solid particles will enhance the
All kinds of bacteria existing in water will influence corro- moment of shear stress and lead to serious wear corrosion of
sion process of metal in their life activities by: ① producing the surface. The deep-hole gate, the bottom of the flood
the metabolic products with corrosiveness, such as sulfuric discharge gate and the reverse arc gate of the ship lock are all
acid, organic acid, and sulfide to deteriorate the corrosive subjected to severe erosion corrosion. The components
environment of metal; ② influencing dynamic process of subjected to erosion corrosion are characterized by deep
electrode reaction; ③ changing the environment of the valleys or horseshoe-shaped grooves cut in the direction of
metal, such as oxygen concentration, salt concentration, pH water flow, as well as grooves, corrugations, and circular
value, forming local corrosion battery on the metal surface; holes.
④ destroying the coating on the metal surface.
5. Comparison of corrosion conditions at different
D. Wear corrosion locations
The high movement speed of the medium or the relative The corrosion form of metal structure in water conservancy
movement speed between the medium and the metal com- project is as follows: the structure and equipment in atmo-
ponents makes the local surface of the component suffer spheric environment are mainly subjected to uniform cor-
serious corrosion. This corrosion is called wear corrosion, rosion, but a few components often produce local corrosion
which is the result of the synergistic effect between elec- spot of different degree due to crevice and oxygen concen-
trochemical factors and hydrodynamic factors. In water tration corrosion in the easily ponding parts. The metal
conservancy projects, most metal structures run in flowing structure in water is mainly subjected to local corrosion. The
water. The flow rate of trash rack is generally 1–2 m/s; the main types of local corrosion are galvanic corrosion, crevice
flow rate near the inner wall of the penstock is 5–6 m/s; and corrosion, bacterial corrosion, and wear corrosion. Under the
the flow rate of deep-hole gate is 20–25 m/s. The flow rate condition of static water or low-speed moving water, gate,
of the reverse arc gate is different from that of each lock, penstock, and trash rack mainly show the characteristics of
which is generally high, and that of Gezhouba lock is pitting corrosion. The main causes of pitting corrosion are
13 m/s. The flow rate of flood discharge is also different for coating defects, welding slag, surface dust particles, bio-
each hydropower station, and each flood discharge is also logical non-uniform adhesion, microbial corrosion, and the
different. The water diversion chamber and blades of the combination of mechanical factors and electrochemical
turbine are high-speed water flow. These components are corrosion of steel caused by the flow of water. Where
subjected to severe wear and corrosion under dynamic water structural components such as gates are subjected to grinding
conditions, but the forms of corrosion are different in dif- of high-speed water and sand, deep valleys or
ferent flow rate ranges. horseshoe-shaped grooves cut into the direction of water
The simulation test of the effect of flow rate on corrosion flow, or grooves, corrugations, circular holes, and other wear
behavior shows that when the flow rate of water is low, the and corrosion characteristics will appear generally within a
supply of oxygen increases with the increase of flow rate, range of several tens of centimeters at the bottom of the gate.
which accelerates the cathodic depolarization reaction during However, the corrosion morphology of turbine blades
steel corrosion, resulting in an increase in electrochemical mainly presents spongy cavities.
corrosion rate. At the same time, hydromechanical factor Generally, the corrosion degree at different positions is
begins to act, causing the total corrosion to accelerate. The different. The data of corrosion degree at different positions
flow rate increases further and the hydrodynamic factor of Danjiangkou and Fengjiashan water conservancy project
increases, and the corrosion caused by it increases slightly. (Tables 2.54, 2.55 and 2.56) show that the corrosion is
However, when the supply of oxygen is sufficient to a cer- mainly local corrosion.
tain extent, the steel shows a tendency to be passivated, and As can be seen from Tables 2.54, 2.55, 2.56, the average
the electrochemical corrosion rate decreases. As a result, the local corrosion rate of underwater metal structures is several
total corrosion is slowed down. to several ten times the uniform corrosion rate. In addition,
When the water flow rate increases again, the hydrody- the local corrosion rate of components is greatly different
namic factor becomes more obvious, and a significant shear according to the operating condition. The average local
stress is exerted on the metal surface. This high shear stress corrosion of structural components under the condition of
136 B. Xu
Table 2.54 Test result of local corrosion pit depth of Danjiangkou water conservancy project
Structure Components Average pit Average pitting Maximum pit Maximum pitting Operation
depth (mm) rate (mm/a) depth (mm) rate (mm/a) time/a
Top of weir Above the web of the 1.0 0.090 2.0 0.140 20
Lower section main beam
of flat gate Below the web of the 1.0 0.090
main beam
Side web 1.0 0.090
Channel steel beams 1.0 0.090 2.0 0.140
Deep-hole door Imported lining steel 2.0 0.500 3.8 0.950 4
plate
Back of arc gate 1.45 0.363 1.8 0.450
Trash rack Upper No. 4 0.82 0.042 0.89 0.045 29
Upper No. 4 0.86 0.054 2.5 0.110
Upper No. 4 1.62 0.080 1.8 0.086
Table 2.55 Local corrosion test result of metal structure of Fengjiashan water conservancy project
Structure Components Operation Average pit Average pitting Maximum pit Maximum pitting
time limit/a depth/mm rate (mm/a) depth/mm rate (mm/a)
Spillway gate Backside panel 20 3.24 0.162 3.78 0.189
Flood discharge Water retaining side 25 1.83 0.073 2.37 0.095
gate panel
Bottom of water 3.93 0.157 7.15 0.286
retaining side panel
Web of right arm 0.93 0.037 1.35 0.054
Water conveyance Water retaining side 26 1.62 0.062 2.34 0.090
overhaul gate panel
Backside 1.19 0.046 1.47 0.057
Lateral slide block 2.11 0.081 2.44 0.094
Reverse slide block 2.49 0.096 3.25 0.125
Flood discharge Water retaining side 25 1.38 0.053 2.25 0.087
overhaul gate panel
Side beam 1.00 0.040 1.43 0.057
Main beam 1.47 0.059 2.06 0.082
Vertical clapboard 1.01 0.040 1.05 0.042
Ballast tank Backside panel 25 0.93 0.037 1.05 0.042
Side beam 1.21 0.048 1.46 0.058
Suspender 25 1.22 0.049 1.46 0.058
static water and low flow rate is generally less than different, so the anti-corrosion measures are also different.
0.1 mm/a. The maximum local corrosion rate is more than Anti-corrosion is considered in engineering design of gen-
0.1 mm per year, and the localized corrosion of turbine eral water conservancy projects.
blades subjected to cavitation is the most serious, reaching The key point of reasonable design lies in how to choose
several millimeters per year, such as about 3 mm/a at anti-corrosion technology, anti-corrosion material, and
Gezhouba. structure system correctly. In addition to meeting the
requirements of the production process, the structure must be
2.3.2.2 Anti-corrosion Method considered its reasonability according to the needs of
There are many methods for metal anti-corrosion, but the anti-corrosion. At the same time, the construction is also an
environmental conditions and operation conditions are important link related to whether the anti-corrosion measures
Table 2.56 Detection of local pitting corrosion depth of steel truss of Zhangshan sluice gate (put into operation in 1961, detected in 1992)
No. of pit Part Average pit Average pitting Maximum pit depth
depth (mm) rate (mm/a) /mm /(mm/a) Part
#
30 Zinc spraying section 1.426 0.069 2.60 0.107 Longitudinal truss CD rod
Zinc free section 0.372 0.027 3.27 0.121 South arm BG rod
#
25 Zinc spraying section 1.271 0.063 4.44 0.165 Web of lower truss
Zinc free section 0.031 0.025 2.05 0.081 Upper chord of upper truss
#
20 Zinc spraying section 1.209 0.062 3.56 0.137 Web of lower truss
Zinc free section 0.062 0.015 1.67 0.066 Longitudinal truss GF rod
achieve the expected anti-corrosion effect. Only after the coatings have better quality than the original ones, but the
quality of construction is ensured can the anti-corrosion protective effect is still not good. The main reasons are as
technology play the role of protection. Otherwise, no good follows: First, the coating can’t completely solve the serious
anti-corrosion technology will work. local corrosion, especially erosion corrosion and cavitation
The metal structure of water conservancy project belongs corrosion. Second, the properties of coatings can’t meet the
to large-scale fixed permanent structure. Its environmental requirements of weathering resistance, abrasion resistance,
medium is noncyclic, and its anti-corrosion measures usually erosion resistance, biological and microbial corrosion resis-
have the following three aspects. tance. Third, the design thickness of the coating is not
enough (most of them are 120–160 lm). Fourth, the con-
1. Protection with a corrosion-resistant coating struction quality control isn’t strict, including surface treat-
ment and coating. The investigation finds that the coating
The metal or nonmetal material with corrosion resistance is thickness is very uneven (coating thickness of some com-
used to cover the metal surface of the substrate so as to ponents is 75–320 lm, some are 140–490 lm).
isolate the medium from the metal substrate, which is the
most widely used anti-corrosion method. The covering is (2) Metal spraying protection
divided into two categories: metal and nonmetal one. Metal
coating may be obtained by plating, sputtering, electroless Metal spraying protection has been used since the 1970s,
plating, hot dip plating, and thermal diffusion plating. The and has been widely applied in the 1980s. In the old water
nonmetal coating is coated or adhered to the substrate metal conservancy projects, the coating protection is replaced by
surface with a corrosion-resistant nonmetal material. Its metal spraying and coating sealing protection year by year.
anti-corrosion effect mainly depends on the isolation effect, In the newly built power stations, most underwater metal
mainly including coating, rubber, plastics, glass fiber rein- structures (except penstock) are designed with metal spray-
forced plastics (GFRP), and corrosion-resistant ceramics. ing and coating sealing protection. In addition, when the
Among them, coating is most widely used because of its low surface treatment is protected by metal spraying, sandblast-
price, simple construction, and many optional varieties. ing can be used for rust removal. The spraying mode is still
Coating protection and metal spraying protection are com- mainly air spraying, and the metal spraying material is
monly used in water conservancy projects. mainly zinc spraying, and a few are protected by spraying
aluminum. The sealing coating mainly consists of chlori-
(1) Coating protection nated rubber.
However, the effect of metal spraying protection is very
Coating protection is still one of the common protection different. Some of them can protect for 15–20 years, some
methods for various water conservancy projects. The types have rust spots in a few years, and some have been washed
of coating include: red lead anti-rust paint, iron-red anti-rust off by 20–30% after a flood season. The protective effect of
paint, underwater ship bottom paint and alkyd paint with the same component is generally good in the atmosphere
general maintenance period of 3–4 years for water conser- part but the protective effect of underwater part is relatively
vancy projects built before 1970s; epoxy asphalt paint and poor. One of the reasons is that corresponding measures are
chlorinated rubber paint around the 1980s; before and after not adopted according to different environments and oper-
1990s, there are mainly zinc-rich primer, epoxy or poly- ating conditions. For example, metal spraying materials
urethane coatings for underwater use, and ethylene and should not be uniformly sprayed with zinc, but use zinc–
polyurethane coating for atmospheric use. The selected aluminum alloy which not only improves corrosion
138 B. Xu
Table 2.57 Anti-corrosion measures and effects of Danjiangkou Hydropower Plant

Name of Anti-corrosion measures Protective effect
structure
Deep-hole Panel: after the original coating on the bottom of the ship was Panel: obvious local corrosion before zinc spraying, pitting
gate corroded for two years, the original coating is replaced with corrosion ø 4–8 mm
zinc spraying + coating with good effect. The coating Imported lining steel plate: Serious local corrosion and rust ø
thickness is measured to be 310–490 lm. Imported lining 8–20 mm pitting corrosion 2 mm, deepest 3.8 mm
steel plate: The original coating is now coated with epoxy
asphalt for protection of ship bottom paint
Weir gate Now: zinc spraying + coating Upper section: corrosion is relatively light, basically no
corrosion pit
Lower section: the corrosion pits are densely covered, mainly
between 1 and 2 bars, the small beam distance is too close to
prevent corrosion treatment, the drainage outlet is also
covered with corrosion pits due to water
Tailgate Now: zinc spraying + coating The zinc spraying protection is basically intact, and there is
Measured thickness 185–472 lm yellow rust on the two welding seams
Trash rack Coating primer of ship (96) The trash rack is covered with dense aquatic life (Fig. 2.79).
Measured thickness 140–320 lm After removal, there are yellow rust spots on the coating.
Under the yellow rust is black substance, it is pit-like
corrosion
resistance, but also has higher strength than pure zinc. At The compulsory current method can provide cathodic
present, the spraying mode is mainly air spraying. The use of protection current for a long time, continuously and stably,
arc spraying will improve the adhesion of the coating. In the and the detection system is information-based and easy to
aspect of sealing coating, some parts should consider the control. Thus, it is widely used in metal structures such as
impact resistance and wear resistance of the coating. In steel piles and oil pipes. However, for underwater metal
addition, measures shall be taken to ensure quality and structures of water conservancy projects, the protection
reduce defects on the edges of multi-angular members (angle system must be equipped with an auxiliary anode and ref-
steel, channel steel, rivet, and grating bar) in construction erence electrode on the trash rack and overhaul gate and lead
technology. The thickness of the coating is mostly 120– out the anode cable, cathode cable, and reference cable to the
160 lm, and the sealing coating is 30 lm, which is too thin cathodic protection control room. The resistivity of fresh-
for underwater and eroded parts, affecting the durability. water medium of Yangtze River is large, and the cavitation
Another reason is that the durability and applicability of environment is dynamic water environment. In order to
composite coating of metal spraying coating in different make the surface current distribution of the protected com-
environments have not been proved by rigorous tests. At ponent uniform, many auxiliary anodes need to be installed.
present, the combination of metal spraying protection and Therefore, there will be many long cables. During the
coating protection is often used in water conservancy pro- operation, cables are easy to be damaged and difficult to
jects, such as Danjiangkou (Table 2.57). repair, and the fixing of the auxiliary anode and the abrasion
caused by dynamic water erosion after the fixing are very
2. Cathodic protection difficult to solve. At the same time, the compulsory current
method is complex in construction and the equipment
The cathodic protection method can be divided into com- operation cost is high, and it is easy to have influence on the
pulsory current cathodic protection method and sacrificial surrounding metal structure and easy to appear the over-
anode cathodic protection method according to the way of protection phenomenon. Therefore, this method is not suit-
current supply. Compulsory current cathodic protection able for the protection of the metal structure of water
method uses external power supply to provide cathodic conservancy projects.
protection current, and its system is composed of DC power As for sacrificial anode protection, the sacrificial anode is
supply, auxiliary anode, reference electrode, and cable. The generally weld directly to the metal structure, and the sac-
sacrificial anode cathodic protection method uses a metal rificial anode forms a galvanic cell with the metal structure,
with more negative potential than the protected metal elec- thereby protecting the metal structure without the use of
trode to provide cathodic protection current. The protection packing and connecting cables. During construction, only a
system mainly consists of sacrificial anode, packing mate- certain number of sacrificial anodes are weld and installed on
rial, and connecting cable. the components in advance, and the expected protection
effect can be achieved under the condition that the scheme

design is reasonable and the anode materials and the welding
quality meet the requirements. In addition, the protection
system doesn’t need any maintenance and management in
operation and the operation is simple, but it is difficult to
monitor and control, which has higher requirements on the
performance of anode material itself.
At present, the sacrificial anode materials in China have
been standardized, and the quality of anode materials can meet
the requirements completely. In addition, the anode welding is
installed on land, so the quality of anode welding can be
guaranteed. Thus, it is feasible to use sacrificial anode pro-
tection, which has been widely applied in recent years [9, 10].
3. Other aspects
Fig. 2.80 Corrosion status of steel gate of Zhenjiang Jianbi after zinc
(1) Eliminating or reducing the factors causing corrosion. spraying for 5 years
For example, when connecting different metal materi-
als, metal with similar potential should be used as much
as possible, insulating materials should be used to
separate. The connection between metal plates shall not
be spliced as far as possible so as to reduce the crevice.
During welding, there shall be correct welding proce-
dures, and discontinuous welding seams shall not occur.
The welding rod shall be made of metal with a more
positive potential than that of the substrate, and the
components shall avoid the residue of rainwater.
(2) Corrosion-resistant materials shall be adopted. For
example, turbine blades shall use alloy materials resis-
tant to impact wear and cavitation erosion. Some use
corrosion-resistant non-metal materials instead of metal
materials, such as use of nylon in slideway module.
(3) Predict the corrosion amount and increase the thickness
of components during design. Fig. 2.81 Surface status of steel gate of Zhenjiang Jianbi after
derusting
2.3.2.3 Problems Existing in Corrosion of Water
Conservancy Industry coating. During the inspection in 1998, rust spots appeared
In the water conservancy industry, corrosion mainly occurs in most areas of gates, the lower and side coatings were
in underwater steel structures. For most hydraulic steel seriously damaged, and the local zinc spraying layer fell off,
structures, the contact water environment is freshwater and then the paint was applied again. After gates were lifted
medium. The long-term uniform corrosion rate of carbon in 2001, it was found that the peeling of coating was
steel in seawater is about 0.13 mm/a, and that in freshwater aggravated and the falling area of zinc spraying layer
is generally only 0.01–0.02 mm/a. However, the local cor- increased (Fig. 2.80). The gate leaf and arm of the sluice
rosion is serious. The pitting rate can reach 0.15–0.30 mm/a, gate of the estuary of Huaihe River into the sea are coated
and the maximum pitting rate is as high as 0.50 mm/a. As with Ac aluminum and sealing paint. It was found that the
time goes on, local corrosion will continue to develop and anti-corrosion top coat foamed, fell off, and rusted not long
will not decay with time. after the gates entered into the water. Later, gates were
At present, almost all steel gates in water conservancy resprayed with another paint coating, but the abovemen-
industry are protected by zinc (aluminum) spraying layer, tioned problems also occurred (Fig. 2.81).
but the effect is not very satisfactory. Zhenjiang Jianbi According to a large number of on-field investigation and
control gates are 15 steel gates that were reconstructed in analysis, the corrosion of hydraulic steel structure is
1996. The surface of gates is protected by zinc spraying and increased mainly by two factors. First, the water quality
140 B. Xu
pollution is serious. The water quality near sluices has been and other taxes; ⑥ budget reserve; ⑦ loan interest during
poor Class V water. The water pollution makes the pH value the construction period.
change greatly, the harmful ion increase, and the water body The second is the special project part: ① construction
resistivity reduce, which accelerates the metal structure land acquisition and resettlement compensation; ② soil and
corrosion. In addition, the pollution of the river water causes water conservation projects; ③ environmental protection
the decrease of dissolved oxygen in the water, and the project; ④ other special items, etc.
proliferation of anaerobic microorganisms and the genera- Taking the typical water conservancy facilities as an
tion of hydrogen sulfide, accelerating the metal corrosion. example, the specific percentage of corrosion cost is
The corrosion rate of steel in heavily polluted waters is calculated.
several times or even dozens of times that in pollution-free
areas. 2.3.3.1 Water Conservancy Project
Second, some stainless steel components are often used of Comprehensive Utilization
on the steel gate, such as stainless steel guide plate and At present, 97,735 reservoirs of various kinds have been
stainless steel bolts of water stop plate. The zinc (aluminum) built.
spraying layer on the surface of the stainless steel gate and A water conservancy project of comprehensive utilization
the same gate has a potential difference of 0.3–0.6 V, refers to a water conservancy facility of power generation,
forming a galvanic corrosion cell so that the stainless steel flood control, irrigation and shipping for comprehensive
components are protected, but the steel gate or the zinc utilization. It is composed of dam, power station, and ship
(aluminum) spraying layer accelerates corrosion. lock. The investment estimate is RMB 2982.8 million, of
which the investment in power generation is RMB 891.53
million, the investment in shipping is RMB 39.62 million,
2.3.3 Corrosion Cost the investment in flood control and irrigation is RMB 187.6
million, and the common project investment is RMB
Water conservancy facilities refer to all kinds of facilities 1864.05 million. Table 2.58 shows investment estimate of a
that control, regulate, develop, utilize and protect natural water conservancy project of comprehensive utilization.
water so as to mitigate and avoid flood and drought disasters, In the constructional engineering investment, the dam
and utilize water resources to meet the needs of human investment is RMB 202.9 million, the power station
society and natural environment. investment is RMB 72.5 million, and the navigation building
Water conservancy facilities mainly include various types investment is RMB 179 million; the investment of elec-
of dams, sluices, channels, pumping stations, aqueducts and tromechanical equipment installation project is RMB 600.8
so on. The construction of the water conservancy project million, which is mainly used for power station investment.
includes the sum of the preliminary work cost, civil work In the investment of metal structure equipment and instal-
cost, purchase and installation cost of metal structure and lation projects, the dam investment is RMB 18 million, the
electromechanical equipment, temporary project cost, reset-
tlement, and land compensation cost, construction manage-
ment fee, and construction loan interest.
The investment in the construction of water conservancy Table 2.58 Investment estimate of a water conservancy project of
comprehensive utilization
facilities mainly includes two major parts:
The first is the engineering part: ① constructional engi- No. Project Investment/RMB Proportion
10,000 (%)
neering, including main constructional engineering, traffic
1 Temporary projects 27,360 9.2
engineering, house constructional engineering, power supply
facilities engineering and other constructional engineering; 2 Compensation fee for 110,610 37.1
reservoir submergence
② electromechanical equipment and installation projects; ③
metal structure equipment and installation projects; ④ 3 Constructional 53,070 17.8
engineering
temporary projects, including construction diversion pro-
4 Electromechanical 60,080 20.1
jects, construction traffic projects, construction off-site
equipment and
power supply projects, construction house construction installation
projects and other temporary construction projects; ⑤ 5 Metal structure and 12,290 4.1
independent expenses, including construction management installation
fee, economic and technical service fee, project construction 6 Basic reserve 17,060 5.7
supervision fee, joint commissioning fee, production
7 Other expenses 17,180 6.0
preparation fee, feasibility study survey and design fee,
8 Total 298,280 100
project quality inspection fee, project insurance expenses,
Table 2.59 Proportion of anti-corrosion cost in investment of a water conservancy project of comprehensive utilization
No. Project Investment/RMB Proportion of anti-corrosion cost Anti-corrosion cost/RMB
10,000 (%) 10,000
1 Constructional engineering 53,070 0.8–1.2 425–637
2 Electromechanical equipment and 60,080 3–8 1802–4806
installation
3 Metal structure and installation 12,290 10–25 1229–3073
4 Total project investment 298,280 1.2–2.85 3456–8516
power station investment is RMB 46.4 million, and the gate on the river and the channel. Closing the gate can
navigation building investment is RMB 45.9 million. prevent flood, tide or raise the upstream water level to meet
It can be seen from the above data that in large and the needs of irrigation, power generation, shipping, aquatic
medium-sized water conservancy projects, the main con- products, environmental protection, industrial and domestic
struction costs are fees of compensation for reservoir sub- water use. Opening the gate can vent the flood, waterlog-
mergence, constructional engineering, electromechanical ging, abandoned water or wastewater, or supply water to the
equipment, and installation costs. The project investment downstream river or channel. They are the main buildings
related to corrosion and protection mainly includes con- for flood control and drainage.
structional engineering, electromechanical equipment, and The sluice can be divided into three types: large, medium,
installation, metal structure and installation. According to and small according to the over-gate flow. If the over-gate
the investigation, the anti-corrosion cost accounts for 0.8– flow is more than 1000 m3/s, it is a large sluice; if the
1.2% of the total cost, and the proportion of electrome- over-gate flow is between 100 and 1000 m3/s, it is a medium
chanical equipment and installation cost is 3–8%. In metal sluice; if the over-gate flow is less than 100 m3/s, it is a
structure and installation costs, the anti-corrosion ratio is small sluice.
about 18–25%, and some steel components with large body
surface area ratio, such as trash racks, can reach 40–50% 2.3.3.2 Maintenance and Management Cost
(Table 2.59). of Sluice
As can be seen from Table 2.59, the anti-corrosion There are 98,686 sluices with a flow of 5 m3/s and above, of
investment accounts for about 1.2–2.85% of the total con- which 875 are large sluices. According to the type of sluice,
struction cost. there are 7993 flood diversion sluices, 17,581 discharge
In 2014, the investment in water conservancy construc- sluices, 5831 tide gates, 11,124 diversion sluices, and 56,157
tion reached RMB 488.1 billion, of which the central control sluices.
investment was RMB 162.7 billion. According to this cal- The maintenance and repair of the sluice are divided into
culation, the investment cost for anti-corrosion of water maintenance, annual repair, emergency repair, and overhaul.
conservancy industry in 2014 was about RMB 5.655 bil- Normal maintenance is to maintain and repair the defects
lion–RMB 13.935 billion. and problems found by regular inspection at any time so as
According to the 2015 report of the work of the gov- to keep the project and equipment clean and operate flexibly.
ernment, 57 major water conservancy projects that have Annual repair refers to the necessary renovation and local
been stared will be speeded up. In 2015, 27 projects will be improvement of the engineering facilities according to the
started. Investment in major water conservancy projects damage and problems found in the overall inspection after
under construction will exceed RMB 800 billion. According the flood season. Problems affecting the safe flood season
to this calculation, the investment cost for anti-corrosion of shall be solved before the arrival of the main flood season. In
water conservancy industry in 2015 was about RMB 9.269– case of damage to the project and equipment which may
22.84 billion. endanger the safety of the project or affect the normal
In water conservancy projects, various sluices are the operation, emergency protection measures shall be taken
most extensive and the largest in consumption amount of immediately. The overhaul work is carried out in case of
steel with more serious corrosion. Sluices include control major damage to the project or aging of the equipment, and
gate, inlet gate, scouring sluice, flood gate, tide gate, drai- the repair work is large in quantity and complicated in
nage gate, and so on. They are low-head hydraulic structures technology, and the engineering renovation or equipment
which control the discharge and the water level by using the update is planned (Table 2.60).
142 B. Xu
Table 2.60 Classification of maintenance grade of sluice project

Size Large Medium Small
Grade I II III IV V VI VII VIII
2
FlowQ (m /s) Q 5000 3000 1000 Q 500 100 10 Q < 10
10,000 Q < 10,000 Q < 5000 < 3000 Q < 1000 Q < 500 Q < 100
Orifice area A 800 A < 600 400 A 200 50 10 A < 10
A (m2) 2,000 2000 A < 1100 < 900 A < 400 A < 200 A < 50
The maintenance of sluices generally includes the fol- (9) The adjustment items include desilting of gate room,
lowing contents: termite control and operation, and maintenance of
automatic control facilities.
(1) The maintenance items of the sluice project include the
maintenance of hydraulic structures, gate maintenance, Among them, gate maintenance, hoist maintenance, and
hoist maintenance, maintenance of electromechanical electromechanical equipment maintenance are the most
equipment, maintenance of auxiliary facilities, material important with heavy workload. In general, the annual
power consumption and operation management and maintenance costs account for 2% of the total investment
protection. costs.
(2) The maintenance of hydraulic structures includes earth Table 2.61 is the maintenance quota standard of water
maintenance, slope protection, and bottom mainte- conservancy projects issued by the Ministry of Water
nance, damage treatment of anti-scour facilities, repair Resources and the Ministry of Finance in May 2004. The
and maintenance of filtration and drainage facilities, adjustment coefficient of the maintenance quota standard for
maintenance of water outlet bottom components, con- sluice projects shall be implemented according to
crete damage repair and crack treatment, filling of Table 2.62.
expansion joint and repair of water facilities. At present, most of the sluice gates are conducted by
(3) The maintenance of the gate includes water stop reinforcement and most of them are replaced by steel gates.
replacement, surface damage treatment of gate and Calculated by a medium-sized five-grade sluice, the annual
maintenance of walking support device. maintenance cost is RMB 271,700, among which the
(4) The maintenance of hoist includes anti-corrosion treat- maintenance and corrosion-related maintenance mainly
ment of body surface, repair, and maintenance of steel includes the concrete damage repair, such as crack treatment,
wire rope and maintenance of transmission (braking) filling of expansion joint, and damage repair of water stop
system. facilities. Gate maintenance includes water stop replacement,
(5) Maintenance of electromechanical equipment includes anti-corrosion treatment of gate surface layer, and mainte-
maintenance of electric motor, maintenance of opera- nance of walking support device. Maintenance of hoist
tion equipment, maintenance of distribution equipment, includes repair and maintenance of anti-corrosion treatment
maintenance of power transmission and transformation of body surface of steel wire rope, with total cost of RMB
system, maintenance of self-provided generator set and 57,100, accounting for 21% of the annual maintenance cost.
maintenance of lightning protection facilities. If the steel gate is adjusted according to Table 2.62, the
(6) Maintenance of auxiliary facilities includes mainte- maintenance cost is RMB 67,900, accounting for 25% of the
nance of machine room and management room, annual maintenance cost.
greening of gate area and maintenance of fence and If all the 98,686 sluices of 5 m3/s and above are calcu-
guardrail. lated as medium-sized five-grade sluices, the annual main-
(7) The contents of material power consumption include tenance and management costs of the sluices nationwide are
power, diesel, engine oil, and butter consumed by sluice RMB 670,000.
gate operation and maintenance. As shown in Tables 2.63 and 2.64, for a small intake
(8) Operation management and protection contents include sluice in the Yellow River basin, the designed flow rate is
engineering inspection, engineering observation, engi- 50 m3/s, the orifice area is 3.6 m2, the number of orifices is
neering operation and maintenance, data collection and 5, the grade is small, and the grade is seven.
sorting.
Table 2.61 Quota standard of basic maintenance of sluice project [RMB/(year)]

No. Project Large Medium Small
One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight
Total 1,246,248 948,381 583,779 413,834 271,749 189,940 73,941 33,602
One Maintenance of hydraulic structures 97,237 77,593 51,057 34,718 18,541 12,585 6828 4927
1 Maintenance of earthwork 8115 8115 6763 6763 4058 4058 2705 2705
2 Repair and maintenance of slope bottom and 28,434 24,373 17,692 11,494 6984 4073 2836 1611
protection
3 Damage treatment of anti-scour facilities 4110 3083 1781 1028 438 274 69 34
4 Repair and maintenance of filtration and 11,371 8528 4927 2843 1011 632 126 63
drainage facilities
5 Maintenance of outlet bottom component 4800 3600 2080 960 640 400 160 80
6 Repair of concrete damage 7686 5380 3267 2498 1153 480 115 38
7 Crack treatment 5028 3520 2137 1634 754 314 75 25
8 Filling of expansion joint 900 900 800 800 600 540 240 120
9 Repair the damage of water stop facilities 26,793 20,094 11,610 6698 2903 1814 502 251
Two Gate maintenance 329,038 246,522 142,541 80,843 36,091 24,316 5839 2847
1 Water stop replacement 237,514 178,135 102,923 59,378 25,722 16,076 4442 2221
2 Treatment of surface layer damage of gate 5124 3587 2178 1665 769 320 77 26
3 Repair and maintenance of walking support 86,400 64,800 37,440 19,800 9600 7920 1320 600
device
Three Maintenance of hoist 149,532 112,149 46,482 36,019 17,522 10,604 3734 1799
1 Anti-corrosion treatment of body surface 40,932 30,699 15,372 8,869 4002 2274 546 205
2 Maintenance of steel wire rope 87,000 65,250 21,750 21,750 11,600 7250 2900 1450
3 Maintenance of transmission (braking) system 21,600 16,200 9360 5400 1920 1080 288 144
Four Maintenance of electromechanical equipment 136,380 107,278 64,510 43,148 25,700 19,745 7686 3935
1 Motor Maintenance 48,000 36,000 20,800 12,000 6400 4000 1600 800
2 Maintenance of operation equipment 42,000 31,500 18,200 10,500 5600 3500 1400 700
3 Maintenance of power distribution equipment 8400 7050 3780 2790 1200 780 60 30
4 Maintenance of power transmission and 31,880 27,848 18,780 15,828 11,600 10,790 4316 2095
transformation system
5 Maintenance of self-provided generator set 4,500 3,380 1,950 1,130 500 275 110 110
6 Maintenance of lightning protection facilities 1600 1500 1000 900 400 400 200 200
Five Maintenance of auxiliary facilities 34,300 32,050 26,450 23,250 17,300 13,000 5650 5050
1 Repair and maintenance of computer room and 15,300 13,050 9450 8250 6300 3000 1650 1050
management room
2 Greening of gate area 10,000 10,000 9000 9000 6000 5000 2000 2000
3 Repair and maintenance of fence and guardrail 9000 9000 8000 6000 5000 5000 2000 2000
Six Material power consumption 65,789 53,138 37,357 25,719 17,795 12,541 2873 902
1 Power consumption 27,397 23,959 17,807 15,241 11,507 9223 1406 290
2 Diesel consumption 24,912 18,712 11,626 4982 2768 1522 609 208
3 Engine oil consumption 6480 4867 3024 1296 720 396 158 54
4 Butter consumption 7000 5600 4900 4200 2800 1400 700 350
Seven Operation management and protection 399,450 292,930 199,725 159,780 133,150 93,205 39,945 13,315
Eight Independent fee 34,522 26,721 15,657 10,357 5650 3944 1386 827
1 Research survey and design fees 20,307 15718 9210 6092 3324 2320 815 487
2 Quality supervision fee 10,153 7859 4605 3046 1662 1160 408 243
3 Staff training fees 3249 2515 1474 975 532 371 130 78
4 Equipment purchase fee 812 629 368 244 133 93 33 19
144 B. Xu
Table 2.62 Adjustment coefficient of maintenance quota standard of sluice project

No. Influence factor Standard Adjustment Adjustment coefficient
object
1 Orifice area In that first to eighth-grade sluice, the Gate Calculated by the linear interpolation
calculated standard orifice areas are maintenance method, the exceeding range shall be
2000 m2, 1400 m2, 850 m2 and 650 m2, calculated by the linear extension method
respectively
300 m2, 125 m2, 30 m2 和 10 m2
2 Number of orifices Number of calculated standard orifice of Maintenance The coefficients of grade one to eight sluices
sluices 1–8 are 60, 45, 26, 15, 8, 5, 2 and of gates and change by 1/60, 1/45, 1/26, 1/15, 1/8, 1/5,
1 respectively hoists 1/2, and 1 for each hole
3 Type of hoist Hoisting hoist Maintenance Screw hoist coefficient is reduced by 0.3 and
of hoists oil pressure hoist coefficient is reduced by
0.1
4 Type of gate Concrete slab gate Maintenance Plate steel gate coefficient is increased by 0.3
of gates and radial steel gate coefficient by 0.5
5 Contact water body Freshwater Gates and Seawater coefficient is increased by 0.1
hydraulic
structures
6 Severe cold influence Non-high cold area Gates and High-cold area coefficient is increased by
hydraulic 0.05
structures
7 Using time Hoist running 24 h Material The coefficient increases by 0.2 for every 8 h
power of hoist operation time increase
consumption
8 Sluice with flow less 10 m3/s Basic project 10 m3/s > Q 5 m3/s, coefficient changes
than 10 m3/s, simple of by 0.75; 5 m3/s > Q 3 m3/s, coefficient
electromechanical grade-eight changes by 0.82; 3 m3/s > Q 1 m3/s,
equipment sluice coefficient changes by 0.90. The average
value of each level is taken as the reference
flow, and the other value of the same level is
obtained by interpolation or extension
Table 2.63 Calculation for maintenance of a small sluice in the Yellow River in 2007
No. Unit Quantity Unit price/RMB Cost/RMB10,000
3
One. Maintenance of hydraulic structures m 54.50 27.05 0.382
1. Maintenance of earthwork 0.147
2. Repair of slotting joint of stone masonry slope protection m2 47.96 9.32 0.045
3. Stonework for bottom protection and renovation of stone m3 3.82 288.00 0.110
4. Riprap treatment of anti-scour facilities m3 0.82 137.01 0.011
5. Repair and maintenance of filtration and drainage facilities m 4.36 63.17 0.028
6. Maintenance of outlet bottom components m2 10.90 16.00 0.017
7. Repair of damaged concrete m2 2.94 21.35 0.006
8. Crack treatment m2 4.91 8.38 0.004
9. Filling of expansion joint m 2.18 60.00 0.013
Two. Repair and maintenance of gate 0.371
1. Water stop replacement m 6.60 368.83 0.243
2
2. Maintenance of gate m 16.50 77.23 0.127
Three. Hoist maintenance 0.225
1. Anti-corrosion treatment of body surface m2 25.20 22.74 0.057
2. Repair and maintenance of steel wire rope Working day
(continued)

No. Unit Quantity Unit price/RMB Cost/RMB10,000
3. Maintenance of the transmission (braking) system Working day 16.80 0.168
4. Parts replacement Replacement rate
Four. Maintenance of electromechanical equipment 0.988
1. Maintenance of motor Working day 18.00 0.240
2. Maintenance of operation equipment Working day 12.00 0.200
3. Maintenance of power distribution equipment Working day 14.00 0.096
4. Maintenance of power transmission and transformation system Working day 20.00 0.432
5. Maintenance of lightning protection facilities Working day 3.00 0.020
6. Parts replacement Replacement rate
Five. Maintenance of auxiliary facilities 3.801
1. Repair and maintenance of the machine room and management room m2 280.00 25.00 0.700
2
2. Greening of gate m 4200.00 6.67 2.801
3. Maintenance of guardrails m 300.00 10.00 0.300
Five. Material power consumption 0.287
1. Power consumption kW h 2343.00 0.141
2. Diesel consumption kg 176.00 0.061
3. Engine oil consumption kg 26.40 0.016
4. Butter consumption kg 100.00 0.070
Seven Sluice chamber dredging m3 8739.00 8.44 7.376
8. Termite control m2
Nine. Maintenance of automatic control facilities Maintenance rate
Ten. Maintenance of self-provided generator set kW 80.00 20.00 0.160
Eleven. Quality supervision fee 0.183
Total 13.773
Table 2.64 Classified depreciation life of fixed assets of water conservancy project
Classification of fixed assets Depreciation life (year)
One. Levee, dam, gate building
1. Large concrete, reinforced concrete dikes, dams, gates 50
2. Medium and small concrete and reinforced concrete dikes, dams, and gates 50
3. Levees and dams of local materials such as soil, soil–rock mixture 50
4. Levees and dams of concrete, asphalt and other impervious soil, rockfill, masonry, and other local materials 50
5. Medium and small culverts 40
6. Semi-permanent levees and dams of timber structure and nylon 10
Two. Spillway facilities
1. Large concrete, reinforced concrete spillways 50
2. Medium and small concrete, reinforced concrete spillways 40
3. Concrete, reinforced concrete protected spillway 30
146 B. Xu
2.3.4 Investigation and Analysis of Typical length of 2.5 m and width of 1 mm. Above the north side of
Water Conservancy Projects the water level ruler, there is a crack with a horizontal angle
of about 30°, with a north-high south-low trend, length of
2.3.4.1 Corrosion Investigation and Analysis 1.5 m and width of 1–2 mm. In the four settlement joints,
of a Control Sluice on the North Bank the mortar around the two joints partially falls off, and there
of the Yellow River is water leakage, exposing the corroded water stop steel
pressure plate. Upstream wing wall and slope protection on
1. Basic information the west side of the gate: basically have no cracks, mortar
around the contraction joint falls off, the corroded water stop
A control sluice on the north bank of the Yellow River was steel pressure plate is exposed, but there is no water leakage.
built in 1957. It is a six-hole open sluice. The earthwork of
the project is 259,550 m3, the stonework is 14,000 m3, the 2) Upstream laying
concrete is 12,000 m3, and the current project cost is RMB
4.9431 million. In March 1996, when the open and closing There are five water leaks in the two longitudinal contraction
inspection of the gate was carried out on the west 6 hole, it joints, and the water stop asphalt is partially damaged.
was found that the channel steel at the joint of the support
arm and the support hinge was broken and the steel gate was 3) Stilling pool
deformed. In May 1997, a new gate was replaced and the
original truss structure was changed into a box structure, and West 1 hole: there is an 80 cm long crack with calcium
the embedded parts of the hole were inspected and repaired hydroxide exudate at the crack, no water leakage and no
at the same time. The surface of the new gate is sprayed with decompression hole. The middle four holes: there are three
aluminum 120–150 lm, the paint is epoxy coal tar pitch cracks with the spacing of about 2 m on the surface, which
paint, and the film thickness is 240 lm. are distributed laterally and parallel to each other, from south
to north, with lengths of 15.5 m, 2.9 m, and 14 m, respec-
2. Inspection and detection of concrete structures tively, with water leakage. When carbonization is measured,
it is found that water emerges from the borehole, and there is
By means of appearance description, photograph and direct water pressure, and the water is malodorous. The west 5 hole
measurement, the distribution, position and degree of is near the slope of the stilling pool. The bottom slab con-
external dominant cracks, concrete flaking, exposed sand crete has an erosion pit with a length of about 5 m, a width
and stone, corrosion of reinforcing bars, construction defects of 30–60 cm and a maximum depth of 6 cm. West 6 hole:
and damage defects caused by corrosion and aging are the surface of the bottom plate has two cracks of about 2.1 m
inspected and detected to detect the crack distribution shape and 3.9 m in length, respectively, which are blocked by
and width of reinforced concrete. The measuring instruments calcium hydroxide exudate, basically without water leakage
are 20 times reading microscope, crack width measuring and no decompression hole.
card and standard ruler.
4) Downstream apron
1) Upstream wing wall and slope protection
It is a masonry structure with a large number of cracks in the
It is a masonry structure where the steel mesh mortar was masonry joints, so that the entire sea apron is distributed
laid on the surface in 1981, with steel wire diameter of with cracks of 20–50 cm in length. The seam is covered with
4 mm, mesh of 8 cm 8 cm and mortar thickness of 1– white dissolved matter. In addition, there are multiple water
3 cm. Upstream wing wall and slope protection on the east spouts where the crack width is 1–3 mm.
side of the gate: there are more than 30 shrinkage joints with
a length of about 20–100 cm on the surface of the surface 5) Gate floor
mortar; At the south of the water level ruler, there is a crack
with a horizontal angle of about 45°, with a north-high There is a 3.5 m long crack in the bottom plate of the west 1
south-low trend, a length of 2.3 m and a width of 1–4 mm. hole gate with slight water leakage. There are three water
The mortar along the crack direction has such phenomena as holes on the slope of the bottom plate of the west 2 hole gate,
layer crack and hollow bulge, and water leakage, and the with water pressure where the concrete cracks and falls off.
steel wire has been rusted and broken. Above the south side There are four oblique cracks with the width of 1–2 mm in
of the water level ruler, there is a crack with a horizontal the bottom plate of the west 6 hole gate, with a cumulative
angle of about 70°, with a north-high and south-low trend, length of 13.2 m. Water permeates intermittently along the
crack, and calcium hydroxide exudate exists at the seam. All

the bottom plates of the gate have been eroded, of which the 10) Service bridge crossbeam
west 5 hole and the west 6 hole are more serious. The slope
of the west 5 hole gate floor bulges in the middle, and the See Table 2.65 shows the concrete defect damage of the
surface concrete erosion is about 2–3 cm deep. The erosion crossbeam.
pit area with the depth of 2–3 cm on the bottom plate of the
west 6 hole gate is about 2 m2. When carbonization detec-
tion is performed on the slope of the bottom plate of the west 11) Hoist room
1 hole gate (the depth of drilling is less than 7 cm), there is
water emerging from the hole, and there is water pressure, On the south wall of the hoist room, there is a transverse
and the water is smelly. In the process of taking concrete long expansion joint with a width of 1–3 mm on the front
core sample (10 cm in diameter and 15 cm in length) on the service bridge deck slab, and the surface repair mortar cracks
gate floor, a large amount of water gushes out from the and falls off to expose the asphalt in the joint. At the west 1
concrete floor, and a large number of bubbles appear, and the hole, the bridge deck slab is 3 m upward, and there is a 1 m
water is smelly. One of the two cores taken out has a hole in long transverse crack. Inside the hoist room, there are 3
it. This shows that water emerges from defects and cracks in beams with varying degrees of concrete damage, one of
the concrete floor. which is flaked up to 15 cm, exposing corroded steel bars.
A girder is cracked with the width of 2 mm and the length of
6) Wing wall 40 cm. The other girder bottom concrete small block is
cracked. There is different degree of concrete flaking phe-
There is a vertical crack about 80 cm in length and less than nomenon in 8 panels (the peeling area varies from 20 cm
1 mm in width on the surface of wing wall on the west side 40 cm to 50 cm 50 cm), exposing the corroded steel
of west 6 hole, and there is tidal trace at the seam. Due to the bars.
change of the expansion joint, the concrete at the corner of
the contraction joint is extruded and peeled off, and the
peeling area is about 90 cm long, 80 cm high, and 0–10 cm 12) Expansion joints (including construction joints and
deep. No obvious defect is found on the other wing walls. settlement joints)
7) Gate pier The expansion joint between the laying and the protective
bottom in front of the gate is 43.4 m long, with serious water
The surface concrete under the waterline of all gate piers is leakage and sand, penetrating through the whole concrete
eroded, resulting in exposed sand and stone. The steel bar layer. The crack width of the surface mortar is 1–3 mm, and
head on the middle pier of the west 5 hole is exposed and the water stop asphalt is locally damaged. The expansion
exposed stone peel off from concrete surface under the leg of joint between the bottom plate of the gate chamber and the
west 6 hole. front laying of the gate is 38.8 m in length, with local water
leakage. The boundary line between the upstream wing wall
8) Breast wall and the front layer of the gate on both east and west sides has
the problem of water leakage, the length of which is 8.5 m
The concrete surface is exposed with sand and stone within a and 3.7 m respectively. In the hoist room, it penetrates along
range of about 1 m above the arc surface of the breast wall. the top surface, both sides and the ground. Under the action
The gap between the two ends of the horizontal strut and the of high air temperature in summer, the asphalt water stop
pier is 2–5 cm wide. The arc surface of the west 1 hole layer in the settlement joint melts, flows and reduces the
breast wall has two transverse thin cracks with width less water stop effect, causing rainwater to follow the joint and
than 1 mm, and length of about 4.5 m and 0.8 m, affects the use of distribution board and socket. The water
respectively. seal material of the settlement joint of the dark box is
damaged and leaks rain. The asphalt water stop material in
9) Service bridge deck slab the expansion joint between the gate pier and the wing wall
is extruded. The west 2 hole is particularly obvious, and the
The concrete protective layer on the bottom of almost all the expansion joint between the west 1 hole side pier and the
panels cracks and falls, exposed with steel bars, seriously wing wall has water leakage phenomenon. The expansion
corroded and even broken. joint between the stilling pool and the gate apron is serious
Table 2.65 Concrete surface defects of crossbeam of service bridge
148
Components Front service bridge Rear service bridge

No. of hole Bridge 1 Bridge 2 Bridge 3 Bridge 1 Bridge 2 Bridge 3
West 1 hole The bottom surface penetrates Exposed steel bar 2 concrete peeling places in No obvious appearance defect No obvious Bottom crack is 40 cm in
the reinforcing crack in 4 places of north side upper corner appearance length, 1–2 mm in width;
concrete flaking on defect concrete peeling in 1 place
south side
West 2 hole Crack width of bottom Exposed steel bar The peeling area of the upper 2 bottom concrete peeling No obvious Bottom reinforcement cracks,
reinforcement is 1–2 mm, length in 3 places of corner concrete is about places, 2 side surface concrete appearance 60 cm long and 1 mm wide;
is 30 cm concrete flaking on 30 cm 20 cm peeling places defect side reinforcement cracks about
both sides 60 cm, 30 cm long concrete
cracking, peeling off, serious
corrosion of steel bars
West 3 hole Side concrete peels off Side concrete Side concrete peeling 5 concrete peeling places Crack length Crack length of bottom
flaking of bottom reinforcement 50 cm; concrete
reinforcement peeling off in 1 place
is 80 cm; crack
length of side
reinforcement
is 30 cm
West 4 hole Crack along reinforcing bar runs Crack at bottom of No obvious appearance defect On both sides of the concrete at No obvious No obvious appearance defect
through the whole length; both ends is 40 cm the north side of the bottom appearance
concrete spalling length is long corner, there is a reinforcement defect
60 cm crack with a width of 1.2 mm,
and the concrete of 1.2 m
length is cracked and peeled
off, exposing the main
reinforcement
West 5 hole The crack with 1–2 mm width at There is a concrete No obvious appearance defect There is a crack in the concrete No obvious No obvious appearance defect
the bottom corner of the north crack on the side on the side, Two concrete appearance
side penetrates through the spalling, with two defect
1 mm, length is 20 cm reinforcement cracks 30 cm
reinforcement total length, crack long, 1 mm wide and 40 cm
width of reinforcement at south long and 2 mm wide on the
corner is less than 1 mm, length bottom
is 20 cm2 mm
West 6 hole On the side of the beam bottom, Side concrete is One side concrete peeling; The concrete on both sides falls Concrete The cracking and stripping
there is a full-length crack with peeled off one there is a reinforced crack with off in 9 places with exposed peeling in 1 length of the bottom concrete at
fine reinforcement place; the concrete width less than 1 mm and steel bar; the concrete on the place with the west end reaches 1.2 m,
on the bottom is length of 30 cm at both ends of bottom is cracked and exposed steel exposed steel bar, and the
peeled off and the the north side of the bottom; exfoliated up to 50 cm long, bar concrete at the bottom corner
reinforcement is the concrete layer at the south exposing the seriously expands and falls off for 1.5 m,
exposed one place side of the bottom is 70 cm corroded reinforcement exposing the seriously
long corroded reinforcing bars
B. Xu
in water spout, the sealing asphalt is damaged, and the width Table 2.66 Test result of thickness of concrete protective layer (mm)
of the gap opening is up to 25 mm. Name of component Type of steel bars Measured
From the above description of concrete appearance average
defects of each component, it can be seen that: value
Boundary beam of Main tendons Side 41.1
(1) There are some defects such as holes in the concrete of highway and bridge (transverse) Bottom 50.0
the foundation components, and the expansion joints Stirrups (vertical) 11.2
between the components emit water and have lamina- Column of hoist room Main tendons Forward 70.0
tion water, and the gate bottom plate has been eroded (vertical) direction
and damaged to some extent; Side 55.3
(2) The gate pier, breast wall, and wing wall are exposed Stirrups (transverse) 47.3
with sand and stone and a few cracks, so the damage
Front service bridge Main reinforcement 16.0
degree is relatively light; deck slab
(3) The service bridge deck slab and crossbeam are seri- Front West 1 Bottom Side 31.5
ously damaged most. Among 36 crossbeams, 26 ones service hole reinforcement Bottom 19.2
have been corroded in varying degrees, accounting for bridge
West 1 Bottom Side 35.5
72% of the total. Basically, the concrete is flaked and crossbeam
hole reinforcement Bottom 39.7
exposed due to the corrosion of steel bars. What’s
worse, some steel bars have been corroded and broken; West 6 Top Side 27.5
(4) The filling materials of the expansion joints and set- hole reinforcement Top 37.3
tlement joints between the components are damaged to Bottom Side 32.4
different degrees. reinforcement Bottom 16.9
Gate pier West 1 Transverse reinforcement 41.8
3. Detection of the thickness of the protective layer hole
Breast West 1 Vertical reinforcement 41.0
(1) Detection methods and instruments wall hole Transverse reinforcement 49.0
Sluice West 3 – 135.0
Several points at steel bars of the main components are
floor hole
selected to measure the thickness of the protective layer and
Stilling Middle – 150.0
the depth distribution of the reinforcing bars with the pro- pool four
tective layer thickness measuring instrument. The surface holes
concrete is removed with percussion drilling. Vernier caliper
is used to measure the thickness of protective layer on the
bottom and side of steel bars as check. The test result shows that the concrete protective layer of
the slabs and girders of the service bridge and the stirrup of
(2) Test result and analysis the side beam of highways and bridges is less than 40 mm,
which is obviously too thin. The thickness of concrete pro-
The test result of thickness of concrete protective layer is tective layer of other components is greater than 40 mm,
shown in Table 2.66. meeting the requirements of design and Design Specification
The thickness of concrete protective layer is an important for Hydraulic Concrete Structure (ST/T 191-96).
factor affecting the durability of reinforced concrete structure.
When the concrete density and the external conditions are 4. Test of carbonization depth of concrete
certain, the carbonization speed is basically constant. There-
fore, the thicker the concrete protective layer is, the longer the In every 10 measuring areas of concrete surface strength,
time for carbonization reaching the reinforcing bar is, the later 3 measuring areas are selected to detect the carbonization
the reinforcing bar starts to rust, and the better the durability of depth of the concrete components. A percussion drill is used
the component is. The investigation on the damage of to drill holes on the measured components. Remove the
hydraulic structures shows that the reinforced concrete com- powder from the drill holes, spray chemical reagents inside
ponents of some gate dams, hydropower stations, and canal the holes, and use a vernier caliper to measure the thickness
structures are often corroded in about 10 years due to the thin of the surface non-discolored concrete.
concrete protective layer, which leads to serious reinforcement The test result of concrete carbonization depth is shown
cracking, severely affecting the durability of the structure. in Table 2.67.
150 B. Xu
Table 2.67 Measurement table of concrete carbonization depth (mm)

Components No. of hole
West 1 hole West 3 hole West 6 hole
Scope Average Scope Average Scope Average
Side beam of highways and bridges Scope: 26.1–39.6, average: 32.4
Hoist room Column Scope: 30.0–61.8, average: 44.2
Ground Scope: 35.1–39.2, average: 36.8
Front crossbeam of service bridge 10.2–35.7 20.4 12.4–32.6 21.4 12.3–32.1 23.7
Gate pier Upper part 25.5–41.4 34.8 9.6–28.0 15.5 6.1–9.6 9.9
Middle part 7.7–25.5 16.1 4.8–28.0 12.4 4.1–11.0 7.8
Lower part 2.7–8.4 4.8 5.3–23.0 9.0 6.3–12.7 7.9
Breast wall 6.5–41.4 19.6 9.3–30.6 18.2 5.0–18.1 11.9
Wing wall 0–2.8 0.7
Sluice floor 0 0–16.5 4.5 0
Stilling pool 0–3.9 0.4 0–4.0 1.4 0–3.5 1.8
Upstream laying Western part Scope: 0–6.7, average: 2.0
Eastern part Scope: 0–6.4, average: 3.1
For the inland hydraulic concrete structures without salt (3) If the carbonization depth of the side beams of high-
pollution, infiltration of carbon dioxide leads to concrete ways and bridges, the column of hoist room and the
carbonization, which is the main cause of steel bar corrosion. service bridge deck slab and the girder has reached or
When the concrete carbonization depth reaches the steel exceeded the thickness of its protective layer, it can be
bars, steel bars lose the electrochemical protection and begin predicted that the steel bars have been corroded.
to corrode. Although the carbonize depth of the remaining com-
For a given hydraulic structure, the carbonization depth ponents is less than the protective layer and it is not
of concrete is mainly related to the density and humidity of enough to cause corrosion of steel bars, the maximum
concrete. The denser the concrete is, the slower the pene- carbonization depth of the breast wall and the upper
tration rate of carbon dioxide into the concrete is, and the gate pier of the west 1 hole is also close to that of steel
smaller the carbonization depth within a certain period of bars, which will soon lead to corrosion of steel bars.
time is. In terms of the concrete humidity, it is generally
considered that when the concrete humidity is about 60%, 5. Test of corrosion rate of steel bars
the carbonization speed is the fastest.
The surface concrete at the place where cracks and peeling
(1) The carbonization depth of concrete in the same part is of concrete occur on the concrete components shall be
obviously different, which indicates that the concrete chiseled off until the corroded steel bars are exposed. After
density is different and the quality is not uniform. corrosion products on the surface of steel bars are removed,
(2) The carbonization depths of different components at we measure the diameter after corrosion of the steel bars
different elevations are significantly different, and even with a vernier caliper and calculate corrosion loss rate of
the same component, such as a gate pier, has different section with reference to the diameter of original steel bars.
carbonization depths at different elevations. The car- The sampling test result of the corrosion loss rate of steel
bonization depth of concrete immersed in water for a bar section is shown in Table 2.68.
long time is very shallow, especially for underwater According to the theory of reinforced concrete, the
foundation components, and the carbonization depth is binding force between steel bars and concrete mainly comes
close to zero. The carbonization depth of the concrete from the binding of the two and the occlusion action of the
component will be greater on the upper part, and transverse rib of deformed steel bars on the concrete. For
reaches the maximum value at the column of hoist room smooth steel bars, it mainly comes from the bonding
(the average value is 44.2 mm), which results from the between steel bars and concrete. Steel bar corrosion reduces
different humidity of concrete at different elevations. the effective cross-sectional area of rebar, reduces or
Concrete of saturated water and high humidity is not destroys the binding force between concrete and steel bars,
easy to carbonize.
Table 2.68 Sampling test result of the corrosion loss rate of steel bar section
Name of component Type of steel bar Original diameter Diameter after Section loss rate
(mm) corrosion (mm) (%)
Side beam of highways and bridges Main tendons 12 11.0 16.0
(transverse)
Stirrups (vertical) 12 11.4 9.8
Column of hoist room Main reinforcement Rusted
Stirrups (transverse) Rusted
Front panel of service bridge Main reinforcement Specifications 0 100.0
Front crossbeam of service West 1 hole Bottom main 20 18.6 14.0
bridge reinforcement
West 3 hole Bottom main 16 15.6 5.3
reinforcement
Bottom stirrup 6 5.5 16.0
West 6 hole Top main 12 9.7 34.9
reinforcement
Top stirrup 6 4.4 46.5
Bottom main 20 18.0 18.8
reinforcement
Sluice floor West 3 hole – No rust
Stilling pool Middle four – No rust
holes
and destroys or reduces the strength of components from two Table 2.69 Grade classification of corrosion
aspects. Grade Corrosion status of components
From the sampling inspection result of the gate compo- classification
nents, it is found that components above the service bridge 1 No The surface coating of the
have been corroded to varying degrees, among which the corrosion component is intact, the component
steel bars of the service bridge deck slab with the thinnest is not obviously corroded, so it can
be used normally
protective layer are corroded most seriously, and the steel
bars in many places have been broken. The steel loss of the 2 General The surface coating of the
corrosion component is basically flaked, there
crossbeam of the service bridge reaches 5.3%–46.5%. The are obvious rust spots and pits, but
corrosion loss of cross-sectional area of main reinforcement the depth is shallow, or there are
of highways and bridges is 16%. The surface of steel bars of sporadic relatively deep rust pits,
column of the hoist has been corroded but no obvious which need to be used after
anti-corrosion treatment
cross-sectional loss has been caused because of the thick
3 Serious The corrosion pits on the surface of
protective layer. The steel bars of components under the
corrosion the component are densely
service bridge haven’t yet corroded because the carboniza- distributed, and the sectional area of
tion depth hasn’t reached the reinforcement. the component is seriously
weakened, so it needs to be replaced
6. Test of steel gates 4 Corrosion The component is badly damaged or
damage partially perforated and needs to be
replaced
1) Test of appearance
Test of appearance is mainly carried out by visual inspection

with a small amount of actual measurement. According to Table 2.70 is the general description of the six-hole gate,
the four corrosion grades shown in Table 2.69, the overall and Table 2.71 is the evaluation result of the corrosion grade
description of the six-hole steel gate is carried out, and the of each component of the steel gate.
corrosion grade of each bar of the gate is evaluated. The gate As can be seen from the table:
panel, chord of the main beam, longitudinal beam, and arm
are bearing components of the gate, and the rest are non- (1) There are 8 components seriously corroded and dam-
bearing components. aged in west 1 hole. The total number of components of
152 B. Xu
Table 2.70 Rest result of appearance of each gate hole

Name No. of hole
West 1 hole West 2 hole-west 5 hole West 6 hole
Gate No obvious deformation of the gate is No obvious deformation of the gate was No obvious deformation of the gate was
leaf found. The two left and right pull rods found. The large cross beam (lower) and found. Members below the third small
are severely corroded and damaged; 5 the coating of the components and panel beam on the downstream side, Within
braces of small beam (top) and large at the lower part are seriously damaged, about 2 m above the bottom of all node
beam (upper) seriously corrode through and the corrosion is severe, and the main plate and upstream faceplate, the coating
holes, other components and panels are corrosion characteristic is pit erosion. is peeled off over a large area, sprayed
seriously corroded, and the main The surface coating of the components aluminum layer is oxidized, there are
corrosion characteristics are uniform above the large crossbeam (lower) is shallow and dense rust spots and rust pits
corrosion basically intact without obvious on the surface of the component,
corrosion, but the corrosion pits corrosion is relatively light, the rest part
generated before the application of of the coating is basically intact
coating protection can be seen
Gate Serious corrosion Serious corrosion Moderate corrosion
rail
Hinge Serious corrosion Serious corrosion Moderate corrosion
seat
Steel Serious corrosion in lower part Serious corrosion Replaced in 1997, in good condition
wire
rope
Water Serious corrosion Serious corrosion No
stop
plate
Side Serious pitting corrosion, with average Serious pitting corrosion. The average Corrosion in upper half, replacement in
guide pitting corrosion depth of 1.8 mm and pitting corrosion depth and the maximum lower half in 1997
plate maximum depth of 2.2 mm pitting corrosion depth are 2.1 mm and
4.4 mm for the west 2 hole, 2.1 mm and
2.8 mm for west 5 hole respectively
Roller Serious corrosion, rust, large clearance Serious corrosion, rust, large gap The rotation is not flexible, and the
between side guide plate and between side guide plate and side guide clearance between the side guide plate
side guide plate plate and the side guide plate is large
Water Serious pulverization damage Serious pulverization damage Replaced in 1997, in good condition
sealing
rubber
Grade 3 and 4 is 111. Among them, there are 20 bearing 2) Test of corrosion situation
ones and 91 non-bearing ones;
(2) The corrosion conditions of west 2 hole-west 5 hole are The corrosion condition of three-hole steel gate of west 1
the same. The large crossbeam (lower), the longitudinal hole, west 3 hole, and west 6 hole is tested. The appearance
beam, the lower arm and the small crossbeam (bottom) test result shows that the west 1 hole part, the west 3 hole
are corroded seriously. The total number of components large crossbeam (lower) and the lower parts are corroded
of Grade 3 and 4 is 71, of which there are 16 bearing seriously. Uniform corrosion is the main corrosion charac-
ones and 55 non-bearing ones; teristic in the west 1 hole, and pitting corrosion is the main
(3) Hinge seat, side plate, gate rail, steel wire rope and corrosion characteristic in the west 3 hole. The surface
roller of west 1 hole-west 5 hole are seriously corroded, coating of components below the third small beam of the
and water sealing rubber appears serious pulverization west 6 hole is peeled off and corroded slightly, and the
damage; remaining coating of other parts is basically intact. There-
(4) The corrosion of parts of west 6 hole is light, belonging fore, the main test contents and methods are as follows:
to general corrosion.
Table 2.71 Evaluation result of corrosion grade of steel gate component of each hole
Name of component West 1 hole West 2 hole–west 5 hole West 6 hole
Number of Grade Number of Grade Number of Grade
components components components
Large crossbeam Upper chord 2 3 2 2 1 1
(upper) Lower chord 2 3 2 2 1 1
Jackstay 5 4 22 2 22 1
17 3
Large crossbeam Upper chord 2 2 2 3 1 2
(lower) Lower chord 2 2 2 3 1 2
Jackstay 22 3 22 3 22 2
Longitudinal beam 7 3 7 3 7 1-2
Small crossbeam 1 4 1 3 4 1
5 2 5 2 2 2
Arm Left upper 2 3 2 2 1 1
Left lower 2 3 2 3 1 2
Right upper 2 3 2 2 1 1
Arm Right lower 2 3 2 3 1 2
Jackstay 12 3 12 2 12 1–2
Back rack 32 3 32 3 28 1–2
Pull rod 2 4 2 2 2 1
Penal Upstream 3 2–3 1–2
Downstream 3 2–3 1–2
(1) Measure the remaining thickness of the west 1 hole gauge made in Japan and pen coating thickness gauge
components in detail. Select the two sections of bars made in Germany.
with the most serious corrosion as the measurement
sections, and measure two points for each section. The Table 2.72 shows the corrosion residual thickness mea-
average residual thickness and the minimum residual surement result and corrosion rate calculation result of the
thickness, the average corrosion rate and the maximum west 1 hole gate, and Table 2.73 shows the pitting corrosion
corrosion rate of each bar are calculated according to depth measurement results and pitting corrosion rate calcu-
the measurement results. lation result of the west 3 hole. Table 2.74 is the coating
(2) Measure the pitting depth of the components with thickness measurement result of the remaining coating on
severe corrosion in the west 3 hole. Three corrosion pits the west 6 hole gate surface.
with large pitting corrosion depth are selected and the The result shows that the corrosion is serious and the
pitting corrosion depth is measured to calculate the corrosion rate of different components is 0.015–0.143 mm/a
average pitting corrosion depth and the maximum pit- and the maximum corrosion rate is 0.169 mm/a. The cor-
ting corrosion depth, the average pitting corrosion rate rosion of upper and lower chords, longitudinal arm, pull rod,
and the maximum pitting corrosion rate. and back brace of the large crossbeam (upper) is the most
(3) Measure the coating thickness of the remaining coating serious. The minimum residual thickness of chord of large
on the surface of the west 6 hole gate components and beam (upper) is 7.0 mm; the minimum residual thickness of
calculate the average thickness of the coating. When the longitudinal beam is 2.9 mm; the minimum residual
measuring the residual thickness and pit depth, remove thickness of the arm is 3.9 mm; the minimum residual
the corrosion products on the surface of the bar with a thickness of jackstay, small crossbeam and pull rod of large
scraper and an electric wire brush. The measuring crossbeam (upper) is 0; the minimum thickness of the back
instruments are vernier caliper, ultrasonic thickness rack is 0.2 mm.
154 B. Xu
Table 2.72 Residual thickness measurement result and corrosion rate calculation result of west 1 hole gate
Name of component Original thickness (mm) Residual thickness (mm) Corrosion rate (mm/a)
Average value Minimum value Average value Maximum value
Large crossbeam (upper) Upper chord Upper 12 8.5 7.8 0.083 0.100
Lower 12 7.8 7.1 0.101 0.117
Lower chord Upper 12 9.4 9.1 0.063 0.069
Lower 12 7.4 7.0 0.110 0.119
Jackstay 3 Upper 8 5.1 4.6 0.070 0.081
4 Upper 8 4.1 2.9 0.093 0.121
6 Upper 6 0.7 0.2 0.126 0.138
5, 6 Lower, 7 6 0.0 0 0.143 0.143
8 Upper 8 4.0 3.8 0.096 0.100
Gusset plate 8 5.3 4.6 0.064 0.081
Large crossbeam (lower) Upper chord Upper 12 11.4 11.2 0.015 0.019
Lower 12 10.9 10.6 0.026 0.033
Lower chord Upper 12 11.3 11.0 0.016 0.024
Lower 12 10.8 10.2 0.029 0.043
Jackstay 8 Lower 8 4.9 4.6 0.074 0.081
4 Lower 8 5.5 5.3 0.060 0.064
5 Lower 6 1.8 1.5 0.100 0.107
Gusset plate 12 8.4 7.9 0.086 0.098
Longitudinal beam 1 10 4.5 4.1 0.131 0.140
2 10 4.9 4.3 0.121 0.136
3 10 4.7 4.3 0.126 0.136
4 10 4.9 3.8 0.121 0.148
5 10 4.5 3.9 0.132 0.145
6 10 4.9 4.4 0.123 0.133
7 10 4.2 2.9 0.139 0.169
Small crossbeam 1 5.3 0 0 0.126 0.126
3 5.3 4.0 3.8 0.032 0.036
4 5.3 4.8 4.2 0.013 0.026
Bottom crossbeam 5.5 4.8 4.1 0.017 0.033
Arm Right upper Upper 9 6.3 5.1 0.064 0.093
Lower 9 4.2 3.9 0.114 0.121
Right lower Upper 9 5.4 5.2 0.086 0.090
Lower 9 6.0 5.8 0.073 0.076
Left upper Upper 9 4.3 3.9 0.113 0.121
Lower 9 4.0 3.8 0.118 0.124
Left lower Upper 9 7.5 6.9 0.037 0.050
Lower 9 6.1 5.5 0.068 0.083
Pull rod Left, right 6 0 0 0.143 0.143
Back rack Front rack 6 0.9 0.2 0.121 0.138
6 0.7 0.2 0.127 0.138
Back rack 6 3.0 2.8 0.073 0.076
6 2.6 2.4 0.081 0.086
Cross bracing 6 0.6 0.4 0.130 0.133
6 1.9 1.5 0.099 0.107
Penal 10 8.7 8.5 0.031 0.036
Table 2.73 Measurement result of pitting corrosion depth and calculation result of pitting corrosion rate for west 3 hole steel gate
Name of component Original thickness Pitting corrosion depth (mm) Pitting corrosion rate (mm/a)
(mm) Average Minimum Average Minimum
value value value value
Large crossbeam Upper chord 12 2.6 2.8 0.063 0.067
(lower) Lower chord 12 2.6 2.8 0.062 0.068
Jackstay 5 6 2.7 2.9 0.065 0.069
Jackstay 1 8 2.7 2.8 0.063 0.066
Gusset plate 12 2.3 2.5 0.055 0.060
Arm Left lower 9 2.9 3.1 0.070 0.074
(upper)
Left lower 9 3.1 3.3 0.073 0.078
(lower)
Right lower 9 2.1 2.8 0.049 0.066
(upper)
Right lower 9 2.2 2.9 0.053 0.068
(lower)
Longitudinal beam 1 10 2.9 3.1 0.070 0.074
2 10 3.0 3.3 0.072 0.079
3 10 2.8 2.9 0.067 0.069
4 10 2.8 3.1 0.066 0.074
5 10 3.1 3.3 0.074 0.079
6 10 2.8 3.0 0.067 0.072
7 10 2.8 3.0 0.067 0.070
Bottom crossbeam 5.3 2.9 3.3 0.069 0.078
Penal Upstream 10 3.9 4.2 0.094 0.100
Downstream 10 2.4 2.8 0.057 0.066
The result shows that the pitting corrosion is serious and Testing of Hydraulic Steel Gates and Hoists (SL 101-94)
the pitting corrosion rate is 0.049–0.094 mm/a and the stipulates that nonhuman major accidents shall not occur in
maximum pitting corrosion rate is 0.100 mm/a. The maxi- the next 10 years for equipment that can be used safely after
mum pitting corrosion depth of the upper and lower chords testing.
of the large crossbeam (lower) is 2.8 mm, and the pitting In accordance with the abovementioned standards,
corrosion depth of the jackstay is 2.9 mm; the maximum appearance morphology test results and corrosion condition
pitting corrosion depth of the longitudinal beam is 3.3 mm; test results, and taking into account a corrosion allowance of
the maximum pitting corrosion depth of the lower arm is 10 years (a maximum annual corrosion rate of 0.169 mm/a),
3.3 mm; the maximum pitting corrosion depth of the small the name and quantity of components to be replaced for the
beam (bottom) is 3.3 mm; the maximum pitting corrosion west 1 hole and west 3 hole gates are shown in Table 2.75.
depth of the panel is 4.2 mm. The number of bearing components to be replaced in the
The test result shows that the coating thickness of the west 1 hole accounts for 83% of the total number of bearing
remaining coating of the west 6 hole gate is between 127 and components, and all the bars to be replaced account for 93%
463 lm, and the coating thickness is not uniform. of the total number of gate components. The number of
bearing components to be replaced in the west 3 hole
4) Analysis of test result accounts for 67% of the total number of bearing compo-
nents, and all the rods to be replaced account for 59% of the
The Code for Design of Steel Gates for Water Conservancy total number of gate components.
and Hydropower Projects (SL 74-95) stipulates that the Technical Standard for Scrapping Metal Structures of
thickness of the bearing components of gates shall not be Water Conservancy and Hydropower Projects by Ministry
less than 6 mm. The Technical Specification for Safety of Water Resources (draft for approval) stipulates that he
156 B. Xu
Table 2.74 Coating thickness measurement result of remaining gate shall be scrapped when the number of components to be
coating on west 6 hole steel gate replaced for whole gate due to corrosion condition accounts
Name of component Coating thickness for more than 30%.
(lm) The west 1 and west 3 hole gates were built in 1957 and
Large crossbeam Upper chord 290 significantly exceeded their service life. They shall be
(lower) Lower 190 scrapped according to the test results and the abovemen-
chord tioned standard.
Gusset plate 200 The manufacturing time and operation conditions of gate
Jackstay 163 with west 2 hole, west 4 hole, and west 5 hole are the same
Upper chord of large crossbeam (lower) 133 as those of the west 3 hole, and the appearance test results
Right arm Upper 173 show that the corrosion condition of the three-hole gate is
consistent with that of the west 3 hole. The three-hole gate
Lower 213
should also be scrapped.
Jackstay 163
The west 6 hole was replaced in 1997. The surface
Left arm Upper 148 coating of some components was peeled off and the corro-
Lower 180 sion was slight. After re-coating, it can be used again.
Jackstay 127
Longitudinal beam 4 268 7. Conclusions
Top crossbeam 178
Back rack 200 (1) The carbonization depth of the side beam of highways
and bridges, the column of hoist room and the service
Penal Upstream 463
bridge deck slab has reached or exceeded the thickness
Downstream 303
of its protective layer. Steel bars have been corroded or
Table 2.75 Name and quantity of replaced bars for west 1 and west 3 hole gates
Project West 1 hole West 3 hole
Name Quantity Name Quantity
Bearing Upper chord of large crossbeam 4 Lower chord of large crossbeam 4
component Longitudinal beam 7 Longitudinal beam 7
Arm 8 Lower arm 4
Penal 1 Penal 1
Subtotal 20 Subtotal 16
Non-bearing Jackstay for large crossbeam (upper and lower 44 Jackstay for large crossbeam (lower) 22
component Small crossbeam 1 Small crossbeam 1
Back rack 32 Back rack 32
Arm jackstay 12 Subtotal 55
Left and right pull rods 2
Subtotal 91
Number of gate Bearing component 24 Bearing component 24
components Non-bearing component 96 Non-bearing component 96
Total 120 Total 120
Percentage of The number of replaced bars of bearing 83 The number of replaced components of 67
replaced bars components accounts for the number of bearing bearing components accounts for the
(%) components number of bearing components
Total number of replaced bars accounts for total 93 Total number of replaced bars accounts 59
number of gate bars for total number of gate bars
start to be corroded and the carbonization depth of other 1) Upper gate head
components hasn’t reached the protective layer and the
corrosion of steel bars hasn’t been caused. However, the A. Hoist beam and pier
maximum carbonization depth of the breast wall and the
upper gate pier of the west 1 hole are also close to that (1) There are three straight cracks in the bottom of the
of steel bars, which will soon lead to corrosion of steel beam of the hoist starting from the upstream. Two
bars. cracks are located at the left and right ends of the beam.
(2) The components above the service bridge have been The crack is 1.1 m long, and the maximum width is
corroded in different degrees, among which steel bars of about 2 mm. The other is about 2.1 m from the right
the service bridge deck slab with the thinnest protective end of the beam with a crack length of 40 cm and a
layer are the most seriously corroded, and many of them maximum width of about 1 mm, as shown in Fig. 2.82.
have been corroded to be broken. The loss rate of steel (2) From the upstream, concrete on the upstream side of the
bars in the severely corroded crossbeam of the service third hoist beam appears expansion crack hollow. After
bridge reaches 50%. The corrosion of steel bars hasn’t the concrete is chiseled out, it is found that steel bars are
caused obvious cross-sectional loss because of the thick seriously corroded and stirrups are close to be corroded
protective layer. The components under the service to break, as shown in Fig. 2.83.
bridge haven’t yet been corroded because the car-
bonization depth hasn’t reached the reinforcement.
(3) The west 1-west 5 hole gates were all built in 1957 and
greatly exceeded the service life. They shall be scrapped
according to the test results and relevant standards. The
west 6 hole was replaced in 1997. The surface coating
of some components was peeled off and the corrosion
was slight. After re-coating, it can be used again.
(4) The corrosion of the steel gate of the west 1 hole is very
serious, the corrosion of some components has disap-
peared and the strength of the gate has been seriously
reduced. What’s more, the gate hasn’t been blocked by
the concrete stack beam, so effective measures must be
taken immediately before the flood season to solve the
flood safety problem of the hole.
(5) The water quality near the sluice is polluted, and its
factors should be taken into account in the corrosion
Fig. 2.82 Cracks on bottom reinforcement of hoist beam
protection of the steel gate in the future.
2.3.4.2 Corrosion Investigation and Analysis

of a Ship Lock in Huaihe River
A ship lock in Huaihe River basin is a five-class channel
with a designed navigation capacity of 300 tons, which
undertakes the task of water transportation while performing
flood diversion with the control gate and flood diversion gate
of the key project. The ship lock has been in use for 32 years
from completion to inspection.
1. General investigation of appearance defects of ship

lock
The appearance defects of all the components of the ship

lock above the water are investigated by means of appear-
ance description, measurement and photography. The main
tools are ruler, reading microscope and camera. Fig. 2.83 Concrete expansion and crack hollow on side of hoist beam
158 B. Xu
Fig. 2.85 Cracking, damage, exposed steel bar, steel bar corrosion of
concrete at girder bottom of highways and bridges
Fig. 2.84 Concrete damage, exposed steel bar and steel bar corrosion
at the bottom corner of the girder and abutment of the hoist
(3) The concrete at the corner of the pier is exposed to sand

and stone. Concrete at the bottom corner is damaged
and exposed steel bar in three places and steel bars are
corroded on the right pier, as shown in Fig. 2.84.
Fig. 2.86 Thin protective layer, exposed steel bar, steel bar corrosion
The damage dimensions of concrete are as follows: the of concrete at the girder bottom of highways and bridges
south side bottom angle is 60 cm high and 10 cm wide; the
west bottom corner is 40 cm high and 10 cm wide; north (2) The concrete protective layer at the bottom of highways
side bottom angle is 40 cm high and 10 cm wide. and bridges is thin with exposed steel bar and corroded
steel bars, as shown in Fig. 2.86.
B. Highways and bridges and abutments (3) The concrete at the bottom corner of the first abutment
on the left upstream is damaged, exposed and corroded.
The ship lock and the control gate are the same highway and The damaged concrete is 15 cm high and 10 cm wide.
bridge, and the highway and bridge have been inspected in (4) The concrete at the bottom corner of the second abut-
the safety appraisal of the control gate. This time, focus is ment on the left upstream is damaged. The damaged
put on the inspection of the girders and abutments of the concrete is 15 cm high and 10 cm wide. There are 4
highway and bridge at the first section of the upper gate. vertical cracks with a length of about 1 m and a max-
The main problems are: imum width of 0.25 mm and several microcracks on the
abutment.
(1) Cracking, damage, exposed steel bar, and steel bar (5) The concrete at the bottom corner of the first abutment
corrosion of concrete appear at girder bottom of high- on the right upstream is damaged. The damaged con-
ways and bridges, as shown in Fig. 2.85. crete is 20 cm high and 15 cm wide.
Fig. 2.87 Concrete at the joint of corbel and hoist abutment cracks Fig. 2.88 Deformation of the panel toward the downstream side
(6) The concrete at the bottom corner of the second abut- (3) All the four side guide wheels of the gate are separated
ment on the right upstream is damaged, exposed and from the guide plate, and the gate is suspended. During
corroded. The damage dimensions of concrete are the opening and closing process and when the high
respectively: the east side bottom angle is 20 cm high water level is stationary, the gate will swing and vibrate.
and 10 cm wide; the south bottom angle is 10 cm high The side guide roller is rusted and doesn’t rotate.
and 20 cm wide; north side bottom angle is 40 cm high (4) Under the influence of the squeezing of the steel wire
and 10 cm wide. rope, the penal in contact with the steel wire rope has a
groove about 2–3 mm deep, and the surface is rusted.
C. Corbel (5) Impact deformation exists at various positions of the
gate: the top girder appears deformation of about 30 cm.
(1) Concrete at the joint of left corbel and hoist abutment The deformation amount is about 30–40 mm, and the
expends to crack. deformation is located between the third longitudinal
(2) At the lower part of the east side of the left corbel, beam (measured from right to left) and the fourth lon-
expansion crack, flaking, exposed steel bar, and steel gitudinal beam. In the middle area of the panel, there are
bar corrosion of concrete occur. The flaking size of five impact deformations protruding to the downstream
concrete is 30 cm long and 20 cm wide. side. The maximum deformation range is about
(3) Concrete on top of left corbel appears damage and 80 cm 80 cm, and the protrusion height is about
exposed steel bar, and steel bar corrosion. 80 mm, as shown in Fig. 2.88. There are six impact
(4) Concrete at the joint of right corbel and hoist abutment deformations at the lower chord of the upper truss, with
expends to crack, as shown in Fig. 2.87. a maximum deformation length of about 50 cm and a
maximum deformation amount of about 60 mm, as
D. Reinforced concrete exterior wall shown in Fig. 2.89. A diagonal brace on the right arm
truss (located between the upper and lower main trusses)
Concrete of reinforced concrete exterior wall on the right bends to the left with a maximum deformation amount
side has serious exposed sand and stone. The concrete size of about 50 mm. The vertical bars of the back rack are
with expansion crack, exposed steel bar, and steel bar cor- arched and deformed to different degrees toward the
rosion is 25 cm long and 15 cm wide. downstream side. There are different degrees of defor-
mation of the diagonal braces under the vertical braces
E. Arch steel gate between the back rack and the longitudinal beam. The
first and second vertical braces (measured from right to
(1) The steel wire rope for opening and closing the gate is left) are serious, and the upper arch deformation of the
broken several times, and the gate falls from the air to lower diagonal brace is about 10 mm. The uppermost
the bottom plate, causing deformation of the gate. diagonal brace of the third vertical rack is arched to the
(2) The water sealing rubber of the gate is aged and dam- upstream side for a deformation amount of about
aged with serious leakage. 30 mm, as shown in Fig. 2.90.
160 B. Xu
Fig. 2.89 Deformation of lower chord of the upper truss Fig. 2.91 Replacement of diagonal brace of back rack
Fig. 2.90 Deformation of diagonal brace of vertical rack
(6) Six diagonal braces on the back rack of the gate were Fig. 2.92 Crevice condition of ear protector
originally composed of two 75 mm 75 mm angle
steels and have been replaced with type 10 steel, as 3.5 m in length. As shown in Figs. 2.92 and 2.93, the
shown in Fig. 2.91. crack has been repaired now.
(7) The uppermost diagonal brace of the vertical rack was (2) The left and right ear protectors are not vertical. During
originally composed of two 75 mm 75 mm angle the steel gate stars and stops, the water sealing rubber
steels, and now 12-channel steel has been added on top and ear protectors don’t come into contact, resulting in
of the original two angle steels. serious water leakage of the gate, as shown in Fig. 2.94.
(8) The gate coating is basically intact, but there are more (3) The design thickness of the ear protector is too large, so
old rust pits in the components. Due to the impact the concrete of the inner side surface of the ear protector
deformation, the coating in the local area of the panel is on the left and right sides is chiseled to expose the
peeled off, and the surface is rusted. The components on reinforcement after the construction is completed, as
both sides of the main truss and the overlapping parts of shown in Fig. 2.95.
the two components are heavily corroded with old rust G. Balanced mound chamber
pits with the maximum rust pit of about 2 mm deep.
(1) There are two places of concrete expansion and crack-
F. Ear protectors ing, flaking, exposed steel bar and steel bar corrosion in
(1) Both the left and right ear protectors were cracked and the left side of balanced mound chamber. One is 30 cm
deformed due to ship impact, and the crack extended in length and 20 cm in width, and the other is 15 cm in
downward from the top of the ear protector, about length and 10 cm in width.
Fig. 2.93 Crack condition of ear protector Fig. 2.96 Vertical crack of concrete exterior wall of left lower gate
head
(2) There are two places of concrete expansion and crack-

ing, flaking, exposed steel bar and steel bar corrosion in
the right side of balanced mound chamber. One is
15 cm in length and 5 cm in width, and the other is
60 cm in length and 10 cm in width.
(3) Balanced sling steel wire rope is corroded.
H. Access gate slot
(1) The concrete of the left gate slot is seriously damaged.
The concrete on the top surface of the gate slot is
cracked, with a maximum crack width of 1 cm.
(2) There is a horizontal crack about 20 cm away from the
top surface of the right gate slot, with a maximum crack
width of 0.5 mm.
2) Lower gate head
Fig. 2.94 Water leakage of the arch gate
(1) No cracks and other defects are found in the hoist beam
of the miter gate and the hoist beam of the water con-
veyance tunnel.
(2) Reinforced concrete exterior wall. The lower gate head
is a reinforced concrete empty box structure, and the
exterior wall is composed of a reinforced concrete
straight wall and an arc wall. Inspection finds that:
(3) Left lower gate head. There are many cracks on the
concrete wall surface in the east, west and north
directions. Table 2.76 shows the position, direction,
length and maximum crack width of the cracks, as
shown in Figs. 2.96 and 2.97.
At a distance of about 20 cm from the top of the straight

wall, the concrete cracks and peels off and the crack is 1 m
long and 30 cm wide. One 80 cm long transverse bar and
three 20–25 cm long vertical bars were exposed, resulting in
Fig. 2.95 Expose reinforcement after the concrete of ear protector is severe corrosion of steel bars, as shown in Fig. 2.98.
chiseled
162 B. Xu
Fig. 2.97 Crack of concrete exterior wall of left lower gate head Fig. 2.98 Concrete expansion crack, exposed steel bar and steel bar
corrosion of exterior wall on the north side of left lower gate head
(4) Right lower gate head. The reinforced concrete wall

surfaces in the east, south, and west have vertical
penetration cracks from the top of the wall to the mud
surface. Table 2.77 shows the position, direction, length
and maximum crack width of cracks, as shown in
Figs. 2.99 and 2.100.
A. Miter gate
(1) There have been two accidents at the gate. In August
1972, when the ship lock was drained, the cable of the
right gate was broken, and the gate was automatically
rebounded and closed, hitting the downstream thresh-
old and causing deformation of the gate. In July 1986, a
tugboat failed to tighten the cable and broke the miter
door. In June 1995, repair was carried out on the miter
gate.
Fig. 2.99 Crack of concrete exterior wall of right lower gate head
Table 2.76 Inspection result of cracks on reinforced concrete exterior wall of left lower gate head
No. Position Description of crack Crevice Maximum crack
length (m) width (mm)
1 Eastern straight wall Vertical crack 0.66 0.3
2 Eastern straight wall Several microcracks
3 Eastern arch wall Vertical penetrating crack from >3.5a 1.0
wall top to mud surface
4 Western arch wall Vertical penetrating crack from >3.5a 0.5
5 Western straight wall, close to sidewall of the gate wall Vertical penetrating crack from >3.5a 4.0
6 About 20 cm from the top of the wall at the junction of the arc Vertical crack >1.5a 0.12
wall and the straight wall on the north side
a
In this inspection, the parts under the mud surface are not inspected
Fig. 2.100 Crack of concrete exterior wall of right lower gate head Fig. 2.101 Deformation of water stop pressure plate and backing plate
(2) Water leakage at the bottom of the gate is serious. The

side water sealing rubber is seriously aged, cracked and
partially peeled off. In the range of 4 m from the top of
the right gate, the side water stop plate and the backing
plate are twisted and deformed to a maximum amount
of about 40 mm, as shown in Fig. 2.101.
(3) The sections of the left and right gate back ranks are
different, but there are different degrees of impact
deformation. The left gate back rack has a section of
twisting deformation with the deformation length of
about 1 m and the maximum deformation amount of
about 60 mm. The right gate back rack has a section of
twisting deformation with the deformation length of
about 2.5 m and the maximum deformation amount of
about 50 mm, as shown in Fig. 2.102.
(4) There are 12 large impact deformations in the gate Fig. 2.102 Deformation of back rack
panel, which are mainly distributed in the range of
about 2 m from the outside of the diagonal column and 2.6 m from the top of the gate and about 0.9 m from
0.8–3.5 m from the top of the gate. One panel with an the outside of the miter pillar has been repaired due to
area of about 2.4 m 1.25 m at a distance of about excessive impact deformation. The maximum
Table 2.77 Inspection result of cracks on concrete exterior wall of right lower gate head
No. Position Description of crack Crevice Maximum
length (m) crevice (mm)
1 Eastern arch wall Vertical penetrating crack from wall top >4.0a 1.0
to mud surface
2 Eastern straight wall Vertical penetrating crack from wall top >3.5a 1.0
to mud surface
3 Intersection of arc wall and straight wall surface Vertical penetrating crack from wall top >3.5a 0.5
on the south side to mud surface
4 Western arch wall Vertical penetrating crack from wall top >3.5a 1.0
to mud surface
5 Western arch wall, close to sidewall of the gate Vertical penetrating crack from wall top >3.5a 5.0
wall to mud surface
a
In this inspection, the parts under the mud surface are not inspected
164 B. Xu
Fig. 2.103 Deformation of the panel toward the downstream side Fig. 2.105 Corrosion of crossbeam and longitudinal beam
deformation of the other parts is about 40 cm 40

cm, and the maximum height (deformation amount) of
the protrusion toward the downstream side is about
10 mm, as shown in Fig. 2.103.
(5) The welding seams of longitudinal beam, small longi-
tudinal beam and panel are all discontinuous, and the
quality of welding seam is poor with many defects such
as gouging and undercut.
(6) The main crossbeam (underwater part) is generally
seriously corroded, and the rust skin is flaked off in
blocks. In the range of 10 cm 10 cm, there are about
30 large rust pits, which are partially connected to each
other, and the maximum rust pit is about 2.5 cm in
diameter, and 4 mm in depth, as shown in Fig. 2.104.
Among them, the corrosion near the drainage hole of
the main beam web plate is particularly serious. Fig. 2.106 Rust-through condition of small longitudinal beam
(7) The joint between the main longitudinal beam and the
main crossbeam is seriously corroded, and the rust skin
of the main longitudinal beam within about 50 cm from
the web of the main crossbeam is peeled off and rust
pits are densely covered. Within about 15 cm from the
web of the main crossbeam, the maximum pit is about
4.5 mm in depth and locally rusted, as shown in
Fig. 2.105.
(8) The edge beam is seriously rusted, rust skin falls off, and
rusted pits are densely distributed. The maximum rust pit
is about 5 mm in depth, and is partially damaged.
(9) The connection between the small longitudinal beam and
the main crossbeam is severely corroded, and most of the
small longitudinal beams have been rusted through. The
small longitudinal beam and the main crossbeam have
been disconnected, as shown in Fig. 2.106.
(10) Between the hinge shaft and the shaft sleeve on the left
gate, the hinge is in a dry friction state for a long time,
and the hinge shaft is not in a lubricated state until the
Fig. 2.104 Front flange corrosion of the main crossbeam lubricant is started to be filled in 2000. According to the
operator, metal debris is often generated at this hinge D. Hoist room

before the lubricant is filled. In about 1999, during the
opening and closing process of the gate, when the gate No cracks were found in the two hoist rooms on the left bank
approaches the maximum opening degree, a large and the right bank, and water leakage was found on the wall
abnormal sound is always made at the hinge. During of the hoist room on the right bank.
the inspection, it was found that there was obvious
radial movement at the hinge. Based on this, it was 3) Lock chamber
judged that there was a clearance between the hinge
shaft and the shaft sleeve due to severe wear, and the A. Chamber wall
clearance was about 6–7 mm.
The lock chamber has a total length of 108 m and a width of
B. Water conveyance tunnel
10 m, and is of the reinforced concrete straight wall type.
The left-bank wall and the right-bank wall of the entire
The water conveyance tunnel gate is a flat corrugated steel
chamber are each divided into five structural sections, each
gate with a size of 3.0 m 2.05 m (width height). The
of which has a length of 21.6 m, separated from each other
sill elevation is 13.3 m and the maximum acting head is
and from the head of the gate by vertical expansion joints.
9.0 m.
During inspection, the five structural sections of the
The following problems mainly exist in the gate:
left-bank wall and the right-bank wall are numbered as the
left-bank wall (or right-bank wall) I, II, III, IV, and V from
(1) The gate slot has been seriously damaged. The man-
the upstream, and each section is divided into 4 pieces on
agement unit has stuck steel plate on the gate slot track.
average, numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 from the upstream.
However, after running for a period of time, the exter-
Inspection found that the exterior wall of the chamber is
nally applied steel plate is bent and deformed due to
basically intact, but there are several microcracks. No
wear and extrusion.
obvious cracks are found in the interior wall, but the con-
(2) The gate is often blocked during opening and closing
crete is seriously damaged. The detailed description is as
process because the gate slot and track are damaged,
follows:
which often causes the gate to be unable to lift or fall.
(3) All the cooperation between the roller shaft sleeve and
(1) It is common that the concrete surface is covered with
the edge beam web and between the shaft sleeve and the
honeycombed hemp surface and exposed sand and stone.
roller shaft fails, which causes the roller to lose its
There are many defects and voids and some exposed steel
supporting function.
bars in concrete, and one steel bar is corroded and bro-
(4) In the opening and closing process of the gate, the rear
ken, as shown in Figs. 2.107 and 2.108.
flange of the side beam is in direct contact with the gate
groove rail because the roller loses its supporting
function and the rear flange of the side beam is directly
supported on the gate rail, which causes serious wear of
the rear flange of the gate side beam. The thickness of
thinnest part of the steel plate is less than 4 mm, and the
gate opening force is greatly increased.
(5) The whole gate is seriously corroded, and some com-
ponents have been corroded.
(6) All water stops of the gate are damaged, and water
leakage of the gate is serious.
C. Access gate slot
The left access door slot is located about 3 m from the top of
the gate slot and has a horizontal-through crack with a
maximum width of about 5 mm. A piece of triangular
concrete about 80 cm down from the horizontal crack on the
upstream face of the gate slot has fallen off. Fig. 2.107 Concrete damage of gate wall
166 B. Xu
Table 2.78 Concrete defects of interior wall of left-bank chamber

No. Position Distance Dimension (cm) Note
from top Horizontal Vertical
of gate length length
wall (m)
1 Left-bank 3.4 15 40
wall I-1
2 Left-bank 3.3 10 20
wall I-2 3.7 20 20
4.0 120 30
4.5 100 40
5.2 40 20
5.5 40 20
3 Left-bank 3.3 15 30
wall II-3
Fig. 2.108 Concrete damage of gate wall, exposed steel bar, serious
4 Left-bank 6.9 50 20
corrosion of steel bars
wall II-4
5 Left-bank 6.1 50 20 Exposed
Table 2.78 and Table 2.79 show the locations and wall III-2 steel bar,
dimensions of concrete defects in the left and right gate corrosion
of steel
walls, respectively. bars
6.2 30 13
(2) At a distance of 6.9 m from the top of the wall, a row of
6.3 15 15
pits of varying sizes was punched out by the water, with
a maximum pit diameter of 10 cm and a maximum 6.4 40 20 Exposed
steel bar,
depth of 10 cm. Part of the pits are exposed with corrosion
reinforcement, and steel bars are corroded, as shown in of steel
Fig. 2.109. bars
(3) Local damage of settlement joint, loss of filler. 6 Left-bank 5.9 40 10 Exposed
(4) At low water level, mud water appears at the corner of wall IV-2 steel bar,
corrosion
the settlement joint of the right gate wall and at the local of steel
hole. bars
(5) In the left gate wall, there is slight forward inclination 5.0 80 40
and retroflexion phenomenon between Section IV and
7 Left-bank 4.9 40 30
Section V of the fourth settlement joint from the wall V-4 5.1 30 10
upstream, with a length of about 5 m and a maximum
difference of 2 cm. Block III gate wall of the left gate 5.4 15 10
wall has bulging phenomenon.
(6) Backfill excavation, loss, and water leakage are found
on the outside of the left and right-bank gate walls. railing are the upper and lower rows of steel bars, which are
seriously corroded and partially broken, as shown in
B. Mooring anchor chains Figs. 2.110 and 2.111.
Mooring chain specifications vary in length. A total of 10 5) Summary of inspection results

chain defects occur, some of the existing chains are repaired
with steel wire rope and the overall corrosion is serious. According to the inspection results, the main appearance
defects of the ship lock are summarized as follows:
4) Footbridge
A. Upper gate head
No cracks and other defects are found in the footbridge
board, and some guardrail column concrete is damaged, has (1) Hoist beam has longitudinal cracks. The maximum
exposed steel bar and corroded steel bars. The guardrail and crack width is greater than the specified value in the
Table 2.79 Concrete defects of interior wall of right-bank chamber

No. Position Distance Dimension (cm) Note
from top
Horizontal Vertical
of gate
length length
wall (m)
1 Right-bank 4.1 40 20
wall I-1
wall I-2
6.8 10 5 Exposed steel
bar, corrosion
of steel bars
3 Right-bank 6.9 15 10 Exposed steel
wall I-3 bar, corrosion
of steel bars
wall I-4
6.9 10 10 Exposed steel
bar in three Fig. 2.109 Punched pits of gate wall
places, steel
bar corrosion
wall II-1
5.2 45 10
wall II-2
7 Right-bank 4.3 40 55 Maximum
wall II-1 hole depth of
15 cm,
exposed steel
bar, rusted
and broken
steel bars
4.7 15 10
wall III-2
wall III-3
10 Right-bank 3.6 50 50 Maximum Fig. 2.110 Concrete of guardrail column is damaged, exposed with
wall IV-1 hole depth of reinforcement and corroded steel bars
17 cm,
exposed steel
bar, rusted
and broken
steel bars
11 Right-bank 4.1 30 10
wall IV-2
4.4 30 40
12 Right-bank 5.3 100 30 Exposed steel
wall IV-4 bar, corrosion
of steel bars
13 Right-bank 3.9 25 55
wall V-1
14 Right-bank 0.5 30 20
wall V-2
15 Right-bank 1.1 45 30
wall V-3
16 Right-bank 0.9 50 15
wall V-4
1.1 20 20
Fig. 2.111 Guardrail steel bars are seriously corroded
168 B. Xu
code, and the concrete is expanded and cracked, and (2) There is serious impact deformation on the miter gate
steel bars are seriously corroded. At the bottom of the panel that has been partially repaired. The section type
highway and bridge, the corbel, the balanced mound of left and right door back pull rod is different, and part
chamber and the exterior wall of the reinforced concrete of the rod is deformed. Water leakage at the bottom of
on the right side, the concrete has been cracked, dam- the gate is serious. The side water sealing rubber is
aged, exposed and corroded. The concrete at the bottom seriously aged, cracked and partially peeled off.
corner of the hoist abutment and the highway and Twisting deformation exists in both the side water stop
bridge abutment is damaged, exposed, and corroded. pressure plate and the backing plate. The underwater
There are many vertical cracks on the piers and abut- part of the gate is generally seriously corroded. The
ments of highways and bridges. The maximum crack joint welding of longitudinal beam, small longitudinal
width is 0.25 mm, which is greater than the specified beam and panel is discontinuous welding.
value. The access gate is cracked and concrete is Between the hinge shaft and the shaft sleeve on the left
damaged. gate, the hinge is in dry friction for a long time. There is
(2) Both the left and right ear protectors were cracked due obvious radial movement at the supporting hinge, and
to ship collision, and they were not vertical after repair. there is clearance between the hinge shaft and the shaft
(3) Deformation and vibration of the gate. Water sealing sleeve due to severe wear.
rubber is aged and damaged with serious water leakage. (3) The gate slot and track of water conveyance tunnel are
The four side guide wheels of the gate are separated seriously damaged. The gate is often blocked during
from the guide plate, and the gate is suspended. During opening and closing process, so that the gate can’t be
the opening and closing process of the gate and when lifted or dropped. The cooperation between the roller
the high water level is stationary, the gate will swing shaft sleeve and the edge beam web and between the
and vibrate. The side guide roller is rusted and doesn’t shaft sleeve and the roller shaft all fails. In the opening
rotate. and closing process of the gate, the rear flange of the
side beam directly contacts the gate slot track, resulting
The gate coating is intact as a whole, the coating is peeled in serious abrasion of the rear flange of the gate side
off in partial areas of the panel, and there is rust on the beam. The thickness of the thinnest part of the steel
surface. There are many old rusted pits in the components. plate is less than 4 mm, and the gate opening force of
The penal in contact with the steel wire rope has a groove the gate is greatly increased. The whole gate is seriously
about 2–3 mm deep. The two side members of the main corroded, and some components have been corroded.
truss and the overlapping parts of the two components are The water stop of the gate is damaged, causing serious
corroded seriously. water leakage.
(4) Corrosion of the balanced sling wire rope. C. Lock chamber

(1) The concrete surface of the interior wall of the chamber
B. Lower gate head has a common and serious phenomenon of honey-
combed hemp surface and exposed sand and stone.
(1) There are 3 run-through cracks from the top of the wall Concrete in more than 40 place has defects and cavities.
to the mud surface and 2 vertical cracks in the rein- The maximum dimension is 120 cm in the horizontal
forced concrete exterior wall at the lower left gate head, direction and 30 cm in the vertical direction. Some of
with a maximum crack width of 4.0 mm. There are 5 the holes appear exposed steel bar and corroded steel
penetrating cracks from the top of the wall to the mud bars and one steel bar is rusted to be broken.
surface in the reinforced concrete exterior wall of the (2) At a distance of 6.9 m from the top of the wall, a row of
right lower gate head, with a maximum crack width of pits of varying sizes was punched out by the water, with
5.0 mm. The crack width exceeds the specified value. a maximum pit diameter of 10 cm and a maximum
The reinforced concrete exterior wall of left lower gate depth of 10 cm. Part of the punched pits appear
head at north side appears concrete expansion crack and exposed steel bar and steel bars are corroded.
exposed steel bar. At the place 3 m from the top of the (3) At low water level, mud water appears at the corner of
left access gate slot, there is a horizontal penetrating the settlement joint of the right gate wall and at the local
crack with a maximum width of about 5 mm. A piece hole. There are backfilled soil hollowing, loss, and
of triangular concrete down about 80 cm from the water leakage outside the gate wall.
horizontal crack on the upstream face of the gate slot (4) The left gate wall has slight forward inclination and
has fallen off. retroflexion phenomenon between Section IV and
Section V of the fourth settlement joint from the The average thickness of the concrete protective layer
upstream, with a length of about 5 m and a maximum on the right side of the reinforced concrete exterior wall
difference of 2 cm. Block III gate wall of the left gate meets the requirements of the design value and the
wall has bulging phenomenon. specified value.
(5) Local damage of settlement joint and loss of filler. Except for the bottom surface of the first hoist beam
(6) Mooring chain specifications vary in length. The anchor from upstream, the thickness of the concrete protective
chains are corroded and damaged seriously. layer of miter gate hoist beam and water conveyance
tunnel meets the requirements of the specified value.
D. Footbridge
(3) Gate wall. The average thickness of the concrete pro-
tective layer of the gate wall meets the requirements of
The concrete of some guardrail columns is damaged with
the specified value, but does not meet the requirements
exposed and corroded steel bars. The steel bars of guardrail
of the design value.
and railing are seriously corroded, and part has been broken.
(4) Footbridge. The average thickness of concrete protec-
tive layer on the bottom of footbridge slab basically
2. Detection of protective layer thickness
meets the requirements of the design value and the
specified value, and the average value of the thickness
1) Testing instruments and detecting components
of the concrete protective layer on the side surface
doesn’t meet the requirements of the design value and
The thickness of the protective layer is measured by CM-9
the specified value.
protective layer thickness tester made in Britain.
The tested components include: ① reinforced concrete
It can also be seen from the test result that the thickness of
exterior wall at the upper gate head, hoist beam abutment; ②
the concrete protective layer of most components is not
the reinforced concrete exterior wall at the lower gate, hoist
uniform. The thickness of concrete protective layer is mea-
beam of the miter gate and the hoist beam of the water
sured at the place where concrete appearance is intact.
conveyance tunnel; ③ gate wall; ④ footbridge.
According to the result of appearance inspection, the com-
When measuring the gate wall and footbridge, we divide
ponents such as highways and bridges, hoist beams, rein-
the end of the gate wall and footbridge near the upstream, the
forced concrete exterior walls at the lower gate head all have
middle part and the end near the downstream into three areas
bias reinforcement, steel bar corrosion, expansion, and
1, 2, and 3, respectively.
peeling of protective layer. The minimum protective layer is
only a few millimeters thick and even exposed steel bar
2) Test result and analysis
appears.
Table 2.80 shows the thickness testing result of the protec-
3. Measurement of concrete carbonization depth
tive layer. The following conclusions are drawn from
Table 2.80. 1) Measurement methods and components
(1) Upper gate head. The average thickness of concrete In the area where concrete strength is measured by rebound
protective layer of reinforced concrete exterior wall and method, the surface of the component to be measured is
hoist beam doesn’t meet the requirements of design drilled with percussion drilling, the powder in the hole is
value and specified value. The average thickness of removed, the phenolphthalein reagent is sprayed in the hole,
concrete protective layer of hoist beam abutment meets and the depth of the surface non-discolored concrete is
the requirements of specified value. measured with a vernier caliper.
(2) Lower gate head. The average thickness of the concrete The measured components include: ① reinforced con-
protective layer on the upper part of the left reinforced crete exterior wall at the upper gate head, hoist beam abut-
concrete exterior wall doesn’t meet the requirements of ment; ② reinforced concrete exterior wall at the lower gate
the design value and the specified value, and the min- head, the hoist beam of miter gate and the hoist beam of the
imum measured value of the protective layer thickness water conveyance tunnel; ③ gate wall; ④ footbridge.
is 16 mm. When measuring the gate wall and footbridge, we divide
The average thickness of the concrete protective layer at the end of the gate wall and footbridge near the upstream, the
the lower part of the left exterior wall is close to the middle part and the end near the downstream into three areas
design value and meets the requirements of the speci- 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
fied value.
170 B. Xu
Table 2.80 Thickness testing result of the protective layer

No. Name of components Measured Measured value (mm) Design
position Maximum Minimum Average value
value value value (mm)
1 Upper Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the left Side 46 22 32 50

gate head side
Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the Side 38 23 32
right side
Hoist beam (No. 1 from upstream) Bottom 30 16 24 30
Upstream 32 16 25 38.5
side
Downstream 41 28 36
side
Hoist beam (No. 2 from upstream) Bottom 24 16 21 30
Upstream 39 17 31 38.5
side
Downstream 29 19 23
side
Left hoist beam abutment Eastern side 66 63 65 –
Southern 63 58 60 –
side
Right hoist beam abutment Eastern side 54 47 50 –
Southern 64 38 49 –
side
2 Lower Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the left Side 25 16 20 50
gate head side (near the peeling of the upper concrete)
Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the left Side 55 37 49 50
side (lower)
Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the Side 57 40 50 50
right side
Hoist beam of miter gate (No. 1 from Side 72 62 66 –
upstream) Bottom 32 24 28 –
Hoist beam of miter gate (No. 2 from Side 51 37 44 –
upstream)
Hoist beam of water conveyance tunnel Side 67 42 53 –
(No. 1 from upstream)
Hoist beam of water conveyance tunnel Side 62 54 58 –
(No. 2 from the upstream)
3 Gate wall Left side 2 Outer side 51 40 44 50
Right side 1 Outer side 45 39 42
4 Footbridge Left side 2 Bottom 27 22 24 25
Right side 1 Bottom 36 28 33 25
Side 22 15 19 20
Side 19 16 18 20
Side 21 16 20 20
Table 2.81 Test result of concrete carbonization depth

No. Name of component Measured Carbonization depth (mm)
side Maximum Minimum Average
value value value
1 Upper gate Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the left Facade 6.2 3.4 5.0
head side
Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the right Facade 9.6 2.1 5.7
side
Hoist beam (No. 1 from upstream) Bottom 9.8 4.8 6.2
Hoist beam (No. 2 from upstream) Bottom 7.1 4.0 5.6
Left hoist beam abutment Facade 11.0 2.9 6.0
Right hoist beam abutment Facade 10.8 6.9 8.7
2 Lower gate Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the left Facade 9.4 5.1 6.8
head side
Reinforced concrete exterior wall on the right Facade 8.2 4.0 5.9
side
Hoist beam of miter gate Facade 6.2 3.1 4.5
Hoist beam of water conveyance tunnel Facade 6.2 3.1 4.5
3 Gate wall Left side 2 Facade 18.9 7.2 11.4
Right side 1 Facade 10.1 4.0 7.2
4 Footbridge Left side 2 Top 4.1 2.8 3.4
Right side 1 Top 4.0 1.1 2.7
2) Test result and analysis Where cracks and peeling occur in the component concrete,
the surface concrete is chiseled off until the corroded steel
Table 2.81 shows the test result of concrete carbonization bars are exposed, and we observe the corrosion condition of
depth. steel bars. After removing the corrosion products on the
As can be seen from Table 2.81, in the measured concrete surface of steel bars, we measure the diameter after corrosion
components, the maximum concrete carbonization depth is of steel bars, and calculate the cross-sectional loss rate of
4.0–18.9 mm, the minimum depth is 1.1–7.2 mm, and the steel bars against the diameter of the original steel bars.
average depth is 2.7–11.4 mm. The measured components include: ① reinforced con-
Calculated as per 32 years of ship lock completion, the crete exterior wall at the upper gate head and hoist beam
average annual carbonization depth of concrete is that the abutment; ② exterior wall of reinforced concrete at the
maximum value is 0.13–0.59 mm/a, the minimum value is lower gate head; ③ gate wall of gate chamber; ④ column of
0.03–0.23 mm/a, and the average value is 0.08–0.36 mm/a. footbridge.
Comparing Tables 2.80 and 2.81, it can be seen that the
concrete carbonization depth of all components doesn’t (2) Test result and analysis
exceed the minimum thickness of concrete protective layer,
indicating that the carbonization of concrete hasn’t reached Table 2.82 shows the test result of corrosion status and
the surface of main reinforcement. cross-sectional loss rate of steel bars.
As can be seen from Table 2.82, the maximum
4. Steel bar corrosion cross-sectional loss rate of steel bars is 60.9% and the
minimum is 17.0%.
(1) Measurement methods and components The thickness of concrete protective layer is not uniform,
thickness of protective layer in local area is insufficient and
172 B. Xu
Table 2.82 Corrosion status and cross-sectional loss rate of steel bars
No. Name of component Type of steel Design Residual Cross-sectional loss Note
bars diameter diameter rate of steel bars (%)
(mm) (mm)
1 Reinforced concrete exterior Vertical 12 9.8 33.3 Concrete cracks with
wall of right upper gate head reinforcement exposed steel bars
2 Hoist abutment of right upper Vertical 18 16.4 17.0 Concrete damages
gate head reinforcement with exposed steel
bars
3 Hoist abutment of right upper Vertical 16 13.9 24.5 Concrete damages
gate head reinforcement with exposed steel
bars
4 Reinforced concrete exterior Transverse 12 10.9 17.5 Concrete cracks with
wall of left lower gate head reinforcement exposed steel bars
Vertical 8 7.2 19.0
reinforcement
Vertical 8 5.0 60.9
reinforcement
5 Outside of right gate chamber Vertical 10 8.8 22.6 Exposed steel bars for
wall reinforcement construction defect
6 Column of left footbridge Vertical 10 8.4 29.4 Concrete damages
reinforcement with exposed steel
bars
carbonization of concrete is the main reason of steel bar ∟90 mm 90 mm, ∟75 mm 75 mm and ∟65 mm
corrosion. 65 mm. The arm truss is composed of steel components of
∟120 mm 120 mm, ∟90 mm 90 mm, ∟75 mm 75
5. Gate detection mm and ∟65 mm 65 mm.
The structural type of the arch gate is shown in
1) Arch steel gate at upper gate head Fig. 2.112.
The upper gate of the ship lock is an open-topped arch steel A. Test methods
gate with a size of 11.25 m 8.05 m (width height), an
elevation of 19.5 m at the bottom of the upstream river, an The residual thickness of the main components of the arch
elevation of 13.6 m at the sill of the gate, and an elevation of gate is tested, and 265 effective detection data are obtained,
gate hinge of 23.25 m. The gate is a double main truss each of which is the average value of more than 3 effective
straight arm cylindrical hinged arch steel gate. The gate measurement point data.
panel is supported on a grid composed of small crossbeam,
top (bottom) beam and longitudinal (side) beam. The beam B. Test result
grid is supported on the upper and lower main truss. The
penal and beam grid, beam grid and the upper chord of the By sorting out the residual thickness test data of the arch
main truss are connected by welding. The upper and lower gate, the statistical result of the frequency distribution of the
main trusses and arms form the upper and lower mainframes. corrosion amount of the main components of the gate is
There are six small crossbeams, five of which are 14a-type listed in Table 2.83. The average values of the main com-
steel and one of which is I-section composite beam. The top ponents of the gate and the total corrosion amount and
beam is [24a-type steel beam. The longitudinal beam and the corrosion rate (corrosion rate calculation period is 32 years)
side beam are I-section composite beams. The main truss are shown in Table 2.84.
consists of [28b (upper and lower chords), steel components According to the statistical result in Table 2.83, a his-
of ∟125 mm 125 mm, ∟75 mm 75 mm. The vertical togram of gate corrosion amount frequency distribution can
rack and the back rack are composed of steel components of be made, as shown in Fig. 2.113.
Elevation of gate top at water retaining position

Upstream side
Downstream side
Lifting distance
Fig. 2.112 Structural type of gate
Table 2.83 Corrosion amount frequency distribution of gate

Rust amount (mm) Number of measured points Frequency (%)
Penal Main truss Longitudinal beam Small crossbeam Arm Pull rod
0.2–0.3 3 1 5 1 5 4 2.6
0.4–0.5 3 16 3 12.8
0.6–0.7 3 8 24 3 7 6 19.2
0.8–0.9 1 12 14 1 12 4 16.6
1.0–1.1 1 11 7 2 20 2 16.2
1.2–1.3 4 3 5 2 2 6.0
1.4–1.5 8 2 1 3 5 7.2
1.6–1.7 1 12 2 6 4 3 10.6
1.8–1.9 1 10 1 3 1 6.0
2.0–2.1 2 1 2 1 2.3
2.2–2.3 1 0.4
174 B. Xu
Table 2.84 Mean value of corrosion amount and corrosion rate of general and main components of gate
General and main components Penal Main truss Longitudinal beam Small crossbeam Arm Pull rod General
Corrosion data
Average corrosion amount (mm) 1.07 1.23 0.73 1.19 1.04 1.03 1.02
Standard deviation (mm) 0.64 0.46 0.30 0.52 0.38 0.43 0.46
Average corrosion rate (mm/a) 0.033 0.038 0.023 0.037 0.033 0.032 0.032
/% Frequency%
/mm Corrosion amount/mm
Fig. 2.113 Corrosion amount frequency distribution of gate
C. Analysis of test result main truss and small crossbeam is relatively heavy, and
that of longitudinal beam is relatively light.
From the statistical chart of the corrosion amount frequency (3) The average corrosion of the arch gate is 1.02 mm, the
distribution of the gate, it can be seen that: standard deviation is 0.46 mm, and the average corro-
sion rate is 0.032 mm/a.
(1) The corrosion distribution of the arch gate is more
2) Miter gate of lower gate head
discrete. The corrosion is mainly distributed in the
range of 0.4–1.9 mm, its frequency is 94.7%, and its
The lower gate is a miter gate, the size of a single gate is
frequency peak value is between 0.6 and 0.7 mm,
6.0 m 14.0 m (width height), and the sill elevation is
indicating that the whole gate is generally corroded, and
14.0 m. The gate panel is supported on a beam grid con-
locally seriously corroded.
sisting of a main crossbeam, a main longitudinal beam, a
(2) The average corrosion amount of the main truss and
small longitudinal beam and an edge beam, and the panel is
small crossbeam of the arch gate is 1.23 mm and
welded directly to the beam grid. The main crossbeam of the
1.19 mm, the average corrosion amount of the longi-
gate is an I-section composite beam; the main longitudinal
tudinal beam is 0.73 mm, and that of penal, arm and
beam is a T-shaped composite beam; the small longitudinal
pull rod is 1.03–1.07 mm. It shows that the corrosion of
Table 2.85 Corrosion amount frequency distribution of miter gate

Left gate Corrosion amount Measured points Frequency
(mm) Penal Main Main longitudinal Small longitudinal (%)
crossbeam beam beam
0.2–0.3 3 3 1 3 0.6
0.4–0.5 7 8.1
0.6–0.7 8 19 5 20.0
0.8–0.9 10 7 7 15.0
1.0–1.1 9 6 3 13.1
1.2–1.3 1 11 2 1 9.4
1.4–1.5 5 7 3 1 10.0
1.6–1.7 3 5 2 6.3
1.8–1.9 3 6 1 6.3
2.0–2.1 4 4 1 5.6
2.2–2.3 1 4 1 3.8
2.4–2.5 2 1.3
2.6–2.7 1 0.6
Right Corrosion amount Measured points Frequency
gate (mm) Penal Main Main longitudinal Small longitudinal (%)
crossbeam beam beam
0.2–0.3 1 3 3 1 5.0
0.4–0.5
0.6–0.7 2 8 5 11.3
0.8–0.9 2 9 5 4 14.2
1.0–1.1 2 12 8 3 17.7
1.2–1.3 3 16 4 1 17.0
1.4–1.5 2 8 4 1 10.6
1.6–1.7 5 5 3 1 9.9
1.8–1.9 1 3 4 5.7
2.0–2.1 2 3 1 4.3
2.2–2.3 1 1 1 2.1
2.4–2.5 1 1 1.4
2.6–2.7 1 0.7
beam is channel steel and I-shaped steel; and the edge beam distribution of the main components of the gate is listed in
is a T-shaped cross-sectional composite beam. Table 2.85. The average values of the main components of
the gate and the total corrosion amount and corrosion rate
A. Test methods (corrosion rate calculation period is 32 years) are shown in
Table 2.86. According to the statistical result in Table 2.86,
The residual thickness of the main components of the miter a histogram of gate corrosion amount frequency distribution
gate is tested, and 301 valid detection data are obtained, each can be made, as shown in Figs. 2.114 and 2.115.
of which is the average value of more than 3 effective
measurement point data. 3) Analysis of test results
B. Test result From the statistical chart of the corrosion amount frequency
distribution of the gate, it can be seen that:
By sorting out the residual thickness test data of the miter
gate, the statistical result of the corrosion amount frequency
176 B. Xu
Table 2.86 Mean value of corrosion amount and corrosion rate of general and main components of miter gate
General and main components Gate Penal Main crossbeam Main longitudinal beam Small longitudinal beam General
Corrosion data
Average corrosion amount (mm) Left 1.61 1.32 0.88 0.81 1.15
Right 1.31 1.26 1.21 1.06 1.22
Standard deviation (mm) Left 0.36 0.55 0.44 0.25 0.54
Right 0.35 0.45 0.52 0.52 0.47
Average corrosion rate (mm/a) Left 0.050 0.041 0.028 0.025 0.036
Right 0.041 0.039 0.038 0.033 0.038
/% Frequency%
Fig. 2.114 Corrosion amount frequency distribution of left gate
/% Frequency%
Fig. 2.115 Corrosion amount frequency distribution of right gate

(1) For the left and right gate, the corrosion amount dis- 2.3.4.3 Corrosion Investigation and Analysis
tribution is discrete, the main distribution is 0.4– of Coastal Tide Gate
2.1 mm, and the frequency is 93.7% and 95.8%,
respectively. The frequency of corrosion greater than 1. Project scale and main structural forms
2.0 mm is 11.3% and 8.5%, respectively, which indi-
cates that there is heavy or serious local corrosion of the A tide gate in Jiangsu is about 10 km from the Yellow Sea.
gate. It was started on December 30, 1972 and was completed on
(2) The average corrosion amount of the left panel and the June 11, 1973 with main functions of tide blocking and
main crossbeam is 1.61 mm and 1.32 mm respectively, drainage, freshwater retention and irrigation and shipping.
and the average corrosion amount of the main longi- After the completion of the project, more than 10,000
tudinal beam and the small longitudinal beam is locks were opened to eliminate 1.429 billion m3 of water-
0.88 mm and 0.81 mm, respectively. It shows that the logged water (including upstream incoming water into the
corrosion of panel and main crossbeam is relatively sea), which ensured the stability of people’s life and eco-
heavy while that of main longitudinal beam and small nomic sustainable development along the line, producing
longitudinal beam is relatively light. good engineering and social benefits. Figure 2.116 is the
(3) The average corrosion amount of the right panel, main status of the gate.
crossbeam, main longitudinal beam, and small longi- The tide gate is designed according to the design standard
tudinal beam is 1.31 mm, 1.26 mm, 1.21 mm, and of Grade 3 hydraulic structure with once-in-20-year drainage
1.06 mm, respectively. It shows that the corrosion frequency and once-in-50-year tide prevention frequency,
degree of the main components of the gate is basically and once-in-200-year tide level frequency. Design water
similar. level combination: forward drainage, the high water level on
(4) The average corrosion of the two gates is 1.15 mm and the gate is 2.5 m, and the lowest tide level under the corre-
1.22 mm, the standard deviation is 0.54 mm and sponding gate is 0.72 m; reverse tide blocking, the high tide
0.47 mm respectively, and the average corrosion rate is level under the gate is 5.1 m, the wind wave height is 1.2 m,
0.036 mm/a and 0.038 mm/a, respectively. and the corresponding low water level on the gate is 1.2 m.
The design maximum flow rate is 562 m3/s, and the daily
D. Summary average flow rate is 169 m3/s. According to Grading and
Flood Standard for Water Conservancy and Hydropower
The concrete components of ship lock generally suffer from Projects (SL 252-2000), the project scale is medium-sized.
local damage, crack along steel bars, corrosion of steel bars The tide gate has a total width of 47 m and is divided into
and concrete carbonization. The average thickness of con- 7 holes. Among them, 6 holes are drainage and tide blocking
crete protective layer of some components doesn’t meet the holes. Each hole has a net width of 5 m, and a hole on the
specification requirements, and the thickness is not uniform. north bank is a navigation hole, with a net width of 8 m. The
The local maximum cross-sectional loss rate of steel bars is total net width is 38 m. The gate pier is of mortar block
60.9%. The reinforced concrete exterior wall at the lower stone structure with a width of 0.9 m and is used to separate
gate head has a plurality of vertical penetrating cracks from holes.
the top of the wall to the mud surface, with a maximum
crack width of 5.0 mm. 2. Inspection of defects in appearance
The bars of arch steel gate and miter gate have different
1) Wing wall
degrees of impact deformation and serious corrosion. The
gate of the water conveyance tunnel is seriously corroded,
The wing wall is made of mortar block stone and mortar.
some of the bars are rusted, and the gate slot is seriously
The water stop asphalt of all settlement joints has been aged,
damaged. The side guide wheels of the arch gate are not in
damaged, and lost. The wing wall is basically intact as a
contact with the track plate, and the gate is suspended,
whole, with a small amount of leakage, as shown in
vibrated, and swung.
Fig. 2.117. The first section is dislocated with the second
The upper gate head, lower gate head, and water con-
section on the south side of the downstream by 2 cm and
veyance tunnel hoist are all seriously aged, affecting the safe
inclined outward by 3 cm.
operation of the ship lock.
178 B. Xu
Fig. 2.116 Appearance of tide gate Fig. 2.118 Intact slope protection
Fig. 2.117 Basically intact wing wall Fig. 2.119 Bottom concrete of upper gate of navigation passage fall
off
2) Riverbank slope protection

no longer support the upper gate due to crushing and falling
caused by impact. Now it is pulled by steel wire rope, as
Both upstream and downstream slope protection adopt slurry
shown in Fig. 2.119. ④ Concrete expansion and slabbing
block stones connected with dry block stones. Slope pro-
are caused by corrosion of steel bars on both sides. ⑤ The
tection block stones on both banks of the upstream and
gate slot of each hole bent has been seriously damaged, and
downstream are basically complete, and no obvious erosion
the corrosion is very serious with the maximum pit depth of
damage is found, as shown in Fig. 2.118.
6 mm, so it is difficult to work, as shown in Fig. 2.120.
3) Gate pier and bent
4) Breast wall
The bent is 140# reinforced concrete structure. The main
The breast wall structure is a frame-type vertical arch with a
problems are as follows: ① Because of poor construction
top elevation of ▽7.5 m, a frame concrete mark of 200#, a
quality, little cement consumption, loose concrete, the sur-
net protective layer thickness of 2 cm. It was coated with
face is generally has exposed sand and stone, and the local
anti-corrosion coating in 1988.
honeycomb surface is serious. ② All upstream piers have
The appearance of the downstream side curved shell
denudation within 1 m of water level fluctuation area. ③
surface of the breast wall is basically intact. Since the surface
The bottom of the upper gate of the navigation passage can
Fig. 2.120 Serious corrosion of bolt of gate slot of bent

Fig. 2.122 Concrete protective layer of gate crossbeam
Fig. 2.123 Aging, damage and drop of water sealing rubber
frame concrete of 300#, the net protection layer of all beams

Fig. 2.121 Guide rail plate is corroded and broken of 2 cm, and the net protective layer of longitudinal beams
of 1.5 cm. Before the gate is installed, we brush it with
epoxy resin silver powder thick paste paint, and carry out
is coated with coating, no cracks are found on the surface of secondary coating maintenance and protection in 1988.
the breast wall. Because of the blockage of the gate, the lower gate of the
The main problem of the breast wall is that the concrete navigation hole was replaced with a flat steel gate in the
protective layer of the frame beam on the upstream side emergency project in 1989.
bursts and falls off, almost all stirrups are corroded and Various components of the gate have corrosion and
broken, the main reinforcement is exposed and rusted seri- damage to different degrees. The common aging damage of
ously, all the angle steel of the water stop pressure plate is each gate includes: ① serious corrosion of the lifting head of
rusted, and the water sealing rubber is aged and lost, as the gate, as shown in Fig. 2.124; ② The bolts and nuts are
shown in Figs. 2.121, 2.122 and 2.123. seriously corroded into a pointed shape, and the steel base
has also been seriously corroded, as shown in Fig. 2.125; ③
5) Gate the concrete of the gate frame is damaged and cracked. In
particular, the concrete at the bottom of the gate falls off, the
The drainage hole gate is a rising wave steel wire mesh steel bars are corroded seriously, and the two bottom corners
cement door. The design mark is: panel mortar of 400#, the of the gate are defective; ④ the surface of the gate is
180 B. Xu
Fig. 2.124 Serious corrosion of gate lifting head Fig. 2.126 Serious corrosion on the lower gate of navigation hole
Fig. 2.127 Rollers are corroded and worn seriously

Fig. 2.125 Bolts and nuts have been corroded into a pointed shape
basically intact, but the surface of some gates is exposed 6) Hoist beam and base
with steel bars; ⑤ due to the serious corrosion of the lower
gate of the navigation hole, the zinc layer on the surface of The hoist beam is of steel-reinforced concrete II-type girder
the steel gate is consumed and the surface is seriously cor- structure. The main problems of hoist beam and base of each
roded, especially in the upper water level fluctuation area hole are as follows: ① The lower corbel #
at the north end of
where the thickness of the rust layer is greater than 4 mm, as the east beam of hoist beam of 1 drain hole is damaged
shown in Fig. 2.126; ⑥ the gap between the guide rail plate under pressure with an area of 20 cm 30 cm. The damage
and the roller is too large, up to 3.8 cm at the maximum, and area of the north end of the west girder is 40 cm 30 cm,
the rail plate appears upheaval. The corrosion of the guide and three parts of the hoist base are exposed. ② The con-#
rail plate is quite serious at the elevation of ▽3.0 m to crete at the east end of the east girder of hoist beam of 2
▽1.0 m where the guide rail plate is basically completely drain hole is cracked along steel bars with the joint length of
corroded and is peeled off layer by layer; ⑦ all rollers have 60 cm and width of 5 mm, and two parts of the hoist base#
been corroded and rolling friction has become sliding fric- are exposed. ③ One girder in the middle of hoist base of 3
tion, wear is up to more than 2 mm, as shown in Fig. 2.127. drain hole is expanded and cracked due to the corrosion of
Fig. 2.128 Girder crack of hoist base
Fig. 2.130 Piers and spandrels of highways and bridges are cracked
7) Highways and bridges
Collapse occurs frequently at both ends of a highway and

bridge and is now covered with concrete. The main problems
existing in each hole of a highway and bridge are as follows:
A. Understructure of arch ring of a highway and bridge
The pier of a highway and bridge is made of mortar block

stone and mortar. The damage of the highway and bridge is
serious, and the bottom of the arch ring serious breaks.
Fig. 2.129 Crack of hoist base Almost all the concrete of bridge pier spandrel has been
cracked, as shown in Figs. 2.130 and 2.131.
The specific damage is described in detail as follows
steel bars, so that the protective layer falls off, and the corbel (No. 1 from the north):
of the hoist beam is generally exposed. ④ Cracks appear in 1# drain hole: The supporting beam of the highway and
the north and middle girders of hoist base of 4# drain hole. bridge is arched up under pressure, causing that the middle
The crack width is up to 3 mm, and one of them has been concrete at the bottom of the first supporting beam from west
broken, as shown in Fig. 2.128. ⑤ Cracks appear in south to east falls off in blocks, steel bars are corroded seriously
and middle girders of the hoist base of 5# drain hole with a and the stirrup is nearly broken. Besides, the supporting
width of 2 mm. The west girder and north corbel are beam is deformed to arch upward due to the compression
expanded and cracked with an area of 40 cm 20 cm. The with height up to 6 cm, as shown in Fig. 2.132. The concrete
crevice is 30 cm in length and greater than 3 mm in width, on the north side of the bottom of the third beam is cracked
as shown in Fig. 2.129. ⑥ The concrete of the north girder with a length of 40 cm, and the bottom surface is covered
of the hoist base of 6# drain hole is expanded and cracked, with cracks of varying length. The supporting beam is
with a length of 30 cm and crevice of over 5 mm. The corbel twisted, so the north end of the fourth beam from west to
of girder is usually exposed. Hoist control room is brick wall east is comminuted and damaged, as shown in Fig. 2.133.
and board simple room with cracked walls, missing doors, The concrete at the bottom of the north end of the fifth beam
and severe leakage from walls and roof.
182 B. Xu
Fig. 2.133 Supporting beam of 1# drain hole is arched and deformed
at 1/4 of the north pier of the highway and bridge is cracked,

and the slit width is up to 4 mm.
Fig. 2.131 Piers and spandrels of highways and bridges are cracked 4# drain hole: The highway and bridge is completely
broken at 1/3 of the north end of the 1st arch ring from west
to east, the middle part of the 6th arch ring is broken, and
water leakage is serious at both corners. The bridge deck
slab of the west beam at the north pier of the highway and
bridge is cracked with a maximum slit width of 1 cm.
6# drain hole: The middle part of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th,
and 6th arch rings of the highway and bridge breaks and
leakage appears at both corners. The bridge deck slab of the
west beam at the north pier of the highway and bridge is
cracked, running down to the arch ring with the slit width up
to 5 mm. The west beam of the middle part of the highway
and bridge is cracked down to the arch ring, and the maxi-
mum slit width is 3 mm.
Navigation hole: The first arch beam on the west side of
the highway and bridge is 50 cm away from the middle,
where the concrete falls off completely with the area of
Fig. 2.132 Supporting beam of 1# drain hole is comminuted and 20 cm 40 cm, and steel bars are seriously corroded. As
damaged shown in Fig. 2.134, the protective layer at its symmetrical
position is cracked. The crevice is 60 cm length and 5 mm
in width. Two parts of protective layer on the bottom of the
is completely broken, and the concrete on the bottom of the
third arch beam in the west are cracked along the steel bar,
sixth beam falls off with the area of 20 cm 60 cm.
with the length of 60 cm and width of 1 m. The northern
2# drain hole: The middle part of the 1st, 2nd, and 6th
protective layer of the fourth arch beam falls off in the west
arch rings of the highway and bridge breaks from west to
with an area of about 20 cm 60 cm.
east. There are also cracks on both sides of the arch ring with
Connection hole: All the joints above the south pier of the
the maximum slit width up to 8 mm, causing serious water
1# connection hole of the highway and bridge are cracked
leakage on both sides of the arch ring. The west beam of the
with the width up to 1 cm, which may be caused by uneven
upper deck slab of the north pier of the highway and bridge
settlement. The middle part of the first arch ring of the 2#
is cracked, with a crack width of 2 mm.
connection hole of the highway and bridge is broken, and the
3# drain hole: The middle part of the 1st, 4th, and 6th arch
northern spandrel is broken. The southern spandrel breaks
rings of the highway and bridge breaks through to the bridge
through to the west side beam of the highway and bridge
deck. Both corners of the arch ring are leaking and the slit
with a slit width of 2 mm.
width is up to 5 mm. The bridge deck slab of the west beam
Fig. 2.134 Serious concrete flaking of arch beam of highway and Fig. 2.135 Serious concrete expansion and crack on the bottom of the
bridge of navigation hole footbridge
All of the above arch rings are visible without felt at the
bottom, and other arch rings with felt at the bottom are not
described.
B. Guardrail of highways and bridges
The reinforced concrete guardrail of highways and bridges is

seriously cracked, flaked, and damaged and exposed with
steel bars due to construction defects, aging disease, and
perennial disrepair. 24 bars of the 71 are damaged,
accounting for 33.8% of the total.
8) Footbridge
Due to poor construction quality, high stone content and low

cement content, so concrete is very loose and the aging
disease is very serious at present, as shown in Fig. 2.135. Fig. 2.136 Main reinforcement on the bottom of the footbridge is
1# drain hole: The protective layer of the bottom surface seriously exposed and corroded
of the footbridge is cracked due to the corrosion of steel bars,
and steel bars are exposed and severely corroded. Two 2 mm wide. One expansion crack of the bridge covers an
exposed steel bars are 80 cm and 1.5 m long, as shown in area of 10 cm 40 cm, and an exposed steel bar is 20 cm
Fig. 2.136. long.
2# drain hole: The bottom of the footbridge is damaged in 5# drain hole: One steel bar at the bottom of the foot-
two places, the areas are 50 cm 10 cm and 10 cm 2 m. bridge is exposed with the area of 25 cm 20 cm. The
The bottom concrete has fallen off with about 2.2 m in corner concrete falls off and the length is up to 4 m. The
length. Steel bars are corroded seriously, and stirrups are main reinforcement is exposed, and the expansion crack area
broken for corrosion. at the other place is 20 cm 60 cm. The two cracks of the
3# drain hole: The concrete on both corners of the footbridge are 30 cm and 20 cm long, and the maximum width
bridge bottom mostly expands and cracks with several sec- is 2 mm.
tions of exposed steel bars that are 60 cm, 80 cm and 1 m in 6# drain hole: The concrete at the corner of the footbridge
length. The bottom of the bridge is all cracked with a falls off with the area of 1 m 20 cm. One crack is 80 cm
cracking area of 4 m 8 cm. long and 4 mm wide.
4# drain hole: Both corners of the footbridge are damaged
and the cracks are respectively 1 m and 1.5 m long, and 9) Summary of general survey of appearance
184 B. Xu
(1) There is a small amount of water leakage and peeling of (14) The footbridge is cracked due to the corrosion of steel
mortar on the wing wall, and no obvious defects such bars, and the main reinforcement is exposed, and is
as uneven settlement, inclination, and displacement are seriously damaged.
found.
3. Concrete carbonization depth
(2) The upstream and downstream slope protection block
stones are basically complete, and no obvious erosion
(1) Scope and method
and wear phenomenon is found.
(3) The aging disease of concrete is very serious, and the
1# drain hole and 2# drain hole are selected and the car-
corrosion of steel bars causes the concrete to swell and
bonization depth of concrete and mortar of the main com-
crack and fall off generally.
ponents such as bent, gate crossbeam, breast wall frame,
(4) The fixed bolts of gate slot of the gate pier are corroded
hoist beam, highway, and bridge arch beam, service bridge
seriously and can’t bear external force.
slab beam and wing wall is checked.
(5) The upper gate support of the navigation passage can’t
The material is phenolphthalein reagent, and the equip-
support the upper gate because it is crushed and broken.
ment is percussion drilling and vernier caliper.
(6) The concrete protective layer of the frame crossbeam
Test basis: Technical Test for Measuring Compressive
on the upstream side of the breast wall bursts and falls
Strength of Concrete by Rebound Method (JGJ/T 23-2001)
off, almost all the stirrups are broken, and the main
and Concrete Test Regulations for Water Transport Engi-
reinforcement is exposed and corroded seriously.
neering (JTJ 270-98).
(7) The gate lifting head and steel base are corroded seri-
Key points of methods: In part of the tested area of
ously, and the bolts and nuts are corroded seriously into
strength by rebound method, the surface of the components
a pointed shape. All angle steel of the water stop
to be tested was drilled with percussion drilling, the powder
pressure plate is rusted, and the water sealing rubber is
in the hole is removed, the reagent is sprayed in the hole, and
aged and missing.
the thickness of non-discolored concrete in the surface layer
(8) The concrete of the gate frame is damaged and cracked.
is measured with vernier caliper.
In particular, the concrete at the bottom of the gate falls
off and the steel bars rust seriously.
(2) Test result
(9) Because of the serious corrosion of lower gate of
navigation passage, the zinc layer on the surface of the
Table 2.87 shows the test result of concrete carbonization
steel gate is consumed, and the surface of the gate is
depth of each component.
seriously corroded.
(10) The rolling friction has become sliding friction, the
(3) Result analysis
wear is more than 2 mm, and the gap between some
rollers and guide plates is as large as 3.8 cm. The guide
For hydraulic concrete structures, concrete carbonization
rail plate is deformed due to corrosion and partly
caused by carbon dioxide infiltration in the air is the main
broken.
cause of corrosion of steel bars. When the concrete car-
(11) The gate slot has been seriously damaged and it is
bonization depth reaches the steel bars, the steel bars lose the
difficult to work.
electrochemical protection. Therefore, the carbonization rate
(12) In the hoist beam and base of each hole, there is the
of components is an important index to evaluate the dura-
phenomenon that the protective layer falls off and
bility of existing buildings. The larger the carbonization rate
cracks due to the corrosion and crack of steel bars, and
is, the shorter time required for the carbonization depth to
the stress crack is found in the hoist base beam of 4#
reach the location of steel bars is. Once the steel bars in the
drainage hole, and the crevice width is up to 3 mm.
building are completely corroded, the safety of the building
(13) The fracture at the bottom of the arch ring of the
will be greatly reduced. The investigation of the durability of
highway and bridge is very serious. The concrete of
hydraulic concrete in the former hydropower station in 1985
piers and spandrels of all highways and bridges has
showed that 47.5% of the structures were destroyed by the
been cracked, and the 1# drainage hole support beam
corrosion of steel bars caused by concrete carbonization.
has been arched and twisted, and has been crushed.
Effective engineering measures may be taken to slow down
Table 2.87 Test result of carbonization depth of concrete and 0.85 mm/a. The maximum carbonization of the hoist
masonry mortar beam and footbridge is 25.5 mm and 23.0 mm.
Name of component Carbonization depth (mm) (2) The carbonization depth of concrete in the same part is
Maximum Minimum Average obviously different. The maximum difference between
value value value different components of the same structure is more than
Arch beam 1# drain 18.0 8.0 12.2 2 times, which indicates that the concrete density is
of highway hole different greatly and the quality is not uniform.
and bridge 2# drain 19.0 10.5 13.3
hole 4. Thickness of concrete protective layer
Lower gate beam 1# drain 4.9 1.1 2.2
hole (1) Purpose and method
#
2 drain 2.6 1.5 1.9
hole 1# drain hole and 2# drain hole are selected to test the
Breast wall frame 1# drain 29.0 12.0 19.5 thickness of concrete protective layer of reinforced concrete
hole components such as bent, gate frame, hoist beam, highway
2# drain 29.0 15.0 22.6 and bridge, and footbridge.
hole The main instruments and equipment are: protective layer
Q
Eastern -type 1# drain 22.0 12.0 17.5 thickness tester, percussion drilling, and vernier caliper.
hoist beam hole Key points of method: Some measured points in the steel
2# drain 25.5 12.5 18.1 bars of the main components are selected, and the thickness
hole of the protective layer and the depth distribution of the steel
South bent 1# drain 19.0 14.0 16.4 bar are measured with the protective layer thickness mea-
hole suring instrument. Part of the surface concrete is removed by
2# drain 23.0 13.5 18.1 percussive drilling, and the thickness of reinforcement pro-
hole tective layer is measured separately for checking.
Footbridge 1# drain 23.0 11.5 17.1
hole
2) Test result
2# drain 20.0 13.0 15.7
hole
Table 2.88 shows the measured protective layer thickness of
South pier of 1# drain 3.3 2.0 2.4 each component.
highway and hole
bridge 2# drain 3.6 1.0 1.9
hole
(3) Result analysis
Wing wall of downstream 3.8 1.9 2.9
north bank The thickness of protective layer is one of the main factors
affecting the durability of reinforced concrete components,
and concrete carbonization is one of the factors of steel bar
the carbonization rate, prolong its service life and ensure the corrosion. The thicker the protective layer is, the longer time
safety of engineering. for the carbonization reaching the surface of steel bars is, the
The concrete carbonization depth of hydraulic structures better the durability of the components is. The damage
is mainly related to the density and humidity of concrete. investigation of hydraulic structures shows that the rein-
The looser concrete is, the faster the penetration rate of forced concrete components of some gate dams, hydropower
carbon dioxide in concrete is, and the greater the car- stations and canal structures are corroded in less than
bonization depth in a certain period of time is. As far as the 10 years due to thin concrete protective layer, which leads to
concrete humidity is concerned, it is generally considered serious cracks along the steel bar and affects the service life
that when the concrete humidity is about 60%, the car- of the structure.
bonization speed is the fastest. As can be seen from the result of this sampling inspec-
From the statistical analysis of the test result of car- tion, the protective layer of each concrete component is
bonization depth in Table 2.87: obviously thin and the measured minimum value is only
18 mm. The protective layer thickness of the breast wall
(1) The concrete carbonization in Zhugang Gate is very steel wire mesh panel is less than 15 mm, which is less than
serious. The breast wall frame is the most severely the design thickness. Except that the protective layer thick-
carbonized with the maximum carbonization depth of ness of hoist beam of 2# drain hole meets the requirements of
29.0 mm and the annual carbonization rate of current specifications, the thickness of protective layer of
186 B. Xu
Table 2.88 Test result of thickness of reinforcement protective layer (mm)

Name of component Measured Number of measured Maximum Minimum Average
position points value value value
Hoist beam 1# drain Side 6 38 29 32.8
hole Bottom 6 32 20 27.7
#
2 drain Side 6 44 42 42.7
#
South bent 1 drain Side 6 48 46 47.2
hole
2# drain Side 6 41 39 40.8
hole
Breast wall 1# drain Side 8 34 26 28.3
frame hole Bottom 8 29 18 22.0
#
2 drain Side 8 34 23 29.7
#
Lower gate 1 drain Side 6 26 23 24.8
beam hole Bottom 6 23 19 21.0
#
2 drain Side 6 33 26 30.0
#
Footbridge 1 drain Bottom 6 30 22 27.0
hole
2# drain Bottom 6 34 26 29.5
hole
reinforced concrete structure such as hoist beam, breast wall strength of the presumed structure are evaluated. The tested
frame, lower gate crossbeam and footbridge do not conform objects include gates and crossbeams with serious corrosion.
to the current specifications. In fact, steel bar corrosion, The main instruments and tools are vernier caliper, wire
concrete cracking, and flaking of many reinforced concrete brush, hammer, percussion drilling, hammer, etc.
components are very common and serious. And the mea-
sured value of concrete protective layer thickness is rela- 2) Test method
tively discrete, which indicates that the quality of reinforced
concrete project of Zhugang Gate is relatively poor. The fracture observation method is combined with the
Through the comparative analysis of concrete car- sampling inspection method.
bonization of each component and the measured value of
protective layer thickness, the carbonization depth of rein- (1) Fracture observation method. According to the basic
forced concrete structure such as hoist, breast wall frame, law of the damage state of concrete components and the
and footbridge exceeds the protective layer thickness to cross-sectional loss of steel bars, it can be used as the
reach the steel bar. The passivated film on the surface of judging basis of corrosion rate of steel bars.
internal steel bars has been destroyed due to lack of effective (2) Sampling inspection method. Select the position where
environmental protection, and a large number of general steel bars have been seriously corroded, chisel out the
corrosion, cracking and even flaking of steel bars have surface concrete until the corroded steel bars are
occurred. exposed, remove the surface floating rust of steel bars,
measure the diameter of the corroded steel bars with
5. Cross-sectional area loss rate of steel bar corrosion vernier caliper, and calculate the cross-sectional loss
rate of steel bars with reference to the design value.
1) Purpose of test 3) Test result
The cross-sectional area loss rate of steel bar corrosion is Table 2.89 is the result of cross-sectional loss rate of steel
measured, the aging degree of the building and the actual bars after corrosion.
Table 2.89 Sampling inspection result of steel bar corrosion rate

Position Type of steel Original Residual diameter (mm) Maximum Average
bars diameter Measured value Average cross-sectional cross-sectional
(mm) value loss rate (%) loss rate (%)
1# drain Bottom Main 20 16.2 16.3 17.1 17.3 16.6 16.5 16.7 34.39 30.56
hole, beam reinforcement
breast Stirrup 6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 100
wall
Crossbeam Main 20 15.8 16.2 17.3 17.5 16.3 16.8 16.7 37.59 30.69
reinforcement
Stirrup 6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 100
2# drain Bottom Main 20 16.5 17.0 15.7 16.3 16.1 15.3 16.2 41.48 34.79
hole, beam reinforcement
breast Stirrup 6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 100
wall
Crossbeam Main 20 16.7 17.0 16.7 17.1 16.8 16.1 16.7 35.20 30.00
reinforcement
Stirrup 6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 100
1# drain hole, lower Main 14 12.1 11.1 13.2 13.2 13.7 13.1 12.7 37.14 17.28
gate, crossbeam reinforcement
1# drain hole, support Main 22 21.2 21.0 20.3 20.9 21.2 20.9 20.9 14.86 9.61
beam of highways and reinforcement
bridges Stirrup 8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 100
#
South 1 drain Stirrup 8 3.6 4.0 4.1 5.2 4.1 4.0 4.2 79.75 72.87
gate slot hole
2# drain Stirrup 8 6.7 6.9 7.1 6.2 5.8 7.0 6.6 47.44 31.59
hole breast
wall
4) Result analysis the code. The tensile strength and yield strength of steel bars
can still be considered the same as that of the base metal.
According to the anchorage theory of reinforced concrete, The reduction of section should be taken into account in the
the anchorage force between steel bars and concrete mainly calculation of bearing capacity. For steel bars with 5%–10%
comes from the binding of the two and the interlocking of loss in cross-sectional area, the yield strength, tensile
the transverse rib of deformed steel bars to the concrete. For strength, and elongation begin to decrease due to the
smooth steel bars, it mainly comes from the binding between nonuniformity of corrosion. For the seriously corroded steel
steel bars and concrete. After the steel bars are corroded, the bars whose cross-sectional area loss is more than 10% but
bonding force between concrete and steel bars will be sig- less than 60%, the yield point is not obvious, the elongation
nificantly reduced or even lost. If the corrosion seriously is also less than the minimum allowable value specified in
reduces the cross-sectional area and the mechanical proper- the code, and the mechanical properties of the steel bars are
ties of steel bars, the safety of the structure will be seriously reduced. Steel bars with a corrosion loss of up to
endangered. 60% have reduced the carrying capacity of components to be
Some research data show that the steel bars with only similar to those without reinforcement. Therefore, if the
floating rust on the surface have little influence on the cross-sectional loss rate of steel bars is more than 10%, it is
structural performance. For uniformly corroded steel bars advisable to replace steel bars or reinforce them as a whole,
whose section loss is less than 5%, the stress and strain as well as conduct durability treatment.
curves of hot rolled steel bars still have obvious yield point. The result of sampling inspection of the gate components
When the cross-sectional area loss of steel bars is 1.2%, shows that the steel bars in the reinforced concrete structure
2.4%, and 5%, respectively, the bearing capacity of the plate have been corroded to different degrees, among which the
decreases by 8%, 17% and 25%/ When the corrosion loss of steel bars of the breast wall beam are most seriously cor-
steel bars is 1.2% and 2.4%, the absorption capacity under roded with the maximum cross-sectional loss up to 41.48%.
maximum load is 34% and 46% respectively. The elongation All the stirrups are corroded and broken and the maximum
of steel bars is basically larger than the minimum allowed by cross-sectional loss rate is up to 100%. Therefore, there is a
188 B. Xu
Table 2.90 Corrosion grade of corrosive water on building materials

Type of medium Components of medium Index Reinforced concrete Plain concrete Brick masonry
S1 Hydrogen ion index 1–3 Strong Strong Strong
S2 PH value 3–4.5 Medium Medium Medium
S3 4.5–6 Weak Weak Weak
S4 Aggressive CO2/(mg/L) >40 Weak Weak Weak
−
S5 SO24 content/(mg/L) >4000 Strong Strong Strong
S6 1000–4000 Medium Medium Medium
S7 250–1000 Weak Weak Weak
S8 Cl− content/(mg/L) 5000–10,000 Medium Weak Weak
S9 500–5000 Weak No No
S10 <500 No No No
S11 Mg2+ content/(mg/L) >4000 Strong Strong Strong
S12 3000–4000 Medium Medium Medium
S13 1500–3000 Weak Weak Weak
S14 NH4+ content/(mg/L) >1000 Strong Medium Medium
S15 800–1000 Medium Weak Weak
S16 500–800 Weak No No
S17 Na+ and K+ content/(mg/L) 50,000–100,000 Weak Weak Medium
S18 <50,000 No No Weak
serious safety hazard for each component which can’t bear

Table 2.91 Water sample analysis result of Zhugang Gate
high water level and other conditions. Therefore, it is nec-
essary to repair, reinforce or dismantle and rebuild the Positive Content Negative Content Other
ion (mg/L) ion (mg/L) items
components with serious corrosion of reinforced concrete
structure. Na+ 1480 Cl− 1954 pH 7.83
K +
48.7 SO42− 332 value
5) Water quality analysis Ca2+ 69.5 NO3− 5.9

Mg2+ 111 HCO3− 354
Since the dam was silted to death in 1994, the downstream NH4+ 1.06
of Zhugang Gate has affected the flood discharge of the
benefit area, and the water quality along the river is deteri-
orated due to the immobility of the water body, which various ions in the water sample is much higher than that of
seriously affects the industrial and agricultural production the common river water, especially the content of Cl− and
and economic construction of the water area. SO42−, which has obvious corrosion effect on the steel
The degree of water corrosion of sluice buildings is not structure.
only related to internal factors such as their own materials On August 19, 2007, water sample was taken from
and construction quality, but also related to environmental downstream of the gate for water quality analysis. The result
factors such as water composition, concentration, and tem- is shown in Table 2.91.
perature. In order to judge the corrosion degree of sluice
building concrete caused by harmful substance in the water
body, the Code for Design of Anti-corrosion of Industrial 2.3.5 Standards and Specifications
Buildings (GB 50046-95) specifies the corrosive grade of for Corrosion Protection of Main Water
corrosive water on building materials in Table 2.90. From Conservancy Facilities
this, we can determine the grade of corrosion that may occur.
By comparing the water sample detection result with the In recent years, China has compiled hundreds of standards
indexes in Table 2.91, the water quality of Zhugang Gate is and specifications concerning the water industry, and 14
not corrosive to the reinforced concrete and plain concrete mainly focus on corrosion:
structures of sluice buildings. However, the content of
(1) Code for Anti-corrosion of Hydraulic Metal Struc- (2) As a whole, more and more attention has been paid to
tures (SL 105-2007); the corrosion and protection of water conservancy
(2) Evaluation Criteria for Metrological Certification of projects, and the quality of corrosion protection projects
Water Quality Inspection Institutions (SL 309-2007); has been improved. However, there are still some
(3) Technical Specifications for Electrochemical Anti- problems. First of all, China’s anti-corrosion profes-
corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structure of Harbor sionals are still generally insufficient, the number of
Engineering Wharf (JTS 310-2013); personnel specialized in corrosion and protection in the
(4) Technical Specifications for Anti-corrosion of Metal water conservancy survey and design institute is very
Structure Equipment for Hydropower and Water small and most of them are part-time. Management and
Conservancy Projects (DL/T 5358-2006); use units mostly don’t set up professional anti-corrosion
(5) Technical Specifications for Port Works (Port Rein- technical posts. Developed countries in Europe and
forced Concrete Structure Anticorrosion) (JTJ America generally regard anti-corrosion design and
228-87); management as an independent part, and integrate it
(6) Technical Specifications for Anticorrosion Engineer- into the management system in the whole process,
ing of Polymer Cement Sand Propeller (CECSl 8: which we should learn from.
2000); (3) At present, the corrosion condition of water conser-
(7) Technical Specifications for Anti-abrasion and Anti- vancy and hydropower projects is more serious than
erosion of Hydraulic Concrete (DL/T 5207-05); before, mainly because the water pollution is aggra-
(8) Test Rules for Tensile Strength of Metal Structure vated. The water quality pollution causes the pH value
Coatings on Hydropower Projects (NB/T of water body to change greatly with the harmful ions
35081-2016); increasing and the resistivity decreasing, accelerating
(9) Code for Design of Steel Gates for Water Conser- the corrosion of metal structure. The corrosion rate of
vancy and Hydropower Projects (DL/T 5039-95); steel in heavily polluted waters is several times or even
(10) Hot Rolled Stainless Steel Plate (GB/T 4237-92); dozens of times that in pollution-free areas. Secondly,
(11) Corrosion Grade and Derusting Grade of Steel Sur- in order to ensure the corrosion resistance of embedded
face before Coating (GB 8923-88); parts, some stainless steel components, such as gate
(12) General Technical Specifications for Coating (SDZ guide plate, bottom sill, water stop plate, and stainless
014-85); steel bolts are often used. The galvanic corrosion cell is
(13) Code for Design of Steel Gates for Water Conser- formed by stainless steel and spraying zinc (aluminum)
vancy and Hydropower Projects (DL/T 5039-95); layer of the same structure. Stainless steel component is
(14) Code for Design of Hoists of Hydropower and Water protected but steel gate or zinc (aluminum) spraying
Conservancy Projects (DL/T 5167-2002). layer is corroded fast so that early failure of coating
often occurs.
(4) The industry generally doesn’t pay enough attention to
corrosion. The contractors and construction units of the
2.3.6 Summary and Suggestions on Corrosion project are more satisfied with completing the tasks put
Status and Control in Water Conservancy forward in the bidding documents, and lack strict con-
Industry trol and acceptance of the anti-corrosion quality.
Administrative sectors are more prone to passive cor-
The following conclusions and suggestions are drawn rosion control. In order to save investment in the early
through the distribution of questionnaires, field visits, stage, the investment in corrosion protection is reduced.
interviews, surveys, and key surveys: In case of serious corrosion, they will carry out pro-
tection treatment instead of proactive preventive and
(1) The corrosion of water conservancy industry exists effective measures.
objectively and is very serious in some areas. The main (5) The anti-corrosion quality of water conservancy pro-
form of corrosion is local corrosion. In terms of cor- jects needs to be improved, including the level and
rosion degree, coastal areas are obviously higher than requirements of managers, the quality of anti-corrosion
inland areas, watersheds with serious water quality materials, the quality of constructors and the procedures
pollution are higher than watersheds with better water and standards for acceptance, etc.
quality, and areas and units with high attention level are (6) The anti-corrosion technical standard plays an impor-
better than those areas and units with insufficient tant role in popularizing the new anti-corrosion tech-
attention. nology, promoting the development and popularization
of the new technology and improving and controlling
190 B. Xu
the anti-corrosion quality. It is necessary to strengthen Sun HY, Fu YF, Lu CR (2011) Qiao liang jie gou biao mian
the formulation and implementation of anti-corrosion fang hu nai jiu xing cai liao de yan jiu (research on durability
material for surface protection of bridge structures). Research
standards. report on the science and technology project of the western
(7) Advanced anti-corrosion technologies are spread slowly transportation construction of the ministry of transport, Beijing
and obsolete technologies are used. Most projects are 2. 黄嘉伟 (2013) 不锈钢钢筋在桥梁中的应用. 建筑界, 89–91.
also satisfied with painting and don’t take any Huang JW (2013) Bu xiu gang gang jin zai qiao liang zhong de
ying yong (The application of stainless steel rebar on bridge). The
anti-corrosion measures for concrete structures. We construction filed, 89–91
should vigorously promote cathodic protection and 3. 张劲泉 (2013) 桥梁耐久性关键技术研究. 交通运输部西部交
other advanced anti-corrosion technologies to improve 通建设科技项目研究报告, 北京. Zhang JQ (2013) Qiao liang nai
the overall technical level of the industry. jiu xing guan jian ji shu yan jiu (research on key technology of
bridge durability). Research report on the science and technology
(8) The corrosion of concrete structure should be paid more project of the western transportation construction of the ministry of
attention to. Reinforced concrete structure is the most transport, Beijing
widely used structure in water conservancy at present. 4. 叶文亚, 李国平 (2006) 范立础. 桥梁全寿命成本初步分析, 公路
According to the investigation results, the early failure 6:101–104. Ye YW, Li GP, Fan LC (2006) Qiao liang quan shou
ming cheng ben chub u fen xi (Preliminary analysis of bridge
of reinforced concrete structures caused by corrosion of lifetime cost). The Road 6:101–104
steel bars caused by chloride and carbonization is very 5. Gjrov OE (2009) Durability Design of Concrete Structures
serious, and the maintenance and replacement are dif- Insevere Environments. New York: Taylor & Francis
ficult. The direct and indirect losses caused by this are 6. 任必年 (2002) 公路钢桥腐蚀与防护. 北京: 人民交通出版社.
Ren BN (2002) Gong lu gang qiao fu shi yu fang hu (Corrosion
very large. At present, the corrosion of steel bars in and protection of steel highway bridge). People’s Transport Press,
reinforced concrete is not paid enough attention, and the Beijing
protection technologies haven’t been widely popular- 7. 李运德, 黄玖梅, 张军 (2008) 混凝土桥梁结构表面涂层防腐技
ized and applied. 术(二). 电镀与涂饰, 27(8):37–40. Li YD, Huang JM, Zhang J
(2008) Hun ning tu qiao liang jie gou biao mian tu ceng fang fu ji
(9) More effective and long-life anti-corrosion measures shu Er (Concrete bridge structure surface coating anticorrosion
shall be taken for embedded parts and components that technology II). Electroplat Finish 27(8):37–40
can’t be replaced and repaired so as to meet the 8. 中国腐蚀与防护学会, 金属腐蚀手册编辑委员会 (1987) 金属
requirements of synchronous protection and service life 腐蚀手册. 上海: 上海科学技术出版社. Chinese Society of
Corrosion and Protection, Editorial Board of Metal Corrosion
of the whole structure. Manuals (1987) Jin shu fu shi shou ce (Handbook of metal
corrosion). Shanghai Science and Technology Press, Shanghai
9. 王强 (2012) 电化学保护简明手册. 北京: 化学工业出版社.
Wang Q (2012) Dian hua xue bao hu jian ming shou ce (Brief
handbook on electrochemical protection). Chemical Industry
References Press, Beijing
10. 胡士信 (1999) 阴极保护工程手册. 北京: 化学工业出版社.
1. 孙红尧, 傅宇方, 陆采荣 (2011) 桥梁结构表面防护耐久性材料 Hu SX (1999) Yin ji bao hu gong cheng shou ce (Handbook of
的研究. 交通运输部西部交通建设科技项目研究报告, 北京. cathodic protection engineering). Chemical Industry Press, Beijing
Strategies in Transportation Field in China 3
Huibin Xu
According to the division of labor in the overall project, the corrosion investigation in the United States in 1949) made a
subject in the transportation field belongs to one of the five report on corrosion and its hazards at the General Assembly of
subprojects of “A Study on Corrosion Status and Control the United Nations, which enabled the material corrosion to
Strategies in China,” with a focus on the investigation of the spread around the world as a discipline, and accelerated many
corrosion status and the research on control strategies of air- countries on the study of corrosion and prevention. Second,
craft, ships, automobiles, train tracks, and other industries in the the British Comet civil aircraft and the United States F111
transportation field. With various means such as literature fighter plane had an aircraft crash because of stress corrosion,
research, distribution of questionnaires, consultation with which caused a sensation internationally. The fact that the
industry experts and relevant scientific researchers, and devel- corrosion resulted in the aircraft crash had shocked the world!
opment of seminars, this study collects and collates corrosion Compared with foreign countries, there is still a certain gap
data of various industries, involves the main types of corrosion in the development of corrosion prevention in the aircraft
in different industries, presents the corrosion cost in the trans- industry in China. Cladding, coating, and other surface pro-
portation field, reveals the existing problems in the corrosion tection techniques have been widely and greatly used in the
control and the main factors restricting the corrosion control foreign aircraft industry in order to improve performance,
technologies and industrial development therein, and puts for- raise reliability, and prolong service life [1]. Various kinds of
ward scientific and feasible solutions. At the same time, this high performance coatings with aircraft structural materials
study involves the influence of corrosion on public safety in the and environmental protection technologies have become the
transportation field, and trace the typical corrosion cases. focus of research and the hotspot of application, such as using
More than 5,000 questionnaires are issued in the trans- new environmental anodization process to replace sulfuric
portation field, with more than 600 collected. The following acid anodization of aluminum alloys and chromic acid
is an introduction to corrosion investigations in four specific anodization, using plasma electrolytic deposition to prepare
industries. hard coatings, improving corrosion resistance and wear
resistance of steel/aluminum/titanium/magnesium alloys, and
electroplated alkaline Zn–Ni alloy/electroplated aluminum
3.1 Investigation Report on Corrosion alloy, and other environmental plating technologies. With the
in the Aircraft Industry improvement of aircraft performance, new materials such as
intermetallic compounds, nonmetals, and resin-based/
3.1.1 Development History and Current ceramic-based composites have been widely used, and new
Situation of the Aircraft Industry protective coatings and functional protective coatings for new
materials have become the hotspot of research, including
In the 1950s, there were two great events in terms of the resin-based/ceramic-based composite surface functional
materials. First, Professor Herbert H. Uhlig of the Mas- coating technology, high corrosion-resistant chromium elec-
sachusetts Institute of Technology (Professor H. H. Uhlig had troplating and low-temperature ionic liquid chromium alter-
been working in the field of corrosion science since 1936, native and aluminum alloy electroplating technology,
edited the Corrosion Manual in 1948, and conducted a electrolyte plasma cleaning and deposition technology, and
other advanced repair/maintenance technologies such as
H. Xu (&) cleaning and corrosion inhibition. In pursuit of high perfor-
Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing,
China mance, higher requirements for environmental protection and
e-mail: [email protected] maintainability have been put forward, and a series of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9354-0_3
192 H. Xu
technologies have been developed, including corrosion- pollutants; ④ Economy: Lower manufacturing cost saves
resistant chromium alternative protection technology around energy and consumption; ⑤ Maintenance/maintainability:
Al coating, chromium alternative coating technology for The protection for the control over the whole life cycle of
improving wear resistance, chemical oxidation and anodiza- parts are strengthened.
tion without Cr6+ and other environmentally friendly tech- China successfully imitated the training aircraft, HAIG
nology systems as well as technical systems such as cold spray CJ-5, in 1954, and the first jet aircraft made in China flew to
size recovery technology for maintenance. the blue sky in 1956. Many kinds and models of aircraft
After years of development, China has made great were developed in China to meet the needs of the contem-
achievements in aircraft corrosion and protection technology, porary war, and China made ten thousands of aircraft with
but there is still a large gap between China and foreign the corresponding engines and airborne equipment in the
advanced levels in new products, new process technologies, 1990s. These objects are inevitably subject to the erosion of
product capacity, and other aspects. For example, there is an the surrounding environment (temperature, humidity, pol-
urgent need for surface wear resistance protection of rubber and luted air, etc.) in the region and the encroachment of their
resin matrix composites and others. With the development of own operating environment, thus leading to the deterioration
carrier-borne aircraft and the strategic positioning of China as a and destruction of the materials from which they are made,
marine power, the demand for advanced green surface treat- including the corrosion of metals, the aging of nonmetals
ment technology with high performance is becoming more and and the failure of electronic and electrical appliances. After
more urgent. Some domestic single-item technologies are more the deterioration and destruction to a certain extent, these
advanced but lack the whole protection technology system materials will induce accidents under the synergistic reaction
covering the whole life cycle. At the same time, the present of high altitude, high speed, high stress, and other factors,
surface treatment technologies are still harmful to the envi- resulting in air crashes and deaths in serious cases.
ronment and human body and do not follow the development In accordance with the task requirement of A Study on
trend of green environment protection in the future. At present, Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China by the
the corrosion resistance and protection technology of weapon Chinese Academy of Engineering, we carried out the
equipment in China mainly depends on cadmium plating, investigation and study of aircraft corrosion fault in China,
anodizing, etc. The wear-resistant technologies mainly include in order to understand the severity of aircraft corrosion and
chromium plating and some HVOF coatings, and the chemical its impact on China’s national defense and sustainable
oxidation basically contains Cr6+. In recent years, although development, and explored strategic countermeasures.
some new technologies have been developed, the technology It was planned to conduct the investigation and research
maturity is still low and has not reached the stage of engi- on three periods. The first period is the founding period of
neering application. the aircraft industry, with the “introduction and imitation” of
Aircraft corrosion resistance technology is of great sig- Soviet-style aircraft as the main content, collecting various
nificance in national economic construction. The corrosion faults from 1961 to 1987. The second period is the devel-
and protection technology used can effectively control the opment period of “independent design supplemented by
failure of the materials, prolong their service life, reduce the western experience,” collecting the faults from 1987 to the
accidents caused by the early failure of the materials, end of the twentieth century. The third period is the inno-
improve the reliability, safety, economy, and durability of vation period of “independent research, innovation and
the materials, and effectively save resources for energy development,” collecting the faults of various materials in
conservation and emission reduction, developing low-carbon the twenty-first century [2].
economy and supporting the sustainable development of Aircraft operating in the terrestrial, marine, cold, desert,
China. and other environmental conditions are subject to corrosion
The development trend of aircraft corrosion resistance threats, particularly coastal airport aircraft, which are dif-
technologies are as follows: ferent from inland aircraft and are often subject to erosion by
① Function: Progressiveness and function are greatly salt, splashing sea water, spray, and persistent dry/wet
improved; the requirements of special functions are met environments [3]. Figure 3.1 shows the appearance change
(Professor H. H. Uhlig had been working in the field of caused by aircraft corrosion. If the aircraft is in the harsh
corrosion science since 1936, edited the Corrosion Manual marine atmospheric environment such as high humidity and
in 1948, and conducted a corrosion investigation in the high salt fog for a long time and is affected by many envi-
United States in 1949.); ② Systematicness: Surface engi- ronmental factors such as strong wind, sea fog, tide and sea
neering technology develops into a system and covers the water splash, the aircraft airframe, engine, and airborne
whole life cycle of the product; ③ Environmental protec- equipment are easily corroded. As a result, the flight safety
tion: It is environmentally friendly and does not produce of the aircraft is directly affected, and the service life of the
Fig. 3.1 Appearance change caused by aircraft corrosion
aircraft is significantly reduced. At the same time, a great materials focuses on 2B06 with good corrosion resistance of
burden and expensive maintenance cost are brought to the aluminum alloy and high purity 7B04, which is over-aging.
maintenance work of the aircraft. With the research on A large number of corrosion-resistant titanium alloys and
systematic engineering corrosion prevention and control composite materials have been adopted. The landing gear is
technology, aircraft design, manufacture, and use can be mainly made of 300M steel. High-alloy steel and stainless
standardized and guided, the corrosion resistance design and steel with better corrosion resistance are used in other parts.
the life-span management level can be improved, the cor- For example, AF1410 steel is used for the large shaft with a
rosion prevention and control level of the aircraft in the flat tail. The fuselage-wing joint is made of 0Cr15Ni4Mo3N
stages of scheme demonstration, structural design, produc- stainless steel, and only the cabin skeleton and other non-
tion, manufacture, use, and maintenance in China can be critical bearing parts are made of materials such as ZM5
raised to reduce the accidents caused by the corrosion of the magnesium alloy with poor corrosion resistance but good
aircraft. weight reduction effect (Table 3.2) [4].
3.1.2 Type and Structure of Aircraft and Main 3.1.3 Main Corrosion in the Aircraft Industry
Materials Used
In terms of aircraft design and manufacture, parts of different
In accordance with the requirement of corrosion and pro- metals come into contact, resulting in potential difference
tection, the structural design of the aircraft mainly includes and conduction path between different metals. When each
ventilation and drainage, structural seal, accessibility, inter- part is assembled together, water and dirt in the crevice will
nal structure, oil tank, external structure, connection pro- form electrolyte, causing electrochemical corrosion; some
tection, and others. Taking a certain aircraft as an example, structures are in a high stress state because of the need of
aiming at the corrosion problems occurred in the service stress, which is the source of stress corrosion. In the process
process of the previous generation aircraft, the improvement of aircraft manufacture, the improper production process,
is mainly made in the aspects of ventilation and drainage, poor protective coating, lack of corrosion control measures,
structural sealing, accessibility, and connection protection, and other reasons may bring corrosion potential. In the
such as installing drainage devices in key parts, the front process of the aircraft application, the bad flying environ-
fuselage structure surface provided with the waterproof seal, ment, the damage of the coating on the surface of the air-
maintenance flap provided, and the fasteners wet assembled craft, and the transportation of the cargo which is easy to
when some key parts are connected (Table 3.1). produce strong electrolyte may lead to the corrosion of the
In accordance with the requirement of corrosion and airframe structure. Improper maintenance and service of the
protection, protection technologies such as plating layer and aircraft will also expose the aircraft to more corrosion
coating are mainly considered in the selection of structural problems. The corrosion of aircraft can be divided into three
materials for aircraft. Taking a certain type of aircraft as an categories by causes: electrochemical corrosion, surface
example, in view of the corrosion problems of the previous corrosion, and stress corrosion. Electrochemical corrosion is
generation aircraft in service, the selection of structural one of the most common and serious structural corrosions of
194 H. Xu
Table 3.1 Structural technology comparison between second-generation aircraft and third-generation aircraft
Technology category Second generation aircraft Third generation aircraft
Structural Ventilation No Installing drainage devices in key parts
design and drainage
Structural No The front fuselage structure surface provided
sealing with the waterproof seal
Accessibility Fewer maintenance flaps provided Maintenance flaps provided
Internal Non-coating protection for parts processed with internal Coating protection is required except for
structure aluminum cladding and rust-proof aluminum titanium alloy
Tank Non-coating protection inside the tank Primer on tank interior
External External structure surface coated with enamel External structure surface coated with enamel
structure
Connection No Wet assembly of fasteners only when parts of
protection key components are connected
Table 3.2 Comparison of structure material selection and protection technology between second-generation aircraft and third-generation aircraft
Technology category Second generation aircraft Third generation aircraft
Material – ① The main structural material is LC4 aluminum alloy ① The aluminum alloy is mainly made of 2B06 with good
selection with poor corrosion resistance corrosion resistance and high purity 7B04, which is
② The landing gear is mainly made of steel 300M, and over-aging
other parts are made of large quantities of 30CrMnSiNi2A ② A large quantity of corrosion-resistant titanium alloys
and other low alloy steel and composites have begun to be used
③ Magnesium alloy is widely used for hatch cover ③ The landing gear is mainly made of 300M steel, and
framework, pipe system support, etc. other parts are made of high-alloy steel and stainless steel
with better corrosion resistance, such as AF1410 steel with
a flat tail and large axis, and 0Cr15Ni4Mo3N stainless
steel is used at the interface of fuselage wings
④ Only the cabin skeleton adopts ZM5 magnesium alloy
Protection Plating ① Aluminum alloy sulfuric acid anodization, hard ① Aluminum alloy sulfuric acid anodization, hard sulfuric
technology layer sulfuric acid anodization, etc. acid anodization, etc.
② Cadmium plating, cadmium–titanium plating and ② Cadmium plating, cadmium-titanium plating, and
chromium plating on structural steel chromium plating on structural steel
③ Titanium alloy anodization, etc.
Coating ① Aluminum alloy surface coated with No. 1 epoxy ① The surface of the aluminum alloy is coated with
aviation primer TB06-9 polyurethane primer
② Structural steel surface coating H06-2 iron red primer ② Structural steel surface coated with H06-076 primer
③ Composite surface coated with H06-1012H primer
aircraft at present. If the structural corrosion of aircraft differential concentration corrosion. When water enters the
cannot be effectively prevented and controlled, the workload crevice, a potential difference is formed between the crevice
of structural repair will be increased, the repair cycle will be opening and the water content between the crevice and the
prolonged, and structural parts will be strengthened and bottom of the crevice. At the crevice with high oxygen
replaced in a large area, resulting in great direct and indirect content, the metal becomes the anode and is corroded.
economic losses as well as a potential safety hazard for the Microbial corrosion: The corrosion of components by
aircraft itself. exudates produced by mold reproduction is called microbial
Crevice corrosion: In similar metal joints, if water enters, corrosion. The main factors affecting microbial reproduction
the oxygen content in the crevice opening is different from in tanks are mold spores, fuel oil, water, and humidity.
the oxygen content in the crevice, forming a potential dif- Molds that reproduce on the interface between fuel and
ference, and the metal at the crevice with high oxygen water, are long filamentous, interwoven to form a net or ball,
content is corroded, which usually appears at the gate looking sticky, brown or black. This mold exudate can
threshold and cargo door sill. Crevice corrosion is also called destroy or penetrate the protective layer and sealant of the
Skin corrosion frequency

Regular check cycle
Fig. 3.2 Frequency variation over time of Class 1 corrosion of the skin of the B737-NG series aircraft
aluminum alloy structure of tanks, thereby corroding the materials must be used, chromate or epoxy resin may be
aluminum alloy structure. coated for corrosion prevention.
Friction corrosion: Wear between two connected struc- With the application of advanced composite materials in
tures results from relative motion caused by vibration. New aircraft, such as graphite fiber and aluminum, the potential
wear surfaces are exposed. Particles produced by friction, in difference between the two is very large, and there is a risk
turn, accelerate wear and corrosion. It is common in places of heteropotential corrosion at the interface. Corresponding
where high-frequent vibrations are experienced, such as on measures should be taken for protection.
the connecting shaft of the axle of the landing gear and the Recently, we have investigated the corrosion of CAAC
active surface of the control system. Boeing Fleet, which covers more than 70 Boeing aircraft
Stress corrosion: It is a result of a material acting simulta- across the country, such as Xiamen Air, Air China, China
neously with mechanical tensile stress in a chemical attack Eastern Airlines, and China Southern Airlines, with great
environment. In general, corrosion occurs in the form of depth and breadth in China civil aviation. Nonroutine work
material erosion, while stress corrosion occurs in the form of items for each aircraft were collected to further screen out all
crack, and there is hardly any corrosion deposit on the surface, corrosion damage items, including mild corrosion, Class 1
so it is easy to be ignored and become a potential risk factor. corrosion, and Class 2 corrosion (Figs. 3.2 and 3.3). A de-
The four basic conditions for stress corrosion are susceptible tailed working record of major corrosion damage repairs for
alloy, corrosive environment, applied or residual tensile stress, major structural components, corrosion damage scraps of
and time. Generally, it occurs in aircraft structures that are Boeing aircraft, and Airbus aircraft were collected.
subject to large loads, such as floor keel beam, stringers, wing Table 3.3 shows the data on the environmental impact of
front and rear spars, and lower stringers. aircraft skin in an area.
Heteropotential corrosion: The phenomenon of The 737 skin Class 1 corrosion frequency and oxynitride
heteropotential corrosion is the reverse process of electro- frequency do not exhibit a certain relationship (Fig. 3.4).
plating. When two or more different metal materials are However, it is worth noting that when the current year’s
lapped into an electrically conductive state, there will be an oxynitride frequency is high, the next year’s skin corrosion
electric current between the materials due to the different frequency will be higher.
potentials, and the work of a wet environment is similar to Theoretically, oxysulfides have some effect on the cor-
that of an electrolyte, making one of these materials have pit rosion of metals. As can be seen from Fig. 3.5, the oxy-
or hole corrosion and deposits of sulfides, chlorides, and sulfide frequency is proportional to the skin Class 1
oxides. In order to prevent heteropotential corrosion, all corrosion frequency, i.e., as the oxysulfide frequency
structural components overlapped with each other shall be increases, the skin Class 1 corrosion frequency also
made of materials of similar potential. If different types of increases.
196 H. Xu
1 Skin Class 1 corrosion frequency

Aircraft age
Fig. 3.3 Statistical distribution of 737-345 skin Class 1 corrosion frequency by aircraft age
Table 3.3 Statistics of air pollutant content in past years

Quality Quality grade Oxysulfide Oxynitride Inhalable particles
grade (excellent 5
Year points, good 4
points, mild
pollution 3
points,
moderate
pollution 2
points, and
severe
pollution 1
point)
Mode Mean Mean Frequency (number of days Mean Frequency (number of days Mean Frequency (number of days
appearing as primary appearing as primary appearing as primary
pollutant/total number of pollutant/total number of pollutant/total number of
days) days) days)
1999 0.00
2000 0.00
2001 3.50 3.39 0.21 0.47 0.00 0.18 0.75
2002 3.67 3.48 0.15 0.31 0.00 0.19 0.83
2003 3.67 3.59 0.16 0.29 0.00 0.18 0.68
2004 3.58 3.60 0.16 0.38 0.12 0.07 0.17 0.74
2005 3.75 3.71 0.13 0.52 0.06 0.07 0.12 0.70
2006 3.83 3.77 0.14 0.74 0.04 0.05 0.12 0.71
2007 3.92 3.83 0.12 0.45 0.00 0.13 0.70
2008 4.00 3.92 0.09 0.32 0.37 0.09 0.12 0.74
2009 3.92 3.81 0.09 0.46 0.04 0.10 0.13 0.81
As can be seen from Fig. 3.6, before 2004, the mean of inhalable particles was lower while the skin Class 1
value of inhalable particles was higher while the skin Class 1 corrosion frequency was quite high. A brief analysis of the
corrosion frequency was lower. After 2004, the mean value corrosion distribution shows that the corrosion focuses on
Oxynitride frequency
Year
Fig. 3.4 737 Comparison and analysis of skin Class 1 corrosion frequency and oxynitride frequency
Year
Fig. 3.5 Comparative analysis of 737 skin Class 1 corrosion frequency and oxynitride frequency
Mean value of inhalable particles

Mean value of inhalable particles
Year
Fig. 3.6 Comparative analysis of 737 skin Class 1 corrosion frequency and mean value of inhalable particles
198 H. Xu
A. A. Cabin area
B. B. Cabin door area
C. C. Kitchen, toilet structure
D. D. Front cargo compartment area
E. E. Front cargo compartment door area
F. F. Rear cargo compartment area
G. G. Rear cargo compartment door area
H. H. Keel beam/wheel well area
I. I. Skin
J. J. Other parts
Fig. 3.7 Corrosion record of different parts of aircraft
Fig. 3.8 Corrosion of aircraft wallboard
the lower hemisphere of the fuselage, and the number of compartment area, front cargo compartment door area, rear
corrosion occurrences in the keel beam/wheel well area is cargo compartment area, rear cargo compartment door area,
not prominent. Corrosion areas mainly include cabin area, keel beam/wheel well area, skin, and other parts (Figs. 3.7,
cabin door area, kitchen, toilet structure, front cargo 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11 and 3.12).
Fig. 3.9 Corrosion of aircraft floor beam
Fig. 3.10 Corrosion of aircraft door frame
Fig. 3.11 Corrosion of aircraft seat slide track

200 H. Xu
Fig. 3.12 Corrosion of floor splicing strips
Table 3.4 Analysis of materials with faults

Materials Steel Aluminum Magnesium Copper Superalloy
alloy alloy alloy
Ultra-high High-strength Carburized Spring Stainless Cadmium-plated
strength steel steel nitrogen steel steel steel steel
Faults 3 8 6 2 7 2 9 1 5 3
28
% 60.9 19.6 2.2 11 6.5
Table 3.5 Analysis of corrosion types

Corrosion General Local Corrosion Stress Cadmium Hydrogen Warm oxidation Selective Atmosphere
type corrosion corrosion fatigue corrosion embrittlement embrittlement and hot corrosion corrosion corrosion
Faults 6 8 1 10 5 7 5 2 2
23
% 13 18 50 10.8 4 4
Most of the key components of various aircraft have and corrosion. Among 46 corrosion accidents on
experienced corrosion faults, and major corrosion accidents high-strength materials, 28 accidents are caused by
are mostly caused by engine components. All kinds of cor- high-strength steel, accounting for 60.9% (Table 3.4).
rosion types have appeared, especially the corrosion types According to the analysis of corrosion types, the major
(stress corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, cadmium corrosion faults mostly occur in the corrosion types with the
embrittlement, and corrosion fatigue) caused by the syner- synergistic action of force and corrosion, such as stress
gistic action of corrosion and stress are the most harmful. corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, cadmium embrittlement,
Over corrosion occurs in all kinds of materials, especially the and corrosion fatigue. Among 46 corrosion accidents, there
faults caused by the synergistic action of corrosion and stress are 23 accidents caused by corrosion of these types,
of high-strength materials are the most harmful. The corro- accounting for 50% (Table 3.5).
sion faults caused serious accidents such as Class 1, 2, and 3, From the analysis of technical responsibility, the sectors
resulting in serious losses. responsible for major corrosion faults should take the main
According to the material analysis, the most dangerous responsibility. Table 3.6 shows among 46 accidents, 17 are
corrosion accidents of 46 major corrosion failure parts are directly caused by the design, accounting for 37%; 35 are
mostly related to the high-strength materials (ultra-high caused by the manufacturing process, accounting for 76.1%,
strength steel, high-strength steel, carburized nitrogen steel, most of which are caused by mistakes in electroplating, heat
etc.), which are the result of the synergistic action of stress treatment, and machining. China’s decision on aviation
3
Table 3.6 Relevant sectors for the occurrence of corrosion faults

Sectors Design Manufacture
Forge Cast Heat Heat-treat Weld Cement Pickle Electroplate Assemble Store Administrate Materials Maintenance
Faults 16 2 1 6 7 2 1 2 8 3 3 2 2 5
Total 17 35 2 5
% 37 76.1 4 4 11
201
202 H. Xu
manufacturing is in the design; the manufacturing process During the operation, the blades first exhibited inter-
can be used only after the approval of the design sector, granular corrosion and pitting corrosion in a hot and humid
which thus should be responsible for manufacturing engi- environment on the ground, and stress corrosion crack,
neering, or, in other words, design and manufacturing sec- cracking, and breaking occurred under the action of a large
tors should be jointly responsible. Non-responsible, centrifugal force induced by rotation at high altitude and
ignorant, and negligent designers and manufacturing engi- high speed (reach more than 16,000 r/min), which broke the
neers are the primary responsible persons for aviation cor- engine and caused Class 2 accidents. From northern China to
rosion accidents. southern China, as the temperature rose and the humidity
increased, the time of occurrence of the accidents gradually
shortened and the accident took place only with a flight of
3.1.4 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases 20 h and 26 min in Hainan Island (Fig. 3.13).
of Aircraft
2. Instrument failure and inadequate electroplating
dehydrogenation causing frame cracking
1. Improper heat treatment results in Class 2 accidents The front and rear fuselage butting frames (20 frames) of the
in batches J-6 aircraft are made of high-strength steel
(18Mn2CrMoBA), and the aircraft has not yet left the fac-
In the 1970s, China’s J-X aircraft’s first-grade stainless steel tory, but more than 20 frames of several aircraft are found
blades had repeatedly broken in the air, which broke the with cracks. It is found that the process of “cold knocking
engine, and the strong roar made the pilots unbearable so as plus multiple galvanizing,” false dehydrogenation, together
to parachute in the air, resulting in the Class 2 accidents, with cold knock stress, leads to hydrogen embrittlement and
which are featured with the destruction of aircraft and sur- cracking, causing multiple foreign aid aircraft to stop at the
vival of people. airport, all of which were then transferred to North Korea
The inspection shows that the first-grade blade of the after replacement, and many aircraft had also been recalled
compressor was made of Cr17Ni2 stainless steel, and the back to the factory for replacement (Fig. 3.14).
process of oil quenching was used. At that time, the pro-
duction volume was too large to adapt. After the test, the 3. Major accidents caused by changing galvanized
factory manufacturing engineers suggest that it be designed coating to cadmium coating
with air cooling. Due to the shortage of the site, the piles of
blades were stacked and cooled, and the blades in the piles If a little galvanized spring sheet is not qualified, the
were slowly cooled during 400–800 °C, causing chromium craftsman requests for cadmium instead, which is realized
deficiency in the grain boundaries and inducing intergranular through layer-by-layer technical approval, but the tempera-
corrosion. ture at the place sometimes exceeds 320 °C (the melting
Fig. 3.13 Stress corrosion fracture of the first-grade blade of the compressor of WP-6 engine, causing Class 2 accidents
Fig. 3.14 J-6 20 frame hydrogen-induced cracking, and foreign aid aircraft parked at the airport
point of cadmium is 320 °C) and the cadmium coating melts (2) In 2011, various corrosion problems occurred on the
on the rim of the nine-stage disk. Under the action of high torsional arm shaft of the main landing gear made of
centrifugal stress at high-speed rotation, the stress corrosion 40CrNi2Si2MoVA steel of the aircraft.
occurs under the action of molten cadmium metal (cadmium (3) In the overhaul of the aircraft, it was found that the
embrittlement), which leads to the bursting of the nine-stage aluminum alloy central wing matching bolt hole was
compressor disk, cutting off the aircraft and causing Class 1 still corroded under the condition of sealing and grease
accidents (Fig. 3.15) [5]. protection, and more severe exfoliation corrosion
occurred in the inlet lip skin and the joints of aluminum
4. Environmental damage of inland service environ- alloy at the leading edge flap and outer wing girder.
mental aircraft
5. Environmental damage to aircraft in the marine
We also do cluster analysis on the airport environment data, environment
and divide airports into four categories according to the
corrosive environment: ① areas with high temperature, high Under the bad marine atmosphere service environment, the
humidity, and short sunshine; ② areas with low altitude, aircraft corrosion is early, wide, deep, fast, and the like. The
high temperature, high humidity, short sunshine, and high experience gained shows that any minor and unreasonable
precipitation; ③ areas with middle altitude, humid air, and design may cause environmental damage, and then develop
high precipitation; ④ areas with moderate temperature, dry into major problems that endanger the safety of the aircraft.
and little precipitation. At present, the corrosion problems of marine environment
A large number of environmental damages are observed aircraft gradually exposed include the following:
in the overhaul of an aircraft operating in an inland envi-
ronment, such as (1) The flaperon suspension joint was severely worn after
flying, as shown in Fig. 3.16. Under the condition of
(1) In 2006, in the life determination and extension test of laboratory, the wear-resisting times are up to several
the aircraft, when the fatigue test of flat tail was loaded hundred thousand times, but the wear is obvious when
to 15% of the design load, the weld location of the flat the machine is used for more than 100 h, and the
tail axis of 30CrMnSiNi2A steel resulted in corrosion corrosion/wear mechanism needs to be further studied.
cracking due to lack of effective protection; the fatigue Under the condition of eccentric yawing in the ground
crack was generated under the load, and the overall arresting test, the arresting hook parts suffer from seri-
fracture occured after the fatigue crack extended to the ous ablation and the failure of the protective layer leads
adjacent crack. to the increase in the movement resistance, which will
204 H. Xu
Fig. 3.15 The cadmium

embrittlement of the nine-stage
disk causing Class 1 accidents
Fig. 3.16 Damage of a corrosive

structure
Fig. 3.17 Damage of typical corrosive fixed connection structure
undoubtedly lead to the corrosion of the base under the Corrosion is everywhere. China successfully imitated the
corrosive environment, thus accelerating the failure Soviet Union’s Yak-18 trainer in 1954, the first-generation
process of the mechanism. jet aircraft J-5 in 1956, and then the first generation super-
(2) Although technologies such as wet assembly and inte- sonic J-6, followed by J-7, H-5, H-6, and SH-5, Z-5, Z-8,
gral painting protection after the assembly are adopted Z-9, and Z-11, so China gradually formed various aircraft
for the fixed connection of aircraft, the failure of the series and built up our air force. In terms of imitation, the
protection system is still concentrated on the connection environment condition of the Soviet Union is much milder
parts (Fig. 3.17). In view of the current corrosion situ- than that of China. From the cold environment of the Soviet
ation, a large number of corrosion problems are Union into the subtropical and tropical environment of
exposed in connection parts and the chromium-plated China, the “acclimatization” is obvious, and the corrosion
surface of structural steel during service of the problem gradually emerges. For example, in Zhuzhou,
carrier-borne aircraft, and the requirements for use are where the relative humidity days exceed more than
not completely met under the harsh use environment. In 200 days, 85% every year, and experts in the Soviet Union
addition, widely used chromium plating, high-speed saw the corrosion of magnesium alloy, carbon steel, and
flame spraying, and other wear-resistant layers at pre- high-strength steel parts during the processing, but they were
sent have a certain porosity, and there will be corrosion helpless. So it is not suitable for such areas as Zhuzhou to set
of the matrix metal due to lack of timely maintenance in up an aviation plant. These aircraft engines will have to be
the actual use. used in the harsher tropical environment of Hainan Island,
(3) In the process of storage, transportation, and assembly where the corrosion is inevitable. The results of corrosion
of parts, surface protection measures will be damaged to investigation show ① All kinds of aircraft have occurred
different extents, which will destroy the integrity and corrosion faults in succession, and major corrosion accidents
continuity of surface protection measures of parts, and are mostly caused by engines, ② Corrosion faults occurred
slight damage of surface treatment and surface protec- in most parts of all kinds of aircraft, and major accidents
tion layer will cause corrosion edge effect and aggravate were mostly caused by moving parts, ③ All kinds of cor-
corrosion. In the past environmental adaptive design rosion types have occurred, especially the faults caused by
technology, more attention has been paid to the pro- the synergistic action of corrosion and stress types (stress
tection of parts state with less protection in assembly corrosion, hydrogen embrittlement, cadmium embrittlement,
while these protection defects are very likely to become and corrosion fatigue) are the most harmful, ④ Over cor-
corrosion-prone areas and disaster-prone areas in harsh rosion occurred in all kinds of materials, especially the
shipboard environments. corrosion faults of high-strength materials are the most
206 H. Xu
harmful, ⑤ Corrosion is a natural phenomenon, which corrosion and protection technology and the improvement of
cannot be avoided, but the lack of responsibility, lack of the application level while satisfying the development level
knowledge and experience, and negligence of engineering of China’s aircraft.
technicians in design, manufacturing, and maintenance often
speed up the progress of corrosion and even lead to a large
number of corrosion faults. 3.1.6 Summary of Investigation Data
and Results of the Aircraft Industry
3.1.5 Overview of Corrosion Prevention Under the unified arrangement of the subproject team in the
in the Aircraft Industry transportation field according to the requirements of ZGBH
[2015] No. 42 in early November 2015, AVIC Beijing
There are a variety of corrosion prevention methods, Institute of Aeronautical Materials (BIAM) has distributed
including surface treatment process, painting, paint film, corrosion questionnaire to the main engine factories of China
coating, and so on. With the change of aircraft body mate- Aviation Industry Group (Aviation Material Center [2015]
rials, such as structural steel, aluminum alloy, titanium alloy, No. 011), such as Research Institutes 603, 602, and 606 of
high-strength steel, high-strength and high-toughness alu- AVIC, basically covering the aircraft, helicopters, engines,
minum alloy, cadmium plating, zinc plating, sulfuric acid maintenance plants, and other fields, with good universality
anodizing, and titanium alloy anodizing, high-strength steel and representativeness.
with low hydrogen embrittlement and high corrosion resis- According to the questionnaire results from 11 units such
tance, boric/sulfuric acid anodizing, RE conversion coatings as Research Institutes 603, 602, 606, 608 of AVIC, Factory
on alloys, spray coating, environment-friendly high perfor- 127, 182, 410, 420, 460, 120, and 114, the corrosion con-
mance aluminum alloy anodize, and other new process dition of all aviation enterprises is general or light, and each
methods are also adopted to meet the requirements of aircraft unit has the relevant standard requirements for corrosion
design, manufacture, and use. protection, which, however, is not perfect. The implemented
With the constant update of aircraft materials, the pro- standards mainly include enterprise standards, industry
tection methods of aircraft body materials have been standards, and national standards. In addition, each enter-
developed and innovated, for example, researches on surface prise shall provide professional training on corrosion pre-
treatment technologies for new materials such as aluminum– vention technologies and have corresponding corrosion
lithium alloy and titanium alloy, process technologies of prevention records, which can be used to guide the corrosion
silver–antimony alloy and tin–bismuth alloy electroplating, prevention in the enterprise.
and researches on technologies such as nano-plating, com- The aircraft equipment has strict usage requirements such
posite brush plating, aircraft cleaning, corrosion inhibitor, as high weight reduction, high reliability, and long life. The
dehumidification and corrosion prevention, paint removal, corrosion prevention problem is taken into account when the
high-speed flame spraying, composite material repair, overall design scheme is stipulated for each main engine,
brushing electroplating, brush anodizing, and corrosion and the corrosion prevention measures are taken throughout
paste. The State attaches great importance to corrosion the life cycle of equipment including manufacturing, oper-
control in the aircraft industry and invests a large number of ation, and maintenance. Each unit has urgent needs for
funds in technical research and personnel training. After technical personnel of corrosion protection specialty, new
decades of development, China has obtained a large number corrosion protection technologies, and corrosion protection
of scientific research results in the research and application solutions. When selecting corrosion protection countermea-
of aircraft corrosion and protection technologies, and the sures, priority shall be given to the advance and long-term
various corrosion and protection technologies developed corrosion resistance of corrosion prevention technologies.
have been widely used in a variety of aircraft, resulting in Second, the cost and price of corrosion prevention tech-
significant military benefits, and social and economic bene- nologies should be considered. All enterprises believe that
fits. China has basically completed the establishment of the establishment of material corrosion and damage database
aircraft corrosion and protection technology system, con- and material selection database, the establishment and use of
stantly developed various technical reserves, and trained a life cycle cost/life cycle assessment (LCC/LCA) method, the
number of personnel including national experts in the basic use or improvement of corrosion prevention monitoring and
theory and application on the corrosion and protection maintenance management methods, the use of corrosion
technologies, which promotes the advance of China’s remaining life assessment technologies and monitoring
technologies, the use of new materials and new corrosion military hot spots around China, the sovereignty of the South
prevention and repair technologies in maintenance, and the China Sea has been challenged by Southeast Asian coun-
establishment of corrosion behavior model all play an tries, and there are potential conflicts between the waters
important role in improving the overall corrosion prevention near Diaoyu Islands and Japan. From our naval fleet to the
level of enterprises. Gulf of Aden to combat Somali pirates and other measures,
Aero-engine components have long been used in com- we can see that our army’s military thought from the pre-
plicated and harsh environments such as high temperature, vious coastal defense to long-distance operations from the
high pressure, oil mist, and oxidation, so their corrosion is coastline, out of the first island chain of the demand is
generally more serious than that of the engine body, and the constantly strengthened. From such measures as Chinese
maintenance cost is high. With the change of the interna- naval fleet to the Gulf of Aden to combat Somali pirates, we
tional situation and the acceleration of the development of can see that Chinese army’s military thought changes from
large domestic aircraft, the carrier-based aircraft and the previous coastal defense to middle- and long-distance
long-range wide-body passenger aircraft put forward higher operations from the coastline, and the pursuit of going out of
requirements for the marine corrosion resistance of the air- the first island chain is constantly strengthened. In this sit-
craft, which is helpful to promote the development of cor- uation, it is an immediate problem to ensure that Chinese
rosion protection technologies for aviation equipment, so as military weapons and equipment in relatively unfamiliar
to guarantee the reliability and safety of aviation equipment areas, sea areas and airspace is still effective to play combat
in service. effectiveness.
The loss caused by corrosion comes from various stages The serious corrosion of military aircraft in China has
such as design, manufacture, operation, and maintenance, proved the limitation of corrosion design of aircraft, espe-
and the corrosion cost of the engine is significantly higher cially marine aircraft. The past corrosion design technologies
than that of the aircraft body. If the existing corrosion pro- were mainly aimed at the inland environment service air-
tection measures are not adopted, the loss caused by corro- craft, based on the experience of the gradual establishment
sion may increase by 10–30%, so the advanced corrosion and improvement of research methods. During the formation
protection technologies are important to reduce the overall process, a large number of aircraft have been in different
corrosion cost. service states, from production state, service state, and
On the whole, all units are interested in the results of “A overhaul state, to service state and decommissioning state.
Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies in China” These aircraft in different states provide rich macroexperi-
and pay more attention to the corrosion cost ratio of the ence and lessons for corrosion prevention design, with clear
industry. The implementation of this major consultation objectives and states, strong pertinence and good effect in
project will have a far-reaching impact on understanding the the design. However, due to the lack of long-term service of
status quo of corrosion and control in China’s transportation marine aircraft in China and the lack of direct reference
and other fields and improving the technical level of corro- experience, China’s research on corrosion prevention system
sion protection. has just started. Therefore, the design of corrosion protection
can only be mainly based on the inland aircraft corrosion
protection design and is partially improved. Although the
3.1.7 Problems Existing in the Aircraft Industry protection design in the assembly process is strengthened,
and Suggestions on Corrosion Prevention the overall improvement is limited. With the large-scale and
Strategies long service of marine aircraft, the corrosion phenomenon
will be more and more serious and affects the effectiveness
In the future, the requirements for the functionality and long of Chinese army combat.
life of aviation weapon equipment are very high, especially Therefore, based on the experience of the operation and
the development of the carrier-borne aircraft and the strate- maintenance of the inland aircraft, it is impossible to solve
gic positioning of the great marine power in China, it is the corrosion problem during the service of the marine air-
necessary to study the corrosion and protection performance craft, and cannot meet the needs of the development of the
of materials under the marine environment so that the aircraft corrosion protection of the marine aircraft in China. There-
can adapt to the humid and warm marine environment, so as fore, in the face of the harsh use environment, it is urgent to
to ensure the attendance and combat effectiveness of aircraft, carry out the research on aircraft corrosion protection in
reduce maintenance and repair costs, and extend service life. marine atmospheric environment, accumulate the corrosion
In recent years, there have been frequent incidents of data of typical materials, coatings, corrosive structures, and
208 H. Xu
airborne electronic products in marine atmospheric envi- 3.2 Investigation Report on Corrosion
ronment, and study the law of change so as to set up a in the Ship Industry
laboratory on marine atmospheric environment to accelerate
test method and device and carry out verification and 3.2.1 Common Types of Corrosion on Ships
application research to meet the corrosion protection
requirements of the marine aircraft under development and The influence of marine environment on the corrosion of
new generation marine aircraft. ship materials is complicated. There are not only differences
in different ship materials but also the corrosion forms of the
same ship materials are different in different marine envi-
3.1.8 Analysis of Corrosion Cost in the Aircraft ronments [7]. Generally, there is uniform corrosion, pitting
Industry corrosion, crevice corrosion, selective corrosion, intergran-
ular corrosion, galvanic corrosion, stress corrosion cracking,
The purchase price of a typical civil airliner is about 4–5% of corrosion fatigue, erosion corrosion, cavitation corrosion,
the catalog price. Catalog price of some models: and biological corrosion.
Airbus A330-200: USD 230 million; 1. Uniform corrosion

A321: USD 124 million;
A320: USD 97 million–106 million; Uniform corrosion, also known as general corrosion, is one
Boeing B747-8: USD 368 million; of the most common forms of corrosion characterized by
B787-8: USD 218 million; corrosion at almost the same rate across the entire metal
B777-200LR: USD 305 million; surface in contact with the corrosive environment, relatively
B777-300ER: USD 330 million; uniform thinning of the metal surface and no significant
B737-800: USD 93 million. corrosion morphology differences. The surface of carbon
steel and low alloy steel is rusty under the conditions of
The service life of domestic airline aircraft is generally marine atmosphere and seawater immersion; the surface of
about 15 years. The average annual maintenance costs zinc, aluminum, and their coatings are covered with white
(direct costs) associated with corrosion repair or control for corrosion products, and the surface of copper and copper
each aircraft include ① Man-hour costs: 700 h on the repair alloy is green and blackened, which is uniform corrosion, as
of structural damage (mostly corrosion) and other service shown in Fig. 3.18. Uniform corrosion can result in sub-
work (cleaning, lubrication, and applying antiseptic); the stantial loss of the metal, but generally, no sudden accidents
cost per hour of domestic civil aviation maintenance industry occur.
is USD80, about RMB 518. The average annual cost per
aircraft is RMB 363,000 [6]. ② Equipment cost: It is diffi- 2. Pitting corrosion
cult to estimate the material cost used for corrosion repair
and consumption control, but it is less compared with the Pitting corrosion, also known as hole corrosion, usually
man-hour cost. Loss of operating income (indirect cost) from occurs when both corrosive anions and oxidants are present
unplanned Aircraft On Ground (AOG) due to the serious
structural damage detected: unplanned AOG are accidental
events, so it is difficult to count the average number of days
for AOG per aircraft per year. However, it is true that there
has been an extreme event in which the aircraft suffered from
AOG for a long period of time due to severe corrosion, or
even continuously for more than 2 months. According to the
average domestic civil aviation aircraft flying six flights per
day, 200 tickets per shift, and the average price of each ticket
for RMB 600, the revenue will be reduced by RMB 720,000
per day for AOG. Therefore, in the event of an unplanned
AOG, the indirect cost per day on AOG far exceeds the
direct cost of maintenance. Then, the time on the unplanned
AOG is the key data to calculate the loss caused by structural Fig. 3.18 Uniform corrosion of carbon steel pipelines in marine
corrosion. environment
Fig. 3.19 Pitting corrosion of ship pipelines in full-immersion

environment
on the surface of passive metals or alloys. Pitting corrosion

often occurs in stainless steel, aluminum and aluminum alloy
in marine environment, and pitting corrosion easily occurs in
carbon steel and low alloy steel under the condition of
marine splash (Fig. 3.19).
3. Crevice corrosion
In a corrosive environment, the phenomenon of accelerated Fig. 3.21 Dezincification of marine brass seawater filters
corrosion of metal in a crevice which exists between a metal
component and another component (metal or nonmetal) is
4. Selective corrosion
called crevice corrosion. Many metal components, the
unreasonable design or processing, and other reasons will
The corrosion in which the more active components of the
cause crevices, such as flange joints, nut pressing surface,
multicomponent alloy are preferentially dissolved due to the
riveted screw joint, and weld hole; there is a crevice with
electrochemical difference of the alloy components is called
metal on the contact surface. Generally, the most sensitive
selective corrosion. The dezincification corrosion of brass is
crevice for crevice corrosion is about 0.025–0.1 mm wide,
a typical selective corrosion. Dezincification of brass, that is,
and Fig. 3.20 is the morphology of crevice corrosion at the
zinc is selectively dissolved, leaving a porous copper-rich
joint of seawater pipeline flange (Fig. 3.20).
region, thus resulting in a significant reduction in alloy
strength, such as in Fig. 3.21 for corrosion morphology of
dezincification of marine brass seawater filters.
5. Intergranular corrosion
The corrosion of metallic materials along the grain boundary

or near the grain boundary in a specific corrosion medium is
called intergranular corrosion, which results in the loss of
bonding force between the grains as a local failure. Inter-
granular corrosion is a kind of local corrosion which is very
harmful. Macroscopically, there may not be any obvious
change, but the strength of the material is almost completely
lost, which often leads to sudden destruction of the equip-
ment. In addition, intergranular corrosion often turns into
intergranular stress corrosion cracking, which is the origin of
Fig. 3.20 Crevice corrosion in flange joint of seawater pipeline stress corrosion cracking; Fig. 3.22 is the intergranular
210 H. Xu
Fig. 3.22 Intergranular corrosion of 00Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel in

seawater
Fig. 3.24 Stress corrosion cracking of high-strength marine bolts
marine engineering, such as ordinary carbon steel,

high-strength steel, stainless steel, and copper alloy, are
likely to produce stress corrosion in a specific medium.
During the corrosion process, microcracks first appear and
then extend into macroscopic cracks. Once microcracks are
formed, their extension speed is much faster than other types
of local corrosion, for example, the stress corrosion rate of
carbon steel in seawater is 106 times that of uniform cor-
rosion, so stress corrosion is more destructive and harmful,
and Fig. 3.24 shows the morphology of stress corrosion
cracking of marine high-strength bolts.
Fig. 3.23 Galvanic corrosion of a ship’s pipeline
8. Corrosion fatigue
corrosion morphology of 00Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel in
high-temperature seawater. Under the coordination and interaction of cyclic load and
corrosive environment, the phenomenon of early failure of
6. Galvanic corrosion engineering materials or components is called corrosion
fatigue. Besides the characteristics of conventional fatigue,
In the electrolyte solution, when two metals or alloys are in corrosion fatigue is a very complicated failure process of
contact (electrically conductive), the corrosion of a metal materials or components due to the influence of corrosive
with a lower potential is accelerated while a metal with a media. It appears that the fatigue resistance of materials or
higher potential is protected—a phenomenon known as components is reduced while the performance of materials or
galvanic corrosion. Figure 3.23 shows the morphology of components is significantly related to the frequency and
galvanic corrosion of aluminum–steel composite plate in the waveform of the cyclic loading. Figure 3.25 is the fracture
sea splash environment. It can be seen that the aluminum morphology after corrosion fatigue fracture of marine
plate has obvious corrosion due to the galvanic action while high-strength steel crankshaft.
the steel plate is protected from corrosion (Fig. 3.23).
9. Erosion corrosion
7. Stress corrosion cracking
Erosion corrosion, also known as wearing corrosion, is the
The brittle fracture of metallic materials subject to certain phenomenon of metal damage caused by high-speed relative
tensile and compressive stresses in certain media due to the motion between the metal surface and corrosion fluid, and is
synergistic action of corrosion medium and stress is called the result of interaction between erosion and corrosion.
stress corrosion cracking. Metal materials commonly used in Erosion corrosion is a very complicated process and is
Fig. 3.27 Cavitation corrosion of stainless steel propellers
surface, and with the rapid generation and bursting of bub-

bles on the metal surface, it exhibits failure characteristics
similar to pitting corrosion. The corrosion under such
Fig. 3.25 Corrosion fatigue fracture morphology of high strength
steels condition is known as cavitation corrosion or cavitation
erosion. Cavitation corrosion is caused by the joint
action of the shock wave of electrochemical corrosion and
bubble burst on metal. The marine propeller generates
cavitation corrosion, and Fig. 3.27 is its corrosion
morphology.
11. Biological corrosion
Marine biological corrosion refers to the corrosion of

materials directly or indirectly caused by substances in the
surface of materials applied in the marine environment due
to the attachment, growth, reproduction, metabolism, and
death of organisms (bacterial membranes, micro-biomucosa,
and biomes). Figure 3.28 shows the local corrosion of car-
bon steel materials due to the attachment of marine
organisms.
Fig. 3.26 Erosion corrosion of copper tubes in marine seawater

cooling system
mainly affected by factors such as medium temperature, pH

value, oxygen content, flow velocity, flow state, solid par-
ticles, erosion angle, properties of the material itself, surface
passivation film, etc. Figure 3.26 is the morphology of
copper pipes of marine seawater cooling system after ero-
sion and corrosion.
10. Cavitation corrosion
High-speed relative motion between fluids and metal com-

ponents produces eddy currents in the local area of the metal Fig. 3.28 Marine biological corrosion of carbon steel materials
212 H. Xu
3.2.2 Main Corrosion Problems of Ships 3. Seawater pipeline system corrosion
The ship is a very complicated structure and is used in the The main corrosion types of a seawater pipeline system can
harsh marine environment, so the corrosion is the key factor be divided into three types: erosion corrosion caused by
that causes the damage of the ship structure and affects its flowing seawater during operation; corrosion of retained
service safety and service life. There are great differences in water during emptying of the pipelines; static seawater
the working conditions of different structural parts of the corrosion and deposition corrosion in the pipeline system
ship, so the different parts have different corrosion charac- during the shutdown for filling water. In addition, corrosion
teristics [8]. According to the location, the ship faces the types that can cause severe corrosion damage include gal-
following corrosion problems: vanic corrosion between dissimilar metals, crevice corrosion
between flanges, dezincification of brass components, weld
1. Hull corrosion corrosion, and contaminated water corrosion. Compared
with other corrosion types, impact corrosion is the most
The water part of the hull is always damaged by corrosion important factor to cause corrosion damage of the seawater
such as moist atmosphere, seawater splashes, sunlight, rain, pipeline system, with the highest frequency and the greatest
and snow. The corrosion parts mainly include the easily corrosion hazard. In addition, galvanic corrosion and
damaged coatings, aging parts, welding parts, and dissimilar de-component corrosion of some materials are also very
metal overlapping parts. common in ship seawater pipeline systems. When impact
The underwater parts of the hull are immersed in seawater corrosion and other types of corrosion (such as galvanic
all the year round and suffer from static immersion corrosion corrosion and de-component corrosion) act simultaneously,
of seawater; and the ship is subject to erosion corrosion of the seawater pipeline system is more susceptible to early
flowing seawater during traveling. In addition, the under- corrosion and damage.
water parts of the hull include hull shell plate, rudder, shaft, See Figs. 3.29, 3.30 and 3.31 for photographs of corro-
paddle, and other appendages, which suffer from not only sion in all parts of the ship.
seawater corrosion but also galvanic corrosion of dissimilar
metals. What is more, the surface of the bottom of the ship is
immersed in seawater for a long time, with marine organisms 3.2.3 Typical Corrosion Cases of Ships
to attach, which results in marine biological pollution.
Another very serious corrosion that the hull is facing is
1. Overall corrosion situation
stray current corrosion, i.e., electrical corrosion. This may
occur during the construction, repair, berthing, and operation
In recent years, many shipyards have been investigated,
of the ship. The stray current source of the ship hull may come
which found that corrosion faults account for about 40% of
from improper welding wiring of the hull or cable damage,
the total faults, such problems are serious corrosion of pipe
leakage of the power supply system, and electrical equipment,
clamp, corrosion perforation at the joint of coating materials
or interference from other cathodic protection systems in the
and steel plate, corrosion leakage in valves and joints of the
same water area. Among them, the hull’s stray current cor-
seawater pipeline system, and serious corrosion of zinc
rosion caused by electric welding is more common.
fastener bolts and failure of disassembly. In terms of pro-
tective measures, there are problems such as falling off of
2. Internal cabin corrosion
corrosion-resistant coating and poor protection effect of a
sacrificial anode.
The internal tanks of the ship include ballast tanks, cargo oil
tanks, equipment tanks, drinking water tanks, etc. The cor-
2. Major corrosion problems
rosion is prominent in ballast tanks. The ship’s ballast tank
frequently stays in the harsh environment of seawater
(1) Serious corrosion of hull’s pipe clamps
dry-wet alternation, high temperature, and high humidity.
The ballast tank is subject to seawater corrosion when
There is a serious corrosion phenomenon on the hull’s pipe
loading, and the empty tank is subject to wet marine atmo-
clamps (Fig. 3.32). According to the crew, the pipe clamps
sphere corrosion. In addition, the complicated structures, and
of a ship are basically replaced during the minor repair, due
the inconvenient coating inspection and maintenance make
to the poor corrosion resistance of the early pipe clamp
the corrosion very prominent, so it is one of the most serious
materials, which cannot meet the service requirements.
corrosion parts in all cabins of the ship.
Rudder plate erosion corrosion

Non-pressure hull
XXX XXX light exostructure
XX XX superstructure
Pipeline fasteners
Fig. 3.29 Corrosion of different parts of ships
Fig. 3.30 Biological attachment

of ships
214 H. Xu
Fig. 3.31 Stray current corrosion of ship axle sleeve
Fig. 3.32 Corrosion of hull’s pipe clamps
(2) Corrosion of fasteners
The flange fasteners of the ship pipelines and some fasteners in

cabins are severely corroded and cannot be removed, and it is
estimated that some of them have lost strength (Fig. 3.33).
Most of the fasteners used at present are carbon steel fasteners
treated with zinc infiltration or zinc plating, whose protection
life in the marine environment is shorter and cannot meet the
long-term protection requirements under alternate dry–wet
conditions and high-temperature and high-humidity condi-
tions, so composite coated fasteners are recommended. In
addition, the materials of pipe flange and bolt in the cabin are
different and so the dissimilar metal contact corrosion occurs,
especially the bilge corrosion is more serious.
Fig. 3.33 Corrosion of pipe flange fasteners
Fig. 3.36 Wear and corrosion of fairlead

Fig. 3.34 Wear and corrosion phenomena of anchor plate coatings
Fig. 3.37 Damage and corrosion of coatings on anchor chain surface

Fig. 3.35 Wear and corrosion of surface coatings on hinge plate
(3) Outfitting parts
Most of the outfitting parts are in a good state, and some

suffer from corrosion failure. According to the crew, the
anchor deck floor coating construction is not completely
de-rusted, resulting in weak adhesion of the coating and easy
falling off of large areas. In addition, fairlead and winch,
capstan and anchor chain as well as the surface and the part
of the anchor are damaged, causing corrosion of the steel
substrate; see Figs. 3.34, 3.35, 3.36 and 3.37.
(4) Tailshaft
During the field investigation, it was found that the groove Fig. 3.38 Wear of tail shaft
wear of the tail shaft at the support ring (Fig. 3.38) may
216 H. Xu
affect the sealing performance of the shaft and may cause water leakage or material reasons (some are made of carbon
problems such as water ingress or eccentricity. steel). The fasteners can only be removed by gas welding.
(5) Other corrosion problems c. Other pipeline corrosion on the ship mostly occurs on
copper pipes as well as some galvanized pipes, especially
a. Bilge water galvanized pipes in the seawater system, which are
seriously corroded (Fig. 3.41).
Some bilge has water (Fig. 3.39), and cabin and power
station have large water accumulation area, with poor ven- 3. Problems in the Aspect of Protective Measures
tilation performance and poor personnel accessibility, so it is
hard to have daily maintenance and coating construction. (1) Spalling of corrosion prevention coatings
b. Valve corrosion is prevalent The corrosion prevention coatings on the seawater pipeline
surface of a ship are seriously spalling (Fig. 3.42), making
Corrosion is prevalent on various types of valves on board, the primer exposed and the adhesion of the coating poor. In
including seawater and freshwater media, steam system
valves, some coated valves, etc., especially valve fasteners
(Fig. 3.40). It is difficult to disassemble the valves due to
Fig. 3.41 Corrosion of galvanized pipe

Fig. 3.39 Pictures of bilge water
Fig. 3.42 Spalling of corrosion prevention coatings for seawater

Fig. 3.40 Valve failure steel fasteners pipeline
4. Overall evaluation and protection recommendations

for ship corrosion conditions
The overall evaluation of the corrosion status of ship out-

fitting and deck equipment is good in the overall situation,
and there is basically no large corrosion problem. There is
still room for improvement, especially in the aspects of
optimization design and construction technology control,
which can effectively improve the protection effect.
In view of the main problems found in ship investigation
and practical conditions, it is suggested that the treatment of
ship corrosion is as follows:
(1) Pay attention to the optimization design and improve

the design scheme according to the actual conditions as
much as possible. For example, in combination with
Fig. 3.43 Spalling and white rust of high-temperature corrosion dock repair, the position of the drain hole is changed to
prevention coating on the exhaust pipe
the lowest position, and the floor leather is changed to
high polymer floor paint.
(2) Perfect the construction technology and focus on the
details which decide the effect. For example, pretreat-
ment and cleaning of the bracket or welded parts shall
be done before painting.
(3) Replace with high-performance materials to improve
the protection effect and service life. For example, the
sacrificial anode currently in use can be replaced with
multielement aluminum alloy sacrificial anode materials
that are resistant to immersion conditions.
(4) Strengthen daily maintenance and use management. For
example, timely cleaning of water accumulated on the
upper deck and coatings on the surface of deck
equipment.
3.2.4 Corrosion Control Technologies of Ships

Fig. 3.44 Morphology of sacrificial anode dissolution
Corrosion is the key factor that causes damage to ship
addition, the high-temperature corrosion-resistant coatings structure and affects its safety and service life. Corrosion
on the surface of the smoke exhaust pipe also show partial itself is irreversible, but the rate of corrosion can be con-
spalling phenomenon, with white corrosion products, as trolled. The corrosion control of ships is a system engineer-
shown in Fig. 3.43. ing, which runs through the design, construction, use, and
maintenance of ships. The basic methods of ship corrosion
(2) Sacrificial anode materials and optimal layout control include rational design and material selection, pro-
tective coatings, cathodic protection technology, and others.
It is found that some sacrificial anodes installed on a ship
had poor solubility and crust formation (Fig. 3.44), which 1. Corrosion control of ship hull
affected the reactivation and resulted in local
under-protection. It may be because the sacrificial anodes are (1) Corrosion control of underwater parts of ship hull
in the seawater environment for a short time; the anodes will
not be consumed under dry conditions, and the protection a. Corrosion and fouling prevention coating material
effect cannot be achieved. system
218 H. Xu
The underwater hull of ships, rudder plate, shaft, and others (2) Corrosion control of waterborne parts of ship hull
usually adopt coating and cathodic protection combined
corrosion prevention method. However, because of the The waterborne shell of the hull is mainly protected by coat-
strong turbulence on the propeller surface, it is usually dif- ing, mostly using chlorinated rubber, epoxy, ethylene, acrylic,
ficult to use coatings to protect the propeller surface, and and polyurethane hull paint. Since the deck is exposed to the
copper alloy and other materials and cathodic protection are superstructure of the ship and is eroded by sea waves and
mainly used to prevent corrosion. In addition, the bottom marine salt fog besides friction and damage to personnel and
surface of ships is immersed in seawater for a long time, articles, the deck paint must have high adhesion, strong
which easily causes marine biological fouling, affects the weather resistance, and good wear resistance. In addition, it
speed of ships and increases fuel consumption. Therefore, should be resistant to seawater erosion and chemical effect.
anti-fouling measures must be taken for the bottom surface Deck paints for walking parts must also have good slip
of the ship. resistance properties. The deck paint can be made of ethylene,
The corrosion prevention coatings on ship bottom shall chlorinated rubber, high-solid epoxy, and other systems.
have excellent anti-rust property, high adhesion, good flex-
ibility and cathodic disbonding resistance, and good 2. Corrosion control of ships’ interior cabin
matching property with anti-fouling paint. The anti-rust paint
for ship bottom includes asphalt, chlorinated rubber, epoxy For the seawater ballast tank, the ballast tank coating and
asphalt, and epoxy. At present, the epoxy-based marine paint sacrificial anode are mainly used for protection.
has accounted for more than 60% of the paint used for new
shipbuilding, not only as a bottom anti-rust paint but also (1) Protective coating of ballast tanks
widely used in ballast tanks, fresh water tanks, chemical
tanks, and other ships [9]. Due to the severe corrosive environment and structural
After anti-rust paint is applied on the bottom of the ship, characteristics of ballast tanks, and the difficulty of periodic
anti-fouling paint must be applied on the surface. The common maintenance after new ships are put into service, it is
anti-fouling paints are gradually exuded from seawater to form required that the ballast tank coating shall have a longer
a toxic antifouling thin layer to prevent marine bio-fouling. service life. At present, the main application type of marine
Anti-fouling paints can be divided into three types: short-term ballast tank coatings is epoxy hard coatings, and the
effect (less than 3 years), mid-term effect (3–5 years), and a thick-film epoxy hard coatings have excellent adhesion and
long-term effect (more than 5 years) according to the period pressure-carrying cabin environmental performance, so as to
of anti-fouling effect. At present, the actual effect of common realize long-term protection.
anti-fouling paints takes about 3–5 years. In order to prevent premature aging or performance
degradation of the coating system, shipyards must strictly
b. Cathodic protection of ship hull immersed in seawater is implement the coating technical specifications and process
not enough to prevent corrosion only by an anti-rust and requirements in the coating operation. During the ship
anti-fouling coating system. The combination of cathodic design, measures shall be taken to ensure the coating quality
protection and coating system can obtain the best protec- and performance, such as reducing hole digging, adopting
tion effect. The sacrificial anode or impressed current round shape, and avoiding complicated geometric structure
cathodic protection system can be used for hull cathodic to ensure that the structure shape makes the tool easy to enter
protection. Both methods have been widely used in prac- and facilitate the cleaning, drainage, and drying of the
tice. In general, sacrificial anode protection is generally coating parts.
used for small ships or ships that are frequently docked.
However, it is more advantageous to use impressed current (2) Cathodic protection of ballast tanks
cathodic protection system for large ships or naval vessels.
No matter which kind of cathodic protection system is The ship’s special seawater ballast tanks or liquid tanks
adopted, only when the hull potential reaches and is neg- sometimes used for loading cargo, sometimes for ballasting,
ative to −0.80 V, the hull can obtain good protection. For should use cathodic protection, which can be used as a
high-strength steels with yield strength in excess of supplement of coating corrosion prevention system for bal-
550 MPa, the risk of hydrogen-induced stress corrosion last tanks to effectively reduce the corrosion of ballast tanks
cracking due to cathodic protection is considered and the and implement collaborative protection. Only the sacrificial
excessive negative potential will accelerate the cathodic anode protection system is used for cathode protection of
stripping of the coatings. It is generally recommended that ballast tanks. Zinc alloy and aluminum alloy can be used for
the hull potential not be less than −1.05 V. sacrificial anode materials. For safety reasons, impressed
current cathodic protection systems cannot be used, espe- cathodes of the pair. ② The surface area of the anodic
cially in the places with combustible gases. At the same components should be much larger than the surface area of
time, chlorine gas will be released on the auxiliary anode, cathodic components, with particular attention to eliminating
and hydrogen will also be released when the cathodic pro- the adverse combination of large cathodes and small anodes.
tection potential is too negative, which will cause a safety When the metal surface is protected with insulating coatings,
hazard. the surface of the cathodic components must be coated
Other ship interior compartments include living com- preferentially. ③ When metal materials with larger potential
partments (including cabins, bedrooms, restaurants, bath- difference must be used for connection, electrical insulation
rooms, toilets, laundry, etc.), dry cargo compartments, fuel measures shall be taken to prevent galvanic corrosion. ④
compartments, lubricating oil compartments, anchor chain When electrical insulation measures cannot be used, catho-
lockers, engine compartments, boiler compartments, battery dic protection can be used to prevent galvanic corrosion.
compartments, etc., are mainly protected by coating mate-
rials. It is necessary to adopt the corresponding coating (2) Correct material selection
supporting system according to the use and working con-
ditions of each cabin of the ship to meet the corrosion pre- The material selection of marine seawater pipeline system
vention requirements. should take into account not only the mechanical properties,
static resistance, and corrosion resistance against flowing
3. Corrosion control of marine seawater pipeline system seawater of the materials but also the technical performance
and economy of the materials. The correct material selection
Corrosion control of seawater pipeline system is a system is not necessarily to select the piping system materials with
engineering, which runs through the whole process of ship high corrosion resistance and high price, but the suitable
design, construction, use, and maintenance. The emphasis is materials for the appropriate place are required in order to
on inhibiting corrosion in the “hotspot” area of the entire obtain the best performance-to-price ratio.
pipeline system [10]. The main control measures include
reasonable design, correct material selection, cathode pro- (3) Cathode protection
tection, careful construction, and maintenance during use.
Because the marine seawater pipeline system is usually
(1) Reasonable design small in size, long in line, and complex in structure, cathodic
protection is only used in some locally corrosive parts or in
Improper design is often an important cause of corrosion and equipment such as heat exchangers. Sacrificial anodes are
damage of marine seawater pipeline system. In the design of generally used for protection. A junction structure of a
seawater pipeline system, first, the flow rate of seawater in flanged sacrificial anode or a tube segment anode is gener-
the pipeline should be controlled, and the flow rate of sea- ally used. For seawater heat exchangers, sacrificial anodes
water should not exceed the allowable critical value of are usually mounted on the water chamber head to provide
pipeline materials by designing proper pipe diameter. At the cathodic protection to the water chamber surface, tube
same time, the increase of local flow rate and the rise of plates, and cooling tube ends.
turbulence should be prevented or reduced as much as
possible. In addition, local corrosion such as galvanic cor- (4) Careful construction and maintenance during use
rosion, corrosion in water retention area, and deposition
corrosion should be prevented and avoided. Whether the corrosion prevention design of seawater pipe-
Because the marine seawater pipeline system is com- line system can achieve the desired effect is closely related to
posed of many pipes and equipment, it is very difficult to the construction quality. Careful construction is the key to
manufacture it with the same materials, so it is very easy to guarantee the final corrosion control effect.
cause galvanic corrosion. The measures to prevent galvanic
corrosion mainly include ① reduce the kinds of dissimilar 4. Corrosion and protection of hull stray current
metal materials in the pipeline system as much as possible.
Inevitably, materials with smaller potential difference can be The main measures to prevent the corrosion of hull stray
used together and materials with relatively positive potential current are as follows: ① eliminating stray current caused by
are used for important components or components which are welding; ② eliminating other stray current sources; ③ using
difficult to maintain and replace so that they become the the discharging of sacrificial anodes.
220 H. Xu
3.2.5 Analysis of Corrosion Cost of Ships 1,000 per ton. The proportion of labor cost in direct
steel-changing cost of a ship repair company in southern
1. Current status of China’s ship repair industry China has risen to 41.5%. Facing the current labor market,
some ship repair enterprises have to revise the regular repair
Since the outbreak of the international financial crisis, Chi- quota and refit quota and reorganize the internal price system.
na’s ship repair market has plummeted. As an important Most ship repair enterprises believe that a “slight
symbol of the prosperity of the industry, ship repair price has rebound” in ship repair prices will not continue in 2015.
been wandering at the bottom. Since the third quarter of A number of ship repair enterprises in northern China said
2014, there have been signs of recovery of ship repair price that inquiry activities were not as active as the first three
in some areas, and the price trend of the ship repair market quarters and confirmed that the ships to be repaired are
has become a hot topic in the industry. Ship repair enter- relatively reduced; the pressure of difficulty in receiving
prises generally believe that the normal price level is the orders will increase.
basic condition for the healthy development of the industry. The shipping market cannot provide strong support for the
Only by promoting the price to return to the normal level in recovery of the ship repair market. In the fourth quarter of 2013,
the reasonable market competition can the sustainable freight rates in the shipping market rose and the operation of
development of the industry be realized. ship repair enterprises was improved. At present, compared
While the repair market is unlikely to improve in the short with the same period of the previous year, the prosperity of the
term, ship repair prices rebounded in October 2014 from the shipping market changes little, which will not bring much help
same period in 2013. A repair company in Zhoushan said to the ship repair business. In addition, a number of ship repair
that only in terms of the price, the current market situation enterprises are not optimistic about the 2015 market, so they
slightly improved as a whole. A repair company in Qingdao believe that ship repair works are likely to decline. However,
also said that the market situation in the third quarter was after successive years of “decline in volume as well as price,” it
slightly better than the first half of the year; the prices for is not much possible to further lower repair prices, and there will
changing board and sanding rose slightly. Statistics show be no major fluctuations in the short term.
that from January to September 2014, the abovementioned There are too many conventional ship maintenance pro-
Zhoushan ship repair company completed a total output jects, which is also an important reason why it is difficult for
value of RMB 250 million, an increase of 31.58% over the the repair price to rise quickly. Promoting the merger and
same period of 2013, and 124 ships were repaired and reorganization of ship repair enterprises and guiding small
completed, with a Y-O-Y growth of 24%. Single-ship output and medium-sized ship repair enterprises to transfer to
value has increased to some extent. supporting services and other fields are the main ways to
In the international ship repair market, the price in China transform and upgrade the ship repair industry and improve
is much lower than that of the other countries. As a result of comprehensive competitiveness. Ship repair enterprises
price competition between each other a few years ago, ship believe that, compared with shipbuilding capacity, the inte-
repair price hit the bottom repeatedly; the projects of gration of ship repair capacity is more difficult, and the effect
changing board and sanding in some companies are even in of integration is relatively limited in recent years. In order to
loss state. Therefore, even if the repair prices rise signifi- cope with the difficulties, some ship repair enterprises have
cantly, it will not be able to reverse the trough situation of increased the proportion of shipbuilding business and vig-
the industry. orously promoted the structural adjustment, which, however,
It is worth noting that the recovery of the ship repair price exerts limited impact on the overall capacity of ship repair.
is actually relatively limited, plus the weak bargaining power It is understood that the ship repair industry in China will
of ship repair enterprises and China’s ship repair enterprises timely introduce the ship repair price index to reflect the
are also limited in the extent. The low price of ship repair price status and change trend of major maintenance items,
industry in China has become a general impression of for- provide a reference for the production and operation of ship
eign ship owners, which increases the confidence of the repair enterprises, and promote the improvement of the
other side in the negotiations to lower prices, so it is difficult management level and service quality of the enterprises. This
for enterprises to raise prices. new plan not only draws lessons from the experience of
Low prices have made it hard for ship repair enterprises to other industries but also adapts to the changing trend of ship
make money. From the perspective of labor cost, there is a repair market and the requirement of sustainable develop-
great price difference in ship repair enterprises at different ment of the industry, which helps to create a good com-
places. At present, the labor cost difference of some ship petitive environment. Therefore, it is supported by many
repair enterprises in changing steel is even more than RMB ship repair enterprises.
Table 3.7 Major list and cost of S. no. Engineering content Budget cost/RMB %
dock repair works of an oil tanker
1 Service items 239,778 11.63
2 Dock repair works 379153.2 18.38
3 Deck works 905089.8 43.89
4 Marine engineering 444552.5 21.56
5 Electrical engineering 93,784 4.54
2. Case study on corrosion cost calculation of ships cost of the shipping enterprise. The coating cost can account
for 3–5% of the dock repair cost and the coating material
(1) Investigation on the corrosion cost of a certain oil tan- cost accounts for about 10% of the total coating cost. The
ker dock repair costs of coating materials, coating, materials for replacement
maintenance, and other corrosion prevention and labor costs
The VLCC 300,000 ton oil tanker of a certain oil trans- reach 30–40% of each overall maintenance cost.
portation company started construction in 2008 and was It is calculated that the annual loss of the tanker due to
delivered in 2010. The construction cost of each VLCC is corrosion accounts for about 4.5% of the impairment of the
about USD 40 million (about RMB 268 million). By early ship’s assets.
2015, according to the company’s annual report, the ship had
a net worth of about RMB 156 million with an impairment (2) Investigation on corrosion cost of a tugboat in minor
of about RMB 112 million. repair
The ship is planned to have the second dock repair in
2015. The main list and cost of dock repair are shown in The tugboat is a large-scale ocean-going tugboat of the
Table 3.7, with a total budget cost of about RMB 2.1 mil- second generation with 9,000 horsepower. It started service
lion. The dock repair works include the overhaul of hull around 2008 and had a minor repair in 2015, with a total cost
paint, rudder, anchor and ballast compartment, fresh water of about RMB 12.5 million. Through the statistical analysis,
compartment, anchor chain compartment, and subsea valve the cost related to corrosion was about 5.58%. Since this
box, replacement of zinc block, and re-marking of hull mark. project is a minor repair project, almost all the coating
Repair and renovation works of pipes and valves mainly materials inside and outside the hull of the ship shall be
refer to the repair of seawater pipes: ① Pipe shall be welded renewed. Therefore, the coating material cost accounts for
on both sides with complete penetration but without slag the vast majority of the corrosion-related costs of the entire
inclusion. ② After the pipe is welded, it shall be polished minor repair project. See Table 3.8 for details.
and submitted to the ship owner for inspection. ③ After
acceptance, the pipes shall be treated with plastic coating
and hot-dip galvanizing. Seawater pipes with a diameter of 3.3 Investigation Report on Corrosion
60 mm or above are required for plastic coating; Hot-dip in the Automotive Industry
galvanizing is required for those below 60 mm, with smooth
zincating surface and no convex point. After the pipes are 3.3.1 Overview of Automobile Corrosion
processed well, it is strictly prohibited to conduct heat as a Whole
treatment such as opening by welders during pipe installa-
tion. ④ Repair and delivery of old pipes for standby. ⑤ With the continuous development of the global economy,
Repair and renewal of globe valves, etc. the automobiles have become more and more popular and
The designed service life of the tanker is 15 years, and has become an important means of transportation in modern
the initial dock repair was carried out in 2012. Generally society. China, in particular, has grown at a rate of over 10%
speaking, the expenses on fuel and lubricating oil, spare a year since entering the twenty-first century, and its current
parts and repair of the ship are the “big part” of the operation ownership has reached 280 million. The body of an
Table 3.8 Cost on maintenance S. no. Engineering content Budget cost/RMB %

related to corrosion of a tugboat
in a minor repair 1 Material cost 30,000 0.024
2 Coating material cost 507,400 4.06
3 Labor cost 160,000 1.28
Total 697,400 5.58
222 H. Xu
Fig. 3.45 Before and after corrosion of automobiles
Fig. 3.46 Scrapped automobiles
automobile is made of metal, such as steel and aluminum. In automobile industry and is mainly used in the body, chassis,
the process of using these metal materials, corrosion grad- power and transmission system, and other automobiles [11].
ually occurs, which not only affects the appearance decora- For metal components, corrosion is one of the main ways
tion but also affects the function and safety (Figs. 3.45 and and mechanisms for material failure, and corrosion failure is
3.46). These will lead to customer complaints to the main often costly. As the product of modern industry, the auto-
engine plants, affect the brand image, and bring economic mobiles have been developed for a hundred years. During
losses to the automobile industry. In the development of this period, every country pursues on how to prolong the
automobiles, one of the goals pursued by all countries is to service life of automobiles and reduce the cost of use and
improve the quality of automobiles and prolong the service maintenance of automobiles from the angles of safety and
life of automobiles. economy. According to statistics, there are three main forms
The metal materials, as one of the main pillars of modern of automobile damage, namely accident damage, friction
industrial society, play a very important role in the damage, and corrosion damage. Among them, corrosion
damage is the most common, mainly because the materials Automobile corrosion not only causes huge economic
used in automobile manufacturing are mainly metal (steel loss, waste of materials and energy but also brings envi-
material accounts for about 72–88% in the total weight of an ronmental pollution and traffic accidents. It is reported that
automobile). the average annual loss of corrosion per car in the world is
Nowadays the automobile industry is still booming in between $150 and $250. The annual loss of corrosion of
China, with a sale of 24.598000 vehicles in 2015, ranking automobiles in various countries is USD 200 billion in the
No. 1 around the world without drama. Similarly, the eco- United States and DM 2 billion in former West Germany,
nomic loss caused by automobile corrosion in China is also GBP 200 million to 500 million in the United Kingdom,
the biggest. According to statistics, the annual economic loss SEK 500 million in Sweden, and SUR 2.5 billion in the
caused by automobile corrosion in China is more than RMB former Soviet Union. In China, it is roughly estimated that
100 billion (Source: China Gateway to Corrosion and Pro- the cost of materials for repairing automobiles with corro-
tection). Therefore, the importance of corrosion prevention sion damage in the early 1980s was RMB 1 billion. Corro-
of metals in automotive materials is obvious. sion loss of bus bodies in Shanghai can reach RMB 24.9
The automobile industry of China started late, and inde- million to 25.5 million per year.
pendent brands have no definite dynamic corrosion test The data from the China Association of Automobile Man-
method and evaluation method for the whole vehicle, basi- ufacturers show that China’s automobile sales accelerated
cally with the automobile industry standard Test Method for growth year by year. In 2013, China produced and sold 22.1168
Enhanced Corrosion of Passenger Cars (QC/T 732-2005) million vehicles and 21.9841 million vehicles, with an increase
compiled by Hainan Tropical Automobile Test Co., Ltd. The of 14.76 and 13.87% year on year. China has become the
test period is 3–6 months, which can provide more effective world’s largest automobile market (Table 3.9 and Fig. 3.47).
directional guidance for the development and design of new The corrosion frequency of an automobile is related to its
vehicle models and the quality control of batch corrosion age and mileage. The frequency of corrosion is the propor-
prevention. Therefore, the dynamic corrosion test of the tion of the number of automobiles subject to corrosion to the
whole vehicle is one of the necessary means for the auto- investigated automobiles. It can be seen that the corrosion
mobile plants to carry out the development design and batch frequency of an automobile increases with the increase of its
quality control. age and mileage, respectively.
Table 3.9 China’s automobile corrosion loss

Year Output/10,000 vehicles Sales/10,000 vehicles Ownership/10,000 Automobile corrosion
Passenger Business Total Passenger Business Total vehicles loss/RMB 100 million
car car car car
70.35 163.09 233.44 72.15 164.22 236.37 1800 227
2006 523.31 204.66 727.97 517.6 204 721.6 3800 479
2011 1448.53 393.36 1841.89 1447.24 403.27 1850.51 9356 11791552.37
2012 1552.37 274.81 1927.18 1549.52 381.12 1930.64 12,089 1523
2013 1808.52 403.16 2211.68 1792.89 405.52 2198.41 13,700 1726
䫔䞣/ϛ䕚 Sales/10,000 vehicles
ᑈӑ Year
Fig. 3.47 Sales of automobiles in recent years

224 H. Xu
3.3.2 Corrosion Types of Automobiles under small periodic vibrations. The risk of corrosion of
automotive components under load is that parts break under
loads far below the yield limit of the materials. The hidden
1. Spotted corrosion and sudden nature of the corrosion is the hidden danger of
safe driving of automobiles.
Spotted corrosion is a kind of corrosion commonly occurring
in the automobile body, which is characterized by the bub-
bling and peeling of finish or coatings, the exposure of the 3.3.3 Corrosion of Different Parts
matrix, and the uniform corrosion or pitting. There are many of an Automobile
reasons for corrosion some of which result from gas bub-
bling and peeling of gas due to the reaction of matrix metal Corrosion parts of automobiles are mainly the body, near the
cathode; shedding of coatings due to anodic dissolution of frame, heat exchangers, engine systems, and others. Sand on
the matrix mental; the separation of paint layer due to sand the road hits the outer surface of the car, causing the coating
and stone splashing; and the joint action of multiple factors to fall off, the underbody materials to rust, and then results in
at the same time. local corrosion. Car chassis is impacted by gravels, sand, and
others, which may destroy the protective layer of automobile
2. Crevice corrosion surface, and cause chemical action and corrosion when
exposed to the oxygen in water and air.
Automobile crevice corrosion has many special forms, such We also need to recognize the locations where severe
as through corrosion, filiform corrosion, deposition corrosion occurs. Statistics on the ratio of perforation cor-
(under-deposit) corrosion, and others. The corrosion presents rosion to different parts of the body shows that if the ratio of
in different forms but the cause of corrosion lies in the perforation corrosion occurs at a certain location of the
existence of crevice. The differences in oxygen content, ion vehicle body is high, it is an indication that the part is a key
composition concentration, and pH value inside and outside part of the BIW corrosion prevention design (Fig. 3.48).
the crevice all lead to corrosion. Crevice corrosion is the Hence, these parts require close attention to the design of
most serious corrosion form of automobiles and is also the corrosion prevention.
most important cause of automobile damage. The ratio of perforation corrosion in each part shall be
sorted, which is proportional to the corrosion strength of
3. Other local corrosion each part: Skirt of the side wall Fender Other parts
of the side wall (lower parts of columns A, B, and
Automobile local corrosion still presents in pitting corrosion, C) Chassis Wheel eyebrow Four doors
bimetallic corrosion, or intergranular corrosion. Pitting cor- Trunk Engine compartment = Top cover Rear deck-
rosion often occurs on the surfaces of stainless steel, alu- lid Spare wheel basin.
minum and aluminum alloys, zinc alloy components, and The above analysis shows that the main corrosion areas of
tin, copper and chromium-plated nickel parts. Especially in the BIW are mainly concentrated in the body frame com-
the environment with chloride ion, that is, in the road with posed of the skirt of the side wall, fender, columns A, B, and
anti-freezing salt and in the ocean atmosphere, pitting cor- C of the side wall, wheel eyebrow and chassis, but the four
rosion of automobiles is most serious. Bimetallic corrosion doors cannot be ignored.
occurs in dissimilar metal connectors with more negative In view of the number of complaints, the fender is
electrode potential, such as zinc, aluminum, and their coat- equivalent to the engine compartment and cover, but the
ings, which are connected with steel parts. Corrosion is easy fender is more likely to be damaged in terms of the strength
to occur due to a potential difference. Intergranular corrosion of corrosion. Similar parts should be paid more attention to in
is a common corrosion of automobile parts such as stainless the corrosion prevention design. Special attention should be
steel and aluminum alloy. The intergranular corrosion results purposefully paid to the areas with high corrosion strength.
from the change of grain and boundary chemical composi- The door panels and frames are heavily corroded in the
tion caused by heating and welding during manufacturing. near-ground area by sand splashing and anti-freezing salts.
Because of incomplete coating and untight seal of folded
4. Corrosion under loading conditions welding place, water and gas are easy to enter, so penetration
corrosion from inside to outside often occurs. Near window
Some load-bearing members in automobiles are prone to frames and decorative strips, crevice corrosion is often
stress corrosion cracking under the static load in wet cor- caused by poor sealing of rubber strips or aging. Crevice
rosive environments. The corrosion fatigue is liable to occur corrosion often occurs between the body frame and panels.
under the cyclic dynamic loading. Fretting corrosion occurs When aluminum alloy is used as the top cover frame and
The amount of corrosion occurring in different parts

The ratio of perforation corrosion in different parts of the body
Chassis
Engine compartment
Cover
Four doors
Rear decklid
Fender
Other parts of the side wall
Wheel eyebrow
Skirt of the side wall
Trunk
Spare wheel basin
Top cover (Skylight)
Fig. 3.48 Ratio of perforation corrosion in different parts of the body
steel is used as the outer cover of the top cover, bimetallic insufficient and the function failure occurs in a short period
corrosion is common at the joints in the environment con- of time; ② Excessive quality and excessive pursuit of
taining chloride ions. long-term appearance without rusty corrosion lead to cor-
rosion failure cycle of parts far exceeding the cycle of the
1. Chassis corrosion whole vehicle, resulting in high cost and waste of resources.
The foreign-invested or joint-venture mainstream auto-
The chassis is the focus of the corrosion. The chassis system mobile brands are generally superior to independent brands
includes four systems: transmission, steering, suspension, in terms of corrosion prevention design capability, standard
and braking. Most of the chassis system is exposed to mud system perfection, and component quality consistency, and
and water splash, stone impact, etc., and is one of the worst can better coordinate the above two contradictions and
corrosive environment areas in each system of the complete achieve an ideal balance between quality and cost. Inde-
automobile (Figs. 3.49 and 3.50). At the same time, most of pendent brands have generally recognized the importance of
the chassis systems are not visible when the automobile is corrosion prevention of automobiles, and the change of
normally parked and running, so the chassis system is also consciousness has also promoted the remarkable improve-
one of the areas where the appearance is least noticed. ment of corrosion prevention capability of independent
In view of the above two characteristics, there are gen- brands. But limited to the technical strength, cost pressure,
erally two phenomena in the area of automobile chassis and management ability, there is still a great gap with the
corrosion: ① The ability of corrosion prevention is seriously international mainstream brands, especially the development
226 H. Xu
Fig. 3.49 The underbody of the automobile was splashed with mud
Fig. 3.50 Corrosion of underbody joint of the automobile
of independent brands entering a plateau under the new which is featured with lifting and spalling of coatings ini-
normal at present. Under the condition of almost no brand tially and then cracking and rusting. Crevice corrosion
premium, the cost has become the bottleneck that limits the occurs frequently at the overlap of the panel, especially in
further improvement of corrosion prevention performance of the area of skirt closer to the ground, where penetration
automobiles, which also sets higher requirements for the corrosion often occurs (Fig. 3.51).
design capability, application capability, and supplier man- The automobile girder and mudguard are the closest to the
agement of corrosion prevention. ground and are most affected by sand and stone and the splash
of salt water. If not washed in time, it is easy to cause corrosion
2. Body corrosion under-deposit, or even penetration corrosion if serious. The
components in the exhaust system are the most severely cor-
The automobile body is made of tailor-welded steel plate. roded parts of the automobile. Its exterior is impacted by sand
Therefore, crevices are formed in the overlapped parts of the and stone, and its interior is corroded by high-temperature
folded edge, wrapped edge, and plates. These crevice parts exhaust gas and low-temperature condensed water, so corro-
are not easy to form a complete paint film that meets the sion perforation is common. The use of special materials such
requirements of the specified thickness in the coating process as stainless steel or aluminized steel plate would have good
and are also most susceptible to corrosion. Body panel improvement. The fuel tank is also a component that is
corrosion occurs mostly in the form of spotted corrosion, externally impacted by sand and stone and internally corroded
Fig. 3.51 Corrosion of underbody frame of the automobile
Fig. 3.52 Exhaust system corrosion
by fuel, and even with new fuels, the corrosion has not been 3. Exhaust system and engine corrosion
alleviated because some of the new fuels contain small
amounts of water, chloride, and sulfate, which accelerate The exhaust system is located on the underbody, and liquid
corrosion. or mud splashed during driving of automobiles will adhere
The perforation corrosion mainly originates from the joint to the exhaust system, and corrosion will be accelerated due
of different parts of automobiles, such as holes and troughs, to the high operating temperature of the exhaust system
so it is very difficult for the entered moisture to volatilize (Fig. 3.52). Automobile enterprises in the design of exhaust
immediately. The skirt is the typical area of perforation system will use stainless steel materials, stainless steel is not
corrosion and is in a bad corrosive environment under direct absolutely noncorrosive, and will also gradually make cor-
contact with moisture and snow removing agent in winter. If rosion appear in the long-term use process. The most serious
the above substances enter the inner cavity of the skirt and corrosion will lead to the perforation of the exhaust system,
cannot be removed in time, or if the electrophoresis coating with abnormal noise, causing users to complain.
process in the inner cavity is poor and the improper corro- When the engine uses new fuel (such as ethanol/gasoline
sion prevention materials are selected, corrosion will occur mixture fuel) and if strict measures are not taken when the
rapidly, resulting in perforation [12]. water content of the new fuel is too high (the water amount
228 H. Xu
Fig. 3.53 Corrosion in connection parts of automobiles
Fig. 3.54 Corrosion of automobile engine
in the United States should be less than 0.5%), serious In the early year, the brake pipes were made of carbon
corrosion will occur. If no corrosion inhibitor is added in the steel pipes and galvanized steel pipes, and then
water circulation system, corrosion will occur at the location copper-plated/nickel steel pipes and stainless steel pipes
where the water flow is the slowest due to the oxygen were used. Ethylene glycol/ether solution and mineral oil or
concentration difference. The radiator, water pump, cylinder ethylene glycol/ether solution and silicone oil were mostly
block, and cylinder head are made of different materials used for the pipes. When there is liquid free water, there is
(such as brass, copper, steel, cast iron, aluminum, and sol- fluctuating pressure in pipes, which may cause corrosion
der), and the joint is prone to double metal corrosion. fatigue cracking, and in the atmosphere with more SO2 and
Ethylene glycol antifreeze is commonly used in winter and Cl− content, this kind of cracking is more frequent. Auto-
serves as an electrically conductive medium; therefore mobile exchangers are usually made of aluminum alloy with
bimetallic corrosion is severer (Figs. 3.53 and 3.54) [13]. a pure Freon inside which does not corrode. In case of
The corrosion of battery box results not only from improper maintenance, the acid formed after moisture
splatters of sand and stone on the road surface but also from absorption causes pitting or intergranular corrosion. In the
the overflow of battery acid. The automobile spring is sub- oil cooler, corrosion does not occur if no water is present. In
ject to large cycle dynamic load and sometimes suffers from a radiator using antifreeze, water impurities often exist to
corrosion fatigue, which brings safety hazard to automobiles. cause corrosion penetration, which can only be avoided by
Fig. 3.55 Lifting and rusting of the internal cavity of automobiles
adding sufficient corrosion inhibitor. When the heat 5. Nonmetallic materials and basic conditions of aging
exchanger is installed at the front end of an automobile, it is
heavily corroded due to the splash and impact of rainwater, The trail of automobiles is scattered all over the world,
dust, sand, and the like. In the driving of automobiles, the whether it is the polar regions with ice and snow, or the hot
condensed dew under the meter will wet the metal surface, and humid tropical rain forest; whether it is a dusty desert or
which will resume drying when automobiles are parked. a rugged hilly area, there are cars on the road. During the
This kind of dry-wet alternating corrosive environment service period, automobiles will face all kinds of environ-
easily causes the metal aluminum to crack and fall off, mental tests, especially in the process of outdoor stationary
resulting in local pitting corrosion. Bimetallic corrosion parking; the weather factors such as light, hot and cold
often occurs in tubes and fins. Whether the pipeline leaks or atmosphere, wind, frost, rain, and snow will cause more
not determines the service life of the automobile exchanger, serious damage to most of most metals or nonmetallic parts
so zinc is often added to reduce the potential of cooling fins, on automobiles. Corrosion of metal materials, aging of
which plays a role of cathodic protection on the aluminum polymer materials, failure of automobile electronic compo-
pipeline. nents, and the like are caused, thereby affecting the
appearance and function of automobiles and the air quality
4. Corrosion of automobile internal cavity and coating inside the automobiles, and even leading to safety accidents
zone when it becomes serious. Therefore, the ability of automo-
biles to withstand the destruction of climate environment
The corrosion of the internal cavity of an automobile is (for short, aging resistance) is an important quality charac-
caused by the incomplete coating because the coating of the teristic of automobiles (Fig. 3.57).
internal cavity does not reach the thickness specified by the Aging resistance is a long-term quality characteristic and
corrosion prevention requirement, which reduces the corro- one of the factors promoting automobile brands to grow
sion prevention capability of the automobile body; on the from the large to the strong one. Well-known foreign auto-
other hand, the internal cavity structure suffers from poor mobile manufacturers (such as General Motors, Volkswa-
exhaust and drainage. It is liable to cause corrosion due to gen, and Toyota) had the early understanding of automobile
the accumulation of moisture, sewage, corrosive gas, and aging, with the early implementation of the related research
sediment (Fig. 3.55). work, and have formed a relatively perfect automobile
In the process of coating, some contact parts of auto- aging-resistant technical system. The Society of Automotive
mobiles cannot be subject to electrophoresis and spray Engineers (SAE), the Verband der Automobilindustrie
painting, and generally, each whole vehicle manufacturer (VDA), and the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Associa-
has a corresponding auxiliary coating sequence, but the tion, Inc. (JAMA) have also established a set of automobile
improper design and use will also result in early corrosion of environmental test standards, so as to ensure that these
the parts of the body in contact with the tooling (Fig. 3.56). well-known brand automobiles have good resistance to
230 H. Xu
Fig. 3.56 Corrosion of contact parts of automobile bodies
aging. The aging resistance requirement of the whole vehicle Sealing strip: The powdering of sealing strips is one of
also drives the aging resistance quality requirements of the the most common aging failure phenomena in automobiles.
automobile parts. The aging of the sealing strips affects the sealing perfor-
The typical failure parts and failure form of automobiles mance of the automobile compartment. The relative
are described below. humidity of the air inside the automobiles increases, which
There are some parts with more concentrated failure will cause corrosion and rust in the metal parts of the
problems in the aging resistance problems exposed during automobiles. Seriously, it will cause water in the compart-
the test of the whole vehicle in Hainan Hot and Wet Natural ment, and the carpet inside the automobiles will grow
Exposure Test Ground, and the problems are universal. mildew.
Safety belt buckles: In addition to the widespread
occurrence of rust spots and fading in the safety belt buckles, 6. Corrosion of automobile brake system
there are many aging-resistant failures due to cracks in the
safety belt buckle plastics, which is a major failure with Unreasonable design, incorrect installation of components,
potential safety hazards. The main reason for the cracking of leakage of brake fluid in battery coolant, and others may
seat belt buckles is that the internal stress is not completely make rust in the internal parts of automobiles hidden and
removed in the production process of injection molding; difficult to find, but generally, it is more serious when there
hence the production process can be improved to eliminate are obvious signs (Fig. 3.58).
it. Because the wheel hub is under stress for a long time, and
Dashboard: Automobile dashboard assembly is also a the wheel hub is extremely vulnerable to foreign objects, and
very common failure component; its failure forms are mainly often suffers from various mud, low temperature and rain
viscous dashboard mesa, degumming, the fading of the red and snow environment; the damaged parts are exposed to the
safety warning button in the central console, etc. Dashboard water environment, causing the wheel hub to be easily
and users face or contact directly and frequently; any obvi- corroded (Fig. 3.59).
ous failure will affect consumer sentiment, especially some
serious aging failure will directly affect consumer’s control 7. Basic situation of anti-rust packaging, storage, and
feeling, and easily cause quality complaints. transportation of automobile
Lamp: The main failures of the lamp are the powdering of
the lamp cover film and the yellowing of the lamp cover. The anti-rust packaging and storage and transportation of the
Some of the more serious failure phenomena are that the automobiles are mainly for the anti-rust protection during the
lamp system is composed of a variety of materials, which are production, storage, and transportation of the whole vehicle
prone to poor cooperation among parts such as degumming, or parts, and mainly covers the anti-rust and KD anti-rust
separation, surface difference, and looseness, which easily packaging during the production process of the whole
causes water accumulation in the lamp and even the coming vehicle (the whole vehicle is exported as parts), anti-rust
of insects. All of these will cause the life of the lamps to be packaging in the process of turnover, storage and trans-
shortened. portation of automobile parts and components.
(a) (a) Coating shedding of automobile body

(b) (b) Discoloration of interior seats
(c) (c) Cracking of seat belt buckles
(d) (d) Burning of automobile body
Fig. 3.57 Typical case of automobile aging resistance failure
Fig. 3.58 Corrosion caused by water intake of wiper motor and corrosion caused by battery leakage
232 H. Xu
Fig. 3.59 Corrosion of wheel hub
After the storage and transportation of the whole vehicle, how to reduce the losses caused by improper packaging and
the goal is to ensure that there is no rust before the vehicle is excessive packaging, reduce the cost and increase efficiency
sold, so as to avoid the deterioration of the quality caused by in packaging to the greatest extent, and ensure that the
the corrosion or the buyer’s complaint. After the storage and product quality is not affected has become the common
transportation of parts and components, the goal is pro- problem of management personnel and technical personnel
cessing, such as painting and assembly. Once rust corrosion of many enterprises, or even the whole automobile industry
occurs, the rust removal process must be added, which at present.
brings extra economic cost. More importantly, the surface The following are classic cases of the anti-rust packaging,
state change caused by the corrosion will lead to later per- storage, and transportation of automobiles.
formance degradation, and may even create a safety hazard.
There are many anti-rust packaging and anticorrosion (1) Case of CKD export corrosion
methods, which have varying scope of application. The
replacement time of the current products is becoming shorter Through many efforts, a factory finally obtains an export
and shorter and the international competition is intensifying. CKD project. As it did not realize that the transportation
Under the rising prices of raw materials, the soaring labor conditions of export products are different from domestic
costs, and the high production and logistics costs, it is par- ones, the factory still adopts the packaging method adopted
ticularly urgent to select the anti-rust protection methods in domestic transportation. As a result, when the products are
suitable for their own production characteristics to carry out opened for acceptance while reaching the customers, it is
lean production, reduce cost and increase efficiency, and found that the stamping parts have been seriously corroded,
optimize logistics and packaging management. Therefore, which results in the customer to reject and propose returning.
Fig. 3.60 Case of CKD export corrosion
The direct economic loss of this batch of products is millions out field investigation and analysis, and the experimental
of RMB, while the indirect loss of brand value and customer verification shows that the residual water of the cooling
trust is incalculable (Fig. 3.60). system is the main factor of the corrosion. In effect, the
The above case is that the importance of rust prevention engine before leaving the factory uses tap water cycle
for typical automobile parts in the production process and cooling for hot commissioning, and the residual water in the
storage, and transportation process is ignored, which ulti- waterway often cannot be drained. However, if the metal is
mately leads to product scrapping, causing great losses and immersed in water for a long time, it will cause serious
even threatening the reputation of enterprises. corrosion. Finally, the batch of products are totally returned
and the enterprise suffers economic loss (Fig. 3.61).
(2) Case of engine internal cavity corrosion
An automobile engine factory in China provides supporting 3.3.4 Factors Affecting the Corrosion
parts for more than 20 domestic factories of manufacturing of Automobiles
the whole vehicle. The engine has been exported with the
whole vehicle to the United States, Italy, Egypt, Australia Automobile service environment, design, material selection,
and other countries, and its quality received the high manufacturing process, and maintenance all affect the
recognition of the international market. However, the serious occurrence of automobile corrosion and the length of service
corrosion of the engine in the whole vehicle results in cus- life. In China, automobile corrosion is most serious in
tomer complaints, which affects the reputation of the com- Qingdao with high SO2 and Cl− content in the atmosphere,
pany. In order to find the cause of corrosion, engineers carry second in Chengdu with high temperature and humidity and
234 H. Xu
From the perspective of environmental media, the main

medium causing corrosion damage of automobiles is the
atmospheric environment, in which sulfur dioxide and
chloride ions play an important role in automotive corrosion.
The main factors affecting automobile corrosion are the
atmospheric environment, relative humidity in the air, sulfur
dioxide, chloride ions, dust, and anti-icing salts in cold
regions. The corrosion of metallic materials is closely related
to environmental factors. Temperature, humidity, light, and
other factors will lead to the change of the surface protective
layer, thus leading to corrosion of the metal matrix. China
has a vast territory, covering nearly 10 kinds of climate
distribution from the frigid zone to tropical zone, oceanic,
desert and other climates, and the corrosion situation is
extremely complex. For automobile manufacturers, the cor-
Fig. 3.61 Case of engine internal cavity corrosion rosion prevention of the whole vehicle is one of the most
important quality characteristics of the products. But the
long humid time, lighter in Guangzhou, and the lightest in corrosion prevention of the whole vehicle occurs under the
dry and low-temperature Beijing and Urumqi. Corrosion will influence of a variety of factors including environment, use
be greatly mitigated by the use of the protective design in habits, parking storage, and others in the long-term use
automotive design. If the bag-like structure and retention are process. It usually takes 3–6 years or more to collect cor-
avoided, the accumulation of sediment and rainwater can be rosion data through user vehicle information feedback,
prevented, thereby reducing the under-deposit corrosion. All which is too long, and cannot form effective guidance for
components shall be connected in a closed design to block new vehicle development and monitoring of batch models.
the crevice and prevent corrosion of the crevice. Beijing In order to solve the timeliness of the actual corrosion and
buses which originally used up–down manual opening now play an early warning role, the global automobile groups
use the left–right push–pull opening, which greatly reduces developed the dynamic corrosion test method and evaluation
the corrosion of window corners and panels. In the later method of the whole vehicle according to their own market
stage of buses in Guangzhou and Chengdu, aluminum plate share, climate conditions in key areas, user use and com-
were used for body panels; some cars in Qingdao were made plaints, which can reflect most of the problems occurring in
of glass fib reinforced plastic, some trucks were made of fuel the extreme areas within 3–12 months, and can be solved by
tanks, mudguards, and pedals; some vehicles were made of means of development design and production improvement
ornaments made of stainless steel. All of these have greatly in advance so as to reduce the risk of after-sale corrosion.
improved the corrosion resistance of automobiles. In The research of automobile corrosion environment is the
Guangzhou and Chengdu, the aluminum plate is used as the first link in transferring the corrosion engineering to the
body panel in the later stage. Some automobiles of the process of development and the establishment of the system.
Qingdao are made of FRP, some trucks use galvanized The automobile corrosion environment includes two factors:
sheets to make fuel tanks, fenders, and pedals and some first, the influence of climate corrosion environment,
automobiles are equipped with stainless steel to make dec- including rainfall/snow, chlorine ions in the air and so on,
orative objects. All of these greatly improve the corrosion for which the climate intensity map of corrosion in China
resistance of automobiles. can be formed through mathematical modeling; second, the
The application of strict pretreatment techniques of rust influence of the use environment of the automobiles,
removal, degreasing, phosphating, and passivation before including the salt used for removing snow on the road sur-
the painting of automobile body will greatly improve the face in winter, the stress of the vehicle body and parts under
adhesion of paint and thus improve the corrosion resistance driving conditions, the debris, mud, and water stains spla-
of automobiles. In the early years of automobile manufac- shed onto the vehicle body during driving (Figs. 3.62 and
turing in China, some manufacturers only used a simple 3.63). In accordance with the climate intensity map of cor-
manual grinding and rust removal process before painting; rosion in China, typically different regions are selected and
the paint performance was not good, and the painting pro- the corrosion condition of standard coupon samples can be
cess was also backward, resulting in lifting, shedding, and obtained by loading standard coupon samples on automo-
rust spots in many places within a short time after the biles, characterizing the corrosion strength under the driving
automobiles went into service for half a year to one year. environment in these areas. The corrosion phenomenon that
Fig. 3.62 Mud environment faced by automobiles
Fig. 3.63 Low-temperature environment of rain and snow faced by automobiles
often occurs on the automobiles is the performance of the new vehicle. It is necessary to establish the corrosion failure
comprehensive action of the environmental factors in these relationship between the whole vehicle and the parts and
two aspects. Through the intensity of corrosion performance determine the acceleration ratio of the two parts by analyzing
in the actual driving environment, the modification of the the corrosion damage forms and characteristics during the
climate intensity map of corrosion in China can be further actual use of the automobile parts, so as to predict corrosion
made to draw the climate intensity map of corrosion in behavior of the whole vehicle by the corrosion condition of
China. At the same time, according to the expectation of the automobile parts and greatly simplify the life test flow of
domestic customers for automobile corrosion protection and the whole vehicle.
the manufacturer’s quality assurance demand, the grade
classification of the corrosion environment in China can be
worked out. 3.3.5 Corrosion Prevention Technologies
There is no uniform standard for the evaluation of auto- of Automobiles
mobile corrosion, and the evaluation methods adopted by
different countries and enterprises are different. In addition, The automobile corrosion protection work mainly considers
the evaluation method adopted at present requires a long from structural design, material performance, and construction
period of testing, and cannot rapidly evaluate the corrosion process comprehensively, which complement each other and
resistance of automobiles and components, which greatly finally achieve the goal of automobile corrosion prevention
limits the research and development and test cycle of the performance.
236 H. Xu
1. Structural design door panel, left and right fenders, and ceilings shall be
made of galvanized steel plates.
a. Structure design of body cavity: The internal cavity of (2) In the premise of ensuring functions, nonmetal materi-
the skirt and columns of side wall are designed according als, aluminum alloy, and composite materials are also
to the definition of the whole vehicle seal. It is necessary selected for fuel tank cover, rearview mirror and
to evaluate which parts of the vehicle body are in bracket, left and right fenders, and others, which can
high-risk areas of corrosion, which parts cannot be greatly improve the corrosion prevention capability on
designed with closed areas, or allow the cavity structure the one hand, and reduce the weight of the automobile
to be well ventilated and drained to ensure that the and cost on the other hand.
structure can meet the requirements of the electrophoretic (3) A nonmetallic material itself will not corrode, but it will
coating process. Due to the need for electrophoresis or lose its sealing function due to its deformation and
wax spraying technology, it is often necessary to set cracking, which will cause corrosion and failure of
process holes, which should be located so as to facilitate many components and parts. Therefore, it is necessary
the spray gun nozzle to cover the whole surface. In to select materials with good weather resistance.
addition, the inlet hole shall be located so as to prevent (4) Fasteners such as bolts, screws, and clamps shall be
water and stones from entering directly, and the drainage made of alloy materials with good corrosion resistance.
hole shall be located at the bottommost part of the
enclosed area and detention place. Water vapor and dust 3. Corrosion prevention process design
accumulation should be avoided as far as possible in
structural design. Electrophoretic coating process, sealing process, body
b. Appearance design of parts and components: The chas- welding gap control, and assembly process are closely
sis, for example, minimizes the windward side and related to the corrosion prevention of the body. At present, a
reduces the probability of pebbles hitting. The corrosion series of products are widely used in automobile coating,
resistance is associated with the specific structure of the including metal surface treatment, cathodic electrophoretic
part. There are high vertically raised parts, which can coating materials, solvent-based coating materials, powder
undertake greater impact of stones and other solid par- coating materials, water-based coating materials, and so on.
ticles than low vertically raised parts; some parts face the Coating is the most widely used method for the protection of
ground with large areas, which not only bear solid impact modern industrial materials. The coating should exert its
but also are directly exposed to the corrosive environ- protective function. The type of substrate and pretreatment
ment, with serious corrosion situation. During the design, have a direct influence on the effective adhesion of the
it is essential to reduce the total horizontal area, keep the coating film on the surface of the substrate. The coating
metal surface at an angle with the direction of stones process of coating materials is closely related to whether the
spattered by the tire, and reduce the impact of stones as formed coating film can achieve the design function of the
much as possible, so as to reduce the corrosion rate. In coating materials. These three are interrelated and affect each
structural design, it is necessary to avoid sharp edges and other. Only by the best combination of the three, can we
reduce rough surfaces. Tracking advanced technologies achieve good corrosion prevention.
in developed countries, it is found to use laser
tailor-welded steel plates to manufacture automobile (1) The cathodic electrophoretic coating has good corrosion
bodies, reducing cavities and spot welding structures prevention ability, and has irreplaceable advantages in
[14]. improving the corrosion prevention of complex struc-
tural parts, and can realize the automatic production
2. Body material design with the stable coating quality. At the same time, the
parts that may easily be hit by stones can be covered
After investigating the corrosion frequency and corrosion with the stone impact-free coating materials, and the
degree of different parts of the vehicle body, the vehicle under frame of the vehicle body uses low-density PVC
body materials are selected according to the investigation coating materials.
results. (2) In the left and right fenders, front and rear wheel
housing, inside and outside plate welding seams of front
(1) According to the investigation of foreign research and rear pillars, and other various welding points, sea-
institutions, the most prominent factor in obtaining lant can effectively prevent crevice corrosion; welding
good rust prevention is the use of 7–10 lm thick zinc seams are used to seal the sharp edges of the door inner
coating. It is suggested that the engine hood, trunk lid, panel, engine hood, and trunk lid, and hem glue is used
Fig. 3.64 Schematic diagram of typical wax spray components
in the door envelope, which not only increases the pull lock bracket), wax spraying shall be adopted. The wax
strength of flanging but also prevents moisture and road spraying parts of the chassis standard parts mainly include
soil from penetrating and causing crevice corrosion. the installation of standard parts on the front and rear sus-
(3) The anti-rust wax treatment at the bottom crevice sur- pension, the installation of standard parts on the subframe,
face, the cavity that cannot be closed, engine com- the mounting of bolts on shock absorber and steering
partment, and door hinge can greatly improve the knuckle, the connecting of bolts to shock absorber and the
corrosion prevention capability of these parts. suspension, and the mounting of bolts on shift lock bracket.
(4) Deviation control in the manufacturing process. After Wax spraying cases are shown in Fig. 3.65.
the complete assembly of the automobile, a special The automobile corrosion in China is more serious, the
station shall be set up to make up the coating for the maintenance period is frequent, and the material consump-
damaged parts in the assembly process. tion is larger. In recent decades, with the rapid development
of the automobile industry, the automobile protection
The exposed metal parts, assembly damage and other countermeasures are strengthened day by day, but compared
areas of the automobile can be protected by spraying wax, with foreign countries, the automobile protection perfor-
and the typical parts are as follows (Fig. 3.64): front and rear mance in China still has quite a disparity.
suspension (①), steering knuckle (②), drive shaft ball cage
and shaft (③), lower parts of front and rear shock absorber (1) The automobile industry in China has the tendency of
(④), shaft and bracket of transmission shaft (⑤), steering paying attention to the output and neglecting the qual-
rod and ball head (⑥), transverse stabilizer bar and con- ity, and with poor awareness of the corrosion preven-
necting link of stabilizer bar (⑦). Chassis corrosion-prone tion of the automobiles, has not taken sufficient
parts such as subframe, main reducer, engine rear suspen- protective countermeasures in the design and manu-
sion, and machined surface (except wheel hub, exhaust facture of automobiles.
system, oil tank, etc.) are sprayed with the chassis anti-rust (2) All kinds of coated steel plates, which are very
wax continuously and uniformly. The thickness of the wax important for automobile corrosion resistance, can be
film is recommended to be above 50 lm, and the wax film is produced in China, but their output, quality, size, and
complete and free of flowing and drippings. variety cannot meet the requirements.
The surface coating is easy to be damaged during the (3) Although various kinds of protective coating materials
installation of some connecting bolts, brackets, and bolts in and processes with excellent performance have been
the chassis, and the quality of surface paint film on the edge studied in China, there are still many problems in their
of brackets is poor, which leads to poor corrosion resistance varieties and properties, coating processes and equip-
of bolts and brackets. For the hard-to-control bolt connecting ment. There is still much work to be done on the
parts and brackets (such as oil pipe fixing bracket and shift localization of imported equipment and processes.
238 H. Xu
Fig. 3.65 Schematic diagram of wax spraying position of bolts and brackets in the chassis
(4) In automobile maintenance and use, we should take whole quotation mode and do not have cost management for
some protective measures. At present, there is not any surface corrosion prevention, it is difficult to calculate the
relevant regulation or clause in China. Automobile cost separately. In addition, since the after-sales feedback of
maintenance and users do not have the awareness as the power assembly is few, which is directly reflected as the
well as the knowledge of protection. corrosion failure, the investigation does not include the
corrosion prevention cost of the subassembly connectors and
the corrosion cost caused by the after-sales maintenance.
3.3.6 Analysis of Main Corrosion Costs
2. Cost analysis of automobile chassis
1. Power cost analysis
There are many technical ways to prevent corrosion of
This investigation takes the power assembly of a certain components of the chassis system. Take the model selling
independent brand with the largest market volume as the for RMB 100,000 as an example. Table 3.11 lists the
object. The surface area or quality of a piece is accurately methods and costs of corrosion prevention surface treatment
calculated through the BOM list of parts, and the cost of of main chassis components. See Table 3.11 for more
power assembly corrosion prevention is calculated according information.
to the average processing price of each surface treatment According to the above contents, the corrosion prevention
process (Table 3.10). Because some subgroups adopt the cost of the chassis of an automobile worth of about RMB
Table 3.10 Cost analysis of the powertrain

Types Pieces Total area (dm2) Total mass (kg) Unit price (RMB) Cost (RMB)
Zinc electroplating 138 13.16 3.7 4 14.8
Zinc–aluminum coating 6 0.13 5 0.65
Zn–Ni alloy 5 1.2 15.792
Phosphating 61 0.21 4.9 2 9.8
Copper plating 64 1.32 5 6.6
Stainless steel 2 12 24
Coating 8 0.845 10 8.45
Decorative chrome plating 1 6 6
Aluminum oxidation 1 3 3
Total cost 89.092
Based on the above estimates, the cost of the power assembly is about RMB 90/automobile.
Table 3.11 Methods and costs of surface treatment of chassis components

Subsystem Components and parts Optional surface treatment Typical cost cases Area Unit price Cost/automobile
(dm2) (RMB) (RMB)
Transmission Transmission shaft Spray paint Spray paint 100 0.2 15
system
Reducer housing Spray paint/electrophoresis/aluminum base Electrophoresis 40 0.35 14
Drive shaft Shaft: powder spraying Shaft: powder 50 0.45 22.5
spraying
Cage: no processing/spray paint/powder Cage: no processing 0 0
spraying
Shift cable holder Galvanized/galvanized nickel Galvanized 3 0.4 1.2
alloy/electrophoresis
Steering Steering column Cab: phosphating/oiling Cab: oiling 0
system
Cab: electrophoresis/spray paint Cab: electrophoresis 15 0.35 5.25
Steering gear housing Galvanized/Zn–Ni alloy/aluminum Aluminum base 0 0 0
Base/Electrophoresis
Steering track rod Electrophoresis/galvanized nickel Electrophoresis 15 0.35 5.25
alloy/galvanized/galvanized nickel alloy
Steering oil pump Aluminum Aluminum 0 0
Steering knuckle Electrophoresis/powder spraying/aluminum Electrophoresis 25 0.35 8.75
base
Power steering pump Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.2
(bracket)
Steering tie rod ball studs Ball pin: Zn–Ni alloy Ball pin: Zn–Ni alloy 0.4 0.8 0.32
Base: galvanized/galvanized nickel Base: electrophoresis 1 0.35 0.4
alloy/electrophoresis
Power steering tank bracket Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.2
Mounting bracket of Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.2
electronic vacuum pump
Steering return pipe clamp Zn–Al coating Zn–Al coating 2.4 0.8 1.92
Steering tubing and fittings PVF/galvanized/Zn–Ni alloy/aluminum PVF + Zn–Ni alloy 8 0.8 6.4
Suspension Front subframe Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 120 0.35 42
system
Rear subframe Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 120 0.35 42
Front shock absorber Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 30 0.35 10.5
Rear shock absorber Spray paint/electrophoresis/Autophoresis Electrophoresis 30 0.35 10.5
Coil spring Powder spraying Powder spraying 30 0.45 13.5
Stabilizer bar Rod body: powder spraying Rod body: Powder 80 0.45 36
spraying
Stabilizer rod clamp: electrophoresis Stabilizer rod clamp: 0.35 0.8
Electrophoresis
Wheel nut Decorative electroplating Decorative 16 16
electroplating
Upper arm Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 40 0.35 14
Lower arm Electrophoresis/powder spraying Electrophoresis 40 0.35 14
Rear axle Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 50 0.35 17.5
Wheel speed sensor bracket Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.35 0.4
Twist beam Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 100 0.35 35
Spare tire elevator Electrophoresis/galvanized Electrophoresis 15 0.35 5.25
Wheel rim Multilayer paint/multilayer powder Multilayer 250
paint/Multilayer
powder
Stable bar connecting rod Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 32 0.35 11.2
Lift support Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 2
(continued)
240 H. Xu

Subsystem Components and parts Optional surface treatment Typical cost cases Area Unit price Cost/automobile
(dm2) (RMB) (RMB)
Brake system Brake disk Zn–Al coating/spray paint Spray paint 200 0.2 40
Brake caliper Galvanized/Zn–Ni alloy/powder spraying Galvanized 36 0.4 14.4
Brake disk housing Electrophoresis/Powder spraying/Zn–Al Electrophoresis 240 0.35 84
coating
Brake pedal Powder spraying/electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.35 1
Brake reservoir (bracket) Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.35 0.2
ABS pump bracket Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.35 0.5
Brake tubing bracket Electrophoresis Electrophoresis 0.35 1
Handbrake cable holder Electrophoresis/galvanized Galvanized 3 0.4 1.2
Brake tubing rivet joint Galvanized/Zn–Ni alloy Galvanized 1.6 0.4 0.64
Brake pipe clamp bracket Electrophoresis/Zn–Al coating Electrophoresis 0.35 2
100,000 is about RMB 750. Electrophoresis and zinc elec- According to the information of some main engine fac-
troplating are the two most commonly used corrosion pre- tories and various aspects of the market, the current market
vention measures for chassis parts, with the mature price is probably as shown in Table 3.12.
technology and relatively low cost, and can meet most of the The specific cost depends on a number of factors, such as
protection requirements. It is not very significant to seek too whether to be closed and passive film thickness, and these
much surface treatment technologies with high corrosion coating parameters are related to the corrosion resistance of
protection capability. Major main engine factories need to the coatings. Therefore, the price basically reflects the per-
balance the acceptability and cost of the target customer formance of the coating, and they are directly proportional to
group of RMB 100,000 models. At present, low-cost each other, fully reflecting the market law of “The higher the
anti-rust measures and supplier quality assurance capacity price, the better the quality of the merchandise.” At present,
should be the focus of attention. the cost of the black coating is about 20% more expensive
than the natural color. But the application of the black
3. Cost analysis of electroplating corrosion prevention coating mostly has increased the vehicle’s newness and the
appearance feeling, and its value cannot be evaluated with
It is difficult, or almost impossible, to accurately analyze the the small cost increase.
cost of electroplating or zinc–aluminum coatings in the The above does not consider that there are still some
whole vehicle. According to the investigation, all main hexavalent chromium passivation or Dacromet technology
engine factories do not have a cost accounting system or containing hexavalent chromium in the market because they
method specially aimed at electroplating or zinc–aluminum are under the control of the law and cannot be used in
coatings. On the other hand, some of the integrated parts are automobiles anymore.
quoted as a whole, and the surface anticorrosion treatment is From Table 3.12, we can see that the specific cost of
not quoted separately, so it is difficult to calculate the cost of corrosion prevention depends to a large extent on the
the surface treatment separately. Furthermore, the purchase absolute amount of corrosion prevention of the parts with
price also involves some trade secrets, and it is not advisable metal coatings (as distinguished from nonmetallic coatings)
or possible to use absolute values to analyze the costs (fasteners are expressed in kilograms while non-fasteners are
involved in plating and zinc–aluminum coatings. Therefore, often expressed in square decimeters). It also depends on
this study takes a relative approach to make a rough analysis which metal coating is selected. Although they are also
of the costs involved in electroplating or zinc–aluminum metal coatings, the costs of galvanizing, galvanizing nickel
coatings. alloys and zinc-aluminum coatings vary.
Table 3.12 Unit cost comparison of various surface treatment technologies

Surface treatment technology Unit cost Remarks
Electrogalvanizing X Including trivalent chromium passivation, sealing, nonblack
Zinc–nickel alloy electroplating *(3–4) X Including trivalent chromium passivation, sealing, nonblack
Zinc–aluminum coating corrosion prevention *(2–3) X Only including base cost, no topcoat
Note The same coating thickness
In the case of fasteners, for example, if the amount of or zinc–aluminum coating, excluding fasteners, is about
fasteners used in an automobile is 20 kg (excluding the RMB 32 per vehicle and RMB 16 per vehicle, respectively. It
phosphating parts), and the average price of zinc electro- is assumed that the price of electroplating is RMB 0.4/dm2,
plating is assumed to be RMB 3.5/kg, and the price of the price of zinc-plated nickel alloy is RMB 1.2/dm2, and the
zinc-plated nickel alloy, zinc–aluminum coating and zinc cost of zinc–aluminum coating is RMB 0.8/dm2.
plating are RMB 3.5 and RMB 2.5, respectively. We con- According to the above estimates, the cost involved in
sider the following cases: electroplating and zinc–aluminum coating is about RMB
167 per bicycle.
(1) Case L1 (100% zinc electroplating, 0% g zinc-plated
nickel alloy, and 0% zinc–aluminum coating), the cost 4. Cost of coating for corrosion prevention
of plating corrosion protection for fasteners is about
RMB 70 per vehicle. As for a passenger car factory, the cost of anticorrosion
(2) Case L2 (60% zinc electroplating, 10% g zinc-plated coating for parts varies according to different models, prices
nickel alloy, and 30% zinc–aluminum coating), the cost and others, and we take the average value of about
of plating corrosion protection for fasteners is about RMB 1,700 (including tax), i.e., all passenger car factories
RMB 119 per vehicle. in China spend RMB 34 billion a year on corrosion
(3) Case H1 (20% zinc electroplating, 20% g zinc-plated prevention of parts and components. Of course, these
nickel alloy, and 60% zinc–aluminum coating), the cost costs include some transfer fee, packaging fee, taxes, and so
of plating corrosion protection for fasteners is about on.
RMB 168 per vehicle. At present, anticorrosion coating for parts and compo-
nents is carried out either by parts’ manufacturing enterprises
Through this investigation, the extremely low corrosion themselves, or via the external processing. The higher the
prevention L1 should not exist in the automobiles of Chinese coating costs, the more suitable the parts’ enterprises paint;
brands. Despite the lack of detailed data, we think that most smaller the work-piece area is and the lower the coating cost
of fastener surface treatment by main engine factories among is, the more suitable for external processing.
Chinese brands is around Case L2 while European and The anticorrosion coating processes for automobile parts
American automobiles are close to Case H1. and components mainly include electrophoresis, liquid paint,
By way of estimation, with reference to an automobile powder coating, and chrome-free zinc–aluminum coating.
with 20 kg fasteners (excluding phosphating fasteners) and The proper coating process is selected according to the
Case L2, the cost of an automobile using electroplating or substrate, property, and appearance requirements. The
zinc–aluminum coating is around RMB 119 per vehicle. Of direction of future development pays more attention to
course, this value depends on the number of fasteners for a environmental protection and excellent protection perfor-
particular vehicle. If the amount of fasteners is small, the mance. As Table 3.13 shows, we have carried on the
cost will be reduced. approximate cost analysis on the coating for automobile
The cost of corrosion prevention of the chassis and power parts and components with the better quality coating
assembly of Chinese brand automobiles with electroplating materials.
Table 3.13 Cost estimation for automobile parts and components

Workpiece Type of coating Usage Cost (RMB) Total cost of coating
materials (g) (excluding (RMB)
taxes) (excluding taxes)
Front axle Electrophoresis 271 5.68 36.90
Rear axle Electrophoresis 275 5.78 37.50
Control arm 2 Electrophoresis 73 1.52 8.70
Spring arm 4 Electrophoresis 180 3.78 21.60
Traction arm 4 Electrophoresis 44 0.95 3.90
Oil sump Electrophoresis 45 0.86 6.75
Bumper Electrophoresis 138 2.75 22.00
Shock absorber Electrophoresis 100 2.00 15.00
Brake housing 4 Electrophoresis 64 2.40 11.52
(continued)
242 H. Xu

Workpiece Type of coating Usage Cost (RMB) Total cost of coating
materials (g) (excluding (RMB)
taxes) (excluding taxes)
Car seat Electrophoresis 364 6.91 48.50
Guide rail Electrophoresis 52 1.04 9.00
Hub Electrophoresis 105 2.09 14.25
Skylight Electrophoresis 50 1.05 12.50
Knuckle Electrophoresis 65 1.37 18.80
Others Electrophoresis 500 10.50 90.00
Brake disk 4 Spray paint 66 6.60 33.00
Window shaker guide rail Powder 125 5.00 15.00
Front and rear bumpers Primer 150 4.50 35.00
Floating coat 500 30.00 250.00
Top coat 400 16.00 100.00
Rearview mirror Primer 30 0.90 7.00
Floating coat 50 3.00 25.00
Top coat 60 2.40 15.00
Instrument 3 panel (with air bag) Primer 400 12.00 96.00
Top coat 600 20.00 120.00
Central control Primer 30 1.00 8.00
Top coat 60 2.40 20.00
Aluminum hubs (4) Primer + Top coat 400 26.00 125.00
AB column Powder or Spray paint 40 2.00 10.00
Spring Powder or 20 1.00 5.00
Electrophoresis
Sign plate (front and rear two) and four wheel Powder or Spray paint 20 2.20 20.00
hubs
Total 183.67 1240.92
life and maintenance period of the steel structure facilities

3.4 Investigation Report on Corrosion such as vehicles are prolonged. The amount of steel cutting
in the Railway Industry down due to corrosion is greatly reduced. For example, the
period repair of passenger cars is increased from 1.5 years in
3.4.1 Overview of Corrosion of Railway Track the past to 2 years at present, and the shop repair is extended
from 4–6 years to 6–8 years. The period repair of freight
In China, the railway industry is one of the main users of all cars is extended from 6–8 years to 8–10 years. Railway
kinds of materials, especially metal materials—steel. At transportation plays an extremely important role in the
present, the coach structure of railway vehicles is mainly development of the national economy and accounts for a
made of atmospheric corrosion resistant steel, and the gen- large share of China’s transportation market, of which
eral bridges are mainly of reinforced concrete structure. The freight accounts for 54.6% of the transportation market.
large or super-large bridge is mainly made of a steel bridge, The accurate monitoring of the train entry and its location
and the material is mainly 16Mn. Corrosion is the major at the railway station is an important part of ensuring the safe
problem encountered in the use of these metallic materials, operation of the railway. At present, the large-scale stations
and in recent years some railway accidents (failures) are monitor the condition of the trains at the station through the
likely to be related to corrosion. Thanks to the improvement electric conduction between the rail and the wheels. How-
of metal materials and protective measures, the corrosion ever, most station rails are exposed to atmospheric and
was significantly reduced compared with that before the rainwater environment all the year round and are severely
1990s, and the outstanding performance is that the service corroded at present (Fig. 3.66), especially in cities with
Fig. 3.66 Corrosion of rail
severe industrial pollution, where acid rain makes the instance, the use of external current or surface coating (paint)
atmospheric corrosion of rails more serious. As a result, a is used for protection.
thick layer of rust often accumulates on the rail surface of the The corrosion of rail fasteners and catenary fittings is also
stations with a lower utilization rate, which will seriously very serious in some wet areas such as Sichuan and
affect the electrical conduction between the rail and the Chongqing, and the service life of galvanizing catenary fit-
wheels, thus easily forming a monitoring blind area and tings is only one year or more. Products made from atmo-
destroying the effectiveness and accuracy of the railway spheric corrosion-resistant steel can have a slightly longer
system for train monitoring, which will not only greatly life when used in the nude.
increase the difficulty of train dispatching but also lead to the In theory, galvanized products, especially hot-dip galva-
danger of train collision. One of the effective ways to solving nizing, can perform well under normal atmospheric condi-
this problem is to use better corrosion resistant rail materials, tions, with a service life of several years or even decades, but
but this will significantly increase the cost of the railway. are not applicable in areas with severe air pollution, espe-
cially acid rain.
3.4.2 Classification of Corrosion of Rail 2. Corrosion of train coaches
1. Corrosion of rail The corrosion of coaches can be generally divided into two
parts: ① corrosion inside coaches; ② External corrosion of
Since rails are exposed to the open air all the year round, coaches. The corrosion inside coaches is mainly concen-
under atmospheric rainwater, acid rain, and all kinds of hot trated in the washing room inside the train. The presence of
and hot environment as well as cold and warm alternating moisture results in rusty corrosion of the steel plate welds,
environment, which may cause severe corrosion; it is easy fastener joints, and others in the washroom (Fig. 3.68).
for a lot of rusty corrosion to appear at the fastening bolts of External corrosion of coaches mainly refers to corrosion
the rails (Fig. 3.67). of coach body surface (Fig. 3.69), exterior components and
Corrosion of rails mainly occurs in wet tunnels in coastal others, and exterior components mainly include wheels
areas and salt lake areas. Due to the influence of humid (Fig. 3.70). The wheels are subject to fatigue stress due to a
atmosphere as well as harmful gases, the pH value of the long-time running state, and under exposed environment, it
water film is lowered and the salt content is relatively raised, is easy to produce a lot of rust corrosion and stress fatigue
which provides sufficient conditions for corrosion. In some crack, which causes harm to train operation.
areas or road sections, track corrosion is very serious, and
some pieces start to flake off within a short period of time. 3. Corrosion of railway facilities
For the rail corrosion, the more common solution is to lower
the rail by one grade, for instance, P75 is used as P60 Not only the rails and coaches but also the corresponding
ordinary rail, and the regular (or fixed volume) rail change is facilities, such as railway bridges, supports, and tunnel
forced. Another method is to carry out protection, for facilities, suffer from various forms of corrosion (Figs. 3.71
244 H. Xu
Fig. 3.67 Exposure environment and corrosion status of rails
environmental conditions of the steel bridges vary greatly,

involving almost all the climatic types in China, for instance,
the steel bridges in Northeast China, North China, and
Central China are under cold and high-temperature, warm
and dry climate conditions; the steel bridges in North and
South China are in sub-humid and hot, humid and hot, and
marine climate with salt fog; the steel bridges in Northwest
China are in sandy climate, the steel bridges in Southwest
China are in hot and humid, and acid rain climate, and the
newly-built steel bridge on the Qinghai–Tibet Railway is
under the condition of strong ultraviolet radiation. Because
of the different external environment, the characteristics and
severity of steel bridge corrosion are different. As early as
the end of the eighteenth century, some European countries
realized the importance of protective coating on steel
Fig. 3.68 Corrosion of washroom in coaches
bridges. For many years, China has also invested a lot of
manpower and material resources in anticorrosion coating of
steel bridges. Now the fact that the longitudinal beam of
and 3.72). The steel structures of railway bridges are Wuhan Yangtze River Bridge is replaced due to corrosion,
exposed to the outside all the year round. China has a vast makes us realize the importance of anticorrosion coating of
territory, so the railway lines extend very long. The steel bridges more soberly [15].
Fig. 3.69 Corrosion of coach body
Fig. 3.70 Corrosion of train wheels
Because tunnels are under the surface, the groundwater of (2) The cathodic protection of reinforcing steel bars has a
the sand layer in the stratum has moderate sulfate corrosion and high cost. The existing technical problems in the
weak salt crystal corrosion to the concrete structure, weak structure of subway stations have not been solved. At
corrosion to the steel bars in the reinforced concrete structure in the same time, the long-term maintenance cost is high,
long-term immersion and strong corrosion in so it is difficult to use it in the concrete structure of
dry-wet alternation, and moderate corrosion to the steel struc- subway stations.
ture. See Tables 3.14 and 3.15 for groundwater composition. (3) Adding steel bar rust inhibitor is a feasible method
Corrosion of steel bars is an important factor of structural because of its low cost.
failure. In corrosive groundwater environment, especially
when chloride ion content is high, anticorrosion measures of When a train passes through a mountain or a river, the
steel bars are very important [16]. The existing main rein- bridge becomes a medium of communication, so the steel
forcement protection methods are as follows: bridge also has a huge corrosion problem (Fig. 3.73). There
are many factors affecting the corrosion of bridges, such as
(1) Because of high cost and high construction requirement, temperature, humidity, and the content of SO2 in the atmo-
epoxy-coated steel bars have not been widely used in the sphere. Generally, there are three types of corrosion: uniform
concrete structure of subway stations at present. corrosion, which is the uniform thinning corrosion on the
246 H. Xu
Fig. 3.71 Corrosion of railway facilities
Fig. 3.72 Tunnel corrosion

Table 3.14 Analysis on the composition of underground water

Ion item content Water type (surface water, groundwater) Cation
Ca2+ Mg2+ Total cations
mg/L Sandy groundwater 639.60 1004.02 163.62
mmol/L 15.958 41.309 57.267
Ion item content Water type (surface water, groundwater) Anion
Cl− SO24 HCO3− OH− CO23 Total anions
mg/L Sandy groundwater 15189.05 1930.71 53.39 0.00 0.00 17173.15
mmol/L 428.464 20.099 0.875 0.00 0.00 449.44
Table 3.15 Analysis on the CO2/mg/L Salinity pH Corrosion evaluation Corrosion evaluation of
composition of underground of concrete structure reinforcement bars in reinforced
water Free Erosive mg/L
by environmental concrete structures by
water environmental water
50.16 9.63 2,909,225 7.03 Moderate sulfate Strong
corrosion and weak
salt crystal corrosion
Fig. 3.73 Corrosion of steel bridges
whole surface of the metal and basically occurs in the steel 0.1% Cl− and 0.1% SO2−. The main cause of the fracture
structure on the bridges. was Cl− pitting corrosion. In addition, the Beijing Xizhimen
Pitting corrosion: In a suitable environmental medium, Flyover was built in the early 1980s because the anti-icing
after a certain period of time, most of the surface of the salt was used in winter to prevent icing; Cl− infiltrated the
metals is not corroded, but in individual points or reinforce concrete, destroyed the passive film on the surface
micro-areas, etching or pitting occurs due to the selective of the reinforcing bar and caused pitting corrosion, so the
corrosion of the metal. Along with the increase of time, the Flyover had to be demolished and rebuilt as a whole [17].
etching hole develops in the depth direction, this kind of Crevice corrosion: There inevitably exist crevices in
corrosion form is called the pitting corrosion. Pitting cor- connection structures between metals and metals such as
rosion is usually caused by Cl− adsorbed on some defects in metal riveting, bolt connection, and screw joint (or between
the metal surface film. For example, a cable-stayed bridge in flange gasket of nonmetal materials and metal material).
Guangdong province was built in December 1988. In 1995, When such a metal structure with a crevice is exposed to a
the corrosion products of a steel cable were found to contain corrosive medium, severe corrosion often occurs in a
248 H. Xu
localized region of the crevice [18]. For example, one of the questionnaire (361 questions in total) in accordance with the
main reasons for the collapse of Qijiang Rainbow Bridge in characteristics of the automobile industry and conduct a
Chongqing is that the cement grouting at the top of the large number of questionnaires and WeChat questionnaires.
suspender is not full, and the crevice in the riveted place is The investigation results are distributed to the responsible
corroded, resulting in the rupture of the suspender. persons of each section for analysis, and a lot of valid data
Corrosion is almost everywhere, including production are obtained. The investigation has achieved important
process, technical measures, material selection, monitoring results and provided a complete investigation and analysis
and corrosion prevention management. Therefore, repre- report. The work of compiling books is also proceeding
sentative units and departments are selected for this subject smoothly.
through on-site investigation. The influence of corrosion In the field of transportation, we will continue to carry out
control system from corrosion prevention design to pro- corrosion investigation in various ways such as question-
duction management is comprehensively analyzed to discuss naire, on-the-spot investigation and corrosion case consul-
the relationship between these factors and corrosion cost tation, so as to collect and collate the corrosion data in this
control. The manifestation of corrosion failure, the direct field, study the main types of corrosion in different indus-
economic loss caused by failure, the secondary harm and tries, sort out the cost of corrosion in the field of trans-
economic loss caused by failure are analyzed. Finally, portation, reveal the existing problems of corrosion control
combined with the policy research and the future develop- in transportation field and the main factors restricting cor-
ment of the industry, aiming at different corrosion control rosion control technology and industrial development, and
objectives, the implementation scheme of the optimal cor- put forward scientific and feasible countermeasures. At the
rosion prevention strategies is proposed. same time, we pay attention to the influence of corrosion on
public safety in the transportation field and trace the typical
corrosion cases.
3.5 Implementation Process
Under the leadership of Academician XU Huibin, the project References

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Strategies in Energy Field in China 4
Jianyun Zhang
natural gas, liquefied gas, petrochemicals, chemical prod-

4.1 Report on Corrosion Investigation in Oil
ucts, coal gas, and coal slurry, transmission media also
and Gas Storage and Transportation
include waste coal slag, phosphate, magnetite, copper ore,
Industry
limestone, and other solid materials.
By the end of 1995, there were 17,882-km-long oil and
4.1.1 Basic Situation
gas pipelines in China, including 9,272 km of oil pipelines
and 8,316 km of gas pipelines. Pipeline transportation
4.1.1.1 Overview of Development [1]
industry has made great contributions to the construction of
China’s national economy. However, compared with the
1. Oil and gas pipeline transportation project development of national economy and the development
requirements of energy industry, the freight volume of
The five transportation modes of highway, railway, water- pipeline transportation industry is only a little more than that
way, aviation, and pipeline have their own advantages and of air transportation. The scale is small and the current
disadvantages. The advantages of oil and gas pipeline length is only 1/120 of the world’s pipelines’ length, which
transportation are as follows: transportation cost is lower is extremely disproportionate to the fact that China ranks
than railway and highway, and it is not so seriously restricted fifth in the world in crude oil production, fourth in oil pro-
by geographical position as water transportation; the con- cessing capacity, and third in oil consumption.
struction cost is lower than the railway, and the construction
period is short; the larger the conveying capacity is, the 2. Oil and gas storage projects
lower the cost is; it covers a small area; it saves manpower
and management cost is low; it saves energy with high In the field of storage, China has developed ceramic storage
safety, little loss, and little pollution; prices are stable and technology for a long time. Along with the establishment
supply is not subjected to the influence of climate and traffic. and development of China’s oil industry, earth oil tanks,
Historically speaking, China is the first country to use brick oil tanks, stone oil tanks, reinforced concrete oil tanks,
pipelines to transport liquids. The development of modern and metal oil tanks have been built and put into use in
pipeline is closely related to the development of energy succession. In addition to the storage of oil tanks, there are
industry, especially oil industry. Modern pipeline trans- underwater reservoirs for oil storage, maritime oil storage,
portation began in the mid-nineteenth century, but the real and underground rock salt reservoirs for oil storage.
oil and gas transmission industry began in the early twen- Although these oil storage modes put strict requirement for
tieth century when a large number of metal pipelines were geological structure, they are characterized by large storage
laid in the United States to transport oil, petroleum products, capacity, low cost, and good safety as war reserves under
and natural gas. Since the 1960s, the oil pipeline has been specific conditions. Therefore, they have been paid attention
developed in the direction of large pipe diameter and long to and developed in all countries.
distance. At present, in addition to crude oil, refined oil,
4.1.1.2 Current Situation [2]
J. Zhang (&)
After years of development, by 2015, the total mileage of
Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, onshore oil and gas pipelines in China has reached
China 120,000 km, including 23,000 km for crude oil pipelines,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9354-0_4
252 J. Zhang
21,000 km for refined oil product pipelines, and 76,000 km National Development and Reform Commission, by 2020,
for natural gas pipelines. Along with the rapid development the scale of the national oil and gas pipeline network will
of China’s oil and gas pipeline construction, China’s oil and reach 169,000 km, including 32,000 km, 33,000 km, and
gas storage capacity and scale have been correspondingly 104,000 km for crude oil, refined oil product, and natural
developed. In 2004, the national oil reserves started for gas, respectively. By 2025, the scale of oil and gas pipeline
development. By the middle of 2016, there were nine network in China will reach 240,000 km, 37,000 km,
national oil reserve bases completed in Zhoushan, Zhoushan 40,000 km, and 163,000 km for crude oil, refined oil pro-
expansion, Zhenhai, Dalian, Huangdao, Dushanzi, Lanzhou, duct, and natural gas, respectively.
Tianjin, and Huangdao. 33.25 million tons of crude oil is
stored by using the abovementioned reserves and some
social enterprise storage capacity. With the import of large 4.1.2 Corrosion and Protection
amount liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), the underground
cave storages of LPG have been built in the southeast coast 4.1.2.1 Corrosion Status of Pipeline
of China with a storage capacity of over 200,000 m3. In The loss caused by pipeline corrosion is huge. Therefore, it
terms of natural gas storage, four gas storages have been is of great significance to understand the cause of corrosion
built in Dagang Oilfield of Tianjin with a total peak gas and take effective protective measures. When the metal
volume of 800 million m3, and two underground gas stor- pipeline comes into contact with the surrounding media,
ages with a total peak gas volume of 2 billion m3 have been chemical action or electrochemical action may occur and
built in Jintan Salt Mine and Liuzhuang in Jiangsu Province. cause surface corrosion. After the metal pipeline is corroded,
At the same time, in order to support the gas transmission it will change in shape, color, and mechanical properties,
from Sichuan and Chongqing to the east and to ensure the which will affect the quality of the transported oil, shorten
gas utilization regulation of some big cities, underground gas the service life of the oil pipeline, and may cause leakage,
storages have been built in the middle reaches of the environmental pollution, and even explosion, resulting in
Yangtze River and the surrounding areas of some big cities casualties.
to ensure the safe gas supply in these areas. At present, the The phenomenon of oil and gas leakage caused by cor-
underground gas storages built in our China are mainly used rosion perforation is common after the pipeline is used for
for the peak-shaving emergency of natural gas, but it is still 1–2 years. The European Gas Pipeline Incident Data Group
in the initial stage of strategic reserve. (EGIG)’s report analyzing pipeline incident investigation
data from its eight member units shows that accidents due to
4.1.1.3 Trend of Development [3] corrosion are the third largest in total number of accidents,
With the sustained and steady growth of social economy in only second to third-party factors and construction and
China, the demand for oil and natural gas is increasing. material defects. According to the statistical data of the
Experts predict that China’s oil consumption will reach more former Soviet Union, the pipeline corrosion accidents
than 450 million tons by 2020. Calculated according to the account for 30% of the gas shutdown accidents, and there
current consumption, the amount of oil reserves that need to are more than 2,000 natural gas pipeline corrosion accidents,
be established should be around 70 million tons. Assuming in which more than 800 people are killed in one time.
that 50% adopts underground storage, the underground According to the American National Standards Institute
storage capacity will reach 35 million tons. Then the con- (ANSI), the annual loss cost caused by corrosion of the
sumption of natural gas in China will exceed 200 billion m3. American oil and gas industry was $9 billion in 1975.
According to the experience of countries with more mature According to domestic data, there were 248 oil and gas
natural gas utilization in the world, the reserve of pipeline accidents nationwide in 1988, of which 202 were
peak-shaving gas will need to reach about 35 billion m3. The caused by corrosion. In many oil and gas facilities, oil and
total natural gas reserve capacity will reach 60 billion m3 if gas pipeline corrosion accident is the most shocking. At
part of the strategic reserves is added. Accordingly, the present, pipelines around the world are growing at the rate of
construction of pipelines which mainly transport oil and gas 40,000 km per year. A large number of pipelines are buried
and underground oil and gas reserve storages will enter a underground. They are corroded for a long time by soil
large period of opportunities for development. It is an medium, stray current, and various microorganisms exter-
inevitable trend of the development of China’s oil and gas nally, and are corroded by oil, gas, and water containing
storage and transportation industry to make use of domestic H2S, CO2, and Cl− internally, causing perforation leakage
and foreign oil and natural gas resources, build oil and gas and crack accidents of pipelines that result in serious con-
pipeline networks and increase underground reserve of oil sequence. In particular, if the pipelines work under
and natural gas in the future. In accordance with the Medium high-pressure break, it is easy to cause catastrophic accidents
and Long-term Plan for Oil and Gas Pipeline Network of such as fire and explosion. Statistics of losses caused by
4 Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategy in the Energy … 253
corrosion in China show that the losses caused by corrosion form corrosion products. What chemical corrosion differs
account for about 3% of the national economy. The oil and from electrochemical corrosion is that there is no current
gas industry is one of the most severely affected sectors. generated throughout the corrosion process, but only the
Most oil and gas fields in China are distributed in saline– transfer of electrons between the metal and the oxidizing
alkali swampy areas, which belong to medium, strong, and agent. Generally, chemical corrosion doesn’t occur under
even extremely strong corrosive soil environment so that the normal temperature and dry environment, but it is easy to be
corrosion condition of various pipelines and buried facilities oxidized to form an oxidation film at high temperature. In
is very serious. As the development of oil and gas fields in the process of transporting oil in pipeline, the rich organic
China enters the middle and later stages, the corrosion sulfide in oil is easy to produce chemical corrosion with
problem of pipelines, as the main facilities of oilfields, will metal pipeline.
become more and more prominent, and even become an
important factor disturbing the safety production of oilfields. 2. General corrosion
Therefore, it is of great significance to understand the cause
of corrosion and take effective protective measures. According to the classification of corrosion morphology,
general corrosion is a common form of corrosion. This
1. Corrosion mechanism of buried pipelines [3] corrosion is distributed over the entire metal surface, and the
corrosion may or may not be uniform. The corrosion of
1) Electrochemical corrosion carbon steel in strong acid belongs to general corrosion. If
the corrosion rate of a material in a medium is known, the
Electrochemical corrosion refers to the destruction of metal service life of the material can be inferred and this factor is
surface caused by electrochemical action between metal taken into account in the design. Hence, its harmfulness is
surface and ionic conducting medium. The nonuniformity of relatively small.
the physical and chemical properties of the underground soil
and the electrochemical nonequilibrium of the metal mate- 3. Local corrosion
rials create the condition for the electrochemical corrosion of
the buried pipeline. Electrochemical corrosion is the most Local corrosion is not only the main form of corrosion but
common form of corrosion of buried pipelines. also a more destructive form than general corrosion. Local
corrosion is mainly concentrated in a certain area of the
2) Bacterial corrosion metal surface, while other parts of the surface are hardly
damaged, including pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion,
Some bacteria in the soil, such as sulfate-reducing bacteria, under-deposit corrosion, galvanic corrosion, weld corrosion,
can accelerate the process of corrosion in the absence of etc. For example, under-deposit groove and blocky corrosion
oxygen. The mechanism is that the bacteria participate in the formed by under-deposit corrosion are not easily found and
electrode reaction to convert the soluble sulfate to hydrogen are often known after deposit removal or corrosion perfo-
sulfide, and these bacteria use the energy from the reaction to ration. It can be seen that the local corrosion is extremely
multiply. And hydrogen sulfide reacts with the metal to harmful so that the pipeline causes corrosion perforation in a
cause cathodic depolarization, which is known as bacterial short period of time, which causes leakage of crude oil,
corrosion. Bacterial corrosion is influenced by a number of affects normal production of the oilfield, and even causes
factors, such as soil moisture, acidity, alkalinity, ambient catastrophic accidents. Local corrosion often occurs in oil
temperature, and salts. It is pointed out that the activity of and gas pipelines, and its corrosion forms and corresponding
bacteria is the most frequent in oxygen-poor marshes with influence factors mainly include the following aspects.
pH value of 6.2–7.8.
1) Pitting corrosion
3) Chemical corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a common and important corrosion type
Chemical corrosion refers to the destruction caused by the of oil pipeline. The aging crack of the anti-corrosion coating
direct chemical action between the material on the surface of makes the insulation layer in a wet state so that the outer
metal pipeline and the nonelectrolyte in the environment. wall of the steel pipeline is surrounded by a thin layer of soil
The main failure mechanism is that the oxidant in the non- medium. Once the corrosion layer of the pipeline is partially
electrolyte interacts with the atoms of the metal surface to destroyed to reveal the metal surface for some reason, it is
254 J. Zhang
easy to become the pitting corrosion source due to the (anode) with a lower potential and decreasing the dissolution
nonuniform structure and impurity. The anodic and cathodic rate of the metal (cathode) with a higher potential. Therefore,
reactions during corrosion are as follows: the cathode is protected by the anode.
Galvanic corrosion is divided into two categories: one is
Anodic reaction: Fe ! Fe2 þ þ 2e ð4:1Þ the presence of different metals in the same electrolyte; the
other is the same metal in a different electrolyte.
Cathodic reaction: O2 þ 2H2 O þ 4e ! 4OH ð4:2Þ
2+ (1) Different metals.
As the above reaction proceeds, Fe in the corrosion
hole increases, and Cl− is transferred from the outside into
the corrosion hole to form FeCl2 in order to maintain electric The most common and negligible galvanic corrosion occurs
neutrality. The salt is further hydrolyzed to form HCl as when a new pipe is welded to an old pipe. The new pipe is
follows: always an anode, and its corrosion rate is closely related to
soil type and relative area of cathode and anode. If the
FeCl2 þ 2H2 O ! FeðOHÞ2 þ 2HCl ð4:3Þ welded new pipe is very short, the corrosion rate is very fast
because this small anode region must provide charge for the
If the pH value in the corrosion hole is lowered, the
much larger cathode region (the old pipe).
pitting corrosion will continue, resulting in pitting corrosion
The other is the galvanic corrosion caused by the differ-
on the outer wall of the pipeline. A large number of pitting
ence of pipeline metal surface. After the pipeline is buried,
pits may form ulcer-like corrosion appearance and may
the scars and scratches on the surface, the bright and clean
cause local obvious thinning of the pipeline, thereby causing
screw threads on the pipe collar and pipe parts form an
significant harm to the safe operation of the pipeline.
active anode area. The bright and clean surface is generally
the anode region and the other pipeline surface is the cathode
2) Crevice corrosion
region, so the corrosion is very active and destructive.
Crevice corrosion is also one of the possible causes of local
(2) Different electrolytes.
corrosion of pipelines. In the area close to the hot pipeline,
anti-corrosion protection layer’s aging accelerates and cracks
The galvanic corrosion occurring along the pipeline is usu-
into crevices due to long-term too high heat. When the width
ally caused by differences in soil types or soil conditions.
of these crevices is in the range of 0.025–0.1 mm, objective
Although the pipelines are of the same metal, the two dif-
conditions are provided for the occurrence of crevice
ferent kinds of soil form different electrolytes, resulting in
corrosion.
corrosion of the pipeline in the anode region and protection
Crevice corrosion is the effect of the oxygen concentra-
of pipeline in the cathode region. If the resistance blocking
tion difference cell caused by the difference of oxygen
current from the anode to the cathode through the soil is
concentration inside and outside the crevice. An anode is
high, the corrosion rate is slow. On the contrary, the soil
formed inside the crevice and a cathode is formed outside
resistance is very low and the corrosion rate is fast.
the crevice. The reaction process of the two electrodes is
In the case of galvanic corrosion, the surface of the
basically the same as the pitting reaction process. With the
pipeline exposed at the defect of the pipeline anti-corrosion
consumption of oxygen in the crevice, the number of neg-
coating forms a pair of large cathode and small anode with
ative ions in the crevice is correspondingly reduced to lose
the grounding body with positive potential, and the corro-
electrical balance so that the external negative ion (Cl−)
sion current is concentrated at the defect of the pipeline
intrudes into the crevice to form electrolytic salt (Mn+Cln−).
anti-corrosion coating, resulting in increased local corrosion
The hydrolysis of the electrolyzed salt reduces the pH value
rate and the possibility of corrosion perforation accidents in
in the crevice, which further provides development condition
a relatively short period of time.
for the continuous crevice corrosion. This is a kind of
malignant cyclic process of corrosion which is harmful to the
4) Under-deposit corrosion
pipeline.
When the protective layer of the pipeline is damaged, the
3) Galvanic corrosion
soil water solution of the environment where the pipeline is
located will enter the metal pipeline closely spaced with the
The galvanic corrosion is the local corrosion of dissimilar
coating, so that the pipeline starts to corrode. In general,
metals in the same medium due to the different corrosion
steel often forms iron oxide deposit in humid atmosphere
potentials. Two metals form a macro-cell, which generates
with the main components of Fe(OH)3 and Fe3O4, that is,
galvanic current, increasing the dissolution rate of the metal
iron in iron oxide scale is mainly high-valence iron and most FeCO3, Fe2O3, crystal of soluble salt, CaCO3, etc. Since the
of them are flaky and loose and are not as protective as a soil generally contains Ca2+, precipitates such as CaCO3
protective film. When the iron oxide deposit accumulates on may form under appropriate conditions, but this layer of
the metal of the heated side, the surface temperature of the surface product is generally not uniform, resulting in a very
metal is high due to poor heat transfer, and the protective low dissolved oxygen concentration under the product
film on the surface is more likely to be damaged. Once the coverage area. However, the open part has a high concen-
protective film of the metal is damaged, corrosion will begin. tration of dissolved oxygen, and an oxygen concentration
As the iron oxide deposit blocks, the rate at which dissolved difference cell is generated, and under-deposit corrosion is
oxygen in the water diffuses under the iron oxide deposit formed, resulting in corrosion pits of different depths under
slows down, resulting in a greater dissolved oxygen con- the deposit.
centration around the iron oxide or where the iron oxide
deposit is locally thinner than where the iron oxide deposit is 5) Soil corrosion
thicker. Thus, the periphery of the iron oxide or the locally
thinner part of the iron oxide becomes the cathode, and the Soil is an aggregate of inorganic matter, organic matter,
metal under the deposit of the iron oxide or the locally water, and gas, and is also a special electrolyte that has
thicker part of the iron oxide becomes the anode, thereby inherent characteristics such as heterogeneity, porosity, and
causing corrosion. This corrosion is punctiform and the nonuniformity. After the pipeline is in contact with various
corrosion products are bullosa-like. Most of the upper part is types of soil for a long time, the long-term operation will
yellow-brown to brick-red products which are various forms inevitably cause local damage to the pipeline, resulting in the
of iron oxide and the sublayer is magnetic black powder interaction between the soil medium and the pipeline which
Fe3O4. Sometimes there is a black layer FeO at the deepest will cause soil corrosion of the pipeline and adversely affect
layer of the corrosion product adjacent to the metal surface. the safe operation of the pipeline even if protective measures
When iron oxide is present in the deposit of the heated such as coating and cathodic protection are adopted for the
metal surface, corrosion occurs because the iron oxide with pipeline during site installation.
high potential becomes the cathode and the metal wall with Soil corrosion is also an electrochemical corrosion pro-
low potential becomes the anode. This corrosion is charac- cess. Like the electrochemical corrosion process of other
terized by the fact that the corrosion point is not below the media, it is caused by the corrosion galvanic cell formed by
iron oxide deposit, but near the iron oxide deposit. White the electrochemical nonuniformity of metal and medium,
material near the metal corrosion pit at the edge of iron oxide which is the basic cause of corrosion. In addition, the soil
deposit appears, namely, Fe(OH)2, corrosion product of medium has the characteristic of heterogeneity and nonuni-
anode and cathode. Since Fe(OH)2 is unstable, it is also formity, so it is possible to generate corrosion micro-cells
possible to further form Fe(OH)3 and Fe3O4. related to the metal nonuniformity, and the corrosion
In addition, if the environment where the pipeline is macro-cells caused by the nonuniformity of the soil medium
located contains CO2, Cl−, occlusion effect occurs under the often plays a greater role in soil abrasion.
combined action of CO2, Cl−, and loose deposit, forming Soil corrosion of pipelines is affected by many factors
corrosion microbattery and causing local acidification and such as soil pH value, soil resistivity, soil temperature, soil
local perforation. The presence of CO2 greatly accelerates oxygen content, and soil water content.
the deterioration of the environment in the occluded cell and
greatly accelerates the rate of perforation. Cl− is a catalyst 6) Corrosion by sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB)
formed by occlusion effect. Once the under-deposit corro-
sion hole forms occlusion effect, the metal cations in the hole When steel pipeline comes into contact with water in the
are difficult to diffuse and migrate out. With the accumula- soil, they will react. Generally, the iron of the steel pipeline
tion of Fe2+ and Fe3+, the positive charge in the seam is is dissolved in water to replace hydrogen, and a thin pro-
excessive, promoting the migration of Cl− to maintain tective film is formed on the surface of the steel pipeline.
charge balance. The hydrolysis of metal chlorides acidifies When the oxygen is depleted, the process stops immediately.
the media within the seam, thus creating an autocatalytic However, if anaerobes are present, this reaction may be
environment that promotes further corrosion. allowed to proceed. SRB is a kind of anaerobic microor-
Under-deposit corrosion of gathering and transporting ganism and widely exists in the anoxic environment such as
pipelines in some oilfields is serious. The analysis shows that soil, seawater, river water, underground pipelines, and oil
deposit mainly consists of inorganic salt (about 35–50%), and gas wells. In the case of oxygen-free or very little
sediment (about 33–40%), and organic hydrocarbon (about oxygen, it can use the organic substance on the metal surface
15–22%). The main corrosion products of inorganic salt are as the carbon source and utilize the hydrogen generated in
256 J. Zhang
the bacterial biofilm to reduce the sulfate to hydrogen sulfide also be produced by the interaction of hydrogen sulfide
so as to obtain energy from the redox reaction. produced by SRB with inorganic phosphides, phos-
Corrosion mechanism of SRB: SRB corrosion is not phates, phosphite, and hypophosphite. In the presence
directly dependent on metals, but is the result of life activ- of iron, the interaction of hydrogen sulfide with
ities that directly or indirectly involved in the corrosion hypophosphite can also produce (FeP). All these
process of metals. There are three mechanisms related to the aggravate the corrosion of the substrate iron.
effect of such bacteria on steel corrosion:
7) Stray current corrosion
(1) Cathodic polarization. Under anoxic conditions, SRB
containing hydrogenase can remove hydrogen atoms When stray current flows through pipelines and cables bur-
from the cathode surface of iron and use it to reduce ied in the soil, the anode end will be corroded when the
sulfate, thereby accelerating the cathode reaction, pro- current leaves the pipeline and enters the earth, which is
moting the dissolution of the anode, and accelerating called stray current corrosion. Stray current refers to the
the corrosion process of steel. current flowing into other places due to leakage from the
(2) The effect of local cell. King et al. proposed that S2− original normal circuit. The main source of the stray current
produced by SRB interacts with iron to generate FeS to is high-power electrical devices such as electrified railway,
form a cathode on the iron surface and to form a local electrolytic and electroplating tank, electric welding
cell with the iron anode. The hydrogen evolution machine, and electrochemical protection device. There are
reaction of cathode depolarization proceeds on the FeS many reasons for the formation of stray current in the earth.
surface, causing the metal to corrode. Later, it is pro- Stray current often refers to leakage current that can’t be
posed that metal corrosion is caused by the formation of avoided due to circuit characteristics and the need to use
a concentration cell on the metal surface by FeS. In the electric power, including direct current (DC) and alternating
beginning of the corrosion process, iron bacteria or current (AC). For example, some current often leaks into the
some grume bacteria adhere and grow on the pipe wall soil near the power supply of a DC-electrified railway. In
to form bacterial colonies, nodules, or uneven grume this case, if a buried pipeline passes nearby and no protective
layers, and generate oxygen concentration difference measures are taken or a locally unprotected area occurs, this
cell. With the expansion of biological fouling, anaero- current lost to the soil may take the pipeline as part of the
bic conditions for the reproduction of SRB are formed, current loop, causing the pipeline to undergo so-called
which aggravates the corrosion of oxygen concentration “DC stray current corrosion.” Where this current flows
cell, the depolarization of SRB, and the corrosion of into is protected as the cathode of the corrosion cell, and
sulfide products, making the corrosion worse until local where the current flows out is corroded as the anode of
perforation. the cell.
(3) Corrosion effect of metabolic products. Researchers The part of the stray current flowing from the soil into the
find that Fe2+ has an effect on anaerobic corrosion of pipeline is the cathode, and the part flowing from the pipe-
low-carbon steel. When the Fe2+ concentration is low, a line to the soil is the anode, and the pipeline is corroded. For
FeS protective film is formed on the metal surface. the existing cathodic protection control system, the stray
When the Fe2+ concentration is high enough to pre- current is strongly destructive and may be dangerous. In
cipitate sulfide produced by bacteria, the protective film many cases, the stray current will cause severe corrosion
is no longer formed and the corrosion rate is greatly damage to underground metal facilities. The calculation
increased. The corrosion rate changes with the H2S shows that a current of 1 A can dissolve 9 kg of iron elec-
concentration. As the H2S concentration increases, the trochemically in 1 year. Under certain extreme conditions,
potential decreases and the corrosion rate increases. the stray current flowing through the metal components can
However, when the H2S concentration reaches a certain be as high as 10 A, which obviously results in rapid corro-
amount, the potential rises after the sulfide protective sion damage.
film is formed, and corrosion is suppressed. If the It is an effective anti-corrosion method to control stray
medium is insufficient for hydrogen to provide suffi- current by connecting lines. Since the oil pipeline doesn’t
cient H2S, corrosion is immediately promoted. Iverson exist alone, stray current from its nearby public utilities,
et al. propose that the anaerobic corrosion of SRB is the municipal pipelines, and adjacent cathodic protection system
result of metabolic product phosphides. SRB is con- may cause certain corrosion to the pipeline. Therefore, the
sidered to produce with high activity and volatility connecting line should be used properly to provide a
under anaerobic conditions. It reacts with the substrate low-resistance channel for the current so as to prevent the
iron to produce iron phosphide (FeP). Phosphides can auxiliary structure passing through the pipeline subjected to
cathodic protection and the external pipelines from occurring pressure of the pipeline, or the volumetric stress generated
electrolytic corrosion. by the corrosion product film or the residual stress during the
manufacture of the material. The stress of the pipeline is
8) Stress corrosion [4] divided into axial stress and radial stress according to the
direction. SCC cracks produce and expand in the axial
Stress corrosion refers to the failure of a pipe section under direction under the action of the radial stress, and expand
tensile stress in a corrosive medium. In the buried pipelines, along the radial direction under the action of the axial stress.
there are many parts easily subjected to stress corrosion, Stress caused by stress corrosion has a critical value. Both
such as the vicinity of the welding seam, the elastic laying the stress intensity and the stress fluctuation are the
pipe section, the cold bend pipe, and the cold bend head, and mechanical factors affecting SCC. The stress fluctuation of
the bottom of the bearing pipe section deformed by external pipeline mainly comes from the cyclic fluctuation of pipeline
force. It is characterized by the pipeline damage by tensile working pressure. The pipeline transportation is developing
stress and corrosion, resulting in a greater hidden danger for toward the direction of large diameter and high conveying
pipeline accidents. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) refers to pressure, so the influence of working pressure can’t be
brittle fracture phenomenon of a metal material subjected to neglected because the working pressure can produce radial
tensile stress in certain specific media due to the synergistic stress and lead to axial SCC. SCC of metal pipeline can only
effect of corrosive medium and stress. SCC is one of the occur in a specific corrosive medium. The main influence
primary hazards of sudden failure accident of buried pipe- factor of internal corrosive medium on oil and gas conveying
lines. The SCC accident is often the sudden and catastrophic pipelines is H2S, while the influence factors of external
failure of pipelines without obvious warning, and its con- corrosive medium are mainly NO3−, OH−, CO32−, HCO3−,
sequence is extremely serious. In March 1965, the world’s and Cl− in soil and groundwater. In addition, cathodic pro-
first natural gas pipeline SCC accident occurred in Louisi- tective potential and environmental pH values also have
ana, the United States. Since then, a large number of acci- important influence on SCC of pipeline steel. The sensitivity
dents have occurred in the United States, Canada, Australia, of metal materials is related to the type of steel, the grade of
Russia, and other areas. According to the statistics of oil and steel, the manufacturing process, and the surface states. SCC
gas pipeline accidents from 1985 to 1995 by 11 companies of pipeline is caused by the synergistic effect of corrosion
in Canada, SCC accounts for 17% of the total number of and stress, and the damage caused by the combination of
failure accidents. The statistical analysis of the damage these two factors is far greater than the result of superposi-
accidents in 10 years by Mitsubishi Chemical Machinery tion of action of single factor. Stress of SCC is not neces-
Co., Ltd. shows that SCC accident accounts for 45.6%. sarily large and far below the yield limit of the pipeline steel.
According to the influence of internal and external cor- If there is no corrosive medium, the pipeline can be in ser-
rosive medium on pipeline steel, it can be divided into SCC vice for a long time without any corrosion damage; Vice
affected by corrosive medium in soil and sulfide SCC versa, the corrosiveness of a particular medium that produces
affected by corrosive medium in pipeline. SCC of pipeline SCC is often also mild, and if no stress is present, the
steel in soil can be divided into intergranular stress corrosion material may be sufficiently resistant to corrosion in such a
cracking (IGSCC) with high pH value and transgranular medium. Therefore, SCC is one of the most serious forms of
stress corrosion cracking (TGSCC) with low pH value. local corrosion failure.
Hydrogen sulfide exists widely in the oil and gas produced
and transported in China, which leads to the threat of sulfide 4.1.2.2 Anti-corrosion Measures for Oil and Gas
stress corrosion cracking (SSCC) in the inner wall of oil and Storage and Transportation Pipelines
gas transmission pipeline. If water is contained in the con- [3, 5]
veyed gas, H2S and CO2 are dissolved in water to form a
corrosive medium, and various defects on the pipeline sur-
face are vulnerable to corrosion. Under the combined action 1) Anti-corrosion technology of surface treatment
of stress and corrosive medium, the material is unstable and
fractured. The basic guarantee of anti-corrosion project of oil and gas
The SCC of buried steel pipelines must have three con- storage pipelines is anti-corrosion treatment of pipeline
ditions at the same time, namely, stress, specific corrosive surface. Most oil and gas pipelines are made of metal, and
environment, and sensitive pipeline material. The main role their service life depends on the quality of anti-corrosion
of stress is to strain the metal, produce slippage, and promote technology. If the anti-corrosion coating has a high degree of
formation, expansion, and fracture of SCC cracks. As for adhesion to the pipeline substrate, the anti-corrosion quality
pipeline steel, the stress may come from the working is high, so the service life of the pipelines can be better
prolonged and guaranteed.
258 J. Zhang
2) Anti-corrosion technology of agent soil resistivity because of its high potential. Zinc alloy is
suitable for use in the environment with low soil resistivity
The anti-corrosion technology of agent mainly includes because of its high current conduction efficiency and long
adding of corrosion inhibitor and adding of bactericide. service life. Although aluminum alloy is higher than mag-
Corrosion inhibitor is often characterized by strong function, nesium and zinc in unit-generated energy, it is difficult to
stable performance, low cost, and obvious effect. It is one of stabilize in soil environment, so it is rarely used.
the main agents to reduce the corrosion degree of oil and gas
pipelines. The corrosion protection principle of corrosion 4) Coating anti-corrosion technology
inhibitor is to produce adsorption film, deposition film and
oxidation film on the pipe wall through adsorption, precip- The coating anti-corrosion technology of pipeline mainly
itation reaction, and oxidation reaction to prevent metal includes two parts: inner coating anti-corrosion technology
corrosion. and outer coating anti-corrosion technology.
The bactericide has the advantages of good effect and low
cost, so it is widely used. It can be added in single wellhead, (1) Inner coating anti-corrosion technology. The powder
pipeline system, and oil casing, and its operation is simple coating, such as epoxy resin and polyethylene, is usu-
and easy. ally used for protecting the inner coating and lining of
the pipeline from corrosion. With the development of
3) Electrochemical protection technology science and technology, the new hot-sprayed glass
(1) Anodic protection. Anode protection is an anti-corrosion technology which can withstand the high
anti-corrosion method of keeping the protected temperature of 300 °C is gradually applied widely. It
metal in a stable passive state. In this method, an can isolate the corrosive gas, such as hydrogen sulfide
additional power supply is mainly used for polariz- and carbon monoxide inside the oil and gas pipeline
ing or an oxidizing agent is added to achieve the from contacting with carbon steel, thus effectively
purpose of corrosion protection. However, this avoiding the corrosion of pipeline by oil and gas.
method is not easy to operate and high in cost, and is (2) Outer coating anti-corrosion protection technology. The
inapplicable for buried pipelines. anti-corrosion coating is a paint film by coating
(2) Cathodic protection. There are two kinds of cathodic anti-corrosion insulating material on the surface of the
protection methods for oil and gas pipelines, metal pipeline so that the surface of the pipeline is
namely, impressed current method and sacrificial tightly isolated from the outside to prevent the pipeline
anode protection. Under normal conditions, the from reacting with corrosive medium. This method is
impressed current method is the main method and the most basic and necessary measure in pipeline
the sacrificial anode protection is used as the aux- anti-corrosion work. The most commonly used
iliary method in the cathodic protection of oil and anti-corrosion coatings in China are petroleum pitch,
gas storage and transportation pipelines, especially polyethylene tape, polyethylene jacket, fused epoxy
for large-diameter long-distance transportation powder, coal tar enamel, and epoxy coal pitch. Each
pipelines. Meanwhile, electrical insulation is instal- material has its own advantages and disadvantages. The
led at the inlet and outlet of the pipelines of the selection of material should be based on the actual
process station to prevent the loss of current. environment on the site to get the best coating so as to
achieve the best anti-corrosion effect.
The impressed current cathodic protection method must
have an impressed power supply. The positive electrode of 4.1.2.3 Corrosion Consequence and Research
the power supply is connected to the auxiliary anode, and the Status of Pipelines
negative electrode is connected to the protected pipeline. Corrosion often causes significant economic losses to oil and
This method is widely used because it can provide a large gas fields, including catastrophic accidents and environ-
protection current and a long protection distance. Auxiliary mental pollution. For example, in May 1971, Weicheng
anode can be graphite, cast iron, and waste steel. natural gas pipeline corrosion cracking led to explosion and
The sacrificial anode protection mainly connects the combustion with a direct economic loss of RMB 70 million.
protected metal with an anode with a lower potential to form According to the survey data of Chinese Society for Cor-
a current loop so that the metal undergoes cathodic polar- rosion and Protection, Chinese Petroleum Society, and the
ization. Commonly used sacrificial anode materials are Chemical Industry and Engineering Society of China, the
mainly magnesium alloy, aluminum alloy, and zinc alloy. average loss caused by corrosion in all walks of life is about
Magnesium alloy is an ideal material in the area with high 3% of GNP. The oil and petrochemical industry is
particularly serious, accounting for about 6% of the output parallel sessions about CO2 corrosion every year. Investi-
value. If proper protective measures are taken, 30–40% of gation of many oilfields in Tarim, Changqing, Hebei, Jilin,
the corrosion loss can be avoided. It can be seen that and Jiangsu shows that serious CO2 corrosion exists in
strengthening the research on corrosion and protection can China’s oilfields and has caused huge economic losses. For
bring great economic benefits to the petroleum industry. example, a well in the Yakela Gas Field in Tarim Basin
Every year, China’s oil industry consumes about RMB 10 caused a direct economic loss of RMB 30 million due to
billion of oil tubular goods, most of which are scrapped pipeline corrosion causing natural gas from the oil casing
because of corrosion. From May 1971 to February 1986, into the surface for 72 days of fire. The increase of water
there were 83 explosion and combustion accidents in content in Lunnan Oilfield in Tarim in recent years leads to
Sichuan natural gas pipeline network due to corrosion and corrosion of pipelines in many deep wells. For example,
the first accident led to 24 casualties. On January 25, 1991, P105 pipeline has fallen into the well LN204 which has been
the well blowout was caused by H2S corrosion in Chuan- used for 1 year and 9 months due to CO2 corrosion. If
dong Oilfield, two people were killed and seven people were corrosion can be divided into conventional chemical elec-
injured, and the corrosion also damaged water resources and trochemical corrosion, solid mechanical chemical corrosion,
ecological environment and caused waste of resources. On and hydrodynamic chemical corrosion, CO2 corrosion
November 22, 2013, the leaked crude oil from Donghuang belongs to hydrodynamic chemical corrosion which is
Oil Pipeline, located in Qingdao Economic and Techno- affected not only by the high temperature and high pressure
logical Development Zone, Shandong Province, entered the but also by the strong influence of the flow rate. It is a
municipal underdrain, oil and gas accumulated in the con- frontier discipline to study the interaction between fluid
cealed ditch space and exploded, causing 62 deaths and 136 mechanics and electrochemistry.
injuries, with a direct economic loss of RMB 751.72 million.
Corrosion will cause huge economic loss, so corrosion
and protection research is a very prosperous industry at 4.1.3 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases
abroad. In recent years, on the annual NACE International
Conference on Corrosion, there are about 6,000 delegates 4.1.3.1 Corrosion Status of Gas Transmission
attending, more than 300 manufacturers exhibiting, more Trunk Line in Sichuan Gas Field [6]
than 500 papers, and more than 200 symposiums. Among Sichuan gas field is the earliest developed gas field in China,
them, the research on corrosion in oil industry is one of the and its development scale is also the largest in China. With
most active and important research fields. Taking NACE 98 the deepening of exploration and expansion of development
as an example, more than 150 of the over 500 papers are on scale and gas supply scope, the construction of gas trans-
research results of corrosion problems in the oil industry. mission pipeline project has been rapidly developed. An
Among them, the papers of big oil companies account for a annular gas pipeline network of about 2,000 km has been
high proportion. Many of the parallel sessions are chaired by built (pipe diameter U426 mm–U720 mm).
experts from big oil companies or oilfield service companies.
Large oil companies in western countries, because of their 1. Corrosion status and general situation of corrosion
abundant financial resources, mostly have their own insti- accidents over the years
tutions involved in corrosion research. For example, Amo-
co’s research institute near Chicago, Shell’s research Most of the gas transmission trunk lines in Sichuan Gas
institute in Amsterdam, Shefron’s research institute near San Field use 16Mn spiral seam submerged arc pipes. In order to
Francisco, Exxon’s institute in New Jersey, and BP’s meet the requirements of the users for gas transmission, the
research institutes in Cleveland and London. Their theoret- natural gas with low H2S content is imported into the trunk
ical research and technical transformation are carried out at lines so as to increase the H2S content in the trunk lines. The
the same time because of their research power and engi- partial pressure reaches 0.0003 MPa or higher, which pro-
neering background. It has become a trend to seek benefits, vides condition for SSC. In addition, the quality and per-
safety, and low environmental pollution from corrosion formance of the pipes aren’t good, so that the gas
science and corrosion control technology. transmission trunk lines break frequently, resulting in great
In recent years, accident analysis and the trend research at losses. According to a report in 1993, as of 1993, 78 acci-
home and abroad show that CO2 corrosion is becoming the dents occurred in the gas transmission trunk lines managed
main obstacle of oilfield production at home and abroad. The by Sichuan Oil Administration Gas Transmission Company,
T-1 Committee of the NACE International Conference— with a total loss of nearly RMB 7 million. Table 4.1 shows
Committee of Corrosion Control in Oil Production has the main trunk line fracture accidents.
260 J. Zhang
Table 4.1 Typical corrosion failure cases of Sichuan gas transmission trunk lines
Name of trunk General situation and cause of pipeline fracture accident
line
Weicheng Line Put into operation in September 1968, it delivers purified gas from Weiyuan Desulfurization Plant. In 1971, two pipe burst accidents
occurred in the same position, both of which were caused by local wall thickness thinning and fracture due to long-term water
accumulation without adding corrosion inhibitor in the pipe
Fona Line It transmits natural gas with low H2S content, and the maximum H2S content can reach 400,500 mg/m3, and the H2S partial pressure
in natural gas reaches 0.0003 MPa or higher. From August 1979 to March 1987, there were 12 pipe burst accidents, all of which
originated from spiral weld. The welded pipe is bottomed with carbon dioxide protection welding. After narrow weld bead deviation,
the root of the welding bead is not filled. As the pipeline is repaired by repair welding, the heat-affected zone of the repair welding
bead produces martensitic structure sensitive to SSC, while the root of the unrepaired welding bead has no filling metal (not welded
through), and crevice corrosion (or SCC) is liable to occur, further deteriorating the bearing capacity of the welding bead and cracking
Luwei Line The transported natural gas contains H2S 100–456 mg/m3. From December 1970 to January 1995, there were 14 pipeline fracture
accidents. Of these, six fractures were caused by the martensitic in the heat-affected zone of the spiral weld, while the rest mainly
resulted from the HIC at the indentation line of 10–45 mm from the base metal of the spiral weld
Dawo Line It was put into operation in June 1986 and designed to transport dehydrated dry H2S-containing natural gas. However, after being put
into operation, the dewatering device was not operated, and the actual conveyed gas was wet H2S-containing natural gas with an H2S
content of 2.57 g/m3 and a CO2 content of 26.83 g/m3. From October 1986 to December 1996, there were 30 fracture accidents, of
which 27 were caused by fracture of annular weld. The reason is that the welding quality is poor, the weld edge is wrong, and it is not
welded through. In addition, corrosion causes the weld bearing capacity to decline and crack
2. Analysis of failure causes of gas transmission pipelines following is the comparison of the corrosion and protection
situation in 1999 with that in previous years, introduction
According to the investigation and analysis of the failure and analysis of the corrosion status, anti-corrosion measures,
cases of gas transmission pipelines in Sichuan Gas Field, the input and anti-corrosion effect of each production, water
failure causes of gas transmission pipelines in injection and oil and gas gathering, and transportation sys-
sulfur-containing gas field can be divided into hydrogen tem in the oilfield.
embrittlement and sulfide SCC, local chemical or electro-
chemical corrosion wall thickness thinning and unqualified 1. Corrosion and protection of production system in
pipe making or welding quality, material factors, and natural oilfield
factors. One or more among above five factors will lead to
the failure of gas pipelines. According to the statistical In 1999, there were 1,888 times of comprehensive corrosion
analysis of recorded pipeline failure accidents of Sichuan perforation in the production system, a decrease of 16.31%
Gas Field in the past 40 years, the highest frequency of than that in 1998. The number of perforation in the oil
hydrogen embrittlement occurred from the 1960s to the system is 1,156 times, which is 10.03% less than that in
1970s, namely, at the initial stage of development of gas 1998, but accounts for 1.23% of the total number of perfo-
field. The peak of local electrochemical corrosion occurs ration. Among them, 758 times of wellhead pipeline perfo-
after 3 years when pipelines are put into operation, while the ration occurred in the oil system, accounting for 40.15% of
quality problems of pipe making or welding are exposed the total number of perforation. It can be seen that the cor-
after 1 year when pipelines are put into operation. rosion of oil system, especially the corrosion of wellhead
pipelines, is very serious.
4.1.3.2 Corrosion Protection in Sinopec The protection of oil and gas acquisition system mainly
Zhongyuan Oilfield [6, 7] includes system dosing, pipeline cleaning, corrosion moni-
Sinopec Zhongyuan Oilfield, which was developed in 1979, toring, pipeline replacement and repair, etc. The workload of
is a multilayer oilfield of multi-reservoir type. The service corrosion protection in 1999 was as follows: ➀ 1,151 oil
environment of the oilfield is very corrosive. Since it was put wells were added with 604 tons of corrosion inhibitor for
into development, the oilfield has caused huge economic 6,558 times; ➁ 73 gathering and transportation trunk lines
losses due to corrosion, especially corrosion perforation were added with 730.8 tons of corrosion inhibitor to their
accidents which have seriously affected the normal produc- end points; ➂ 22,288 tons of agent were used for sewage
tion of the oilfield. Facing this situation, the oilfield has treatment; ➃ 56.7 km of water injection dry branch lines
carried out a lot of work in the aspect of anti-corrosion were cleaned; ➄ 70 anti-corrosion containers; ➅ 55.5 km of
treatment and has achieved remarkable results. The main branch lines of gathering and transportation were
Fig. 4.1 Perforating bar graph of production system of oilfield over the years
Fig. 4.2 Perforating bar graph of oilfield water injection system pipeline over the years
262 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.3 Oil pipe bar graph of water injection well replacement over the years
Fig. 4.4 Bar graph of economic losses caused by corrosion of production system in oilfield over the years
replaced (repaired) for corrosion protection; ➆ 1.4 km of 4.1.3.3 Corrosion Status and Anti-corrosion
injected back water dry branch lines were replaced (repaired) in Tahe Oilfield
for corrosion protection.
Through the implementation of anti-corrosion work, a 1. Corrosion status
better result has been achieved. For example, corrosion rate
of the production system is reduced, the number of corrosion There were 284 times of corrosion perforation in Tahe Oil-
perforation is reduced, and the economic loss caused by field in 2010, including 259 times of corrosion in the ground
corrosion is reduced (in 1999, the economic loss caused by production system (Table 4.2) and 25 times of corrosion in
corrosion is RMB 43.9573 million, a decrease of 10.23% pitshaft. Compared with 2009, the corrosion in the well was
compared with 1998). slightly reduced but the ground corrosion increased by 111%
Corrosion control has brought great economic benefits to compared with 123 times in the same period of 2009, among
the oilfield. For example, the original corrosion of Sinopec which the corrosion of single-well pipeline and gathering and
Zhongyuan Oilfield is very serious, which has aroused great transportation trunk line increased by 59 times and 60 times,
attention. After 1993, fruitful work has been carried out on respectively, and the sewage system was improved slightly.
corrosion control, corrosion losses have been significantly The ground corrosion of oil and gas fields in 2010 was
reduced, and obvious economic benefits have been achieved. characterized by “three concentration”: concentration of
The statistical results are shown in Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4. pipeline corrosion with long operation time and high water
content; concentration of pipeline corrosion with low pro-
2. Management of oilfield anti-corrosion work and ductivity and open well; and concentration of metal pipeline
personnel input corrosion of sewage treatment system.
The corrosion problem of Sinopec Zhongyuan Oilfield is 2. Features of corrosive perforation

typical in petroleum system, and its anti-corrosion manage-
ment has always been the most prominent in oil system. 1) The main corrosion perforation of gathering and trans-
A series of measures have been taken to control corrosion in portation pipeline is internal pitting corrosion, which
Sinopec Zhongyuan Oilfield as follows: ➀ according to the mainly occurs at the bottom of the pipeline.
specific conditions of the oilfield, the basic guidelines are
formulated for corrosion protection and always go The transportation media of the gathering and transportation
throughout the systematic anti-corrosion work; ➁ the pipeline in Tahe Oilfield include oil–water or oil/gas water
anti-corrosion work has attracted more and more attention, containing CO2, H2S, and hypersalinity water. Seen from the
and a systematic anti-corrosion management network is opened failed pipeline section (Figs. 4.5 and 4.6), uniform
established. The oilfield has set up anti-corrosion leading corrosion thinning is not serious and corrosion perforation is
group and anti-corrosion center, and set up special caused by internal pitting corrosion and mainly concentrated
anti-corrosion management office with two or more special in the middle and lower part of the pipeline, especially in the
(part-time) persons in charge; ➂ the systematic rules and bottom.
regulations have been established to standardize and insti- Pipeline C is an external transmission pipeline of a mixed
tutionalize the anti-corrosion work; ➃ strengthening the transmission station of oil, gas, and water. The produced
quality control and assessment of anti-corrosion measures, fluid of the single well under the station contains CO2, H2S,
implementing the single-row system and a special fund for a and hypersalinity water, and may contain dissolved oxygen
fixed purpose and implementing the subsidy policy. The in the conveyed fluid due to water injection instead of oil or
implementation of these measures plays an important role in intermittent production. Water injection instead of oil is an
the control of corrosion and the reduction of corrosion loss, oil recovery technology for water injection and oil produc-
which is worthy of popularization and application. tion in the same well. The injected water is injected and
Table 4.2 Tracking summary of ground system corrosion

Time Single-well Gathering and Station Water injection Dilution Container Equipment Total
pipeline transportation pipeline pipeline pipeline pipeline
2008 39 11 22 2 0 9 14 97
2009 29 24 49 17 0 0 4 123
2010 88 84 57 6 1 6 7 259
264 J. Zhang
Severe uniform thinning of pipeline C is likely to be

associated with dissolved oxygen compared to pipeline D
which is also severely corroded. Pipeline D is also an oil–
gas–water mixed pipeline. There are over 40 corrosion
perforations, but the thinning is mainly at the bottom
(Table 4.4).
2) Pipelines with high water content are often corroded
The corrosion of the sewage system of the combined station

accounts for a large proportion in the annual corrosion
perforation (Table 4.5).
Corrosion perforation of oil and gas gathering and
Fig. 4.5 Corrosion diagram of pipeline A in CO2, H2S, and hyper- transportation pipelines also occurs frequently in pipelines
salinity water environment with high water content. It is found that the corrosion mainly
occurred in the system with water content of more than 30%
in 2010, accounting for 87% of the total corrosion
(Table 4.6).
3) Low flow rate pipeline corrosion occurs frequently
Corrosion occurs mainly in systems with flow rate below

1 m/s, accounting for 99% of the total corrosion (Table 4.7).
4) Low-lying and climbing positions of pipelines tend to

corrode frequently for ponding in the pipe section
Through field investigation and analysis of 11-1 station

external transmission pipeline, KZ1 external transmission
pipeline, and TH10106 single-well pipeline with more cor-
rosion and perforation times, it is found that the pipeline has
large elevation difference and corrosion often occurs at low
Fig. 4.6 Corrosion diagram of pipeline B in CO2, H2S, and hyper-
salinity water environment
altitude and climbing areas.
produced in the same well. In order to prevent the condensed 4.1.3.4 Corrosion Analysis of West–East Natural
pipe during shutdown, the single-well pipeline needs to be Gas Transmission Pipeline in Yakela Gas
cleaned with water, and then the pipeline is shutdown. The Field [8]
dissolved oxygen content of injected water and cleaning
water is high (up to 0.4 mg/L).
Pipeline C has been corroded and perforated for 12 times 1. On-site condition
at present. The ultrasonic wall thickness for excavation of
the pipeline shows that the corrosion is uniform internal Yakela Gas west–east natural gas transmission pipeline was
corrosion, and the thinnest point detected clockwise along put into operation in March 2008, with specifications of
the pipe section is 1.7–2.5 m (Table 4.3). 355.6 mm 8.8 mm, length of 7.58 km, and material
Table 4.3 Test result of wall thickness of pipeline C excavation

Name Bottom Left side Top Right side Pipeline cross section
Position ➂ ➁ ➃ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦
Wall thickness/mm 1.9 3.2 1.7 2.5
Table 4.4 Test result of wall thickness of pipeline excavation

Position Bottom Left side Top Right side Wall thickness measured clockwise
No. ➀ ➁ ➂ ➃
Wall thickness/mm 1.9 6.9 7.0 7.0
Table 4.5 Statistics by production medium

Time Crude oil Associated gas Condensate oil Dilute oil Sewage Circulating water Acid solution Other Total
2008 37 4 31 – 17 1 5 1 96
2009 58 1 6 – 57 1 – – 123
2010 193 7 5 1 42 6 1 4 259
Table 4.6 Comparison of different water-containing corrosion 2. On-site test

perforations
Time <30% 30–60% >60% Total Further excavation reveals the following:
2008 35 26 35 96
2009 22 24 77 123 (1) The pipe sections of the No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 de-
2010 33 114 112 259 tected pits located upstream are seriously corroded in
the form of large sections and continuous sheets. The
detected pipe section of No. 3 pit that is 3 km away
Table 4.7 Corrosion perforation at different flow rates from Yakela Gas Collection Station has the most
serious corrosion, with corrosion pit depth of 2–
Time <1 m/s 1–2 m/s >2 m/s
3 mm and local maximum pit depth of 4.0 mm;
2008 90 5 1 (2) The corrosion of No. 4, No. 5, and No. 6 exploration
2009 121 0 2 pits in the middle and lower reaches of the pipeline is
2010 255 4 0 slighter than that of the upstream No. 3 pit. The
corrosion mainly develops along the 3PE crack and
large continuous segments are not formed, but local
quality of L415MB. The external anti-corrosion coating corrosion is also serious. The common corrosion pit
adopts reinforced high-temperature type 3PE with design depth is 1.6–2.2 mm, and most of the 3PE layer is
pressure of 10 MPa, design delivery capacity of 10 108 cracked and not peeled off and the non-peeled-off areas
N > m3/a, and current operating pressure is about 6.4 MPa. are basically free of corrosion.
The natural gas pipeline was tested and evaluated in
2012. The pipeline anti-corrosion coating has appeared a 3. Risk assessment of pipeline corrosion
continuous crack about 5 mm wide, and the polyethylene
layer has been peeled off from the pipeline body. Poly- The pipeline was put into operation in March 2008, and the
ethylene layers in most cracks fall off in a large area, the cathodic protection failed in August 2012. The 3PE
steel pipe is exposed and the surface of the pipe body is anti-corrosion coating was found to be seriously cracked
rusty, and the protection system fails. In 2013, the repair during excavation from October to December 2012. Obvious
plan of petroleum asphalt anti-corrosion coating was deter- corrosion is found in individual parts, but the corrosion
mined, and the repair test was carried out. During excavation degree is lighter than the corrosion degree found in May
and repair of anti-corrosion coating in 2014, serious corro- 2014, especially in the section of No. 1 and No. 2 detection
sion occurred in the starting pipeline with the maximum pits with severe upstream corrosion. No obvious corrosion
corrosion pit depth of about 3.0 mm. For further evaluation, was found in sections A and B adjacent to 10 m during
several typical pipe sections at different positions were excavation inspection in 2012 and repair treatment in 2013.
excavated. Therefore, in a relatively short period of time, the cracking
266 J. Zhang
and peeling degree of the pipeline 3PE anti-corrosion coat- soil salinity, alkali, and groundwater chloride content. In
ing is characterized by aggravation, and the corrosion degree addition, with the change of tide, reverse irrigation of sea-
also develops from light corrosion in the early stage to water occurs in drainage underdrain do that the oil pipeline
serious corrosion. Calculated from the failure of cathodic is in a corrosive environment of dry–wet alternate seawater
protection in August 2012, the maximum corrosion rate and salt mist for a long time. Besides, the pipeline is affected
reaches 2.34 mm/a, all of which are extremely serious by road bearing and vibration, which leads to accelerated
corrosion. corrosion thinning and cracking, resulting in crude oil
leakage. The leakage point is located at 15 cm outside the
4.1.3.5 Special Serious Accident of Leakage east wall of the bridge and culvert of Qinhuangdao Road,
and Explosion of Sinopec Donghuang Oil directly below the pipeline. After calculation and confirma-
Pipeline in Qingdao City on November, tion, the leakage amount of crude oil is about 2,000 tons.
22 Part of the leaked oil rushed out of the road and most
At 10: 25 on November 22, 2013, the crude oil that leaked directly entered into the underdrain. The oil and gas volati-
from Donghuang Oil Pipeline of Pipeline Storage and lized by the leaked crude oil forms combustible and explo-
Transportation Branch of Sinopec, located in Qingdao sive gas mixture with the air in the drainage channel space
Economic and Technological Development Zone of Shan- and accumulates in the relatively closed drainage channel.
dong Province, entered the municipal underdrain, oil and gas As the crude oil leaked to explode for more than 8 h, which
accumulated in the concealed ditch space and exploded, was affected by seawater reverse irrigation, the leaked crude
causing 62 deaths and 136 injuries, with a direct economic oil, and its mixed gas spread and accumulated in the drai-
loss of RMB 751.72 million. nage underdrain, resulting in a large-scale continuous
explosion.
1. Brief introduction of Donghuang Oil Pipeline
The Donghuang Oil Pipeline was built in 1985 and put into 4.1.4 Existing Problems and Suggestions
operation in July 1986, starting from Dongying First Station on Corrosion Protection Strategies
of Dongying City, Shandong Province and ending at
Huangdao Oil Depot of Development Zone. The design oil 4.1.4.1 Existing Problems in Corrosion
transfer capacity is 20 million t/a, and the design pressure is and Protection
6.27 MPa. The total length of the pipeline is 248.5 km, the
pipe diameter is 711 mm, and the material is API 5LX-60
straight seam welded steel pipe. The exterior wall of the 1. Technical question
pipeline adopts petroleum asphalt cloth for corrosion pro-
tection and impressed current cathodic protection. In Octo- The CO2 corrosion has always been an important problem in
ber 1998, it was transferred from Huangdao Oil Depot to the development of oil and gas fields. All major oil and gas
Dongying First Station with oil transfer capacity of 10 fields and scientific research institutions have carried out a
million t/a. The pipeline in the accident section is laid in great deal of research, and have made great achievements,
underground along the east–west direction of Qinhuangdao but there are still some shortcomings, which are mainly
Road in the development zone. manifested in ➀ the study of CO2 corrosion mechanism is
immature. Therefore, the corrosion law of CO2 is not clear
2. Causes of accidents enough; ➁ there are some contradictions in the study of
influence factors of CO2 corrosion, which can’t provide
At the intersection of oil pipeline and underdrain, there are good guidance for the research of CO2 anti-corrosion tech-
pipeline corrosion thinning, pipeline fracture, crude oil nology; ➂ the indoor simulation of anti-corrosion is back-
leakage, inflow into drainage underdrain, and backflushing ward, and many short-term indoor anti-corrosion test results
to road surface. After crude oil leakage, the on-site disposal are not consistent with the actual CO2 corrosion in oil and
personnel uses hydraulic crushing hammer to punch holes on gas fields. All these problems restrict the development of
the cover plate of the underdrain, thus generating impact CO2 anti-corrosion technology in oil and gas fields [9].
sparks and causing oil and gas explosion in the underdrain. The corrosion of pipeline steel caused by hydrogen sul-
Through on-site inspection, physical evidence detection, fide is a complicated process. There are many kinds of
investigation, inquiry and data reference, and comprehensive corrosion forms and many influence factors. These factors
analysis, it is concluded that the area where the oil pipeline interact with each other, which makes the corrosion mech-
intersecting with the drainage underdrain is located has high anism of pipeline steel very complicated in H2S
environment. To effectively prevent H2S corrosion of pipe- (2) Anti-corrosion professionals are relatively deficient. In
line steel, it is necessary to conduct more in-depth research particular, most of the technical personnel at the pipe-
on its corrosion mechanism, analyze, and consider the syn- line operation and maintenance operation level,
ergetic effect of various factors, adopt anti-corrosion design anti-corrosion construction, and management personnel
and economical and environmental anti-corrosion technol- haven’t undergone technical training in corrosion pro-
ogy, so as to effectively solve H2S corrosion resistance of tection specialty, and the problems arising in pipeline
pipeline steel [10]. corrosion control can’t be detected and dealt with in
The stray current generated by the power line and the time. Anti-corrosion designers mainly focus on cathodic
electrified railway will cause great harm to the buried metal protection design. There are no corresponding guidance
pipelines, which will seriously threaten the operation safety documents for coating selection and design and scien-
and personal safety of the buried metal pipelines. It is very tific evaluation and decision-making process are
important to carry out the research on the corrosion protec- insufficient.
tion of the buried metal pipelines caused by the stray current (3) Pipeline leakage monitoring and early warning, disaster
to ensure the safe operation of buried metal pipelines. early warning, and corrosion control management based
Although the threat of stray current corrosion and interfer- on big data are still blank. At present, many countries at
ence is largely suppressed due to the reasonable use of home and abroad are implementing pipeline risk and
modern discharge measures, the effect of stray current is integrity management methods, and have developed
very large and very common, so the risk of corrosion and corresponding management procedures to integrate
interference is still very strong and is still a hot issue worthy pipeline corrosion control into the integrity manage-
of attention. According to the characteristics and distribution ment system and implement active monitoring and
law of stray current in buried environment, intelligent online maintenance.
monitoring system of stray current corrosion should be (4) Each sector lacks communication mechanisms and
adopted to predict the stray current corrosion of buried metal information exchange platforms. The communication
structures. The intelligent current discharging device is and coordination of various sectors such as scientific
designed to regulate the current automatically. The method research, design, construction, operation, and manage-
of “source control” shall be adopted for the discharge of ment play an important role in effective control of
stray current. During the engineering design and construc- pipeline corrosion. However, at present, there is no
tion, measures shall be taken to minimize the leakage of corresponding mechanism to promote communication
current as much as possible. and a platform for information exchange is needed,
which inevitably makes scientific research divorced
2. Management problem [11] from reality, design biased, construction quality
impaired, and operation and management inefficient.
Compared with developed countries, the corrosion of
domestic oil and gas pipelines is obviously much more 4.1.4.2 Suggestions on Corrosion Protection
serious. There are mainly the following problems: Strategies
Suggestions and countermeasures for corrosion protection
(1) The old pipelines enter the frequent occurrence period strategies [11]:
of corrosion accident. At present, most of the old
pipelines in operation were built around the 1970s. Due 1) Carrying out investigation, analysis, and countermeasure
to the limitation of the technical level at that time, the research on corrosion status of oil and gas pipelines
anti-corrosion design of pipelines, especially the
selection of anti-corrosion coatings, was not scientific. The corrosion status of oil and gas pipelines is investigated
Almost without exception, the petroleum asphalt comprehensively, the corrosion reasons are analyzed, and
anti-corrosion coating was selected. After more than the corresponding countermeasures are formulated.
20 years of operation, most of the petroleum asphalt
coatings have been aged, especially for pipelines with 2) Establishing the system of pipeline baseline detection
higher operating temperature. However, the pipeline and evaluation, periodic detection and evaluation, and
anti-corrosion overhaul technology is relatively back- strengthening the management of corrosion data
ward, which causes the lag of coating maintenance and
insufficiency of the pipeline protection. Therefore, the We should develop the key technology of safety guarantee
pipelines enter the corrosion accident high occurrence for oil and gas pipelines, improve the detection accuracy of
period. pipeline defect data, improve the accuracy of the bottom
268 J. Zhang
data, and give better play to the decision-making support 4.1.5 Specific Recommendations for This
role of functional pipeline network. In addition, we should Corrosion Investigation
carry out baseline inspection and integrity evaluation on the and Recommendations at the National
newly built pipelines, and establish the initial integrity data Level
of the pipeline system. We should carry out periodic
inspection and re-evaluation on the operation pipeline, and The experience of various oil and gas fields and storage and
monitor the control of corrosion risk. The establishment of transportation companies shows that the corrosion problems
corrosion and protection database and information manage- in the oil and gas acquisition and transportation industry can
ment system to collect and effectively use related data is an be controlled by taking some necessary measures, most of
essential part of pipeline integrity management. which have been successfully applied in controlling and
mitigating corrosion accidents and losses. It mainly includes
3) Implementing the corrosion risk monitoring and integrity ① design and construction according to the standard mate-
management system in an all-round manner rial selection; ② removing the corrosive medium to slow
down the corrosiveness of the oil and gas medium; ③ taking
Most pipeline operators control risk by complying with their appropriate and effective protective measures, such as add-
management regulations and national regulations, but man- ing corrosion inhibitor, protective coating, cathodic protec-
agement regulations are often routine requirements and can’t tion, and joint use of several methods; ④ establishing the
adapt to a variety of pipelines with different needs and risks. corrosion monitoring system to grasp the corrosion dynam-
Pipeline management sectors transition from regulatory ics; ➄ for the pipelines, regular pigging, and blowdown shall
management in pipeline design and operation to risk man- be carried out; ➅ increasing the input of corrosion protec-
agement, and take risk management as the most cost-effective tion; ➆ developing anti-corrosion series products suitable for
way to maintain and improve the safety level of pipelines. the national conditions of China based on the national
We should establish and improve integrity management conditions; ⑧ strengthening the leadership of anti-corrosion
specifications and standards, develop integrity management work, establishing anti-corrosion professional institutions
procedures for oil and gas pipelines, comprehensively and systems, and improving the management level [6].
implement corrosion risk monitoring and integrity manage- For the corrosion status of domestic station pipeline
ment system, and incorporate corrosion control into the network, the following suggestions are put forward [13]:
integrity management system.
(1) In view of the fact that there is still a certain gap
4) Intelligent network construction of whole life cycle [12] between the performance of pipeline anti-corrosion
coating materials in domestic stations and those of
The intelligent pipeline network of whole life cycle is the advanced countries, it is suggested to further introduce
development direction of pipeline management in the future. and develop new type pipeline anti-corrosion materials
The main difficulty of the intelligent pipe network is the and repair technologies with excellent performance that
matching relationship between the existing system and the are suitable for station construction.
intelligent pipe network system. It is necessary to study how (2) On the basis of carrying out regional cathodic protec-
to integrate the original system and solve the problem of data tion on the underground pipeline network of the sta-
exchange between construction period and operation period. tion, it is suggested to strengthen the training of
During the construction period and operation period, the professional technicians to improve the quality of
same data frame and data dictionary shall be followed to management.
realize free data calling and sharing. The construction and (3) We should accelerate the introduction and digestion of
development of the intelligent pipe network shall be foreign advanced pipeline monitoring technology and
undertaken by the project manager engaged in the field of equipment, and regularly carry out the monitoring and
pipeline with practical engineering experience, and the inspection and comprehensive evaluation of the station
management layer shall fully realize the practical signifi- pipeline network to ensure the safe operation of the
cance of the future development of the intelligent pipe net- pipelines.
work. A more advanced big data platform technology shall (4) In addition, we shall revise and integrate the existing
be adopted to improve the running speed of pipe network technical standards and specifications, formulate the
system. Besides, we should pay attention to system con- control standards for the corrosion of the pipeline net-
struction and platform synchronization, and strengthen work of the oil and gas stations, and promote the
operation and maintenance process management. integrity management of the stations and pipelines.
4.1.6 Standards and Specifications for Pipeline distillates such as naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and heavy oil
Corrosion Protection through oil and gas processing. Light hydrocarbons and
distillates can be made into basic raw materials for petroleum
Engineering Inspection on Corrosion protection of Buried and chemical industry, such as acetylene, ethylene, propy-
Steel Pipelines (GB/T 19285-2014) lene, butadiene, benzene, toluene, xylene, and synthesis gas
Method for Measuring Cathodic Protection Parameters by means of thermal cracking, catalytic reforming, steam
of Buried Steel Pipelines (GB/T 21246-2007) reforming, and partial oxidation. These basic materials can
Code for External Corrosion Control of Steel Pipelines be further processed into a variety of intermediate products
(GB/T 21447-2008) such as styrene, acrylonitrile, ethylene oxide, phenol, and
Technical Specifications for Cathodic Protection of caprolactam. Intermediate products can produce synthetic
Buried Steel Pipelines (GB/T 21448-2008) rubber, synthetic resins, synthetic fibers, synthetic deter-
Polyethylene Anti-corrosion coating for Buried Steel gents, and other petrochemical products. The relationship
Pipeline (GB/T 23257-2009) between raw materials, production process, and products
Technical Specifications for Application of Buried Steel used in petroleum and chemical industry is shown in Fig. 4.7
Inspection Sheet (SY/T 0029-2012) [13].
Standard for Corrosion Evaluation of Steel Pipelines and The 1960s is the golden age of the development of pet-
Storage Tanks & Direct Evaluation of External Corrosion of roleum and chemical industry in the world, and its speed has
Buried Steel Pipelines (SY/T 0087.1-2006) exceeded the average development speed of the whole
Standard for Corrosion Evaluation of Steel Pipelines and industrial sector. During this period, six major developed
Storage Tanks & Direct Evaluation of Internal Corrosion of countries in Europe and America, as well as Japan, have
Buried Steel Pipelines (SY/T 0087.2-2012) successively completed a complete petrochemical system.
Standard for Corrosion Evaluation of Steel Pipelines and China’s petroleum and chemical industry began in the
Storage Tanks & Direct Evaluation of Steel Storage Tanks 1960s. With the development of Daqing Oilfield, oil and
(SY/T 0087.3-2010) natural gas production has increased significantly, promoting
Technical Management Regulations for Cathodic Pro- the rise of oil refining industry and promoting the develop-
tection of Buried Steel Pipelines (SY/T 5919-2009) ment of petroleum and chemical industry. In 1961, Lanzhou
Code for Design of Impressed Current Cathodic Pro- Chemical Industry Company completed a pipe cracking
tection for Buried Steel Pipelines (SY/T 0036-2000) furnace with refinery gas as raw material and an annual
Technical Specifications for Repairing External Anti- output of 5000 tons of ethylene, making China’s petroleum
corrosion coating of Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 5918-2011) and chemical industry take the first step. Subsequently, the
Test Method for Leak Detection of Pipeline Anti-corro- ethylene units of Dalian Organic Synthesis Plant and
sion coating (SY/T 0063-1999) Shanghai Gaoqiao Chemical Plant were completed and put
Technical Specifications for Melted Epoxy Powder Outer into operation one after another, which opened the prologue
Coating of Steel Pipelines (SY/T 0315-2013) of petrochemical production in China [14].
Technical Standard for Polyethylene Anti-corrosion After more than 50 years of construction, especially the
coating of Buried Steel Pipelines (SY/T 0413-2002) reform and reorganization in recent 10 years, the develop-
Technical Regulations for Corrosion Control of Urban ment speed of China’s petroleum and chemical industry has
Gas Buried Steel Pipelines (CJJ 95-2013) obviously accelerated and has become one of the world’s
largest petrochemical countries. Its crude oil processing
capacity, ethylene, and three major synthetic materials pro-
4.2 Report on Corrosion Investigation duction capacity are among the world’s leading. According
in Petroleum and Chemical Industry to statistics of the National Development and Reform
Commission, in 2013, China’s crude oil processing volume
4.2.1 Basic Situation of Petroleum and Chemical was 478.58 million tons, the yield of refined oil was 296.16
Industry in China million tons, the yield of ethylene was 16.23 million tons,
the yield of synthetic resin was 58.37 million tons, the yield
In petroleum and chemical industry, petroleum and natural of synthetic rubber was 4.09 million tons, and the yield of
gas are taken as raw materials to obtain light hydrocarbons chemical fertilizer was 71.54 million tons (pure). The main
such as methane, ethane, propane, butane, and pentane, and business income of the petroleum and chemical industry was
270 J. Zhang
RMB 11.9663 trillion, of which the oil refining industry was corrosion impact on refinery devices, and threaten safety
RMB 3.468 trillion and the chemical industry was RMB production seriously.
8.1037 billion. The total profit of the whole industry was
RMB 498.1 billion, including RMB 40 billion in the oil
refining industry and RMB 430.8 billion in the chemical 4.2.2 Corrosion and Protection of Petroleum
industry [15]. and Chemical Industry in China
According to the 2016 Domestic and Foreign Oil and Gas
Industry Development Report issued by the CNPC Eco- 4.2.2.1 Main Corrosion Problems Faced
nomics & Technology Research Institute, the apparent by China’s Petroleum and Chemical
consumption of petroleum in China reached 543 million Industry
tons, the net petroleum import volume reached 328 million At present, the corrosion of petrochemical equipment in
tons, and the degree of foreign-trade dependence reached China is mainly manifested in three typical corrosion forms:
60.6% in 2015. The increase of foreign-trade dependence not sulfide corrosion, naphthenic acid corrosion, and chloride
only means the increase of crude oil processing quantity but salt corrosion in crude oil. Their corrosion surface is very
also reflects the variety of crude oil, which will bring large and the economic loss is also very serious.
Fig. 4.7 Schematic diagram of relationship between petrochemical raw materials, main production processes, and products
Fig. 4.7 (continued)
1. Corrosion of petrochemical equipment by sulfide sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, and low molecular mercaptans are
all capable of directly interacting with metals to cause cor-
In recent years, sulfide corrosion of many refinery equipment rosion of equipment, so they are collectively referred to as
in China has been aggravated obviously, which is mainly active sulfur. The rest of the sulfides that can’t interact
caused by the refining of high-sulfur crude oil imported from directly with the metals are collectively referred to as inac-
Middle East. However, many refinery production units are tive sulfur. Active sulfur can react with steel directly at a
not designed according to the equipment for refining certain temperature to cause corrosion, and inactive sulfur
high-sulfur crude oil, nor do they select reasonable can be partially decomposed into active sulfur under the
corrosion-resistant materials, and adopt some professional action of high temperature, high pressure, and catalyst. Some
surface protective measures. Thus, the petrochemical sulfides begin to decompose at 120 °C. Sulfides in crude oil
equipment that refines the imported crude oil has suffered interact with other corrosive media such as oxides, chlorides,
different degrees of corrosion and destruction, resulting in nitrides, cyanide, naphthenic acids, and hydrogen to form a
huge economic losses. variety of sulfur-containing corrosive environments. In the
From the viewpoint of corrosion and protection of processing process of crude oil, non-active sulfur is contin-
refinery equipment, sulfur existing in crude oil is generally uously decomposed into active sulfur under the action of
classified as active sulfur and inactive sulfur. Elemental high temperature, high pressure, and catalyst, so that sulfur
272 J. Zhang
corrosion not only exists in the primary processing device poisoning and equipment corrosion during processing pro-
but also causes the secondary processing devices to undergo cess of crude oil. The corrosion of both to the devices is
sulfur corrosion. It even extends to the downstream chemical accomplished by HCl as a corrosion medium.
units, so it can be said that the sulfur corrosion runs through Most of the inorganic salts naturally existing in the crude
the whole process of oil refining. oil can be removed by electric desalter, but a part of the
inorganic salts still remain in the crude oil after desalting
2. Corrosion of petrochemical equipment caused by mainly in the form of metal salts such as NaCl, CaCl2, and
naphthenic acid MgCl2, which can be hydrolyzed to produce corrosive
medium HCl under certain condition. However, the organic
Naphthenic acid is a kind of saturated cyclic chlorides existing in crude oil can’t be effectively removed
structure-containing organic acid present in petroleum with by electric desalter, and the organic chlorides can also pro-
the general formula of RCH2COOH. Acidic compounds in duce corrosive medium HCl by hydrolysis or thermal
petroleum including naphthenic acid, fatty acid, aromatic decomposition under certain conditions. HCl is a kind of
acid, and phenols. The content of naphthenic acid is the most volatile acid, so it volatilizes and condenses along with the
(about 90% or more), so the acid in petroleum is generally light cut fraction in the crude oil and moisture during dis-
called naphthenic acid. tillation, thus causing severe corrosion of the top of the
In the process of petroleum refining, naphthenic acid is overhead condensing system of the atmospheric and vacuum
heated, distilled, condensed, and dissolved with the same distillation unit, the condensing cooler, air cooler, and
boiling point of the crude oil, thereby causing corrosion of overhead pipelines. In addition, HCl is easily combined with
the cut fraction to the equipment material. The iron naph- NH3 to form NH4Cl, resulting in salt deposition blocking
thenate caused by naphthenic acid corrosion is oil-soluble. and corrosion. These problems mainly occur in the reaction
Coupled with the flow of media, so metal surface corroded effluent system of the hydrogenation unit, the overhead
by naphthenic acid is clean and smooth. In the region of high system of atmospheric tower, the overhead system of the
temperature and high flow rate of crude oil, the naphthenic catalytic fractionator, and the overhead system of the coking
acid corrosion appears as a sharp-edged streamline groove in fractionator.
the downstream direction and is in the shape of sharp-edged
pits in the region of low flow rate. 4.2.2.2 Anti-corrosion Technology of Petroleum
and Chemical Equipment in China
3. Corrosion of petrochemical equipment caused by
chlorides
1. Corrosion monitoring technology
The crude oil produced from the oil well usually contains
0.01–22% (mass fraction) of chloride salt. After multistage Corrosion monitoring is to use various instruments, tools,
desalting/dehydration treatment, the salt content of crude oil and analysis methods to determine the corrosion rate of
sent to the refinery is generally in the range of tens to materials in the process medium environment and to timely
thousands of mg/L [16]. During the processing process of feedback equipment corrosion information to engineers and
crude oil, the presence of chloride is of great harmfulness. In technicians so as to take effective measures to slow down
recent years, the organic chloride component of domestic corrosion and avoid corrosion accidents. Through corrosion
crude oil has been increasing, and the crude oil from Middle monitoring, the factory can not only prevent the occur-
East has also been found to contain chloride. rence of corrosion accidents but also adjust the corrosion
Chloride-induced Cl− corrosion has been extended from control scheme in time so as to reduce unnecessary cor-
atmospheric and vacuum distillation units to some secondary rosion control costs and obtain the maximum economic
processing units, threatening the safety production of benefits.
refinery. There are many kinds of corrosion monitoring methods
The chlorides in crude oil and secondary processing which can be divided into direct monitoring and indirect
materials can be divided into inorganic and organic ones. monitoring according to whether the corrosion results are
Practical production experience has shown that chlorides in obtained directly. Corrosion monitoring that can directly
both inorganic and organic forms can cause catalyst obtain a corrosion result (such as corrosion weight loss and
corrosion current) is called direct monitoring; otherwise, it is 3. Anti-corrosion technology

indirect monitoring. Direct corrosion monitoring technolo-
gies include corrosion hanger, resistance probe, linear The “process corrosion protection” of refining and chemical
polarization resistance probe, AC impedance probe, elec- enterprises mainly refers to electric desalting, injection of
trochemical noise probe, etc. Indirect corrosion monitoring neutralizer, injection of corrosion inhibitor, and injection of
technologies include ultrasonic monitoring (thickness mea- water (for short “one desalting and three injections”) so as to
surement), radiograph, infrared temperature distribution solve the problem of corrosion of equipment and pipeline at
map, etc. The corrosion monitoring methods commonly used low-temperature light oil parts of “three top” (top of initial
in refineries include fixed-point thickness measurement, distillation tower, atmospheric tower, and vacuum tower)
online corrosion monitoring, corrosion medium analysis, system of atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit, as well
corrosion product analysis, unit shutdown corrosion as catalytic cracking, coking, reforming, and hydrorefining
inspection, corrosion hanger, etc. devices. The above measures are the main anti-corrosion
measures for low-temperature parts of refinery units [17].
2. Rational selection of materials for petrochemical Electric desalter of crude oil is an important pretreatment
equipment unit in refinery. Its function is to wash out most inorganic
salts and other impurities which are soluble in water from
In order to pursue the intrinsic safety of equipment, crude oil by water injection, so as to reduce the corrosion of
anti-corrosion of materials is very important. Therefore, in “three top” system of atmospheric and vacuum distillation
order to improve the safety and long-term operation of unit, and reduce catalyst poisoning in subsequent catalytic
petrochemical equipment in an all-round way, Sinopec has cracking and hydrocracking units.
issued several enterprise standards and specifications on
corrosion design and prevention successively based on a Injection of neutralizer. The main function of the top
large number of hanger experiments, accident analysis and neutralizer (ammonia or amine) is to neutralize the corrosive
practical tests on the production facilities, and some of the acid in the top of the tower, increase the pH value of the
standards have been raised to national or industrial stan- condensate, and slow down the corrosion of the equipment.
dards, such as In the early stage, inorganic ammonia is mainly injected, but
the effect is not very ideal. In recent years, the neutralizer of
(1) SH/T 3129-2012 Guide for Material Selection for organic amine–inorganic ammonia is gradually developed,
High-acid Crude Oil Processing Equipment and Pipe- and the effect is obviously improved.
line Design
(2) SH/T 3096-2012 Guide for Material Selection for Injection of corrosion inhibitor. In the acidic corrosive
High-sulfur Crude Oil Processing Equipment and environment at the top of the atmospheric tower, the
Pipeline Design high-temperature naphthenic acid environment of the vac-
(3) SH/T 3059-2012 Specification for Selection of Petro- uum tower, and the hydrogen sulfide environment at the top
chemical Pipeline Design Equipment of the hydrorefine stripper, various special-purpose corrosion
(4) Detailed rules of Management Regulations on Anti- inhibitors are injected, generally in an amount of 5–50 ppm.
corrosion of Refinery Processes of Sinopec
(5) Management Regulations on Measuring Thickness of Injection of water into the top of the tower. Injection of
Equipment and Pipelines for Processing High-sulfur water into the top of tower is often adopted by refineries as
Crude Oil of Sinopec an anti-corrosion method. At the top of the initial distillation
(6) Management Regulations on Strengthening the of tower, the top of the atmospheric tower and the top of the
Corrosion Inspection of Oil Refining Units of Sinopec vacuum tower, the top of the fractionator for catalytic
(7) Guiding Opinions on Material Selection of Equipment cracking, before the fractionator of catalytic cracking and
and Pipelines for Processing Parts of High-sulfur after the gas compressor, water injection technology is
Crude Oil of Sinopec generally used before high-pressure air cooling in hydroc-
(8) Guiding Opinions on Material Selection of Equipment racking. The purpose of “three top” water injection of
and Pipelines for Processing Parts of High-acid Crude atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit is as follows: ➀ to
Oil of Sinopec control and adjust the position of initial condensing zone
274 J. Zhang
through water injection; ➁ to prevent the ammonia scale Road” strategy, China will increase the investment and
from deposit and avoid under-deposit corrosion through construction of infrastructure, transportation, energy indus-
water injection; and ➂ to dilute the acid solution in the initial try, production and water environment, etc. This requires us
condensing zone by water injection to increase the pH value to understand the material corrosion data and related tech-
of the initial condensing zone. The main purpose of injecting nology to ensure the durability and safety of these major
water at the top of fractionator of catalytic cracking, before facilities.
fractionator of catalytic cracking and before high-pressure Under this background, the Chinese Academy of Engi-
air cooling of hydrocracking is to dissolve ammonia salt, neering has set up an annual major advisory research project
eliminate deposit, and avoid under-deposit corrosion. —Research on China’s Corrosion Status and Control
The anti-corrosion system and measures of “one desalting Strategies. A nationwide corrosion investigation has been
and three injections” will still be the focus of anti-corrosion conducted in order to obtain the data of corrosion cost and
of petrochemical equipment in the future. anti-corrosion strategy in infrastructure, transportation,
energy, water environment, manufacturing, and public util-
4. Other anti-corrosion measures ities so as to find out the corrosion status in China, and
provide high-quality decision-making reference for national
In addition to the above anti-corrosion measures, leaders and decision-makers. This project will also help to
anti-corrosion of equipment in petroleum and chemical save resources, ensure the safety of industrial production
industry often adopts cathodic protection and material sur- facilities and important infrastructure, reduce economic
face modification technology. losses caused by corrosion, and promote the development of
high-tech industries. At the same time, it provides scientific
basis for establishing relevant policies, regulations, and
4.2.3 Summary of Corrosion Investigation standards, as well as for the material selection of major
in Petroleum and Chemical Industry national projects, and provides technical support and theo-
in China retical guidance for the development of corrosion protection
industry in China.
The corrosion problem is a common problem faced by all In order to jointly complete this public welfare activity of
countries all around the world. It affects all industries and great significance, we have organized and carried out cor-
destroys without a sound. It will not only shorten the service rosion investigation on refinery enterprises in the petro-
life of the structure, increase the maintenance cost, but also chemical industry according to the arrangement of
cause the collapse of the building structure, the leakage of academician Hou Baorong of the Chinese Academy of
toxic medium, and the serious accidents such as fire and Engineering. The investigation was conducted in the fol-
explosion. lowing stages: ➀ The mobilization and publicity stage was
Corrosion has attracted much attention all over the world. completed before the end of 2015. ➁ At the enterprise
In 1949, the United States carried out the first corrosion investigation stage, the questionnaire for 35 enterprises of
investigation in the world and issued the seventh report on Sinopec has been completed. CNPC has also completed
corrosion loss investigation in 2001. The report showed that questionnaires for 21 enterprises. CNOOC completed the
in 1998, the direct economic loss caused by corrosion in the investigation on refinery enterprises in Huizhou. ➂ In the
United States reached $276 billion, accounting for 3.1% of data sorting stage, the data sorting work of Sinopec has been
GNP. Other countries such as Britain, Germany, India, completed. ➃ During the preparation stage of the investi-
France, and the Soviet Union have also done similar gation report, the first draft of the report was completed
investigations, and the direct economic losses caused by before the end of April 2016.
corrosion are also about 3–5%, which is more than the total Investigation method: We mainly adopted the way of
economic losses caused by natural disasters. In early April questionnaire survey. In order to make the investigation
2016, at the NACE annual meeting in Canada, NACE results reliable, we distributed and forwarded relevant letters
published a corrosion investigation result carried out for to every enterprise through the headquarters of the three
once every 20 years. This is the first global corrosion major state-owned enterprises, issued investigation tasks in
investigation result which shows that the global annual loss the official name, and put forward relevant requirements to
caused by corrosion is $2.5 trillion. attach great importance and create conditions for our
Corrosion has become one of the important factors investigation. The leaders of Sinopec’s Oil Refining Divi-
affecting the sustainable development of national economy sion and Chemical Division attached great importance to it,
and society. With the rapid development of China’s econ- and the enterprise responded positively and immediately fed
omy and society and the implementation of “the Belt and back the questionnaire survey. The questionnaire survey was
completed in May 2016 by CNOOC under the personal The corrosion investigation lasted more than half a year,
arrangement of the leaders of the refining and chemical and more than 70 questionnaires were sent to such central
companies. The investigation of CNOOC has been sup- enterprises as Sinopec, CNPC, and CNOOC.
ported by leaders at all levels. During the investigation, we The following is the survey result of Sinopec. We have
answered questions patiently in a timely manner. Corrosion issued 35 questionnaires to 35 refinery enterprises of Sino-
investigation is carried out by issuing questionnaire, pec, collected 35 questionnaires, summarized, and analyzed
on-the-spot investigation, academic discussion, expert con- the corrosion questionnaires of 35 enterprises as follows.
sultation, and so on.
In order to investigate the corrosion of petroleum and 4.2.3.1 Investigation on Corrosion Cost-Related
chemical industry in China, we have designed corrosion Problems
questionnaires mainly composed of two parts according to As shown in Fig. 4.8, the total anti-corrosion cost of 35
the requirement of academician Hou. The first part is “in- enterprises in 2013 and 2014 was RMB 952.2956 million
vestigation on corrosion cost-related problems” which and RMB 108.65307 million, respectively. The direct losses
mainly includes the basic information of enterprises, the were RMB 940.0914 million and RMB 1,044.211 million,
basic conditions of enterprise’s operation, the construction of accounting for 99% and 96% of the total corrosion cost,
enterprises, and the basic information of anti-corrosion cost respectively. The indirect losses were RMB 12.2042 million
and the basic situation of corrosion cost. The second part is and RMB 42.3197 million, respectively, accounting for 1%
“investigation on other corrosion-related problems” mainly and 4% of the total corrosion cost. Direct losses rose by 11%
in the form of multiple-choice questions. Enterprises will in 2014 compared with that in 2013, indirect losses rose by
answer according to their own actual situations and put 247%, total corrosion costs increased by 14%, and indirect
forward relevant recommendations. losses rose from 1 to 4%.
Fig. 4.8 Composition of enterprise anti-corrosion cost in 2013 and 2014

276 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.9 Comparison of corrosion cost with production and operation cost and total output value
The comparison of corrosion cost with production and Table 4.8 show the total cost and proportion of the above
operation cost and total output value in 2013 and 2014 is costs. Obviously, cost of chemicals, cost of coating, and
shown in Fig. 4.9. Through accounting, the ratio of corro- renovation cost of old anti-corrosive equipment account for
sion cost to production and operation cost and total output over 75% of direct losses.
value is 0.25% and 0.07% in 2013, respectively, and 0.25%
and 0.06% in 2014, respectively. There is little change 4.2.3.2 Statistical Analysis of “Investigation
between the 2 years. Therefore, the corrosion cost rises on Other Corrosion-Related Problems”
synchronously with the increase of production operation cost The enterprises’ answers to the second part of the ques-
and total output value. tionnaire “investigation on other corrosion-related problems”
In the corrosion cost, the direct losses are mainly caused are analyzed as follows:
by the cost of newly built anti-corrosion equipment, the
renovation cost of old anti-corrosion equipment, the cost of (1) The surveyed enterprises all consider that corrosion
coating, the cost of corrosion-resistant materials, the cost of exist in their enterprises. 55% of them consider that it is
corrosion allowance, the cost of chemicals, the cost of cor- relatively serious, 39% consider to be general, and
rosion monitoring, detection and maintenance, and cost of only 6% consider that the corrosion is serious
other anti-corrosion measures. In 2013 and 2014, the total (Fig. 4.11).
direct losses of 35 enterprises were RMB 940.0914 million (2) All the surveyed enterprises have adopted correspond-
and RMB 1,044.211 million, respectively. Figure 4.10 and ing anti-corrosion or remedial measures, of which more
Fig. 4.10 Composition of direct losses

278 J. Zhang
Table 4.8 Comparison of direct loss items in 2013 and 2014

No. Items of cost 2013 2014 2014
Loss (RMB 10,000) Ratio (%) Loss (RMB 10,000) Ratio (%)
1 Newly built anti-corrosion equipment 5,430.86 5.78 4,318.44 4.14
2 Renovation of old anti-corrosion equipment 10,799.61 11.49 12,394.48 11.87
3 Coating 25,289.51 26.90 31,475.46 30.14
4 Corrosion-resistant materials 4,425.39 4.71 5,177.00 4.96
5 Corrosion allowance 504.70 0.54 370.50 0.35
6 Chemicals 35,015.00 37.25 36,748.21 35.19
7 Corrosion monitoring 4,966.89 5.28 4,804.64 4.60
8 Corrosion detection 4,685.74 4.98 4,982.26 4.77
9 Maintenance engineering 1,836.50 1.95 1,971.30 1.89
10 Other anti-corrosion measures 1,054.94 1.12 2,178.81 2.09
Total Total direct loss cost 94,009.14 100.00 104,421.10 100.00
Fig. 4.11 Statistics of corrosion degree
than 70% have selected chemicals (91%), corrosion- activities, 64% believe that it is relatively serious, and
resistant materials (88%), cathodic protection (79%) 6% consider to be general (Fig. 4.14).
and coating (79%) and corrosion allowance (73%), and (5) The surveyed enterprises all have the requirements for
42% selected thermal spraying metal. In addition, there corrosion protection, but only 42% of the enterprises
is also process corrosion protection (Fig. 4.12). think they are complete, while the other 58% think that
(3) The operating conditions of the equipment are relatively their own anti-corrosion regulations are not complete
complex, mainly including humidity, acidity, high (Fig. 4.15).
temperature, high pressure, industrial sewage and high (6) In terms of the execution intensity of the corrosion
load, as well as alkalinity, low temperature, freshwater, protection work, 58% think it is general, 30% think the
seawater, and dry working conditions (Fig. 4.13). execution force is strong, and 12% think the execution
(4) 30% of the surveyed enterprises consider that corrosion force is weak (Fig. 4.16).
in the petroleum and chemical industry is serious (7) In terms of whether the anti-corrosion measures of
throughout the national economy and production enterprises can minimize the corrosion loss, only 21%
Fig. 4.12 Statistics of different protective measures
of the surveyed enterprises believe that they can 42.4% of enterprises entrust a third party to conduct
achieve and their own corrosion protection counter- regular monitoring, and 12.1% of them adopt both
measures are complete, and 79% of the enterprises have methods (Fig. 4.20).
taken some measures and have got some effect (11) 91% of the surveyed enterprises can record the infor-
(Fig. 4.17). mation after corrosion problems occur and guide other
(8) The investigation shows that only 27% of corrosion corrosion protection-related work in the enterprise
protection personnel are qualified for the relevant cer- (Fig. 4.21).
tifications (Fig. 4.18). (12) 61% of the surveyed enterprises believe that the causes
(9) Only 30% of enterprises are able to provide profes- of corrosion loss include design stage (incomplete
sional corrosion protection technical training to tech- corrosion protection scheme design), manufacturing/
nicians (Fig. 4.19). construction stage, and operation/maintenance stage.
(10) Only 3% of enterprises have not taken monitoring 18% believe that the causes exist in the design stage
measures for corrosion, and other enterprises have and the operation/maintenance stage, 9% believe to
adopted relevant detection measures. 42.4% of enter- exist in the manufacturing/construction stage and the
prises have used their own specialized corrosion mon- operation/maintenance stage, and 12% believe to exist
itoring personnel and equipment for monitoring and only in the operation/maintenance stage (Fig. 4.22).
280 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.13 Operating condition of enterprise equipment or structure
(13) At the time of construction, 97% of enterprises take corrosion protection technology (39%), and direct
corrosion protection into account when formulating the decision-making by top leadership of 3% (Fig. 4.25).
overall design scheme (Fig. 4.23). (16) In terms of implementation standards for corrosion
(14) 91% of the relevant leaders of the surveyed enterprises protection, 43% of enterprises implement industry and
attach importance to the corrosion problem, while 9% national standards, 24% implement enterprise, indus-
of the enterprises think that the corrosion problem trial and national standards, 15% increase the imple-
hasn’t attracted the attention of the leaders (Fig. 4.24). mentation of international standards, and 12% only
(15) In the selection of corrosion protection countermea- implement industry standards and 6% only implement
sures, the priority of factors to be considered by the the enterprise standard (Fig. 4.26).
enterprise is the advanced and long-term corrosion (17) In terms of the demand for anti-corrosion theoretical
protection technology (58%), followed by the cost of training for employees, 66% of the enterprises believe
that there is a great need for the scholars from
Fig. 4.14 Severity of corrosion problem
Fig. 4.15 Statistics of specifications and requirements for corrosion and protection
282 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.16 Statistics of execution force of corrosion protection work
Fig. 4.17 Effect statistics of corrosion protection countermeasures

Fig. 4.18 Certification qualification of corrosion protection personnel
Fig. 4.19 Technical training on corrosion protection
universities and scientific research institutes to train ➂ 73% of enterprises think that the whole life cost
their employees in anti-corrosion theory, and 31% of evaluation method (LCC/LCA) should be estab-
them have little demand. As the relevant training lished and used (Fig. 4.30).
activities have been carried out within the enterprise, ➃ 88% of enterprises think that the anti-corrosion
only 3% believe that it is unnecessary (Fig. 4.27). detection and maintenance management method
(18) Technologies or measures for improving the overall should be used or improved (Fig. 4.31).
anti-corrosion level of the enterprise. ➄ 73% of enterprises think that the corrosion residual
➀ 91% of enterprises believe that corrosion protection life evaluation technology is important (Fig. 4.32).
and material-related education shall be conducted for ➅ 82% of enterprises think that corrosion monitoring
persons in charge of relevant departments (Fig. 4.28). technology is important (Fig. 4.33).
➁ 79% of enterprises think that the database of ➆ 70% of enterprises think it is important to use new
material corrosion and damage and the database of materials (such as new alloy, organic material,
material selection should be established (Fig. 4.29). inorganic material, corrosion-resistant material,
high-temperature material) (Fig. 4.34).
284 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.20 Corrosion monitoring of enterprise
Fig. 4.21 Recording situation of corrosion information
➇ 70% of enterprises think that new anti-corrosion the quality of parts; and ➂ environmental factors, 100%
repair technology (such as special coating, cladding think to be corrosion. In addition, the proportion of
anti-corrosion technology) can be used in mainte- losses caused by human factors in our enterprise is as
nance (Fig. 4.35). high as 55% or as low as 0%, and most is about 10%.
➈ 58% of enterprises think it is important to realize (20) According to the characteristics of the enterprise, it is
corrosion prediction by establishing corrosion estimated that if the existing anti-corrosion measures
behavior model for carrying out multiple corrosion are not taken, 6% of the surveyed enterprises think that
simulation (Fig. 4.36). the loss caused by corrosion may increase by less than
(19) The main factors affecting the service life of the 10%; 37% think that the loss may increase by 10–30%,
equipment or production line of the enterprise include 30% think that the loss may increase by 30–50%, and
➀ human factor, 50% of the enterprises think to be 27% think that the loss may increase by more than 50%
management level; ➁ material factors, 82% think to be (Fig. 4.37).
Fig. 4.22 Distribution of corrosion loss occurrence stages
Fig. 4.23 Consideration of corrosion protection when designing a scheme

286 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.24 Whether enterprise leaders attach importance to corrosion protection
Fig. 4.25 Selection of corrosion protective measures

Fig. 4.26 Distribution of anti-corrosion standard implemented by enterprises
Fig. 4.27 Statistics of training demand for anti-corrosion theory

288 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.28 Technologies or measures for improving the overall anti-corrosion level (1)
290 J. Zhang
292 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.37 Increase distribution of corrosion loss if no anti-corrosion measures have been taken
Fig. 4.38 Statistics of use of titanium alloy
Fig. 4.39 Statistics of demand for corrosion protection

294 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.40 Statistics of difficulties in corrosion protection
(21) The survey shows that 76% of enterprises have used suitable anti-corrosion technology, and adjustment of
special corrosion-resistant materials such as titanium management layer that leads to inability to implement
alloy (Fig. 4.38). in the long term (Fig. 4.40).
(22) In terms of the demand for corrosion protection, 73% of (24) For the key parts (bolts and nuts, flanges, joints,
enterprises have demand for technical personnel of abnormal parts, etc.) of the enterprise equipment or
anti-corrosion specialty, new anti-corrosion technol- facilities, protective measures include coating, anti-rust
ogy, and anti-corrosion solution (Fig. 4.39). oil, and cladding technologies. 28% of enterprises
(23) The biggest difficulties for enterprises to carry out adopt coating, 16% adopt anti-rust oil, 3% adopt
corrosion protection work are capital problem and lack cladding technologies, and 6% use the three kinds of
of relevant talents, insufficient attention, lack of measures. At the same time, 25% of the enterprises
Fig. 4.41 Statistics of anti-corrosion measures for key parts
Fig. 4.42 Selection of anti-corrosion investment
adopt coating and anti-rust oil, 6% adopt anti-rust oil model of investment return on investment in corrosion
and cladding technologies, and 16% of the enterprises protection” (Fig. 4.43).
haven’t taken anti-corrosion measures and only peri- (27) In terms of interest in the result of “Research on Cor-
odically replace these key parts (Fig. 4.41). rosion Status and Control Strategies in China”, 61% are
(25) 55% of enterprises are willing to adopt the new interested in the corrosion cost of the industry, 21% are
anti-corrosion technology with relatively large initial interested in the total national corrosion cost, and 18%
investment but longer protection period, and 45% of other are interested in both (Fig. 4.44).
enterprises will decide after understanding (Fig. 4.42). (28) 84% of the surveyed enterprises consider that it is
(26) 91% of the surveyed enterprises consider that it is necessary to establish laws and regulations related to
necessary or very necessary to establish an “economic corrosion protection (Fig. 4.45).
296 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.43 Demand distribution for establishing an economic model of investment return on corrosion protection
Fig. 4.44 Interest in corrosion cost
Fig. 4.45 Necessity of establishing regulations on corrosion protection

4.2.4 Analysis of Corrosion and Protection The corrosion of the inlet of heat exchanger or air cooler in
of Typical Equipment in the Petroleum the phase change position (initial condensing zone) is the
and Chemical Industry most serious.
In the processing of high-sulfur low-acid crude oil, the
Crude oil distillation is the first indispensable process in high-temperature (temperature greater than 220 °C) part of
petroleum processing, so crude oil distillation is usually the atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit is in the
called primary processing, and other processing processes high-temperature sulfur corrosive environment, and the cor-
are called secondary processing. The primary processing of roded parts mainly include tower, pipeline, heating furnace
crude oil, namely, the processing capacity of crude oil dis- pipe, high-temperature heat exchanger, high-temperature
tillation unit, is often regarded as a symbol of the develop- pump, vessel, etc. The severely corroded parts include the
ment level of the oil refining industry in a country. Based on atmospheric pressure oil transfer line, the vacuum pressure
the importance of crude oil distillation unit, this report oil transfer line, the pipeline of the lower tray and the with-
analyzes corrosion and protection in the petroleum and drawal sideline of the atmospheric tower, the heat exchanger,
chemical industry with atmospheric and vacuum distillation the pump, the pipeline of the lower packing of the vacuum
unit as typical unit. tower and the withdrawal sideline, the heat exchanger, pump,
atmospheric furnace radiant chamber furnace pipe, vacuum
4.2.4.1 Typical Technological Process furnace radiant chamber furnace pipe, etc.
Crude oil is fractionated into gasoline, kerosene, diesel oil, In the processing of low-sulfur high-acid and high-sulfur
wax oil, and residual oil by atmospheric and vacuum unit. The high-acid crude oil, the high-temperature (temperature
crude oil first enters a group of heat exchangers to exchange greater than 220 °C) part of the atmospheric and vacuum
heat with the product or return oil and then enters the electric distillation unit is mainly subjected to high-temperature
desalting tank after injecting washing water and demulsifier to naphthenic acid corrosion, and the corroded parts mainly
reach a certain temperature (100–140 °C). The desalted and include tower, pipeline, heating furnace pipe, high-
dewatered crude oil continues to enter another group of heat temperature heat exchanger, high-temperature pump, con-
exchanger to exchange heat with the high-temperature heat tainer, etc. The severely corroded parts are mainly concen-
source in the system and then enters the initial distillation trated in the vacuum system, especially the second-line,
tower. The bottom oil of the initial distillation tower enters the third-line, and fourth-line packing of the vacuum tower and
atmospheric furnace after heat exchange. In the atmospheric the pipeline of the withdrawal sideline, the heat exchangers,
column, crude oil is fractionated into gasoline, kerosene, pump, etc. At the same time, the atmospheric pressure oil
diesel oil, and sometimes part of wax oil and atmospheric transfer line and the vacuum oil transfer line are seriously
residual oil. The product is sent to the storage tank after being corroded due to the high flow rate.
subjected to steam stripping and the necessary electrochemical The corrosion-prone parts of the atmospheric and vacuum
purification. The atmospheric residual oil is pumped to the distillation unit are indicated in Fig. 4.46, and the corre-
vacuum furnace through the bottom of the tower for heating sponding corrosion mechanism and type are listed in
and then enters the vacuum fractionator through the oil Table 4.9.
transfer line. In the vaporization section of the vacuum tower,
the pressure is about 80–100 mmHg (1 mmHg = 1.333 4.2.4.3 Anti-corrosion Countermeasures
22 102 Pa), and there are 3–4 sidelines, which are used as
raw materials for producing lubricating oil or catalytic
cracking. The bottom residual oil can be sent to units of 1. Raw material control
delayed coking, asphalt oxidation, viscosity reduction, cat-
alytic cracking, or residual hydrocracking. The acid value and sulfur content of crude oil into the
atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit shall be timely
4.2.4.2 Corrosion-Prone Parts of the Unit monitored to ensure long-term safe operation of the unit.
The main corrosion-prone parts of atmospheric and vacuum Monitoring of crude oil into the atmospheric and vacuum
distillation unit include parts of HCl + H2S + H2O corrosion distillation unit shall follow the following principles:
of triple-top condensing and cooling system, sulfur corro-
sion, and naphthenic acid corrosion at high temperature (1) The incoming crude oil shall be “stored and refined
(temperature greater than 220 °C). respectively” as far as possible. If the sulfur content and
The corrosion parts of HCl + H2S + H2O in triple-top acid value of the crude oil can’t meet the requirement of
condensing and cooling system mainly include overhead sulfur content and acid value of crude oil designed and
heat exchanger, air cooler, water cooler, and its pipelines. processed by the atmospheric and vacuum distillation
298 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.46 Easy technological process and corroded parts of atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit
Table 4.9 Corrosion-prone parts, corrosion mechanism, and main corrosion types of atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit
No. of Description Material Corrosion morphology
part
1 Top head, wall, and upper tray of primary distillation Carbon steel Uniform thinning corrosion of carbon steel components
tower in HCl–H2S–H2O environment
Alloy steel Pitting corrosion of 0Cr13Al (0Cr13) in HCl–H2S–H2O
environment
Stainless steel SCC of 18-8 austenitic stainless steel components in
HCl–H2S–H2O environment
The rest of the primary distillation tower Carbon steel, S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion, uniform corrosion
alloy steel, thinning of high-temperature sulfur corrosion, and trench
stainless steel abrasion–corrosion of high-temperature naphthenic acid
corrosion
2 Gas–liquid-phase and liquid-phase zone of condensing Carbon steel HCl–H2S–H2O acid dew point corrosion
and cooling system at the top of primary distillation Austenitic HCl–H2S–H2O SCC
tower (greater than 70 °C) stainless steel
3 HCl–H2S–H2O corrosion of the wall, top head and Carbon steel Uniform thinning corrosion
internals of the atmospheric tower at and above the 0Cr13Al Pitting corrosion
4-layer tray (0Cr13)
Austenitic SCC
stainless steel
4 S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion of the wall and internal Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
of the atmospheric tower from below the four-layer tray alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
to the feeding section high-temperature naphthenic acid corrosion
5 S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion of wall and internal Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
below the feeding section of the atmospheric tower alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion high-temperature naphthenic acid corrosion
6 HCl–H2S–H2O corrosion in gas–liquid two-phase and Carbon steel Acid dew point corrosion
liquid-phase zone of condensing and cooling system at Austenitic SCC
the top of primary distillation tower (greater than 70 °C) stainless steel
7 S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion of pipelines and heat Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
exchangers with high-temperature sideline system alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
temperature greater than 220 °C high-temperature naphthenic acid corrosion
8 HCl–H2S–H2O corrosion of the wall, top head, and Carbon steel Uniform thinning corrosion
internals of the vacuum tower below 220 °C 0Cr13Al Pitting corrosion
(0Cr13)
Austenitic SCC
stainless steel
9 S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion of the wall, head, and Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
internals of the vacuum tower above 220 °C alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
high-temperature naphthenic acid corrosion
10 HCl–H2S–H2O corrosion in gas–liquid-phase and Carbon steel Acid dew pitting corrosion
liquid-phase zone (greater than 70 °C) corrosion Austenitic SCC
stainless steel
11 S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion in pipelines and heat Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
exchangers with high-temperature sideline system alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
greater than 220 °C high-temperature naphthenic acid corrosion
12 Corrosion and coking of S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH on the Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
inner wall of furnace pipe alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
High-temperature sulfurization, high-temperature Carbon steel, Corrosion is generally uniform corrosion thinning, but
oxidation, ash-burning corrosion of outer wall of furnace alloy steel sometimes also manifests as localized corrosion or high
pipe of atmospheric furnace flow rate abrasion–corrosion damage
(continued)
300 J. Zhang

No. of Description Material Corrosion morphology
part
13 Dew point corrosion of sulfuric acid in high-temperature Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion is dominant, and local pitting is also
flue gas of furnace and air preheater alloy steel present
14 Corrosion and coke formation of S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
inside pipe of vacuum furnace alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
High-temperature sulfurization, high-temperature Carbon steel, Corrosion is generally uniform corrosion thinning, but
oxidation, ash-burning corrosion of the outer wall of the alloy steel sometimes also manifests as localized corrosion or high
furnace pipe of the vacuum furnace flow rate abrasion–corrosion damage
15 High-temperature flue gas sulfuric acid dew point Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion is dominant, and local pitting is also
corrosion of vacuum furnace body and air preheater alloy steel present
16 S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion in normal pressure oil Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
transfer line alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
17 S–H2S–RSH–RCOOH corrosion of vacuum oil transfer Carbon steel, Uniform corrosion thinning of high-temperature sulfur
line alloy steel corrosion and trench-like brush corrosion of
unit, the crude oil can be mixed in the tank area. When 2. Material selection
mixing the crude oil, effective measures shall be taken (1) The material selection of the “triple-top” condensing
to make the mixing of different types of crude oil uni- and cooling system is mainly carbon steel, which
form so as to avoid the impact on the equipment caused mainly relies on perfect anti-corrosion measures to
by uneven mixing of crude oil. control corrosion. If the corrosion of equipment is
(2) The crude oil entering the unit must be analyzed for serious, high-grade materials such as dual-phase
corrosive medium (sulfur content, acid value, salt, steel, titanium material, and Monel can be used.
moisture, etc.), and sampling must be analyzed before However, the equipment materials shall be upgraded
the electric desalting tank besides in the crude oil tank as a whole to avoid weak links, and attention shall
area. It is necessary to follow up and monitor the be paid to the galvanic corrosion caused by the
operational status of electric desalting, and regularly contact of dissimilar metals. Nonmetallic coating
monitor the indexes such as salt, water, and oil content can also be applied to the cooler pipe bundle and air
after desalination, so as to ensure the effective operation cooler bundle for corrosion protection.
of the electric desalting system. (2) According to the sideline sulfur content, sideline
(3) The acid value and sulfur content of crude oil entering temperature and the material to be used, the theo-
the unit must be controlled within the design scope of retical corrosion rate is calculated by using
the unit. In addition to considering the control of sulfur McConomy curve for material selection of high-
content and acid value, the crude oil should be con- temperature parts for processing high-sulfur low-
trolled to contain salt, water content, and density acid crude oil. The calculated theoretical corrosion
according to the situation of the electric desalting rate of the selected material shall be less than
facility of the enterprise. 0.25 mm/a. In addition, the stipulations on materials
(4) When the acid value and sulfur content of the crude oil in Guide for Material Selection for High-acid Crude
to be processed is higher than those of the unit, relevant Oil Processing Equipment and Pipeline Design
departments shall be organized to conduct corrosion (SH/T 3129-2012) and Guide for Material Selection
adaptability assessment and RBI of the unit, compre- of High-sulfur Crude Oil Processing Equipment and
hensively analyze the corrosion status and hidden Pipeline Design (SH/T 3096-2012) shall be con-
danger of the equipment and pipelines of the unit, find sidered. In addition, the material selection experi-
out the weak links of the unit, make sure to know ence of processing high-sulfur low-acid crude oil
clearly, and take corresponding measures pertinently, and the corrosion cases on-site shall be taken into
such as upgrading the material quality, strengthening account. Based on the above contents, the reason-
the corrosion monitoring and detecting, and improving able materials for processing high-sulfur low-acid
the anti-corrosion measures of the process. crude oil at high temperature are given.
(3) According to the sideline sulfur content, sideline (4) High-temperature sideline system of atmospheric
temperature, and the material to be used, the theo- tower: heat exchanger shell, inlet and outlet short
retical corrosion rate is calculated by using API581 section, and relevant pipelines with temperature
for material selection of high-temperature parts for greater than 220 °C.
processing high-sulfur high-acid crude oil. The (5) Vacuum tower: top head, each section of packing
calculated theoretical corrosion rate of the selected and the tower wall corresponding to the oil collec-
material shall be less than 0.25 mm/a. In addition, tion tank, each side-drawing outlet short section, the
the stipulations on materials in Guide for Material column wall below the feeding section, and the
Selection for High-acid Crude Oil Processing tower bottom head.
Equipment and Pipeline Design (SH/T 3129-2012) (6) Condensing and cooling system at the top of vacuum
and Guide for Material Selection of High-sulfur tower: inlet and outlet line of overhead evacuation
Crude Oil Processing Equipment and Pipeline cooler, overhead volatilization line, and return line.
Design (SH/T 3096-2012) shall be considered. In (7) High-temperature sideline system of vacuum tower:
addition, the material selection experience of pro- heat exchanger shell, inlet and outlet short sections,
cessing high-sulfur low-acid crude oil and the cor- and relevant pipelines with temperature greater than
rosion cases on-site shall be taken into account. 220 °C.
Based on the above contents, the reasonable mate- (8) Heat furnace: each outlet elbow of convection
rials for processing high-sulfur low-acid crude oil at section.
high temperature are given. (9) Oil transfer line: straight pipe and elbow of oil
(4) For low-sulfur high-acid crude oil, naphthenic acid transfer line.
corrosion is the main phenomenon at high temper- (10) Rear pipeline of regulating valve and block valve.
ature, and equipment material selection is basically
2. Corrosion probe site
consistent with high-sulfur high-acid value.
(1) The condensing and cooling system at the top of the
3. Process corrosion protection initial distillation tower, the atmospheric tower, and
the vacuum tower: a resistance or an inductance
The process corrosion protection of atmospheric and vacuum probe is installed on the inlet and outlet lines of the
distillation unit mainly refers to the process control measures air cooler or the heat exchanger; a pH online
such as “one desalting and three injections,” namely, electric detection probe is installed on the outlet line of the
desalting, injection of neutralizer, injection of corrosion return tank.
inhibitor, and injection of water in overhead system. The (2) When processing high-acid crude oil, install
specific contents and control indexes shall be carried out high-temperature resistance or inductance probe
according to the detailed rules of Regulations on Anti-cor- shall be installed on the vacuum side (vacuum line
rosion Management of Refinery Process of Sinopec. 1, vacuum line 2, and vacuum line 3).
4.2.4.4 Corrosion Monitoring 3. Site and material of corrosion hanger

Corrosion monitoring of atmospheric and vacuum distilla- (1) Atmospheric tower: site of hanger: upper tower tray,
tion unit mainly includes fixed-point thickness measurement, feeding section, and bottom of the tower; material of
corrosion probe, corrosion hanger, and chemical analysis. hanger: carbon steel, 0Cr13, 0Cr18Ni9.
(2) Vacuum tower: site of hanger: packing of each
1. Position of fixed-point thickness measurement section, sideline oil collection tank, feeding section
(1) Condensing and cooling system at the top of the and bottom of the tower; material of hanger: carbon
initial distillation tower: air cooler, cooler shell and steel, 0Cr13, 0Cr18Ni9, 00Cr17Ni14Mo2.
inlet and outlet short section, overhead volatilization
line, and return line. 4. Chemical analysis
(2) Atmospheric tower: top head, more than four-layer (1) Electric desalting of crude oil: salt-containing before
tower wall, each side-drawing outlet short section, desalination, water-containing before desalination,
and the tower wall below the feeding section and salt-containing after desalination, water-containing
the tower bottom head. after desalination, and oil-containing in drainage.
(3) Overhead condensing and cooling system of atmo- (2) Condensing and cooling system at the top of the
spheric tower: air cooler, cooler shell and inlet and initial distillation column, atmospheric tower, and
outlet short section, overhead volatilization line, and vacuum tower: pH value, Cl−, Fe2+, and H2S content.
return line.
302 J. Zhang
(3) Analysis of sulfur content, acid value, iron ion or 4.2.5 Corrosion Cost Calculation
Fe/Ni ratio of atmospheric bottom heavy oil, vac-
uum line 3, vacuum line 4, and bottom heavy oil. In the questionnaire survey, the corrosion cost is mainly
(4) Determination of sulfur content, Ni content, V composed of direct losses and indirect losses. Direct losses
content, and flue gas dew point in the fuel of the include cost of newly built anti-corrosion equipment, cost of
heating furnace. renewal of old anti-corrosion equipment, reconstruction cost,
cost of coatings and coating, cost of corrosion-resistant
5. Others
materials, cost of corrosion allowance, cost of agents, cost of
In addition to the abovementioned corrosion monitoring corrosion monitoring, corrosion detection fee, maintenance
means, measures such as hydrogen flux or hydrogen probe engineering expense, and other costs of anti-corrosion
monitoring, infrared thermal imaging, and on-site corro- measures. Indirect losses mainly consist of compensation
sion test bypass may be taken. Besides, it is not sufficient for environmental pollution caused by corrosion, compen-
to monitor the corrosion condition of the equipment only sation for casualties caused by corrosion, shutdown loss
by the corrosion monitoring in the normal production, and caused by corrosion, product quality loss caused by corro-
the corrosion condition inspection inside the equipment sion, and other corrosive indirect losses.
must be completed by the corrosion inspection work Taking an oil refining enterprise JM as an example, the
during the shutdown of the device. For the corrosion enterprise was founded in the early 1970s. At present, the
inspection specifications of key corrosion inspection parts crude oil processing capacity is about 5 million t/a, and the
and various kinds of equipment, please refer to the Man- total construction cost is RMB 6.45139 billion. At the time
agement Regulations on Strengthening Corrosion of new construction, the cost of corrosion protection is RMB
Inspection of Refining Equipment (Trial) of Sinopec. 1.7 million, and there are about 4,900 employees and 1
Table 4.10 Corrosion investigation data of an oil refining enterprise JM

No. Index 2013 2014 Total
1 Production scale/10,000 tons 510.72 472.36 983.08
2 Total output value/(business income, RMB 10,000) 3,073,700 2,734,367 5,808,067
3 Production and operation cost (cost, RMB 10,000) 3,085,030 2,779,892 5,864,922
4 Market share of major products/% 0.2275 0.1997 –
5 Number of existing employees 4948 4861 –
Basic information of corrosion cost/RMB 10,000 3,739.14 3,183.36 6,922.5
(1) Direct loss 3,721.14 3,157.36 6,878.5
1 Cost of newly built anti-corrosion equipment 85 166 251
2 Cost of renewal of old anti-corrosion equipment 1,958.21 1,109.28 3,067.49
3 Cost of coatings and coating 552.12 597.3 1,149.42
4 Cost of corrosion-resistant materials 95 270 365
5 Cost of corrosion allowance 37 52 89
6 Cost of agents 692 669 1361
7 Cost of corrosion monitoring 124 8 132
7.1 Fixed-point thickness measurement 25 8 33
7.2 Probe 99 0 99
8 Corrosion detection 156.14 254.66 410.8
8.1 Online detection 137.54 192.66 330.2
8.2 Corrosion investigation in shutdown 18.6 62 80.6
9 Maintenance engineering expense 85.8 100.4 186.2
10 Other costs of anti-corrosion measures 21.67 31.12 52.79
10.1 Cathodic protection 21.67 31.12 52.79
(continued)

(2) Indirect loss 18 26 44
1 Compensation for environmental pollution caused by corrosion 0 0
2 Compensation for casualties caused by corrosion 0 0
3 Shutdown loss caused by corrosion 18 26 44
4 Product quality loss caused by corrosion 0 0
5 Other corrosive indirect losses 0 0
corrosion protection post. Table 4.10 shows corrosion RMB 180,000 and RMB 260,000, totaling RMB 440,000.
investigation data. The total cost of corrosion (the sum of direct losses and
As can be seen from Table 4.10, in 2013 and 2014, the indirect losses) was RMB 38.2494 million and 32.8376
total output value of the enterprise was RMB 30.737 billion million, respectively, totaling RMB 71.087 million in
and RMB 27.34367 billion, respectively, totaling RMB 2 years. According to the calculation, corrosion cost
58.08067 billion; the total production and operation costs accounted for 0.12% and 0.12% of total output value and
were RMB 30.8503 billion and 27.79892 billion, respec- production and operation cost in 2013, respectively, and
tively, totaling RMB 58.64922 billion. Obviously, the pro- 0.12% and 0.12%, respectively, in 2014.
duction and operation of the enterprise in 2013 and 2014 Taking an oil refining enterprise GQ as an example, the
were in a state of loss. In 2013 and 2014, the total direct enterprise was founded in the early 1980s. At present, the
losses of the enterprise were RMB 38.0694 million and crude oil processing capacity is about 10 million t/a, and the
RMB 32.5776 million respectively, totaling RMB 70.647 total construction cost is RMB 0.63897 billion. The cost of
million in 2 years; the indirect losses were, respectively, corrosion protection for the new project is RMB 18.8
Table 4.11 Corrosion investigation data of an oil refining enterprise GQ

1 Production scale/10,000 tons 1,044 834 1878
2 Total output value/(business income, RMB 10,000) 6,334,123 4,786,497 11,120,620
3 Production and operation cost (cost, RMB 10,000) 6,459,306 4,989,051 11,448,357
4 Market share of major products/%
5 Number of existing employees 5,588 5,253
Basic information of corrosion cost/RMB 10,000 3,668.1 4,013.53 7,681.63
(1) Direct loss 3,658.1 4,003.53 7,661.63
1 Cost of newly built anti-corrosion equipment 0 0 0
2 Cost of renewal of old anti-corrosion equipment – – 0
3 Cost of coatings and coating 489 1,236 1,725
4 Cost of corrosion-resistant materials 1,049 1,526 2,575
5 Cost of corrosion allowance – – 0
6 Cost of agents 905 859 1,764
7 Cost of corrosion monitoring 132.7 237.53 370.23
7.1 Fixed-point thickness measurement 47 43 90
7.2 Plug-in online monitoring probe system 20.7 49.53 70.23
7.3 Binding online fixed-point automatic thickness measurement system 65 145 210
7.4 Analysis and test of corrosion medium – – 0
8 Corrosion detecting 639.5 1261.5 1901
8.1 1# distillation 42.5 0 42.5
(continued)
304 J. Zhang

8.2 Corrosion investigation in shutdown 50 27.5 77.5
8.3 Outsourcing failure analysis 10 10 20
8.4 Insulation repair of coating 537 1224 1761
9 Maintenance engineering expense 44.7 175.5 220.2
10 Other cost of anti-corrosion measures 398.2 496.1 894.3
10.1 Anti-corrosion measures for oil tanks 356 425 781
10.2 Anti-corrosion measures for long-distance transmission pipelines 42.2 71.1 113.3
(2) Indirect loss 100 0 100
1 Compensation for environmental pollution caused by corrosion – – 0
2 Compensation for casualties caused by corrosion – – 0
3 Shutdown loss caused by corrosion 100 0 100
4 Product quality loss caused by corrosion – – 0
5 Other corrosive indirect losses 0 0 0
million. There are about 5,300 employees and 2 employees

for corrosion protection. Table 4.11 shows corrosion inves-
tigation data.
As shown in Table 4.11, in 2013 and 2014, the total
output value of the enterprise was RMB 63.34123 billion
and RMB 47.86497 billion, respectively; the total produc-
tion and operation cost was RMB 64.59306 billion and
RMB 49.89051 billion, totaling RMB 11.448357 billion in
2 years. Obviously, the production and operation of the
enterprise in 2013 and 2014 were in a state of loss. In 2013
and 2014, the total direct losses of the enterprise were RMB
36.581 million and RMB 40.0353 million, respectively,
totaling RMB 76,6163 million in 2 years; indirect losses
were 1 million and 0 million, totaling RMB 1 million in
2 years; the total cost of corrosion (the sum of direct and
indirect losses) was RMB 36.681 million and 40.1353 mil- Fig. 4.47 Core leakage during pressure test
lion, respectively, totaling RMB 76.8163 million in 2 years.
According to the calculation, corrosion cost accounted for Heat exchanger type: BES1300-3.12/3.9-475-6/25-2IBH
0.06% and 0.06% of total output value and production and B = 450; Shell-side medium/pipe-side medium: crude oil/top
operation cost in 2013, respectively, and 0.08% and 0.08%, cycle oil; shell material/pipe bundle material: 16MnR/09Cr
respectively, in 2014. 2AlMoRE; shell-side temperature: inlet/outlet: 60 °C/97 °C;
pipe-side temperature: inlet/outlet: 138 °C/119 °C.
4.2.6 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases Reason analysis:
4.2.6.1 Analysis of Corrosion Leakage Failure It can be seen from the figure that there are a large amount of
Case of Heat Exchanger Pipe Bundle corrosion products in the pipe bundle, indicating that the
In the atmospheric and vacuum distillation unit of a refinery, corrosion mainly occurs in the pipe side, which is caused by
the cycle oil-crude oil heat exchanger is at the top of the the pipe-side medium, namely, the top circulation. It is
atmospheric tower. During maintenance and pressure test, preliminarily judged to be corroded by the corrosion of
the pipe bundle and the welded parts of pipe bundle and tube H2O–HCl system caused by condensation of HCl.
plate are leaking in many places. There are 62 welded pipes According to the H2O–HCl phase diagram (Fig. 4.48),
(Fig. 4.47) [18]. the dew point temperature is 121 °C. The pipe bundle wall
Fig. 4.48 Binary phase diagram of HCl–H2O System with water vapor + HCl partial pressure of 2 atm. Note 1 atm = 1.013 25 105 Pa
temperature is calculated to be 108.46 °C, so it is lower than low-acid crude oil in a domestic refinery, the carbon steel
the dew point temperature. This will lead to HCl conden- return pipe of the normal top plate type Ti material dry air
sation on the pipe wall or tube plate, resulting in corrosion. cooler appears corrosion perforation after the atmospheric
and vacuum distillation unit operates for 15 days at 1000
4.2.6.2 Corrosion Perforation of Overhead Air Mt/a, as shown in Fig. 4.49.
Cooler HCl + H2S + H2O The main reasons are as follows:
The material selection of equipment in “triple-top” HCl +
H2S + H2O corrosive environment is mainly carbon steel, (1) Abnormal operation of electric desalting results in the
which is mainly due to the SCC of austenitic stainless steel increase of HCl content in the corrosive environment of
caused by Cl− in HCl + H2S + H2O corrosive environment. HCl + H2S + H2O at the top of the tower and HCl
Dual-phase stainless steel and titanium are widely used in condenses to form hydrochloric acid.
the design of new devices. In the processing of low-sulfur
Fig. 4.49 Corrosion appearance of carbon steel return pipe of air cooler
306 J. Zhang
(2) The amount of water injected at the top of the tower is manifested in that the upper part of the distillation unit of
relatively small, which causes the initial condensation atmospheric tower is corroded to perforate, leading to that
zone to drift to the vicinity of the return bend, causing tower body needs to be renewed in advance [19] Table 4.12
the dew point corrosion of the return bend. shows corrosion perforation of atmospheric towers of four
(3) Galvanic corrosion caused by contact between titanium enterprises.
and carbon steel.
(4) There is a weak link of corrosion in the dry air cooler 4.2.6.4 Unplanned Shutdown of Unit Due
with constant top plate Ti, which is easy to be corroded to Corrosion Leakage
in the corrosive environment of HCl + H2S + H2O. Unplanned shutdown of production units caused by
equipment corrosion leakage occurs frequently in oil
4.2.6.3 Corrosion Perforation of Atmospheric refining enterprises, which greatly affects the completion of
Tower production tasks and safety production, as shown in
In recent years, the low-temperature corrosion is serious Fig. 4.50. Every unplanned shutdown will loss RMB tend
because of the poor quality of crude oil, which is of million.
Table 4.12 Corrosion perforation of atmospheric towers of four enterprises

Equipment Corrosion problem Replacement of upper section of atmospheric tower
Refinery Equipment Time Problem Interim Time Position Material
response
measures
QL 8 million tons/year, February Overhead External 2012 Tower body Lining 0Cr13 is upgraded
atmospheric and 2012 corrosion flitch above the upper to 2205
vacuum pressure perforation four-layer tray
QD 12 million tons/year, April Overhead External 2015 Tower body Lining 0Cr13 is upgraded
atmospheric and 2014 corrosion flitch above the upper to 625, and tray 2205 is
vacuum pressure perforation 2205 ten-layer tray upgraded to 625
pressure
TH 1.5 million tons/year, March Overhead Internal 2012 Tower body Lining is upgraded to
atmospheric coking 2009 corrosion flitch 321 above the upper Monel and the tray is
perforation four-layer tray upgraded from 0Cr13 to
316
MM 3 million tons/year, 3# January Overhead External July Tower body Lining 2205, tower carbon
atmospheric and 2011 corrosion flitch C.S 2011 above the upper steel, tray are upgraded
vacuum pressure perforation 11-layer tray from 0Cr13 to 2205
Fig. 4.50 Fire accident after corrosion leakage of a petrochemical unit

4.2.6.5 Serious Corrosion Outside the Unit, enterprises can’t guarantee to use anti-corrosion coating due
Especially Under Insulation Layer to capital problems, resulting in that external corrosion and
At present, the corrosion condition outside the unit, espe- corrosion under insulation layer can’t be treated in time,
cially the corrosion under insulation layer of Sinopec refin- burying hidden danger.
ers, is serious, as shown in Figs. 4.51 and 4.52. Most
4.2.7 Existing Problems and Suggestions

on Anti-corrosion Strategies
4.2.7.1 Existing Problems

According to the feedback of the surveyed enterprises, the
following problems still exist in the petroleum and chemical
industry at present:
(1) Less exchange of anti-corrosion technology and lack of

new technology and new knowledge in the industry.
(2) Big difference in operating conditions of the enterprises
and limited funds.
(3) Imperfect anti-corrosion standard of the enterprise and
lack of executive ability.
(4) There are few employees in corrosion protection posts,
and most of them don’t have professional qualifications,
and even many enterprises don’t set up special corro-
sion protection posts; less training and communication
on corrosion of technical personnel.
(5) Significant differences in the standard specifications
implemented by the enterprise.
4.2.7.2 Suggestions on Anti-corrosion Strategies
Fig. 4.51 External corrosion of a petrochemical unit (1) The anti-corrosion coating such as thermal spraying
aluminum or zinc shall be popularized to replace the
conventional anti-corrosion coating in the atmospheric
storage tank.
(2) Weathering steel is recommended for steel structure;
less patterned steel plate is used for steel platform, and
galvanized steel lattice plate is used as far as possible;
cast in situ concrete is recommended to reduce the
post-maintenance costs.
(3) Corrosion protection shall be paid attention to from the
design stage of the project, with emphasis on the for-
mulation and review of the anti-corrosion technical
scheme, supervision and management of construction
quality, and application and implementation of
anti-corrosion construction specifications in the con-
struction stage. The enterprise shall establish and
improve the basic management of corrosion protection
in all aspects through the whole process. All personnel
shall participate and the special archives for enterprise
corrosion protection shall be established.
(4) It is well known that equipment corrosion is related to
Fig. 4.52 Corrosion under pipeline insulation layer the material, operating conditions, and corrosive
308 J. Zhang
environment (medium) of the equipment. Oil refining instrument, and equipment, so it is necessary to set up
industry involves a lot and crude oil isn’t controllable, corrosion specialty separately.
so the emergence of corrosion problems leading to (5) Laws and regulations on corrosion and protection shall
economic losses is inevitable. Corrosion protection be enacted.
needs to be controlled from the source, and
anti-corrosion countermeasures for different crude oil
processings shall be established to form anti-corrosion
countermeasures for equipment with different crude oil 4.3 Report on Corrosion Investigation
processing schemes. According to the specific situation, in the Coal Production Industry
the refineries are divided into different corrosion pro-
tection grades, and different kinds of crude oil are 4.3.1 Summary of the Characteristics of Coal
refined according to the prevention grades. Industry
(5) Drawing lessons from the model of API 571 standard,
we should summarize the corrosion mechanism and China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the
types of corrosion in the industry, and standardize the world. Coal is the main energy sources in China. Coal accounts
statistics and analysis of corrosion conditions. for over 70% of the primary energy structure, and it is expected
(6) We shall establish convenient and easy quality inspec- to remain unchanged for a long time [20]. However, the eco-
tion standards and methods for anti-corrosion materials, nomic loss caused by equipment corrosion in the actual mining
uniformly establish accurate and easy-to-use corrosion and washing process is very striking. The corrosion of coal
medium analysis methods, and formulate unified pro- equipment not only causes a lot of problems such as waste of
cess standards for corrosion inhibitors. resources and shutdown but also buries serious hidden danger
to the safety production of coal. China’s coal is mainly mined
underground, so most of the coal system equipment is in the
4.2.8 Suggestions underground dark, humid, corrosive gas-containing air or acid
mine water environment, and the corrosion is severe. The tra-
Based on the feedback from the surveyed enterprises in this ditional coating protection, hot-dip galvanizing protection, hot
corrosion survey, the following suggestions are put forward: spray zinc and coating composite protective layer, and glass
fiber reinforced plastic composite pipeline have been used in
(1) Establishing qualification standards for anti-corrosion the coal mine pipelines, and obtained certain use effect, but they
construction units and personnel, and formulating clear still can’t meet the design service life requirement of the mine.
requirements for employees. According to earlier reports, the coal system loses more than
(2) Learning the practices of foreign organizations such as RMB 1 billion a year caused by corrosion. The nonmetallic
API and NACE; establishing relevant organizations or materials, such as cement, used in coal industry, have also been
institutions; organizing relevant activities, such as seriously corroded. Taking the chemical plant producing mine
conducting research on specific corrosion problems; explosive as an example, the nitric acid and ammonium ion
formulating and issuing standards related to corrosion produced by ammonium nitrate hydrolysis will seriously cor-
control so as to facilitate enterprise for operation; rode the steel and cement structures, deteriorate the working
establishing a database of corrosion failure and accident environment, and affect the workers’ health. It can be seen that
cases to facilitate industry in sharing; carrying out corrosion protection is an extremely difficult task for the coal
systematic training on corrosion, especially for the industry. (Chemical engineering and deep processing of raw
training for grassroots managers of the enterprise. materials of the coal industry aren’t included in this investi-
(3) Large-scale state-owned enterprises shall set up separate gation and won’t be described in detail here.)
anti-corrosion science and technology centers, supervise
the implementation of each enterprise, report regularly, 4.3.1.1 General Situation of Coal Industry
exchange regularly, sort out the common problems and Coal is the main energy of China and won’t change in the
put them into a book and distribute them for learning. future for a long time. In 2014, China’s coal output reached
(4) At present, the corrosion-related specialty set up in 3.87 billion tons, close to 1/2 of the world’s coal output, and
colleges and universities in China only pays attention to the main business income of coal mining and washing industry
the study of corrosion theory knowledge. However, in reached RMB 3.3004587 trillion with the total profit of RMB
the actual work process, it also needs the study of 126.85 billion. According to the “12th Five-Year Plan for Coal
multispecialty knowledge such as technology, Industry Development”, the mechanization degree of coal
mining in China will reach over 75% in 2015 [21], and the China (Fig. 4.53), although the growth rate of coal production
large- and medium-sized coal mines will reach over 95%, is gradually slow (Fig. 4.54), coal production is still increasing,
small- and medium-sized coal mines at or above 300,000 tons and the output is considerable [22]. In recent years, the
account for more than 70%. In the process of mining and domestic output of “three machines and one support” (coal
washing, the economic loss caused by equipment corrosion is cutter, scraper, belt conveyor, and hydraulic support) shows
very striking. The corrosion of coal equipment will not only that the production of coal is at the cost of consumption of a
cause a lot of problems such as waste of resources and shut- large amount of steel.
down but also bury serious hidden danger to the safety pro- China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the
duction of coal. From the trend of annual coal production in world. China’s natural resources are characterized by rich
Fig. 4.53 Trend chart of annual coal output in China
Fig. 4.54 Forecast of coal consumption and year-on-year growth in China from 2006 to 2015. Data source China Coal Transportation and
Distribution Association, China Economic Information Network
310 J. Zhang
– Early permian epoch-late Carboniferous

epoch
Late permian epoch
Early middle Jurassic
– Early Cretaceous Epoch – late Jurassic
Beijing Tianjin HeBei area
Northeast
East China
Shanxi Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia (west)
Middle South
Southwest
Xinjiang Gansu Ningxia and Qinghai
(a) (a) Stock of coal resources in main coal-forming
periods
(b) (b) Regional distribution of coal resources in
China
Fig. 4.55 Geographical distribution of coal resources in China
coal, poor oil, and less gas [23], which determines the China’s disposable energy composition. China’s coal
important position of coal in primary energy. Compared resources are distributed widely but unevenly [24]. Except a
with oil and natural gas, China’s coal reserves are relatively few regions such as Shanghai, other provinces (regions) and
rich, accounting for 11.60% of the world’s reserves. The cities have proven reserves. According to the regional dis-
total amount of coal resources in China is 5.6 trillion tons, of tribution, the reserves are mainly distributed in Shanxi,
which the proven reserves are 1 trillion tons, accounting for Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, Henan, and
11% of the total world’s reserves. Since the founding of Anhui. The reserves of the seven provinces (regions)
People’s Republic of China, coal has accounted for more account for 81.8% of the national reserves. The distribution
than 70% of the country’s primary energy production and shows the characteristics of “more in north, less in south”
consumption for a long time. and “more in west and less in east” (Figs. 4.55 and 4.56).
Experts predict that in the first 30 years of the At present, except a few regions such as Shanghai, coal
twenty-first century, coal will still play a dominant role in resources exist in most provinces and regions in China. On
Fig. 4.56 Distribution of coal production in China
the whole, there are complete varieties of coal and abundant in East China are concentrated in Anhui and Shandong while
coal resources in China, but the distribution of resources is the industries are mainly in the Yangtze River Delta with
uneven. The geological conditions of resources are poor. Shanghai as the center; in the central and southern regions,
China’s coal resources have the following characteristics 72% of the coal resources are concentrated in Henan while
in terms of reserves, exploration degree, geographical dis- the industries are mainly in Wuhan and the Pearl River Delta;
tribution, coal variety, and coal quality. in the southwest, 67% of the coal resources are concentrated
in Guizhou while the industries are mainly in Sichuan; the
1) The coal resources are abundant, but the per capita northeast is relatively good, but 52% of the coal resources are
occupancy is low concentrated in the northern Heilongjiang while the indus-
tries are concentrated in Liaoning.
Although China is rich in coal resources, it has a low degree
of exploration and less economically recoverable reserves. 3) The variety and quality of coal varies greatly in each
The so-called economically exploited reserves refer to the area, and the distribution is not ideal
reserves that can be actually exploited and utilized after the
exploration can be used for the construction of wells and The distribution of coking coal in China is unbalanced. Of
after the recovery loss and the economically unprofitable the four main coking coal types, about half of lean coal,
and difficult-to-extract reserves have been deducted. At coking coal, and fat coal are concentrated in Shanxi while
present, the reserves proved by exploration only account for there are few coking coals in east China, central south
30%, and most of them have been exploited and the reserves China, and northeast China with large steel enterprises. In
of coal are rather tight. China has a large population, and the northeast China, the iron and steel industry is in Liaoning
per capita share of coal resources is about 234.4 tons, while while coking coal is mostly in Heilongjiang; in southwest
the world’s per capita coal resources are 312.7 tons. Per China, the iron and steel industry is in Sichuan while coking
capita occupancy in the United States is up to 1,045 tons, coal is mainly concentrated in Guizhou.
much higher than China’s per capita level.
4) The conditions are simple and the reserves suitable for
2) The geographical distribution of coal resources is opencast mining are small
extremely uneven
Opencast mining is high in efficiency, little in investment,
The distribution of coal resources in China is more in north and short in construction period, but China has small coal
and less in south, and more in west and less in east. The reserves suitable for opencast mining, only 7% of the total
distribution of coal resources is extremely incompatible with reserves. About 70% of them are brown coals, mainly dis-
the distribution of consumption areas. In terms of major tributed in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Yunnan.
administrative regions, the distribution of coal resources is China’s coal is mainly mined underground, so most of
also uneven. For example, 87% of the coal resources reserves the coal system equipment is in the underground dark,
312 J. Zhang
humid, corrosive gas-containing air, or acid mine water (1) Opencast mining equipment. The coal seam of the
environment, and the corrosion is severe. The traditional opencast coal mine is shallow and can be mined directly
coating protection, hot-dip galvanizing protection, hot spray from the ground. The main mechanical equipment
zinc and coating composite protective layer, and glass fiber includes single-bucket mechanical shovel, lifting head
reinforced plastic composite pipeline have been used in the shovel, front loader, bulldozer, scraper, transport vehi-
coal mine pipelines, and obtained certain use effect, but they cle, drilling machinery (such as downhole drill, rotary
still can’t meet the design service life requirement of the drill, opencast rock drilling truck), excavating machin-
mine. Therefore, the corrosion of steel components in coal ery (mechanical single-bucket excavator, hydraulic
mines in China is very serious, especially for shaft equip- single-bucket excavator, and hopper excavator), loading
ment. Because of the special environment, it is difficult to machinery (self-unloading truck, loader, bulldozer,
carry out secondary corrosion protection, and the corrosion earth discharging machine, belt conveyor, etc.), and
problem is particularly prominent. crushing machinery (self-moving crushing station) [25].
(2) Well mining equipment. Well mining equipment
4.3.1.2 Coal Production Process mainly includes heading machine, coal cutter, scraper
and Classification conveyor, hydraulic support, for short, “three machines
The coal industry is an industrial sector engaged in resource and one support” (Fig. 4.57), in which the scraper
exploration, coalfield development, coal production, coal conveyor also contains reversed loader and crusher. The
storage and transportation, processing and conversion, and three are referred to as “small three machines.” Wash-
environmental protection. ing equipment includes flotation machine, cyclone,
Coal production is divided into two categories according to vibrating screen, centrifuge, crusher, and so on [26].
the development mode. One is underground mining, namely, (3) Washing equipment. The washing equipment for coal
coal production through the development of shaft and a large mainly includes workshop girder, centrifuge, belt support,
number of roadways to the coal seam to form coal mining face. medium coal screen, coal gangue support, winch, and
Underground mining is underground operation, and the output various chutes, coal bunker, safety span bridge and smoke
of underground mining accounts for most of the coal produc- barrel of reverberatory furnace, as well as washing
tion in China. The other is opencast mining, namely, open machine, sediment washing machine, and sediment mak-
trench excavation method. Coal processing can be divided into ing machine [27]. The sediment washing machine has the
washing and shaping. Coal conversion is the conversion of coal characteristics of high cleaning height, reasonable struc-
into coke, activated carbon, chemical products, and coal-based ture, large output, and less sediment loss in the sediment
gaseous liquid fuels. Coal chemical engineering is a technology washing process. In particular, the transmission part is
that uses coal as raw material to carry out chemical engineering isolated from water and sediment, so its failure rate is
production. Coal conversion and coal chemical engineering are much lower than that of the commonly used sediment
not within the scope of this investigation and will not be washing machine, which is the best choice for upgrading
described in detail. of the domestic sediment washing industry. Coal washing
Coal mine engineering is an industry of mining under- and processing is an effective way to improve the quality
ground coal resources, which is restricted by many aspects. of coal products, meet the needs of users, improve the
It has its unique technology and unfavorable corrosive utilization efficiency of resources, and implement envi-
environment, and is very different from other processes of ronmental protection, as well as an important measure to
producing products on the ground. According to the coal realize clean, efficient, and comprehensive utilization of
production process involved in this investigation, it mainly coal resources. It is the foundation and leading component
includes two processes of obtaining raw coal from opencast of coal cleaning technology.
mining or well-working mining, and washing raw coal to
obtain refined coal of better quality. China’s coal is mainly mined underground. The mining
This investigation mainly aims at the corrosion caused by environment is dark and humid, and the water quality of the
the harsh natural environment and production environment to mine is complex, so the corrosion of underground mining
the plant facilities and production equipment in the coal mining machinery and equipment is serious (Fig. 4.58). Due to the
and production process, so the equipment and facilities in the high-speed corrosion of equipment parts, the function of
production process are essential to the investigation. This sec- equipment is invalid, which seriously threatens the safety
tion briefly introduces the coal machinery equipment in the coal production of coal mine.
industry. According to the process, coal machinery equipment In the coal industry, the most serious corrosion problems not
mainly includes opencast mining and well mining equipment, only appear in the production and washing equipment under
as well as washing equipment. severe conditions, but in the underground mining roadway, the
Fig. 4.57 Comprehensive mining equipment of coal mine “three machines and one support”
paint was re-coated in July and August 2008 due to serious

corrosion in the later use process, but only the surface was
polished and painted. Both the construction technology and
design materials can’t meet the anti-corrosion requirements; the
steel structure suffers from serious corrosion 3 years later.
In many equipment and plant facilities in the coal
industry, the structural main body is steel, and the corrosion
not only brings serious economic loss but also causes safety
problem that can’t be underestimated.
4.3.1.3 Environmental Characteristics

and Equipment Corrosion Status of Coal
Production
Underground operation accounts for the majority of coal pro-
Fig. 4.58 Corrosion of metal structures of coal mine production
duction. In the underground, there is no sunlight and there is
equipment
water, fire, gas, geothermal heat, ground pressure, and other
disasters such as roof fall. In view of the special underground
workshop facilities of coal washing plant, and the conveying environment, the metal corrosion is very serious. Vertical shaft
device for transporting coal. Taking a washing plant as an equipment, lifting vessels, and various pipelines are generally
example, since it was put into operation in February 2007, the corroded. Underground coal mines generally need lifting,
314 J. Zhang
transportation, ventilation, and drainage systems to ensure equipment shall be subjected to the abrasion of wind,
safety production and continuous stable production, and these sunshine, and rain in the mines all the year-round, as well
systems are also subjected to different degrees of corrosion. as the effect of alternating cold and hot, dry and wet. In
The ground washing equipment and facilities in coal produc- this environment, the corrosion rate of steel equipment is
tion are in humid and high-temperature environment for a long much higher than that in atmospheric environment.
time, so the corrosion is quite serious.
The opencast coal mine is directly exposed to the earth’s
1. Environmental characteristics and equipment corro- surface, so its corrosive environment is very different from that
sion of opencast coal mines of underground mining. In the weak wind areas, there are rock
powder, coal powder and soil dust, blasting smoke containing
The working environment of opencast coal mines is differ- nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide, and
ent from that of mine mining and is also different from the harmful gases (SO2, H2S, CO2, etc.) produced by coal, oxi-
general atmospheric environment. People often use “smoke dation, and spontaneous combustion of gangue. In addition, all
and dust on a sunny day and mud on a rainy day” to describe kinds of mechanical equipment are operated in the open air all
the working environment of opencast mines. Its main the year-round, which is greatly affected by the natural climate.
characteristics are as follows: Therefore, the corrosion rate of steel equipment is much higher
than that in the general atmospheric environment.
(1) The mining space of the opencast coal mine is directly Opencast mining machinery is mainly steel material and its
exposed to the surface of the earth. In general, it does not main corrosion form is uniform corrosion. In addition, wear
need special ventilation and exhaust facilities but depends corrosion, galvanic corrosion, crevice corrosion, and stress
on natural ventilation. However, at the bottom of the pit, corrosion are also included. In general, opencast mining
there are often weak wind areas where dust produced by machinery is dominated by uniform electrochemical corrosion,
blasting and mining (ultra-fine rock powder, coal powder, such as non-worn parts of drilling, mining, transport machinery
soil, etc.), blasting smoke (nitrogen oxide, carbon dioxide, and rails, and exterior surfaces of drainage systems. The water,
and carbon monoxide), as well as harmful gases produced soil, rock, and coal seams in opencast mines are corrosive, and
by coal, oxidation, and spontaneous combustion of gangue the main working parts of opencast mining machinery have
(sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide) are serious wear and corrosion problems, such as drill bits, drill
difficult to be removed by natural ventilation. Therefore, pipes, excavators, loaders, and buckets of front loaders. In order
the content of acid harmful gas and the content of dust in to improve the strength and wear resistance of opencast mining
the air of opencast mines are generally very high [28]. machinery, in addition to selecting high-strength alloy steel and
(2) The working place of opencast mining is a deep concave low-alloy steel, carburizing and nitriding treatment is often
of several tens of meters to one or two hundred meters required. The carburized metal, alloy steel, low-alloy steel, and
below the ground level, so there is always a certain steel structures have the conditions of galvanic corrosion due to
amount of water seepage from the surface soil layer, rock their different electrochemical potentials. Under the atmo-
layer, and coal seam. With the difference of region and spheric environment of wet air, rain, frost, and snow in the
season, the seepage amount of groundwater is different. In opencast mines, in small crevices of various parts of mechanical
the case of rainy and snowy days, the natural precipitation equipment, crevice corrosion can be caused due to differences
converges to the bottom of the mine in different ways, and in metal ion concentration and oxygen concentration in and
the seepage amount increases greatly. Although it is around the crevice between the deposit layer and the metal
required that the water in the bottom pit should be dis- surface such as ore rock, soil, etc. The corrosion is far more
charged in time, the coal working face at the bottom has serious than other parts. The bucket rod, swing arm, and steel
been relatively humid. Due to the evaporation of water, wire rope in opencast mine are important force-bearing parts.
the relative humidity of the air in the pit is generally The existence of periodic tensile force will cause stress corro-
higher than that of the air outside the pit. sion of these parts. After using for a period of time, cracking or
(3) With different regional and geological conditions, the fracture often occurs due to corrosion fatigue.
acidity, alkalinity, and salt content of subsurface water
seepage vary greatly, especially in coal bed water seepage 2. Environmental characteristics and equipment corro-
which generally contains high concentration of elec- sion status of underground mining equipment
trolytes such as sulfide, sulfate, and sulfite [29]. These are
harmful factors which accelerate the corrosion of metals. As a special industry, coal mining is restricted by many factors,
(4) As the working environment is exposed to the natural especially influenced by underground geology and harsh
space, the working conditions are greatly affected by the environment. It is very different from ground production,
natural climate factors. In the cold winter, hot summer, especially in the selection of underground equipment and
hot day, and cold night, all kinds of mechanical materials. According to the production level of China’s coal
industry and the requirement of mine design at present, the

mining years of large- and medium-sized mines generally
require more than 50 years, some even more than 100 years,
belong to the permanent project [30]. However, as the main
material of the mine, steel products are seriously corroded due
to the underground high relative humidity and high wind speed,
and daily maintenance is very difficult. In particular, vertical
shaft equipment, lifting vessels, and various pipelines are gen-
erally affected by corrosion, and the shaft equipment in the most
serious areas has to stop production and get comprehensive
replacement only for 10 years, resulting in great economic Fig. 4.59 Underground wet working environment of coal mine
losses. In order to prolong the service life of underground
equipment, reduce the downtime, and increase the coal output, it harmful gas due to their large surface area and higher
is of great importance to do well the corrosion protection work activity. Mine mining is often conducted in deep
of mining equipment, especially shaft equipment. underground, the relative humidity of the air is very
Coal production and construction is underground operation. high, most of which is above 95%, so that a thin water
In the underground, there is no sunlight and there is water, fire, film is easily formed on the metal surface. In addition,
gas, geothermal heat, ground pressure, and other disasters such due to the need for underground ventilation, excess air
as roof fall. Therefore, in order to ensure safety production, it is provides an oxygen-rich atmosphere, which creates
necessary to take preventive measures during production and harsh air conditions for steel corrosion.
construction in case of sudden water inrush from underground, (2) Water environment. Water burst in coal mine mainly
spontaneous combustion of coal seam, explosion of gas, comes from water-containing stratum [32]. The com-
explosion of coal and gas, outburst of coal and gas, rock burst, position of mine water is very complex, containing all
high and low temperature, debris flow and roof falling, land- kinds of negative and positive ions. Besides, the acid–
slides, etc. At the same time, fresh air shall be sent to all working base property of mine water also provides favorable
places underground and water shall be sent to the mining face conditions for metal corrosion (Fig. 4.59).
for ventilation, dust prevention, and cooling so as to improve the (3) Soil environment. Around the mine and the upper part
working environment. The roadway and coal working face shall of the shaft are soil layers that contain soluble salt,
be supported in time to prevent roof falling. Besides, a good job chloride ion, organic acid, oxygen, microorganism, and
shall be done in gas drainage and personal protection to prevent stray current, which will affect the conductivity of soil
coal dust, rock dust, and harmful gases from endangering the and accelerate the corrosion of metal structures.
health of workers. These characteristics determine the hard
working conditions of coal miners who often need to keep a Coal mine is mainly composed of shaft and roadway. The
high degree of vigilance to prevent accidents, timely take pre- shaft is the main passage through the mine, and it is the part
ventive measures to ensure safety production. The bad down- of the mine where the corrosion is serious. At present, most
hole environment requires ensuring the fresh wind flow to the of the shafts in the production mines have water drenching,
downhole frequently so that the oxygen supply is sufficient. In some of which exceeds 5 m3/h, and the components of the
addition, some harmful gas and very high temperature all shaft are generally covered with 0.58-cm-thick water film.
accelerate the corrosion of downhole metals. However, the mine water drenching belongs to many kinds
The equipment of the coal mining system is mostly in the of salt solutions, including metallic and nonmetallic ele-
underground dark, humid, corrosive gas-containing air, or ments mixed with floating dust, pulverized coal, and dis-
acid mine water environment. Therefore, corrosion is more solved oxygen in the atmosphere. Thus, the corrosion of the
likely to occur. components is formed by chemical factors, physical factors,
There are many unfavorable corrosive environments in and biochemical factors. What’s more, the borehole wall
the mine, mainly including the following aspects: structure also bears the action of load because of the com-
plex geological conditions and environmental factors. Under
(1) Air environment. Combustible gas, toxic gas, and coal the action of multiple destructive effects, a large number of
dust, such as CH4, CO, H2S, and SO2, are often mixed borehole wall structures fail prematurely. Figure 4.60 shows
in the mine air. If the harmful gas is combined with corrosion of metal structural components in the coal mines.
water, they will promote metal corrosion [31]. Small In view of the complicated geological conditions and
particles of coal dust or rock produced during mining environmental factors, the metal corrosion of downhole
process can also form corrosive dust after adsorption of equipment is very serious, and the service life is greatly
316 J. Zhang
motion between the equipment is different, so the equipment

of the coal washing plant is subjected to the alternating
action of corrosion and wear. In the dry working places such
as crushing and raw coal screening, the equipment is not
entirely subjected to impact and dry wear because water
from water spraying and dust control operations and mine
drenching can wet the surface of the machine even though
the water does not form a continuous phase. Therefore, it can
be said that most of the links in the coal washing plant are
subjected to alternating effect of corrosion and wear.
The gangue discharged from the coal washing plant often
contains pyrite. Sulfur is easily oxidized in the humid envi-
Fig. 4.60 Corrosion of metal structural components in the coal mines
ronment, and the generated sulfur dioxide is dissolved in water
shortened. The equipment in the most serious area needs to to produce sulfurous acid to create an acidic environment [35].
be stopped and to be completely replaced after only In addition, the concentration of coal dust in coal washing plant
10 years, resulting in great economic loss. is high dust due to such operations as loading, unloading,
The annual economic loss caused by metal corrosion in crushing, and screening. The coal dust surface area is large and
coal mines in China is about RMB 1 and 1 kg steel per ton, the activity is high. When the adsorbed sulfur dioxide precip-
accounting for 4% of the total output value of coal. Experts itates, it also will cause the acidic environment. The harsh
estimate that the coal system loses more than RMB 1 billion environment of the coal washing plant aggravates the corrosion
a year caused by corrosion [33]. And the nonmetallic condition of the equipment.
materials such as cement used in the coal industry also suffer The main process of coal washing is to treat the two-phase
from serious corrosion. medium of coal and water, which has different degrees of
In the shaft and underground of coal mine, the metal relative motion, including electrolyte, dissolved oxygen, water,
materials mainly appear electrochemical corrosion which is wear, and so on. It is an extremely harsh corrosive environ-
the main form of corrosion damage of mining machinery ment. The corrosion in the coal washing plant is the main part
components. In the harmful gas in underground coal mine, that causes the loss and hidden danger. For the workshop of the
sulfur dioxide has a particularly significant impact because it coal washing plant, the corrosion of the steel structures can’t be
is easy to dissolve in water and forms sulfurous acid with underestimated. For example, the preliminary investigation
water. Therefore, sulfur dioxide in the air in underground results of the service environment of the steel structural com-
coal mine will accelerate the atmospheric corrosion of ponents in the workshop of a coal washing plant are as follows:
metals, especially for steel components because they are not
acid-resistant, so corrosion is more severe. There are basi- (1) Temperature: normal temperature, basically consistent
cally two types of atmospheric corrosion in coal mines, one with the outside temperature.
is over-wet atmospheric corrosion and the other is moist (2) Humidity: about 80%, belonging to high-humidity
atmospheric corrosion. The water film formed on the metal environment.
surface in the middle, upper, and roadway of the coal mine (3) pH value of coal washing water: about 7.5, belonging to
shaft is thin so that the depolarization of oxygen is not weak alkaline environment.
hindered, resulting in the fastest corrosion rate of metal. (4) Salt content of the coal washing water: contains a large
amount of corrosive negative ions such as Cl−, SO42−,
3. Environmental characteristics and equipment corro- NO3−, CO32−, and F−, and strong oxidizing positive
sion of coal washing production ions such as Cu2+, Fe3+, Cr3+, and Hg2+.
In the coal washing plant, water is used as the medium, and In the coal washing plant, the work environment is bad
the steam coal or coking coal is washed by the methods and and the medium type is complex, so the corrosion types are
equipment such as screen, flotation, gravity, and heavy different. The corrosion of the coal washing plant includes
medium, thereby reducing the ash content in the coal and uniform corrosion, stress corrosion, crevice corrosion, and
improving the quality of the coal products that are supplied the corrosion condition is very serious. A large number of
to industrial sectors such as power stations and steel mills plant facilities need carrying out major maintenance and
[34]. The process flow of coal upgrading in coal washing renovation as well as strict coating work.
plant is shown in Fig. 4.61. The main process of coal The coal, water, and gas in coal washing plant determine
washing plant is to treat coal, water, and gas. The relative that failure and dry wear of coal washing equipment are
Fig. 4.61 Coal upgrading process flow of coal washing plant

318 J. Zhang
different. Because of the existence of water medium, the corrosion depth of iron and steel on one side in the mine is
corrosion of iron and steel materials is very serious under the 0.2–1.2 mm, 2–3 times of the corrosion degree of iron and
synergistic action of corrosion and wear. steel in marine environment [40].
With the development of coal industry, people gradually According to the characteristic analysis of corrosive envi-
realize the seriousness of mine corrosion and the importance of ronment, the corrosion of coal industry can be divided into
corrosion protection from practice. Since the late 1970s, the coal industrial atmosphere corrosion and mine water corrosion. The
system has begun to attach importance to corrosion protection corrosion of the materials in the mine is more serious than that
of mining equipment, and gradually adopted a series of mea- of the “urban industrial atmosphere” because of the high
sures to strengthen scientific research and research and the humidity and temperature of gas, such as CO, CO2, CH4, SO2,
popularization and application of new technologies [36]. The and H2S contained in the downhole air (Table 4.13). Studies
Technical Specifications for Anti-corrosion of Vertical Shaft show that when the relative humidity in air is higher than 60%,
Equipment of Coal Mine has been issued, and remarkable water vapor will form a water film on the metal surface due to
achievements have been achieved. Over the past decades, the capillary condensation and adsorption. The dissolution of gas
coal system has successively obtained three anti-corrosion such as SO2 not only increases the electrical conductivity of the
achievements that won the national invention prize, including liquid film but also accelerates corrosion due to the acidity of
“pickling, passivation surface treatment process,” “dry–wet the solution. Fe is converted to soluble FeSO4 as a result of the
dual-purpose anti-rust paint,” and “ZM series friction-increasing combination of SO2 and O2. FeSO4 is subjected to oxidation
steel wire rope anti-rust grease” [37]. Many researchers have and hydrolysis to H2SO4, which reacts with Fe, thereby
won the science and technology progress award from the accelerating the corrosion reaction.
Ministry of Coal Industry. However, because of the vast terri- The water quality of coal mine water varies greatly in
tory of China, the wide distribution of coal resources, the large China because of the geological age, geological structure,
number of coal mines, and the great number of small enterprises rock nature, the associated mineral composition of various
[38], the problem of corrosion in coal production and processing coal measures, and the different environmental conditions in
is still serious. The research, promotion, and application of the coal mine [41]. In that southwest and south China, most
anti-corrosion measures remain the top priority. of the mine water is acidic (pH < 5.5) because the sulfur
content in the coal seam is 2–9%, while the mine water in
4.3.1.4 Corrosion Characteristics of Coal the north China is generally neutral or weakly alkaline, but
Production Industry the mine water is also acidic in a few mining areas (such as
China’s coal production is mainly underground mining and Wuda, Tongchuan, Zaozhuang, Zibo, and Yima) because of
underground coal accounts for about 98% [39]. High relative the high sulfur content of coal seam. In fact, most coal mine
humidity in underground coal mine, high content of acid, water in China is neutral or weakly alkaline, and the cor-
alkali, and salt in underground water and dissolution of rosion of coal equipment in this kind of environment is
harmful gas in water provide good conductive medium for mostly oxygen depolarization corrosion. In addition, Ca2+,
electrochemical corrosion process. The underground venti- Mg2+, SO42−, and HCO3− in the hypersalinity mine water
lation is large, and the oxygen supply is sufficient due to the are adsorbed on the surface of the metal equipment to form
need for work, providing favorable conditions for cathodic incrustation. As a result, the electrolyte solution of the steel
reaction. Frequent friction and wear during coal mining also substrate is in a relatively close environment (occlusion
greatly accelerate the corrosion process of metal compo- region), and oxygen is continuously consumed by the
nents. The results of corrosion investigation and laboratory cathodic process of oxygen depolarization corrosion in a
simulation of some mines in China show that the average neutral or alkaline environment, which leads to low oxygen
Table 4.13 Corrosion effect of underground atmosphere in coal mine

Air medium Erosive gas medium components Relative Corrosion rate/ Degree of
contained in the air humidity/% (mm/a) corrosion
Name Concentration/
(mg/L)
Free of corrosive gas and – – 60 0.05 Weak
dust – – 60–75 0.05–0.10 Weak
– – 75–100 0.11–0.15 Weak
Contain corrosive gas and Sulfurous 0.02 60 0.05–0.10 Weak
dust anhydride
Hydrogen sulfide 0.01 60–75 0.11–0.50 Medium
Nitrogen oxides 0.004 75–100 >0.50 Strong
content in the electrolyte solution on the surface of iron and strength requirements, most of the shaft guides are made of
steel under deposition. Then the “oxygen concentration plain carbon steel, and the cages are made of aluminum
difference cell” is formed, and the corrosion rate of steel components or a mixed structure of steel and aluminum.
materials under deposition is accelerated. The coal washing equipment mainly includes the work-
Because of the special environmental characteristics such shop girder, centrifuge, belt support, medium coal screen,
as humidity and rich electrolyte, the corrosion characteristics coal gangue support, winch, and various chutes, coal bunker,
of mine equipment, opencast mining equipment and washing safety span bridge and reverberatory furnace chimney, etc.
equipment are different. The corrosion in the workshop of coal washing plant is
The coal mine mainly consists of shaft and roadway. The the main part causing the loss and hidden danger. The steel
shaft is divided into the main shaft, the auxiliary shaft, and the structure of the workshop of a coal washing plant is seri-
wind shaft. The corroded equipment of coal industry is mainly ously corroded (Fig. 4.62), which can’t be underestimated.
shaft equipment, which includes shaft guide, shaft beam, ladder The grade of corrosion of bolts and fasteners in the
room, pipeline, cable, bottom hole metal support structure, workshop of a coal washing plant is very serious, and the
trussed beam, cable support, over-coil device, etc. The coal overall grade of steel structure is serious. According to the
mine shaft equipment is the fixed iron and steel device for mine investigation of the whole state of truss steel structure in a
shaft hoisting, drainage, mining, and transportation, which is washing plant, single-bolt fasteners are most seriously cor-
the throat part of a mine. It is deeply buried in the stratum roded with hidden danger (Fig. 4.63).
where the medium, water quality, and its change will cause
corrosion damage to the shaft wall concrete. Because of the
complex geological conditions and environmental factors, they
not only bear the action of load but also suffer from the
chemical action of harmful environment during service. The
double and multiple destructive effects of mechanical and
chemical processes make a large number of borehole wall
structures fail prematurely. The reason is that mechanical action
induces mechanical damage inside the structure, and environ-
mental chemical action further induces chemical evolution of
materials, accelerating corrosion failure of metal components.
At present, the average service life of mine shaft equipment in
China is about 15 years, and that in the areas with serious
corrosion is less than 10 years. According to this calculation,
the amount of steel consumed by the shaft equipment of coal
system in China due to corrosion is about 45,000 tons, which is
equivalent to the steel consumption of a newly built mine with
an annual output of 500,000 tons. Based on the structural Fig. 4.63 Corrosion status of single-bolt fastener
Fig. 4.62 Overall corrosion status of a washing plant Fig. 4.64 Welding seam corrosion status of truss steel structure
320 J. Zhang
about 50–70%. When the relative humidity is above 60%,

the corrosion rate of steel will increase rapidly. However,
when it is less than 60%, the corrosion amount is very small.
However, the humidity of the washing plant is basically
maintained above 60%, and some even exceed 100%.
Therefore, the promoting effect of water on the corrosion
process is enormous. The exhaust gas from equipment
includes sulfide, nitride, CO, CO2, as well as coal dust and
other solid particles, which have great influence on the
atmospheric corrosion of metals. In addition, solid particu-
late impurity commonly referred to as dust in the air can also
accelerate corrosion.
Fig. 4.65 Corrosion status of truss support beam

4.3.1.5 Measures for Corrosion Protection
and Classification
The welding process is a nonuniform heating and cooling The corrosion control technologies of coal mine equipment
process, so this process will inevitably cause the nonunifor- mainly include coating protection, metal coating, electro-
mity of the structure and performance of the heat-affected chemical cathodic protection technology, heavy anti-corrosion
zone, which is more likely to cause corrosion of the steel composite coating system protection, glass fiber reinforced
structure. As can be seen from Fig. 4.64, the corrosion grade plastic composite material, etc.
of the welding seam of truss steel structure is serious and the
corroded areas are mainly the welding seam and the stress 1. Coating protection
concentration area around the welding seam. The undercoat
rust layer is black and the surface rust layer is reddish-brown. Coating protection is the earliest and simplest anti-corrosion
It can be seen from Fig. 4.65 that the corrosion grade of method in construction, and it is still the most important
the truss support beam is serious, and the corrosion mainly anti-corrosion method at home and abroad. In order to
focuses on area easy to accumulate water in the horizontal achieve the purpose of long-term protection, the selection of
direction and edge of the I-beam. The corrosion products protective coatings must meet the following conditions: ➀
have layers and the rust layer’s thickness exceeds 3 mm, and good adhesion on the steel surface; ➁ good physical and
part of the rust layer has been peeled off. mechanical properties; ➂ good impermeability; ➃ good sta-
During the operation of the washing equipment in the bility to corrosive medium; and ➄ good construction per-
coal washing plant, the temperature during operation is formance and economic rationality. Anti-corrosion coating
about 10 °C higher than the air temperature during mainte- materials which have good effect in underground mine are
nance. The statistical result shows that the higher the air mainly zinc-rich primer, epoxy asphalt series anti-corrosion
temperature is, the greater the corrosion rate is when the coating, and chlorinated rubber series. The coating protection
other conditions are the same. Drastic changes in air tem- shall be carried out strictly in accordance with the standard
perature also affect atmospheric corrosion. Since the surface specification. Proper surface treatment shall be conducted on
temperature of the metal is lower than that of the air, water the base material before coating, and the coating film thick-
vapor in the atmosphere condenses on the metal surface, ness shall be checked to make sure that it reaches the spec-
which accelerates corrosion. According to the investigation ified thickness after the completion of the construction.
report, the pulverized coal on the surface of the equipment Characteristics of typical coatings and typical methods of
shall be washed and removed within 3–5 h during the surface treatment are shown in Tables 4.14 and 4.15.
shutdown and overhaul period, and the air humidity in the
workshop will be increased by the long time of water 2. Metal coating
washing. Generally speaking, the greater the humidity in the
air is, the easier the moisture condensation is on the metal The metal coating refers to a uniform metal protective film
surface, the longer the electrolyte film on the surface is. And with a certain thickness on the surface of the steel compo-
the corrosion rate correspondingly increases. Each metal has nent to protect the steel component from corrosion in the use
a range of humidity where the corrosion rate starts to environment. The coating methods mainly include electro-
increase sharply. The atmospheric relative humidity when plating, chemical plating, brushing electroplating, thermal
the corrosion rate of the metal starts to increase sharply is spraying, hot-dip plating, etc. The main coating metals are
called critical humidity. The critical humidity of steel is active metals such as zinc and aluminum, and inert metals
Table 4.14 Types and performance characteristics of commonly used coatings

Purpose Inorganic Epoxy Epoxy Chlorinated Acrylic Epoxy chlorinated
zinc-rich zinc-rich iron rubber polyurethane rubber
Adhesive force VG E E E E E
Hardness VG VG VG G E VG
Flexibility G G G VG VG VG
Acid resistance NR NR G E E E
Alkali resistance E E E VG VG VG
Detergent E E E E E E
resistance
UV resistance VG F F VG E G
Immersion E E E E E E
resistance
Note E means excellent; VG is very good; G means good; F means general; P means bad; NR means not recommended
Table 4.15 Coating protection system for wellbore equipment

Name of mine Anti-corrosion coating system Surface treatment
Auxiliary shaft of Tiefa Two channels of inorganic zinc-rich, coating thickness 70 lm Sediment blasting for rust
Xiaonan Mine removal
Auxiliary shaft of Two channels of inorganic zinc-rich, coating thickness 70 lm Sediment blasting and rust
Baodian Mine, Yanzhou removal
Main shaft of Baodian One channel of epoxy zinc-rich primer, three channels of epoxy asphalt paint, Acid cleaning, rust removal,
Mine, Yanzhou coating thickness more than 200 lm, welding seam shall be brushed with dry and passivation treatment
and wet paint for 2 times
Auxiliary shaft of One channel of epoxy zinc-rich primer, three channels of chlorinated rubber Acid cleaning, rust removal,
Pingdingshan mica iron paint, coating thickness more than 150 lm and passivation treatment
No. 1 Mine
Main shaft of Dongpang One channel of epoxy zinc-rich primer, three channels of chlorinated rubber Sediment blasting for rust
Mine, Xingtai mica iron paint, coating thickness more than 150 lm removal
such as copper, tin, and nickel. In the mine environment, the than 300 lm, so as to achieve the purpose of long-term
metal protective layer used for steel structure protection is protection. The metal protective layer mainly refers to the
hot-dip galvanizing, thermal spraying zinc, thermal spraying hot-dip galvanizing (aluminum) or thermal spraying zinc
aluminum, etc. Hot-dip coating belongs to metallurgical (aluminum) protective layer; the organic coating protective
structure. The coating is compact and uniform and can be layer mainly refers to epoxy asphalt series anti-corrosion
directly used in the mine environment with high labor effi- coating, chlorinated rubber, and polyurethane series
ciency, low cost, and good adhesive force. However, it needs anti-corrosion coating.
a fixed production site and a batch processing of workpieces. In recent years, the composite coating system composed
Thermal spraying coating is convenient and flexible for of arc spraying aluminum coating and organic sealing
construction, but the labor intensity is large, the work effi- coating has good protection effect, and its corrosion resis-
ciency is low, and the coat is porous. The porosity is about tance life is not simply the sum of the two, but 1.5–2.3 times
15%, so it can’t be used until the coating is sealed. of the sum of both. In the arc spray anti-corrosion technol-
ogy, two metal wire with positive and negative electric
3. Protection of heavy anti-corrosion composite coating charges are continuously sent to the end of the arc spray gun
system through an arc spray power supply with straight character-
istics, and the arc is melted by short-circuit contact at the
The protection of heavy anti-corrosion composite coating end. High-temperature droplets of molten aluminum are
system refers to the application of organic coating protection blown, atomized, and sprayed onto the surface of the
layer with a certain thickness on the metal protective layer, workpieces by compressed air, and the wire is melted with
so that the total thickness of the coating layer can reach more temperature reaching 6000 °C to form an arc spraying
322 J. Zhang
coating with good bonding with the substrate. A large There are still many gaps in the study of metal corrosion
number of corrosion test data of thermal spraying zinc and in coal industry environment. People have a late under-
aluminum coatings in developed countries show that only standing of corrosion of metals in coal mines and serious
thermal spraying zinc and aluminum coatings plus closed damage to equipment, so the research on corrosion and
composite coating systems can provide corrosion protection protection of metal components in underground coal mines
of steel for more than 30 years. has not been paid enough attention for a long time.
According to the investigation results of the coal mine cor-
4. Glass fiber reinforced plastic composite rosion loss carried out by the Ministry of Coal Industry and
the Coal Discipline Group of the Committee of Energy
The original meaning of glass fiber plastic composite is Engineering of China Society for Corrosion and Protection,
engineering plastic reinforced by glass fiber, made of glass it is concluded that the corrosion loss of coal mines in China
fiber and synthetic resin. Nowadays, the fiber reinforced is about RMB 1 per ton of coal, corrosion consumes 1 kg of
plastic composite in coal system often includes steel struc- steel per ton of coal, and the annual economic loss caused by
ture reinforcement, composite, and so on. In order to meet corrosion accounts for 4% of the total output value.
the needs of high strength and high safety factor in under- In recent years, people pay more and more attention to
ground mine environment, steel structure is often used to equipment corrosion in coal industry. The Technical Speci-
reinforce the products of fiber reinforced plastic composite fications for Anti-corrosion of Coal Mine Shaft Equipment
material. At present, the coal mine shaft is equipped with a (MT/T 5017-2009), Technical Conditions for Surface Anti-
large number of fiber reinforced plastic composite materials, corrosion Treatment of Single Hydraulic Pillar (MT/T
and even some of the mines have achieved full shaft fiber 335-1995) and other relevant anti-corrosion technical stan-
reinforced plastic composite. From the point of view of dards have been formulated successively. However, the
corrosion protection, this is beneficial. However, higher research on corrosion and protection of equipment in coal
requirements are put forward for the reliability of steel industry is not enough, and the relevant anti-corrosion
anchor bolts, the mechanical fatigue resistance of engineer- specifications and quality acceptance standards of
ing plastics, the binding force between steel components and anti-corrosion engineering still need to be further improved.
resin, flame retardance, the quality, and mechanical strength The special research on anti-corrosion is insufficient. For
of antistatic glass fiber reinforced plastic composite. This example, it is difficult to carry out the secondary corrosion
anti-corrosion method has certain defects, such as short protection of the shaft equipment because of the special
corrosion-resistant life of GFRP and poor adhesive force environment, so it is necessary to conduct special study on
with steel structure. Besides, it is not easy to repair after the service environment and corrosion failure characteristics,
damage. The steel structure factory building of Linnancang and carry out special anti-corrosion treatment. For example,
Mine uses glass fiber reinforced plastic composite. After it is in view of the corrosion status of wellbore equipment, some
used only for 5 years, 70% of the glass fiber reinforced scholars have abandoned the traditional anti-corrosion
plastic coating is intact, and the damaged part of the coating technology on metal surface, but put forward the scheme
has been corroded seriously. of enamel anti-corrosion for wellbore components.
In addition, the multilayer heavy anti-corrosion system
4.3.1.6 Corrosion Problems in Coal Production with metal coating and organic coating is widely adopted at
Industry present, which puts forward higher requirements on the
In accordance with the investigation result, the corrosion of coating itself and the coating process. On the one hand, the
fully mechanized coal mining equipment, the corrosion of coating itself is required to have good corrosion resistance
washing equipment, and the corrosion of plant facilities have and mechanical properties. On the other hand, it is required to
caused great potential safety hazard and economic losses. It have good construction quality. In recent years, many
is the most important task to take scientific, reasonable, and achievements have been made in the research of
effective anti-corrosion measures to prevent the corrosion anti-corrosion coatings and anti-corrosion construction.
from causing more serious consequences. At present, the However, at present, the coatings used for corrosion protec-
coal industry has the following problems: tion do not reach the purpose of one-time permanent corro-
sion protection, and the following problems mainly exist:
(1) The basic research on corrosion protection should be The mechanical strength is too low, making it easy for the
further strengthened, the corrosion standards should be anti-corrosion coating to fall off due to mechanical collision
further strictly graded, the unified protection standards during transportation and installation.
should be formulated, and the protective measures The binding force with the metal surface is small. During
should be effectively improved. the brushing process, if the rust is not thoroughly removed or
the construction ambient air humidity is high, air or moisture and humidities, dust types, and quantities in the coal mine,
may remain on the anti-corrosion coating and the steel the corrosion mechanism of fully mechanized mining
structure surface, accelerating the coating failure. equipment is also different. Therefore, the corrosion pro-
The protective ability of the coating is insufficient in tection of coal mine machinery is a systematic project. In
aging. According to relevant data, the anti-corrosion period view of its different fully mechanized mining environments,
of the best anti-corrosion coating is 7–8 years while the it is necessary to first analyze its corrosion mechanism, and
service life of the shaft often reaches several decades. then select appropriate anti-corrosion measures according to
Therefore, it is necessary to carry out secondary the concrete corrosion mechanism and actual working
anti-corrosion after the failure of the anti-corrosion coating. conditions.
It is very difficult to carry out secondary anti-corrosion in the The anti-corrosion coating system designed for the cor-
special environment of shaft. Once the first anti-corrosion rosive environment of coal washing plant must meet the
coating fails, the shaft equipment will be in an unprotected requirements of high-temperature, humid, and corrosive
state of operation. In addition, it is “30% of material and environment, and has the characteristics of alternating dry–
70% of process.” If the construction process is not reason- wet and cold–hot environment. The coating system must
able, we can’t achieve the expected protective effect even if have good adhesion performance, rust resistance, corrosion
high-quality anti-corrosion coating is used. The condition of resistance of the workshop environment medium, and
surface treatment is closely related to the protective effect of corrosion-resistant medium permeability. The topcoat should
iron and steel equipment. The surface treatment methods that have good water resistance and antiaging property. In order
can be adopted before anti-corrosion coating of mining to meet the requirements of service life of steel structure,
equipment include sediment blasting for rust removal, anti-corrosion coating with cathodic protection should be
high-pressure water for rust removal, acid pickling for rust considered under such harsh corrosive environment, such as
removal, mechanical de-rusting, manual de-rusting, flame thermal spraying zinc–aluminum coating + sealing,
descaling, and phosphating. zinc-rich coating so as to effectively reduce or avoid corro-
sion of the matrix steel structure. In order to ensure that the
(2) Understanding of the corrosive environment in the coal service life of these corroded parts is not less than that of the
industry is insufficient, and timely and effective mea- whole steel structure, the crevice sealing protection to
sures haven’t been taken to control and improve the strengthen protection must be carried out for the bolt joints
corrosive environment, which directly leads to the and the component joints that are easy to produce crevice
equipment and facilities in the corrosive environment corrosion.
and more serious corrosion problem.
(3) Many small mines with low output value don’t seek
The safety of fully mechanized mining equipment directly sustainable development, and pay little attention to the
determines the efficiency of coal mining and the construction corrosion problem, which causes economic losses and
of high-efficiency mine. The coal in China is mainly mined very serious potential safety hazard.
underground where the mining environment is dark and
humid, and the water quality of mine is complex, so the According to commonly used coal mine classification
corrosion of underground mining machinery and equipment methods in China, coal mines are divided into state-owned
is serious. Due to the high-speed corrosion of equipment key coal mines, local key coal mines, and township coal
parts, the function of equipment is invalid, which seriously mines. Township coal mines refer to the newly developed
threatens the safety production of coal mine. From the coal mines that belong to the collective ownership or indi-
viewpoint of corrosion, the corrosion of metallic materials is vidual ownership of villages and towns after the marketi-
mostly electrochemical corrosion. The content of acid, zation of coal. The number of small coal mines in China is
alkali, and salt in underground water with high relative relatively large, but the proportion of approved production
humidity is high. In addition, the dissolution of harmful gas capacity is relatively small, resulting in low industrial con-
in water provides good conductive medium for electro- centration [42]. At present, there are 10,800 coal mines in
chemical corrosion process. High air volume and sufficient China, with an average single-well production capacity of
oxygen supply provide favorable conditions for cathodic less than 350,000 t/a. Among all coal mines, there are more
reaction (i.e., oxygen depolarization). Friction and wear than 7,000 small coal mines (more than 5,400 coal mines
accelerate the corrosion process. It can be seen that the below 90,000 tons) with output of less than 20% and safety
abovementioned environmental characteristics under the accidents of over 70%. And many small coal mines are still
mine will make the corrosion rate of metal equipment seri- non-mechanized mining, so the transformation is difficult
ous. Because of the different water qualities, temperatures and some can’t be transformed. It is very difficult to
324 J. Zhang
implement the corrosion protective measures. The direct measurement, analysis of circulating water quality, test of
losses caused by corrosion are remarkable, and the conse- steel structure coating thickness and surface resistance, and
quence is incalculable once the corrosion problem causes analysis of corrosion products and steel structure amplitude–
casualty. frequency, the main reasons of corrosion are analyzed from
service environment, corrosion state, and water quality, the
corrosion is graded, and the anti-corrosion engineering
4.3.2 Analysis of Typical Cases condition is analyzed.
The corrosion of coal industry is investigated by means of 1) Corrosion status of steel structure of main washing
questionnaire survey, telephone consultation, and on-site workshop
visit. The corrosive environment, corrosion status, and
anti-corrosion engineering of two washing plants in Inner Through the on-site photo-taking investigation, the corrosion
Mongolia, a washing plant in Shaanxi, and a washing plant of the main washing workshop of the washing plant is
in Shanxi are analyzed in detail. investigated. The on-site investigation results are shown in
Fig. 4.66, and the corrosion degree of the steel structure is
1. Case 1: Steel structure of a washing plant (I) in Inner graded according to the on-site investigation results in
Mongolia Table 4.16.
As shown in Fig. 4.66a, the whole steel structure of the
The washing plant was put into operation in February 2007. workshop of the washing plant is seriously corroded, which
Due to the bad corrosive environment of the washing has seriously threatened the production. As shown in
workshop, serious corrosion has occurred in the main Fig. 4.66b, the bolt fastening parts are corroded seriously,
washing workshop, which has great influence on its normal the rust layer is black, the corrosion thickness is about
production and operation. 2 mm, and the grade of corrosion is very serious. The
The main washing workshop of the washing plant is a uneven heating and cooling process of the welding process
modular steel structure workshop. The plant has six floors makes the heat-affected zone uniform, causing corrosion of
arranged in staggered layers. In the process of production the steel structure at the welding joint, as shown in
and operation, there are such phenomena as high ambient Fig. 4.66c. The welding seam of truss steel structure is
humidity, high chloride ion content in the circulating water seriously corroded, the bottom rust layer is black, the surface
for washing, and equipment vibration, causing serious cor- rust layer is red-brown, and the grade of corrosion is serious.
rosion problems. Through on-site temperature and humidity As shown in Fig. 4.66d, I-beam is easy to accumulate water
Fig. 4.66 Corrosion status of typical parts of the steel structure of workshop of a washing plant (I) in Inner Mongolia
Table 4.16 Grading of degree

No. Corrosion surface morphology Grade of
corrosion
1 The coating on the surface of steel structure falls off completely or fails completely, the surface of structural steel is Very serious
completely corroded, and the corrosion products of steel are powdering and falling off
2 The surface coating of steel structure falls off completely or fails completely, the corrosion products delaminate and Serious
fall off, so it is not suitable to continue service. Partial repair is required
3 If the surface coating of steel structure falls off or fails completely, and the surface of steel structure is covered with Relatively
corrosion products, effective anti-corrosion measures shall be taken serious
4 Large-area discoloration and peeling of steel structure surface coating, corrosion products at the bottom of the Medium
coating, anti-corrosion measures shall be taken
5 The surface coating of steel structure changes color and falls off in small area, so it can continue to serve Light
Note ➀ The corrosion degree increases according to the corrosion grade from large to small
➁ According to relevant standards and specific corrosion status of washing plant, the corrosion status is divided into five grades
in horizontal direction, so corrosion occurs at the supporting products with serious crevice corrosion. Most of beams are
beam of truss steel structure, the thickness of rust layer seriously corroded, the anti-corrosive layer is basically
reaches more than 3 mm, and the grade of corrosion is peeled off and separated, the corrosion product layer is
serious. As shown in Fig. 4.66e, the corrosion of transverse thick, peeled off, and warped, and black corrosion product
and vertical truss beams is mainly manifested in the overall exists under the corrosion product layer, and the
corrosion of I-beam, the rust layer is about 3 mm thick, the under-deposition corrosion is serious. The surface corrosion
rust layer is black, part of the rust layer has been peeled off, of vertical beam is relatively light.
and the corrosion is serious. As shown in Fig. 4.66f, the
truss steel structure is fully corroded and the surface coating 2) Monitoring and analysis of corrosive environment in
system completely fails and is covered by corrosion prod- plant
ucts. The corrosion product layer uplifts at the edge and
cracks are formed on the side, indicating that the corrosion The washing plant is faced with serious corrosion problem,
products have been delaminated. The corrosion layer is which has affected its normal production. In order to deter-
about 2 mm thick, the rust layer is black, and the corrosion mine the cause of corrosion, the investigation is carried out
of truss beam is serious. from the aspects of air temperature, humidity, water quality
The washing workshop is a six-floor steel structure fac- monitoring, vibration frequency, amplitude, and so on. The
tory building arranged in staggered layers. Its columns, monitoring results show the following:
girders, and auxiliary beams are connected by welding and
bolt to form an entire frame-type module. Under the action (1) The humidity in the workshop of the washing plant is
of corrosive medium and alternating load, it mainly suffers kept above 60%. The temperature of the steel surface is
from uniform corrosion, crevice corrosion, stress corrosion, lower than the air temperature, so a water film will be
and galvanic corrosion. In the field investigation, it can be formed on the surface of the steel structure, thus caus-
seen that uniform corrosion, crevice corrosion, and ing corrosion of the steel structure.
under-deposition corrosion under the corrosion product (2) SOx and NOx are found during the shutdown and
layer generally occur in the steel structure of the washing maintenance period of the washing plant and the cor-
workshop of the washing plant and the steel structure is rosive gas is dissolved in water, which will promote the
seriously corroded, and a few of the corrosion is very corrosion of the steel structure.
serious. Most bolts are very seriously corroded so that the (3) The results of water quality monitoring and analysis
bolts are basically exposed and the surfaces of the thread, show that the pH values of circulating water, supple-
the nuts, and the gaskets are covered with heavy corrosion mentary water, and dew are about 8.00, 7.55, and 7.95,
products. Inside the cracks formed by the bolts are corrosion and the content of HCO3−, Cl−, and SO42− ions exceeds
products, appearing obvious crevice corrosion. The welding the standard, promoting the corrosion of steel structure.
seam on the beam and hinge structure is very seriously (4) Due to the washing process of the washing plant, the
corroded, the anti-corrosive layer is basically separated, and facilities are all faced with vibration with the vibration
the welding surface is covered with heavy corrosion prod- frequency of 10–90 Hz. However, in the harsh corro-
ucts. The seams of hinge joints are filled with corrosion sive environment, the vibration during its normal
326 J. Zhang
operation will cause stress corrosion cracking of the reformed, and the coating system with high anti-corrosion
material. performance, anti-vibration performance, and cathodic pro-
tection performance is selected, and crevice seal protection is
3) Determination of environmental corrosion grade of strengthened for the bolt joints and joints of components
workshop where crevice corrosion easily occurs.
For the parts that are easy for maintenance, the thermal
The corrosive environment of the workshop of the washing spraying zinc and the epoxy sealing coat are selected as the
plant belongs to industrial atmospheric environment. protective bottom layer, the epoxy glass flake is used as the
According to the damage degree of corrosive medium to protective intermediate layer and the polyurethane coating is
building materials, i.e., appearance change, weight change, used as the protective surface layer to achieve the protective
strength loss, and corrosion rate, the corrosion grade can be effect. The joints shall be repaired with high permeability
divided into strong corrosion, relatively strong corrosion, coating, and the glass flake coating shall be sealed and
medium corrosion, weak corrosion, and no corrosion. The reinforced.
module steel structure of the washing plant is in the indus- For the parts that are not easy for maintenance, the
trial atmosphere corrosive environment with high humidity thermal spraying zinc and epoxy seal coating are selected as
for a long time, so the steel structure is seriously corroded. the protective bottom layer, the epoxy mica iron intermediate
According to Table 4.17 national standard Classification of paint is used as the protective intermediate layer, and the
Atmospheric Environmental Corrosion (GB/T 15957-1995) polyurethane coat is used as the protective surface layer to
and the analysis of the corrosive environment in the washing achieve the protective effect. The joint shall be repaired with
plant, it can be judged that the corrosion grade is the strong high permeability coating and the glass flake coating shall be
corrosion of grade VI. sealed and reinforced.
Because of the harsh corrosive environment of the
4) Corrosion and protection project for steel structure of washing plant, the steel structure of the workshop of the
plant washing plant needs anti-corrosion maintenance every
5 years. For the steel structure anti-corrosion project of the
According to the corrosion problems faced by the washing washing plant, the cost of the steel structure anti-corrosion
plant, the steel structure of the washing workshop is project is estimated to be about RMB 6.5 million, of which
Table 4.17 Technical indexes of corrosive environment types (GB/T 15957-1995)

Type of corrosion Corrosion rate/ Corrosive environment
Grade Name (mm/a) Types of ambient Annual average relative Atmospheric
gas humidity/% environment
I No corrosion <0.001 A <60 Rural atmosphere
II Weak corrosion 0.001–0.025 A 60–75 Rural atmosphere
B <60 Urban atmosphere
III Light corrosion 0.025–0.050 A >75 Rural atmosphere
B 60–75 Urban atmosphere
C <60 Industrial atmosphere
IV Medium corrosion 0.05–0.20 B >75 Urban atmosphere
C 60–75 Industrial atmosphere
D <60 Marine atmosphere
V Relatively strong 0.20–1.00 C >75 Industrial atmosphere
corrosion D 60–75
VI Strong corrosion 1–5 D >75 Industrial atmosphere
Note In special occasions and under the action of additional corrosion load, the corrosion type shall be upgraded, for example:
(a) Mechanical load:
(1) In areas with large wind sediment, the steel structure will be corroded due to wind-borne particles (sediment)
(2) A surface on a steel structure used for (a person or vehicle) to pass or with a heavy mechanical load that moves regularly
(b) There is often a case where moisture-absorbing substances are deposited on the surface of steel structure
RMB 2.26 million is used for the main material equipment Figure 4.67b shows the corrosion of the lower side of the
for the anti-corrosion project, and RMB 2.67 million is used crossbeam of the truss structure. It can be seen that the
for coating and material replacement. coating has basically failed, the corrosion products are all
over the lower side of the steel structure, and repainting
2. Case 2: Steel structure of a washing plant (II) in Inner marks can be seen on the left side. The repainting basically
Mongolia has no effect, and the grade of corrosion is medium. As
shown in Fig. 4.67c, the truss support beam is wet with
The workshop of the washing plant was completed in 2007, water for a long time and the weld corrosion is serious. The
and the anti-corrosion coating project was carried out when corrosion is mainly concentrated in the damaged place at the
it was completed. However, corrosion of large-area module corner of the I-beam. Once the complete protection system is
steel structure occurs in a short time, and the original damaged, corrosion products will accumulate rapidly and
anti-corrosion coating of steel structure has completely continue to damage the protective layer, so that the corrosion
failed. Corrosion of steel substrate occurs in large-area steel gradually spread to the surrounding. Part of the rust layer has
structure. The manufacturer introduces that the corrosion and been peeled off and the grade of corrosion is classified as
protection of steel structure shall be carried out by local serious. As shown in Fig. 4.67d, the corrosion grade of the
painting every year. This investigation analyzes the cause of welding seam of truss steel structure is classified as serious.
corrosion and determines the corrosion grade of the module The corrosion area is mainly concentrated on the welding
steel structure in the south area of the washing plant by seam and the stress concentration area around the welding
taking photos, temperature and humidity, corrosive gas, and seam, and the surface rust layer is reddish-brown. As shown
water quality analysis report, and analyzes the corrosion in Fig. 4.67e, the crevice corrosion at the joints of truss steel
protection engineering. structure is serious, and the grade of corrosion is relatively
serious. As shown in Fig. 4.67f, galvanic corrosion and
1) Corrosion of the steel structure of the workshop crevice corrosion occur at the bolt fasteners. The corrosion is
serious, and the grade of corrosion is classified as serious.
Through taking photos of the seriously corroded parts of the The workshop of the washing plant adopts the whole steel
steel structure and the parts to be protected, the corrosion structure. The columns, girders, and auxiliary beams are
status is shown in Fig. 4.67, and the corrosion grade of the connected by means of welding and bolt to form the stable
steel structure is rated according to Table 4.16. frame-type stable structure that bears the load of the structure
Figure 4.67a shows the corrosion of non-main and equipment of the entire plant. At the same time, when
load-bearing part of truss steel structure. The overall corro- the equipment works, it also bears the dynamic load pro-
sion condition is good, the corrosion is mainly concentrated duced by the equipment. Uniform corrosion, crevice corro-
on the upper and lower sides of the crossbeam and the steel sion, stress corrosion, and galvanic corrosion mainly occur
structure joints, and the corrosion is relatively serious. under the action of corrosive medium and alternating stress.
Fig. 4.67 Corrosion status of typical parts of the steel structure of workshop of a washing plant (II) in Inner Mongolia
328 J. Zhang
From the field investigation results, it can be seen that the production environment, coating with high anti-corrosion
large area of the module steel structure is corroded, the performance, anti-vibration performance, and cathodic pro-
original steel structure anti-corrosion coating has completely tection performance is designed and selected. Crevice seal
failed, and the large area of steel structure appears the steel protection is strengthened for the bolt joints and joints of
substrate corrosion. In particular, after the failure of the bolt, components where crevice corrosion easily occurs. Heat
welding, and joint coating, there is serious galvanic corro- spraying zinc/epoxy sealing coat, glass flake coating inter-
sion and crevice corrosion. mediate layer, and polyurethane coating protective surface
layer are used as coating protection system, or waterborne
2) Monitoring and analysis of corrosive environment in zinc-rich primer, epoxy mica iron intermediate paint, and
plant polyurethane coating are used as coating system for corro-
sion protection of steel structure according to different
In order to determine the corrosion reason for the steel maintenance parts. In addition, the bolts and the joints are
structure, the first layer of the steel structure is taken as the treated with the coating with good permeability and vinyl
research object, and the air temperature, humidity, and water glass flake coating, so as to achieve excellent anti-corrosion
quality are monitored. The monitoring results show the effect.
following: Because of the harsh corrosive environment of the
washing plant, the steel structure of the plant is subjected to
(1) The humidity of the workshop in the south part of the anti-corrosion maintenance every 5 years. For the steel
plant is kept above 60%, and the surface temperature of structure anti-corrosion project of the washing plant, the
the module steel structure in the south part of the anti-corrosion project is estimated to cost about RMB 3.31
washing plant is lower than the air temperature so that million, of which about RMB 1.1 million is for main
water in the air condenses on the surface of the steel materials and equipment for the anti-corrosion project and
body, resulting in corrosion. about RMB 1.3 million is used for coating and material
(2) In the monitoring of corrosive gas, sulfide, nitrides, CO, replacement.
CO2, and coal dust and other solid particles are found,
which have great influence on the atmospheric corro- 3. Case 3: Steel structure of a washing plant in Shaanxi
sion of metal. However, SO2 is hardly detected in the Province
monitoring result.
(3) In the water quality monitoring, the pH value of the The washing plant is in a modular structure, which belongs
washing plant is about 7.5, and a large amount of to the mixed structure of steel and concrete. The steel
chloride ions are detected, which has a great influence structure will interact with the water during the working and
on the corrosion of steel and is also the cause of pre- shutdown of the washing plant, so it is in a high-humidity
mature failure of the coating. environment so that the corrosion of the steel structure is
serious. This investigation analyzes the corrosion status of
3) Determination of environmental corrosion grade of the steel structure through field investigation on the module
workshop steel structure that has just been protected by the coating in
the south area.
The steel structure of the washing plant is in the industrial
atmosphere corrosive environment with high humidity for a 1) Corrosion status of steel structure of plant
long time so that the original protective coating fails in a
short period of time and the steel structure is seriously cor- We take photos and samples within 1 month after coating
roded. According to Table 4.17 national standard Classifi- protection for the washing plant. Figure 4.68 shows corro-
cation of Atmospheric Environmental Corrosion (GB/T sion status of typical parts. Then we analyze the corrosion
15957-1995) and the analysis of the corrosive environment status of steel structure of the washing plant, and classify the
in the washing plant, it can be judged that the corrosion grades of corrosion of different parts according to
grade is the strong corrosion of grade VI. Table 4.16.
As shown in Fig. 4.68a, at the site where the truss
4) Corrosion and protection project for steel structure of structure beam of the washing plant is eroded by water for a
plant long time, corrosion occurs 30 days after the coating is
newly applied. The coating is damaged due to the accumu-
According to the above corrosion status, the washing plant lation of corrosion products, and the grade of corrosion is
has carried out anti-corrosion work. Through the specific classified as medium. As shown in Fig. 4.68b, due to the
Fig. 4.68 Corrosion status of

different parts of newly painted
coating for 30 days in a washing
plant in Shaanxi Province
high humidity in the plant, water vapor condenses on the quality are monitored. The monitoring results show the
steel structure, the coating is damaged, the surface of the following:
steel structure is exposed, the corrosion expands rapidly, and
the corrosion degree is classified as medium. As shown in (1) The humidity of the plant is basically maintained above
Fig. 4.68c, the lower side of the truss structure crossbeam 60%, and the surface temperature of the module steel
has large corrosion products under the coating due to structure in the south area of the washing plant is lower
incomplete surface treatment or no surface treatment during than the air temperature so that water in the air con-
brushing, and the new brush coating basically has no denses on the steel body surface, causing corrosion.
anti-corrosion effect, and the corrosion grade is serious. As (2) In corrosive gas monitoring, sulfides, nitrides, CO, and
shown in Fig. 4.68d, due to incomplete surface treatment at CO2 are found and they all dissolve in water, acceler-
the beam welding joint, the new brush coating has little ating the corrosion of the metal.
corrosion resistance, and the corrosion grade is classified as (3) From the water quality analysis report of the washing
serious. plant, it can be seen that the pH value of the water
The washing plant adopts a modular structure, and quality of the washing plant is about 7.8, the corrosion
cement floor is added to each floor. The mixed structure of of steel is accelerated, and the corrosion is fast, which
steel structure and concrete has a relatively light corrosion leads to premature failure of the anti-corrosion coating.
compared with the steel structure of the above two washing In addition, the Cl− content is very high and is corrosive
plants. However, the anti-corrosion coating has failed within to steel, which is the reason for premature failure of
30 days, serious under-film corrosion has occurred in the anti-corrosion coating.
steel structure, especially in the long-term over-water places,
bolts, welding, joints, so the corrosion is still judged to be 3) Determination of environmental corrosion grade of plant
relatively serious.
The steel structure of the washing plant is in the industrial
2) Monitoring and analysis of corrosive environment in atmosphere corrosive environment with high humidity for a
plant long period of time. Part of the coating is invalid several
months after the new coating is applied. The steel structure is
In order to determine the corrosion reason for the steel corroded at the bolt and welding position. According to the
structure, the first layer of steel structure is taken as the national standard Classification of Atmospheric Environ-
research object, and the air temperature, humidity, and water mental Corrosion (GB/T 15957-1995), combined with
330 J. Zhang
environmental analysis of the washing plant and corrosion plant, the steel structure anti-corrosion project of the wash-
analysis of coal washing water to iron and steel, it can be ing plant is estimated to cost about RMB 3.58 million.
judged that the corrosion grade is strong corrosion of grade VI.
4. Case 4: Steel structure of a washing plant in Shanxi
4) Corrosion and protection project for steel structure of Province
plant
The south module steel structure of the washing plant was
According to the corrosion status of steel structure in normal built in 2004. According to the plant’s report, the plant has
temperature, high-humidity, weak-alkali, and corrosive started to carry out the protection of paint protective coating
environment containing a large amount of chloride ions, the since the plant was built, but in only 3 years, large area of
washing plant has carried out corrosion and protection of corrosion occurs, and the coating has completely failed.
steel structure. The correct coating system is selected to Bubbles, cracks, and peeling appear in the original coating.
ensure its high anti-corrosion performance and anti-vibration In this investigation, the corrosion causes are analyzed and
performance. In addition, sufficient surface treatment is corrosion grade of the module steel structure in the south
adopted to ensure that anti-corrosion performance is fully area of the washing plant is determined by taking photos,
played when the coating is applied. Crevice corrosion is easy temperature and humidity, corrosive gas, and water quality
to occur at the bolt and component joints, so the crevice analysis report, and the corrosion and protection conditions
sealing protection is strengthened to ensure that the service are analyzed.
life of these corroded weak parts shall not be lower than that
of the whole steel structure. For different protection parts, 1) Corrosion status of steel structure of plant
different protection systems are adopted. Zinc-rich paint
primer is selected in the easy-to-maintain parts so as to play We take photos and samples of the severely corroded parts
the function of electrochemical protection while giving play of the steel structure and the parts to be protected. Fig-
to the shielding performance. In the hard-to-maintain parts, ure 4.69 is the corrosion status of typical parts. According to
the comprehensive use of the thermal spraying zinc and the Table 4.16, the grades of corrosion of different parts of the
epoxy sealing coating can ensure that the anti-corrosion steel structure are classified.
bottom layer has strong adhesion and ensure the sealing The joint of truss steel structure in the washing plant is
property. The use of glass flake coating can play an excellent relatively simple, and the overall grade of corrosion is med-
shielding performance through its “labyrinth effect.” ium. As can be seen from Fig. 4.69a, corrosion mainly occurs
The steel structure of the plant is subjected to at the edge of I-beam, the coating is bubbling, the damage is
anti-corrosion maintenance every five years because of the relatively serious, and the rust layer is red-brown. As can be
harsh corrosive environment of the washing plant. In view of seen from Fig. 4.69b, the “l” surface of “I” steel structure has
the steel structure anti-corrosion project of the washing light corrosion, the surface coating falls off in a large area,
Fig. 4.69 Corrosion status of typical parts of steel structure of a washing plant in Shanxi Province
and there are corrosion products at the bottom and exposed quality are monitored. The monitoring results show the
surface of the coating, and the corrosion grade is classified as following:
medium. As can be seen from Fig. 4.69c, the corrosion of the
long-term water immersion area of the truss steel crossbeam a. The humidity of the plant is above 90% basically. The
is serious, the surface coating completely fails and falls off, higher the humidity, the easier the dew on the metal
the corrosion products are all over the steel structure surface, surface is and the longer the electrolyte film stays on the
and the corrosion layer is about 1 mm thick. The corrosion surface. As a result, the corrosion rate will increase
products are reddish-brown, and the corrosion grade is rela- accordingly.
tively serious. As can be seen from Fig. 4.69d, the surface of b. In corrosive gas monitoring, sulfides, nitrides, CO, and
the new painted vertical beam is bright and clean as a whole, CO2 are monitored, and the dissolution of these sub-
but yellow rust exists, coating bubbles and peel off, and the stances in water will increase the conductivity of the
corrosion grade is light. In comparison with the corrosion liquid and accelerate the corrosion of the metal.
status of the transverse and vertical surface of the newly c. It can be seen from the water quality analysis report of
painted beam (Fig. 4.69e), it is found that the vertical surface the washing plant that the pH value of the washing plant
coating is basically intact while the coating of the horizontal is about 7.65, and the content of Cl− is very high, which
surface is completely ineffective under the influence of dry– is greatly corrosive to steel. Therefore, the corrosion of
wet alternation due to the interaction of water and dust. There steel is fast, and the anti-corrosive coating is prematurely
is a layer of corrosion products on the surface, which has failed.
been basically peeled off. The thickness of the corrosion
product layer is about 1 mm, and the corrosion grade is 3) Determination of corrosion grade of steel structure
classified as relatively serious. As can be seen from
Fig. 4.69f, the corrosion grade of the welding seam of truss The plant has long been exposed to industrial atmospheric
steel structure is medium, and the corrosion is relatively corrosion with high humidity. The coating maintenance fails
serious. The corroded areas are mainly concentrated on the within a short period of time even though coating mainte-
welding seam and the stress concentration area around the nance is carried out annually. According to the national
welding seam. The bottom rust layer is black, and the surface standard Classification of Atmospheric Environmental Cor-
rust layer is reddish-brown. rosion (GB/T 15957-1995), combined with the analysis of
Under the action of corrosive medium, uniform corrosion, the corrosion environment in the washing plant, it can be
local corrosion, and crevice corrosion occur in the plant in judged that the corrosion grade is strong corrosion of
all-steel structure. However, due to the peeling of coating in grade VI.
some parts, galvanic corrosion occurs in the falling place.
Besides, stress corrosion occurs in the steel structure at the 4) Corrosion and protection project for steel structure of
same time for the alternating stress effect generated during plant
the operation of the washing plant. According to the on-site
corrosion investigation of steel structure, it is found that the The washing plant is in the environment of high temperature
overall corrosion of the washing plant is serious, and uni- and high humidity, and there is alternation of hot and cold,
form corrosion, crevice corrosion, and under-deposition dry and wet. The water contains a large amount of corrosive
corrosion generally occur. The steel structure is seriously media, which is destructive to the steel structure. Uniform
corroded, and a few parts of the corrosion are very serious. corrosion occurs in large area of steel structure, and corro-
The module steel structure is most seriously corroded at the sion is serious under anti-corrosion coating. The bolts,
bolt and welding place. Most of the bolts are corroded welding seams, and joints are weak links of the steel struc-
seriously, the coating on the bolt is not uniform, and cor- ture. After coating failure, there is serious galvanic corrosion
rosion occurs in a short period of time. The truss steel and crevice corrosion, which generally brings serious cor-
structure is immersed in water for a long time, so the coating rosion to these parts. The correct coating system shall be
fails completely and the corrosion is very serious. selected to ensure its high anti-corrosion performance and
anti-vibration performance. Sufficient surface treatment can
2) Monitoring and analysis of corrosive environment in ensure that the anti-corrosion performance of coating gives
plant full play. For the joints of bolts and the joints of components,
crevice corrosion is liable to occur, so the seam sealing
In order to determine the corrosion reason for the steel protection shall be strengthened to ensure that the service life
structure, the first layer of steel structure is taken as the of these weak parts shall not be lower than that of the whole
research object, and the air temperature, humidity, and water steel structure.
332 J. Zhang
5. Comprehensive analysis of cases analyzes the direct corrosion loss of coal industry through
(1) The four washing plants adopt module steel struc- the corrosion status, corrosion cost, and anti-corrosion
ture. The washing plants in cases 1, 2, and 4 are strategy data of coal industry.
made of full steel material, and the washing plant in This investigation carries out collection and statistics of
case 3 is made of steel material and concrete. data through literature research, data reference, telephone
Among the four washing plants, plant in case 1 is interview, e-mail contact, distribution of questionnaires, and
most seriously corroded, followed by case 2. In case field visits. According to the corrosion data, Hoar method is
3 and case 4, the corrosion degree is relatively light selected to analyze the corrosion loss.
due to the coating maintenance in case 3 and the
coating maintenance every year in case 4. However, 4.3.3.2 Statistical Analysis of Corrosion Loss Data
their overall corrosion degree is still serious. In of Coal Production Industry
addition, the surface treatment of bolts, welds, and In order to obtain the macroscopic corrosion analysis data of
some nodes in the four washing plants is difficult to coal industry, this report provides data support for selecting
deal with during the protection and maintenance, sample enterprises for evaluation of corrosion of coal
which easily causes the coating to fall off, so that the industry by statistics of collected data based on national coal
bolts, welds, and joints become the areas with the production and scale of coal enterprises. This report classifies
most serious corrosion. the sample enterprises into three types: large, medium, and
(2) In the environment of normal temperature and high small according to the production scale of the enterprises.
humidity with the alternation of hot and cold, dry Each type reflects the corrosion state of the whole coal pro-
and wet, and a large amount of corrosive medium in duction industry by selecting 10 typical enterprises. Hoar
the water quality, the steel structure of the four method is used to evaluate the corrosion of coal industry.
washing plants mainly suffers from uniform corro- Figure 4.70 is the evaluation process of corrosion loss.
sion, crevice corrosion, galvanic corrosion, and
stress corrosion. The corrosion is serious. According 1. Statistical analysis of the data of coal production
to Classification of Atmospheric Environmental industry
Corrosion (GB/T 15957-1995) and the analysis of
corrosive environment of four washing plants, it is Through the collection and collation of data, the investiga-
concluded that the environmental corrosion of four tion has carried out statistical analysis on the output, enter-
washing plants is strong corrosion of grade VI. prise scale, and accidents of the coal industry, and explains
(3) Different types of corrosion occur in the four the current state of the coal industry. According to these
washing plants in the corrosive environment. data, some problems and status of corrosion of the coal
According to these corrosion conditions, the coating industry are reflected.
maintenance and the gap sealing treatment of the
steel structure connection are mainly carried out in 1) Output and enterprise scale of coal industry
order to achieve excellent protection effect.
According to China Coal Industry Yearbook from 2011 to
2013, the output of raw coal in China is 3.62 billion tons,
4.3.3 Evaluation of Corrosion in the Coal
3.66 billion tons, and 3.7 billion tons, respectively, with
Production Industry
slow increase in output. As shown in Fig. 4.71, the increase
in coal output shows that the workload of coal mining and
4.3.3.1 Brief Introduction to Analysis Method
washing processes increases year by year, which makes it
of Corrosion Loss
more likely to cause corrosion of coal facilities. If more
The corrosion losses include direct losses and indirect losses.
excellent anti-corrosion scheme design is not carried out or
At present, there are three analysis methods of corrosion
more corrosion-resistant materials are not put into use, it will
loss: Uhlig method calculating the cost of corrosion pro-
inevitably cause further corrosion of facilities in coal
tection from production and manufacturing; Hoar method
industry, thus causing huge economic loss and waste of
calculating from the sum of corrosion loss and cost of cor-
resources, which is not conducive to the sustainable devel-
rosion protection of each use area; and Battelle method using
opment of society.
the input/output matrix method for statistics according to the
According to China Coal Industry Yearbook 2013 [43],
enterprise production association table.
there were 7,501 coal mines with coal production of less
In the coal industry, the personal safety problem caused
than 90,000 tons in China by 2013 as shown in Fig. 4.72,
by corrosion is very prominent, and the indirect losses of
accounting for 57% of the country’s coal mines. However,
corrosion are incalculable. This investigation mainly
Fig. 4.70 Evaluation process of corrosion of coal industry
the production capacity is just 424 million tons, only As can be seen from Fig. 4.74, the mortality ratio
accounting for 12%, but accidents account for about 70%. between large and small coal provinces varies widely. Since
As shown in Fig. 4.73, there are 672 mines in Chongqing, of the corrosion of facilities in coal industry is one of the factors
which 5 mines are over 0.9 million tons, 5 mines are 0.45– that cause coal incidents, it can be seen that large coal
0.9 million tons, and 662 mines below 0.45 million tons. provinces or large coal mining enterprises pay more atten-
There are 273 mines in Gansu, of which 23 are more than tion to accidents (including corrosion factors) and adopt
1.2 million tons, 19 are from 0.3 to 1.2 million tons, and 231 more protection and safety measures with better protective
are less than 0.3 million tons. effect.
2) Accidents in the coal industry 3) Summary and analysis of statistical data of coal industry
According to China Coal Industry Yearbook 2013, we have China’s small- and medium-sized coal enterprises still
checked the output of the major coal-producing provinces occupy a large proportion, and their accidents are more
(cities) in China and the accidents of each province, as harmful. According to the General Office of the State
shown in Table 4.18. Council’s Opinions on Further Strengthening the Safety
According to Table 4.18, we regard the province with Production of Coal, China will make efforts to raise the
annual output of more than 100 million tons as the large coal entry threshold of coal mines and carry out renovation and
province, the province with annual output of 50 million to rectification work for small-sized coal mining enterprises.
100 million tons as the medium coal province, and province The coal enterprises in China are not perfect in management
with annual output of below 50 million tons as the small coal and facility protection, so the great direct and indirect losses
province. Their mortality ratio per million tons of output is caused by corrosion have become one of the serious prob-
calculated separately, as shown in Fig. 4.74. lems that need to be solved in the coal industry in China.
334 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.71 Coal output from 2011 to 2013
Fig. 4.72 Proportion of coal mines less than 90,000 tons in China in 2013
2. Statistical analysis of production cost and output data enterprises, industrial societies and associations, as well as
of typical enterprises questionnaires, telephone interviews, and visits to relevant
professors and scholars in the coal industry. Due to the dif-
In this investigation, the data about output, production cost, ferent scales of coal industry enterprises, the ratio of corro-
as well as anti-corrosion input (safety cost, maintenance and sion loss to output value is different. In order to ensure the
roadway cost, maintenance cost, depreciation cost) of some validity of the analysis results, according to division standard
typical enterprise are obtained through collected data from of production scale of coal enterprises in Chongqing area in
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.73 Mine scale distribution in Chongqing and Gansu a Chongqing; b Gansu
Table 4.18 Output and accidents of major coal-producing provinces (cities) in China in 2013
Province/city Chongqing Shanxi Hebei Heilongjiang Jiangsu Anhui Jiangxi Shandong Fujian Hubei Henan Sichuan Guizhou Yunnan Shaanxi
Output/billion t 0.02 9.14 2.00 0.90 0.24 1.47 0.27 1.45 0.19 0.13 1.51 0.65 1.81 1.08 0.49
Number 105 83 38 81 3 35 30 29 10 42 12 200 117 73 48
of deaths
Fig. 4.74 Mortality ratio per million tons of coal output in 2013
336 J. Zhang
China Coal Industry Yearbook 2013, we classify the enter- Depreciation cost, maintenance cost, and safety cost reflect the
prises as follows: enterprises of over 0.9 million t/a are equipment corrosion condition to a large extent. According to
large-sized coal enterprises of which 0.45–0.9 million t/a are the above enterprise information, the depreciation cost,
medium-sized coal enterprises and below 0.45 million t/a are maintenance cost safety cost, and maintenance and roadway
small-sized coal enterprises. 10 typical enterprises are fees of large-, medium-, and small-sized enterprises are
selected for statistical analysis of data. What needs to be compared and analyzed. The results are shown in Fig. 4.75.
explained is that the selected enterprise production includes According to the comparison of the production cost input
two production processes: coal production and coal washing. of the three types of enterprises, it can be seen that there is
little difference between the three types of enterprises in the
1) Statistics of corrosion-related data of typical enterprises input of maintenance cost, maintenance and roadway fees,
in 2015 and depreciation cost. However, the output of the three types
of enterprises is very different, so we can see that the input of
Tables 4.19, 4.20, and 4.21 show annual output and maintenance cost, maintenance and roadway fees, and
anti-corrosion cost of large-, medium-, and small-sized coal depreciation cost of small-sized coal enterprises occupy a
enterprises in 2015. large proportion of their output value. Although the corro-
sion of facilities in coal enterprises is not the only factor
2) Relationship between production-scale and causing these costs, it can also show to some extent that the
corrosion-related data economic losses caused by corrosion in small-sized coal
Table 4.19 Relevant data of large enterprises (output of over 0.9 million t/a) (2015)
Cost Enterprise Total/average
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output/million tons 3400 2200 1840 1800 1500 600 300 240 240 100 12,220/1222
Maintenance coast (RMB/t) 13.8 6.1 9.8 6.9 5.9 13.3 8.7 11.3 11.0 3.3 90.1/9.0
Maintenance and roadway fees/ 9.5 8.5 8.0 10.5 8.5 8.5 10.5 8.5 10.5 8.5 91.5/9.2
(RMB/t)
Safety cost/(RMB/t) 5.0 5.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 30.0 15.0 15.0 30.0 30.0 175.0/17.5
Depreciation cost/(RMB/t) 9.2 4.6 27.6 15.9 10.7 20.6 10.8 15.8 20.4 15.8 151.4/15.1
Table 4.20 Relevant data of medium-sized enterprises (output of 0.45–0.9 million t/a) (2015)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output/million tons 90 90 90 90 90 84 81 75 72 46 808/80.8
(RMB/t)
Safety cost/(RMB/t) 30.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 5.0 15.0 30.0 30.0 5.0 15.0 175.0/17.5
Table 4.21 Relevant data of small-sized enterprises (output of below 0.45 million t/a) (2015)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output/million tons 45 42 40 40 33 30 30 30 30 21 341/34.1
(RMB/t)
Safety cost/(RMB/t) 15.0 70.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 5.0 33.0 30.0 30.0 15.0 288.0/28.8
Fig. 4.75 Relationship between three production-scale enterprises and corrosion-related production costs (2015)
mines are relatively larger. Through the comparison of three The sum of product of the maintenance cost, maintenance
types of enterprises’ safety cost input, it can be seen that the and roadway fees, safety cost and depreciation cost of the
safety production cost of small-sized coal mines is higher three types of enterprises (large-, medium-, and small-sized
due to the neglect of management and the backwardness of enterprises), and the annual output is calculated, respectively.
production equipment and technology. The problems caused
by corrosion faced by small-sized coal mines are also more (1) Sum of product of the maintenance cost of the three
severe. types of enterprises and the annual output:
nX
¼10
3. Calculation of economic losses caused by corrosion in
LL1 ¼ lLi wLi ð4:4Þ
coal production industry by Hoar method
i¼1
The annual output of 30 typical enterprises of the above- nX

¼10
mentioned three scales and the maintenance cost related to LM1 ¼ lMi wMi ð4:5Þ
i¼1
corrosion, maintenance and roadway fees, safety cost, and
depreciation cost are listed in Tables 4.19, 4.20, and 4.21. nX
¼10
The maintenance cost, maintenance and roadway fees, safety LS1 ¼ lSi wSi ð4:6Þ
cost, and depreciation cost are not only caused by corrosion, i¼1
so the correlation between them and corrosion is analyzed.
where, wLi, wMi, and wSi are the annual output of the ith
enterprise of large-, medium-, and small-sized enterprises,
1) Calculation method of economic losses caused by cor-
respectively;
rosion in coal industry
338 J. Zhang
lLi, lMi, and lSi are the annual maintenance cost (i = 1, 2, (4) Sum of product of depreciation cost of three types of
3, …, 10) of the ith enterprise of large-, medium-, and enterprises and their annual output:
small-sized enterprises.
LL1, LM1, and LS1 are the sum of product of maintenance
costs and their output of 10 large-, medium-, and small-sized
nX
¼10
enterprises, respectively.
LL4 ¼ lLi wLi ð4:13Þ
i¼1
(2) Sum of product of maintenance and roadway fees of
three types of enterprises and their annual output: nX
¼10
LM4 ¼ lMi wMi ð4:14Þ
nX
¼10 i¼1
LL2 ¼ lLi wLi ð4:7Þ nX

¼10
i¼1
LS4 ¼ lSi wSi ð4:15Þ
nX
¼10 i¼1
LM2 ¼ lMi wMi ð4:8Þ

where wLi, wMi, and wSi are the annual output of the ith
i¼1
enterprise of large-, medium-, and small-sized enterprises,
nX
¼10 respectively;
LS2 ¼ lSi wSi ð4:9Þ lLi, lMi, and lSi are the annual depreciation cost (i = 1, 2,
i¼1 3, …, 10) of the ith enterprise of large-, medium-, and
where, wLi, wMi, and wSi are the annual output of the ith small-sized enterprises.
enterprise of large-, medium-, and small-sized enterprises, LL1, LM1, and LS1 are the sum of product of depreciation
respectively; cost and their output of 10 large-, medium-, and small-sized
lLi, lMi, and lSi are the annual maintenance and roadway enterprises, respectively.
fees (i = 1, 2, 3, …, 10) of the ith enterprise of large-,
medium-, and small-sized enterprises. (5) 30 coal enterprises:
LL1, LM1, and LS1 are the sum of product of maintenance
and roadway fees and their output of 10 large-, medium-, maintenance cost L1 = LL1 + LM1 + LS1
and small-sized enterprises, respectively. maintenance and roadway fees L2 = LL2 + LM2 + LS2
safety cost L3 = LL3 + LM3 + LS3
(3) Sum of product of safety cost of three types of enter- depreciation cost L4 = LL4 + LM4 + LS4
prises and their annual output:
where L1, L2, L3, and L4 are the sum of product of the
nX
¼10 maintenance cost, maintenance and roadway fees, safety
LL3 ¼ lLi wLi ð4:10Þ cost, and depreciation cost of 30 enterprises and their
i¼1 annual output, respectively.
According to the statistics of the coal mine safety net-
nX
¼10
LM3 ¼ lMi wMi ð4:11Þ work, in 2013, there were 48 safety production accidents in
i¼1 coal mines in China, including 24 gas accidents, 11 water
accidents, 6 roof accidents and 3 transportation accidents, 2
nX
¼10 fire accidents, and 2 other accidents. According to the safety
LS3 ¼ lSi wSi ð4:12Þ accident analysis, gas and water accidents account for 73%
i¼1
of the total accidents, which are the biggest culprits in pro-
where wLi, wMi, and wSi are the annual output of the ith duction safety. Corrosion may occur in every production link
enterprise of large-, medium-, and small-sized enterprises, because of the harsh corrosive environment of coal enter-
respectively; prises. Therefore, the proportion of temporary maintenance
lLi, lMi, and lSi are the annual safety cost (i = 1, 2, 3, …, cost used for corrosion protection in this investigation is
10) of the ith enterprise of large-, medium-, and small-sized about 70%, the proportion of maintenance and roadway fees
enterprises. used for corrosion protection is about 50%, the proportion of
LL1, LM1, and LS1 are the sum of product of safety cost safety cost is about 30%, and that of depreciation cost is
and their output of 10 large-, medium-, and small-sized about 60% so as to carry out statistical analysis of corrosion
enterprises, respectively. loss in coal industry.
The calculation of the cost Y0 caused by corrosion loss in the sum of safety cost, and the sum of depreciation cost of 30
30 coal enterprises is as follows: enterprises are as follows:
Sum of maintenance cost: L1 = LL1 + LM1 + LS1
Y0 ¼ L1 0:7 þ L2 0:5 þ L3 0:3 þ L4 0:6 ð4:16Þ = 115,914 + 7,103 + 3,597 = 126,596 (RMB 10,000)
The economic loss caused by corrosion of the coal Sum of maintenance and roadway fees: L2 = LL2 +
industry is Y1 (RMB) LM2 + LS2
= 111,030 + 6,972 + 3,586 = 121,588 (RMB 10,000)
Y0 Sum of safety cost: L3 = LL3 + LM3 + LS3
Y1 ¼ Wt ð4:17Þ
W0 = 141,400 + 13,628 + 10,260 = 165,288 (RMB 10,000)
Sum of depreciation cost: L4 = LL4 + LM4 + LS4
where Wt is the total output of 30 coal enterprises (tons); W0
= 162,722 + 10,731 + 4,965 = 178,418 (RMB 10,000)
is the total output of the coal industry in 2015 (tons).
From Formula (4.16), the cost due to corrosion loss of 30
Then, from the coal price of 490 RMB/t in 2015, the total
coal enterprises in 2015 is
income of the coal industry in 2015 is YAll = W0 490.
Therefore, the proportion of economic loss caused by cor- Y0 ¼ L1 0:7 þ L2 0:5 þ L3 0:3 þ L4 0:6
rosion in the coal industry in 2015 is as follows: ¼ 126;596 0:7 þ 121;588 0:5 þ 165;288 0:3 þ 178;418 0:6
¼ 88;617 þ 60;794 þ 49;586 þ 107;051 ¼ 306;048ðRMB 10;000Þ
Y1
Z¼ 100% ð4:18Þ ¼ 3060:48 million RMB
YAll
From the formulas (4.4) to (4.18), the economic loss In 2015, the coal output Wt was 3.7 billion tons (China
caused by corrosion of the coal industry can be calculated. Coal Resources Network), and the total output of 30 coal
enterprises Wt = 12,220 + 808 + 341 = 133.69 million
2) Calculation process tons. According to Formula (4.17), the corrosion eco-
nomic loss of the coal industry in 2015 was RMB Y1
From the data in Tables 4.19, 4.20, and 4.21, the mainte- million.
nance cost, maintenance and roadway fees, safety cost, and
Y0 3060:48 million RMB
depreciation cost of 30 coal enterprises in 2015 can be cal- Y1 ¼ Wt ¼ 3:7 billion t
culated by the above formulas, as shown in Tables 4.22, W0 133:69 million t
¼ 84:7 billion RMB
4.23, and 4.24.
According to the formulas (4.4)–(4.15), the sum of Average selling price of raw coal in 2015 was RMB
maintenance cost, the sum of maintenance and roadway fees, 490/ton; raw coal output was 3.7 billion tons, and the total
Table 4.22 Production cost related to corrosion of large coal enterprises (output of over 0.9 million t/a)
Cost Enterprise Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output/million tons 3,400 2,200 1,840 1,800 1,500 600 300 240 240 100 12,220
Maintenance 46,920 13,420 18,032 12,420 8,850 7,980 2,610 2,712 2,640 330 115,914
cost/RMB 10,000
Maintenance and 32,300 18,700 14,720 18,900 12,750 5,100 3,150 2,040 2,520 850 111,030
roadway fees/RMB
10,000
Safety cost/RMB 17,000 11,000 27,600 27,000 22,500 18,000 4,500 3,600 7,200 3,000 141,400
10,000
Depreciation 31,280 10,120 50,784 28,620 16,050 12,360 3,240 3,792 4,896 1,580 162,722
cost/RMB 10,000
340 J. Zhang
Table 4.23 Production cost related to corrosion of medium-sized coal enterprises (output of 0.45–0.9 million t/a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output/million tons 90 90 90 90 90 84 81 75 72 46 808
Maintenance cost/RMB 10,000 585 630 1,890 657 225 118 1,126 1,103 576 193 7,103
Maintenance and roadway 945 765 765 945 765 798 689 638 626 36 6,972
fees/RMB
Safety cost/RMB 10,000 2,700 1,350 1,350 1,350 450 1,260 2430 2,250 360 128 13,628
Depreciation cost/RMB 10,000 1,359 1,152 1,548 1,341 1,530 218 1,126 1,170 1,123 164 10,731
Table 4.24 Production cost related to corrosion of small-sized coal enterprises (output of below 0.45 million t/a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output/million tons 45 42 40 40 33 30 30 30 30 21 341
Maintenance cost/RMB 10,000 990 567 356 168 168 120 525 465 81 139 3,579
Maintenance and roadway fees/RMB 473 357 348 420 287 261 450 495 315 179 3,586
Safety cost/RMB 10,000 675 2,940 1,200 1,200 990 150 990 900 900 315 10,260
Depreciation cost/RMB 10,000 1,337 601 524 384 383 264 477 570 198 225 4,965
output value of coal industry in 2015 can be calculated as 4.3.4 Questionnaire on Corrosion in the Coal
follows: YAll = 490 37 = RMB 1.813 trillion. Production Industry
According to Formula (4.18), the proportion that eco-
nomic loss caused by corrosion in the coal industry in 2015 4.3.4.1 Analysis of the Investigation
occupies the whole industry is Questionnaire
In view of the corrosion of coal industry, we have distributed
Y1 84:7 100 questionnaires, and finally recovered 34 valid ques-
Z¼ 100% ¼ 100% ¼ 4:7%
YAll 1813 tionnaires. According to the results of the collected ques-
tionnaires, each enterprise has an objective evaluation of the
corrosion loss of their own enterprises. 40% of enterprises
3) Analysis of corrosion evaluation result in coal industry think that the corrosion is light, 24% of enterprises think that
it is general, 33% of enterprises think that the corrosion is
Because of the harsh corrosive environment of the coal serious, and 3% of enterprises think that it is very serious.
industry, the coal enterprises inevitably face the serious It can be seen from the collected questionnaires that most
problems brought by the corrosion. According to the Hoar enterprises have already realized the economic loss caused
method, the economic loss due to corrosion in the coal by corrosion to a certain extent, but the anti-corrosion
industry in 2015 was about RMB 84.7 billion, accounting measures and management have not been improved, so the
for 4.7% of the total output value of the coal industry in economic losses caused by corrosion still exist. The whole
2015. The direct economic loss of coal caused by corrosion industrial chain should actively exchange and cooperate to
is huge, and the damage to social effect and environmental minimize the economic losses caused by corrosion in China.
benefit can’t be estimated. Therefore, it is of great signifi-
cance for the coal industry to operate safely and normally to 4.3.4.2 Analysis of Questionnaire on Corrosion
improve the anti-corrosion capability of coal industry and of Typical Enterprise
reduce the economic losses caused by corrosion. We have selected a typical coal production enterprise from
the survey questionnaire. It can be directly seen from the
relevant survey data that the annual total output value of the protection technology is still unreasonable, thus making
coal enterprise in 2015 was RMB 150 million. According to the corrosion problem of coal production more severe.
the calculation method of economic losses caused by cor- The direct and indirect losses of corrosion are high. In
rosion of the coal industry in 4.2.3, the economic losses terms of enterprise scale, compared with large enter-
caused by corrosion in 2015 were RMB 11.73 million, prises, small- and medium-sized enterprises suffer from
accounting for 7.8% of the total output value of the enter- more serious corrosion and greater corrosion loss due to
prise. This far exceeds the average level of economic losses their lack of management, lack of technology, and rel-
caused by corrosion in the coal industry in 2015 (4.7%). The atively little investment in corrosion.
analysis shows that the enterprise was put into production in (3) The coal production industry should pay more atten-
1983 and belongs to the small-sized coal production enter- tion to corrosion. We should strengthen the basic
prise. The production facilities are seriously corroded, and research on material corrosion, protection failure, and
the production cost related to corrosion is high. protection technology in the harsh corrosion environ-
ment of coal production, increase the input in corro-
sion protection of production facilities, enhance the
4.3.5 Conclusions anti-corrosion grade of facilities, pay attention to the
whole life cycle cost of the facilities, and strengthen
the standardization construction and management
(1) Coal, as a kind of traditional energy, accounts for more related to corrosion, which is the most important for
than 70% of primary energy production. In 2012–2015, the coal production industry to reduce the corrosion
the coal output was 3.65 billion–3.7 billion t/a. The coal loss and ensure the sustainable development and safe
industry is still an important energy industry and plays operation.
an important role in the national economy in China.
Based on the corrosion investigation of coal production
enterprises of different production scales, this report
follows Hoar method to carry out statistical analysis of 4.4 Report on the Corrosion Investigation
production cost related to corrosion. The cost of direct of Power Grid
corrosion loss in the coal production industry in 2015
was about RMB 84.7 billion, accounting for 4.7% of 4.4.1 Basic Situation
the total output value of the industry, which is extre-
mely considerable. The direct economic loss caused by Power grid usually refers to the unified whole composed of
corrosion in coal production is enormous. Besides, the power transmission, transformation, distribution equipment,
indirect losses of corrosion, such as safety accidents and corresponding secondary system for connecting elec-
caused by corrosion, can’t be predicted. In particular, tricity generation with electricity utilization. The modern
the corrosion cost and safety accidents of small- and power grid is the most complex and largest man-made sys-
medium-sized enterprise are more serious. Thus, we tem and energy transmission network in the world. Power
must attach great importance to improving the ability of grid is the important foundation and guarantee of modern
coal production industry to resist corrosion risk. economic development and social progress.
(2) The coal production facilities are in the harsh corrosive Since the reform and opening-up, China’s power grid
environment of high humidity (high temperature), high construction has been accelerated, the technology of the
sulfur, acid, alkali and salt, and the production facilities power grid has been broken through, the resource alloca-
are seriously corroded. At present, the basic research tion capability has been obviously enhanced, and the secu-
work of material corrosion and protection failure for the rity, reliability, and economy have been continuously
harsh corrosive environment of coal production is not improved.
enough. The anti-corrosion technologies are usually
coating protection, electrochemical protection, and 1) Continuous and rapid expansion of power grid
improvement of working environment, which is not
advanced enough and short in protection period. In China’s rapid economic and social development leads to a
order to control the production cost to achieve sustained increase in power demand. The power consump-
short-term economic benefits, although the enterprise tion of the whole society reached 4.2 trillion kW h in 2010,
pays more attention to the corrosion problem, the which is 14.0 times as high as that in 1980. The scale of
selection of the anti-corrosion materials and the power generation installation is going up to a new level
342 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.76 Increase of installed power–power generation and electricity consumption of the whole society in China
Fig. 4.77 Scale growth of power grid of 220 kV and above in China
Fig. 4.78 Transmission voltage class development in China since the founding of People’s Republic of China
344 J. Zhang
(Fig. 4.76). The total installed power–power generation 4.4.2 Main Equipment, Facilities, and Buildings
exceeded 100 million kW in China in 1987, 300 million kW (Structures) for Power Transmission
in 2000, 500 million kW in 2005, and 1 billion kW in 2011. and Transformation
By the end of 2014, the installed power–power generation
has reached 1.37 billion kW. In 2014, the power consump- 4.4.2.1 Transmission Line
tion of the whole society reached 5.56 trillion kW h. Overhead transmission line is power line in which bare
In order to meet the needs of large-scale centralized conductors are placed in the air with insulators and poles.
production of power supply and increase of electrical load, Compared with the power cable line, the overhead trans-
the scale of China’s power grid is continuously expanded. mission line has the advantages of low construction cost,
By the end of 2014, the transmission line loop length of short construction period, convenient operation, and main-
35 kV and above was 1.6285 million km, and the trans- tenance, so it is the main transmission mode adopted by the
former capacity was 5.267 billion kV A, 5.8 times and 33.8 electric power industry. A transmission line is usually
times as high as 1980; the transmission line loop length of referred to as an overhead transmission line. The electric
220 kV and above was 0.5776 million km, and the trans- power network is formed by connecting power stations,
former capacity was 3.092 billion kV A, 19.3 times and 88.4 substations, and load points in different regions through
times as high as 1980 (Fig. 4.77). overhead transmission lines of different voltage classes to
transmit or transform electric energy. Lines with voltage
2) Continuous improvement of the transmission voltage class below 110 kV belong to distribution lines. Overhead
class transmission lines are mainly composed of towers, tower
foundations, conductors, ground wires, insulators, parts,
In order to meet the requirements of resource optimization, grounding devices, and auxiliary facilities.
the transmission voltage class in China is continuously
improved (Fig. 4.78), and the highest transmission voltage is 1. Transmission tower
increased from 220 kV in the initial period of the People’s
Republic of China to 1000 kV at present. With the contin- A transmission tower is a structure that supports conductors,
uous development of power grid construction, the function overhead ground lines, and other accessories in an overhead
positioning of power grid at all classes is gradually clear, and transmission line. There are five classification methods for
the class of voltage becomes more and more unified and tower. According to the main structure of tower, it is divided
reasonable. At present, there are 110 kV (66 kV), 220 kV, into tower and pole; according to the function of tower in
500 kV (330 kV), 750 kV, 1000 kV AC and ±500 kV, transmission line, it can be divided into hanging tower and
±660 kV, and ±800 kV DC standard transmission voltage tension tower. It can be divided into single-loop tower,
sequence in China’s power grid, and the class of ±1100 kV double-loop tower, and multi-loop tower according to the
DC transmission voltage is being studied. number of loops of tower supporting conductor. According
to whether the tower has a cable or not, it is divided into a
3) Great improvement of power supply reliability tower with cable and a self-standing tower; it is divided into
AC line tower and DC line tower according to the voltage
By speeding up the construction and transformation of the and current mode of power transmission by wire. The
urban and rural power grid, the power supply capacity of common tower types include wooden pole, reinforced con-
China’s power grid is significantly enhanced, and the power crete pole, steel pipe pole, portal tower, cable-pulled “V”
supply reliability is greatly improved. In 2014, the whole tower, wine cup tower, cathead tower, “干” tower, “上”
country average power supply reliability rate reached tower, drum tower, umbrella tower, compact tower, etc. Due
99.940%, and the average outage time of users was 5.22 h. to the different specific conditions of different countries,
The average power supply reliability rate of urban users was there are differences in the tower types. China’s high-voltage
99.971%, and the average outage time was 2.59 h; the transmission lines are multipurpose iron towers.
average power supply reliability rate of rural users is
99.935%, and the average outage time was 5.72 h [44]. 2. Tower foundation
In addition, the national networking pattern has basically
taken shape, the technology level of the power grid has been Tower foundation is a structure placed in the foundation to
broken through, and the cross-regional transmission capacity transfer loads of tower to the foundation. Tower foundation
has been continuously enhanced. is usually in concrete, reinforced concrete, steel, steel
concrete, and other structures. According to the engineering during operation, resulting in decrease in electrical conduc-
needs, the tower foundation is made into a variety of tivity. Thus, where there are many high-voltage distribution
structural forms. The common forms of overhead transmis- lines, aluminum stranded wires are generally not used for
sion lines in China include cast in situ foundation, fabricated transmission lines. Steel is high in mechanical strength, but
foundation, pile foundation, rock foundation, chassis, chuck, poor in electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance, so it
and cable tray foundation. According to the construction is generally used only as a ground wire or stay wire, not as a
method, it is generally classified into excavation and back- conductor. The electrical conductivity of aluminum is good
filling foundation, excavation foundation, rock foundation, and the mechanical strength of steel is high. Thus, there are a
bored pile foundation, driven pile foundation, chassis, chuck few steel wires inside the conductor to bear tensile force and
and cable tray foundation, and other special types of outside are multistrand aluminum wires to conduct current.
foundation. Due to the skin effect of the current, the current mainly
passes through the outer layer of the conductor, which fully
3. Conductors and ground wires utilizes the advantages of aluminum and steel to complement
each other and cooperate with each other. At present, almost
The conductor is a metal wire fixed on the tower for trans- all overhead transmission lines adopt steel-cored aluminum
porting electric energy and is an important part of the stranded wires. Ground wires, as good conductor ground
overhead transmission line. The main functions of the con- wires and carrier channels, also use steel-cored aluminum
ductor are as follows: ➀ conducting current and transmitting stranded wires. The advantage of stranded wires is that it is
electric energy; ➁ hanging the conductor with heavyweight easy to bend. The adjacent two layers of stranded wires are
on the tower or frame through the insulator as catenary. In twisted in opposite directions. On the one hand, it is not easy
general, bare conductors are used for transmission lines, one to reverse the rigid strands. On the other hand, the distance
for each phase. For ultra (extra) high-voltage and between each layer of stranded wires is large, and the wire
high-capacity transmission lines, in order to reduce corona diameter is increased, which is beneficial to reducing the
loss and corona interference and improve power transmis- corona loss. The steel-cored aluminum stranded wire is
sion capability, split conductors composed of two or more characterized by a large flow capacity which depends on the
conductors are often used. The split conductors can transmit size of the cross section of the aluminum strand, and large
larger electric energy, and the electric energy loss is less with allowable tensile force that depends on the size of the cross
good anti-vibration performance. The arrangement of the section of steel core. In addition to the normal type of
conductors on the tower varies according to the number of steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, there are two types:
loop. For single-loop lines, “上” shaped, triangle, or hori- mitigation type and reinforced type.
zontal arrangement can be adopted. For double-loop lines, At present, the types of conductors mainly include
umbrella-shaped, inverted-umbrella-shaped, “干”-shaped, or steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, steel-cored soft alu-
hexagonal arrangement can be used. minum stranded wire, (super, extra) high-strength steel-
During their operation, conductors bear the tensile force cored aluminum stranded wire, aluminum clad steel-cored
all the year-round and are affected by the wind, ice, rain, aluminum stranded wire, steel-cored aluminum clad steel
snow and temperature changes, as well as the abrasion of stranded wire, aluminum alloy stranded wire, steel-cored
chemical impurities contained in the atmosphere. Therefore, (heat-resistant) aluminum alloy stranded wire, heat-resistant
the material used for conductors should have good electrical aluminum alloy stranded wire, expanded diameter conduc-
conductivity, sufficient mechanical strength, and strong tor, carbon fiber-cored aluminum stranded wire, aluminum
resistance to vibration fatigue and atmospheric corrosion. base ceramic fiber-cored aluminum stranded wire, etc.
Copper is a good conductive metal and corrosion-resistant,
but it is large in specific gravity and high in price, and 4. Insulators
mechanical strength can’t meet the requirements of a large
span. Therefore, the current transmission lines don’t use An insulator is an element that supports or suspends a
copper conductors. The conductivity of aluminum is lower conductor and forms electrical insulation between the tower
than that of copper, but its specific gravity is small and its and the conductor. In the transmission line, the insulator
price is low. Under the condition of equal resistance value, insulates the tower from the conductor and ensures that the
the quality of aluminum conductor is only about half of that line has reliable electrical insulation strength, and is used to
of copper conductor. Therefore, metallic aluminum is an fix the conductor and bear the vertical load and the hori-
ideal candidate for use as a conductive line material. How- zontal load of the conductor. Therefore, the insulator should
ever, the mechanical strength of aluminum is relatively low, not only meet the requirements of electrical performance but
and a dense oxidation film will be formed on the surface also meet the requirements of mechanical strength. The high-
346 J. Zhang
voltage transmission line generally uses the disk-shaped

suspension insulator to form the string combination and
some lines also use the rod-shaped insulator. Pin insulators
are used for transmission lines with low voltage. The insu-
lator string includes two types, namely, the suspension
insulator string and the tensile insulator string. The former is
used on the linear tower, and the latter is used on the tension
tower or the rotation angle and terminal tower.
There are many kinds and shapes of insulators. Although
the shapes and structures of different insulators are quite
different, they are composed of two parts: insulating parts Fig. 4.79 Aerial view of a 1000 kV substation
and connecting parts. According to different installation
methods, insulators can be divided into suspension insulators
and post insulators. According to the different insulation so on. In some substation, there are parallel reactive power
materials, it can be divided into ceramic insulator, glass compensation devices and series compensation devices due
insulator, and composite insulator (composite insulator). to reactive power balance, system stability, and limit
overvoltage.
5. Parts According to the voltage class, it can be divided into
1000 kV substation, 750 kV substation, 500 kV substation,
Parts refer to the metal devices used for suspension, fixing, 330 kV substation, 220 kV substation, and 110 kV substa-
protection, connection, continuing of overhead wires or tion. According to the position and function of substation in
insulators on overhead transmission lines, and connection of power system, it can be divided into hub substation, regional
cables on the cable structure of the cable rod tower. Some substation, area substation, terminal substation, and user
parts also prevent wire vibration, galloping, improve the substation. According to the layout form, it can be divided
voltage distribution near the insulator, and reduce corona. In into indoor substation, outdoor substation, and underground
view of its functional characteristics and operating envi- substation. Figure 4.79 shows an aerial view of a 1000 kV
ronment, the parts must have sufficient mechanical strength, substation.
wear resistance, and good electrical performance in the
long-term operation under the environmental conditions of 1. Power distribution unit
complicated climate and different degrees of pollution, as
well as meet the needs for corrosion resistance in the Power distribution unit is the combination of electrical
atmosphere. According to the performance and use, parts can devices that exchange power and collect and distribute
be divided into seven categories: hanging clip, tension- electrical energy. It includes busbar, circuit breaker, dis-
resistant clip, connecting parts, continued parts, protective connector, grounding switch, voltage transformer, current
parts, pulling wire parts, and jumper parts. transformer, and lightning arrester. Figure 4.80 shows
arrester in a UHV substation. The power distribution unit
6. Grounding device can be divided into open-type power distribution unit,
gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) power distribution unit, and
The grounding device refers to the metal device buried in the hybrid gas-insulated switchgear (HGIS) power distribution
soil and connected with the overhead ground wire. Its unit according to the insulation mode and the combination
function is to guide the lightning current hitting the top of form of the equipment. The open-type power distribution
the tower and the overhead ground wire into the earth so as unit may be arranged indoors or outdoors, or may be
to improve the lightning resistance level of the line and arranged in metal engine rooms. GIS power distribution unit
reduce the lightning accident. can be arranged indoors and outdoors. HGIS power distri-
bution unit generally adopts the outdoor arrangement.
4.4.2.2 Transformer Substation
A transformer substation is a facility in a power grid for 2. Power transformer
exchanging voltage, exchanging power, and collecting and
distributing electric energy. There are different voltage dis- The power transformer is a device for transforming voltage.
tribution devices in a transformer substation, such as power It is connected to power distribution units with different
transformer, control, measurement, signal, protection box voltages, often referred to as the main transformer of a
automatic devices, communication facilities, buildings, and transformer substation. A transformer that reduces the
three-winding transformer shall be used to connect the sta-

tion power supply from its low-voltage winding. The sub-
station power supply can also be connected directly from the
low-voltage winding of the autotransformer. Figure 4.81
shows the transformer equipment in a UHV substation.
3. Compensation device
The compensation device mainly includes parallel capacitor,

parallel reactor, static var compensator (SVC), series
capacitor compensator, etc. In order to balance the reactive
power in the power supply range of the substation, parallel
capacitors and parallel reactors are generally installed on the
low-voltage side of the main transformer of the substation,
and SVCs are also installed in some substations. In order to
compensate the charging power of the long-distance trans-
mission line, it is sometimes necessary to install parallel
reactors on the high-voltage outgoing line of the substation.
In order to enhance the stability of the system and improve
the line transmission capability, it is sometimes necessary to
install a series capacitor compensator on the outgoing line of
the substation. Early substations also use synchronous
cameras which are replaced as reactive compensators.
4. Control, measurement, signal, protection, and auto-

matic device
Fig. 4.80 Arrester in a UHV substation
It refers to the monitoring and protection facilities to ensure
the safe operation of electrical equipment. Control has
voltage to supply power to a region or user is called a one-to-one control and computer monitoring. There are
step-down transformer. A transformer that raises the voltage several types of protection, such as main equipment pro-
to deliver power to the power grid is called a boosting tection, line protection, and busbar protection. The mea-
transformer. When there are two or three voltage distribution surement is divided into current measurement, voltage
units in the substation, double-winding or three-winding measurement, power measurement, frequency measurement,
transformers are used, respectively. When the power needs harmonic measurement, and electrical energy measurement.
to be exchanged between different voltage distribution units, Generally, there are two kinds of signals: warning signal and
a connecting transformer may be used. The connecting accident signal. In case of abnormal operation of electrical
transformer is usually an autotransformer or a equipment, the automatic device can automatically complete
double-winding transformer. If it is necessary to obtain the the operation for ensuring safe operation in time, such as the
station power supply from the connecting transformer, a automatic input device of standby power supply. The
Fig. 4.81 Transformer

equipment in a UHV substation
348 J. Zhang
abovementioned facilities are generally located in the main

control communication building (room) or relay room of the
substation. The main control communication building is
generally set up in the substation of 330 kV and above, and
the single-layer main control communication room is gen-
erally built in the substation of 220 kV or below. In general,
there are only simple control chambers in unattended sub-
stations. The secondary circuit power supply control and
protection facilities are powered by the secondary circuit
power supply of the transformer substation. The secondary
circuit power supply includes a battery DC power supply,
uninterruptible power supply (UPS), and AC secondary
power supply.
5. Communication facilities
Fig. 4.82 Photograph of valve hall of a UHV converter station
There are microwave communication, carrier communica-
tion, and optical fiber communication. Microwave commu-
nication, carrier communication, and optical communication
are usually set in substations of 330 kV and above, and only
carrier communication and optical communication are set in
substations of 220 kV and below. In general, no separate
communication building is built in the substation, and
communication facilities are placed in the communication
room of the main control communication building (room).
6. Buildings
Buildings include buildings and structures. The buildings

mainly include main control communication building
(room), relay chamber, distribution installation room, station
power room, spare parts warehouse, comprehensive water
pump room, and guard room. The structures mainly include
the frame, equipment support, accident oil pool, battery, and Fig. 4.83 Photograph of the equipment in a UHV converter station
cable trench.
the valve hall and equipment of a UHV converter station,
4.4.2.3 Convertor Station respectively.
A converter station is a power engineering facility to realize
AC/DC power exchange in a DC transmission system. One
side of the converter station is connected to the AC system, 4.4.3 Corrosion and Protection of Power
and the other side is connected to the DC power network, Transmission and Distribution
which is the most important link in the DC power trans- Engineering
mission system. Converter stations are divided into rectifier
stations and inverter stations according to their different 4.4.3.1 Transmission Lines
operation modes. The rectifier station changes AC to DC,
and the inverter station changes DC to AC. In the station, an
invertor and its cooling device, a convertor transformer, an 1. Transmission towers
AC switch device, a DC switching device, a smoothing
reactor, a reactive compensation device, and an AC filtering At present, tower structure of transmission lines in China
device, DC filtering device, DC control, and protection usually uses the hot-dip galvanizing anti-corrosion technol-
equipment, and necessary auxiliary equipment and facilities ogy to obtain the longer outdoor exposure service life.
are provided. Figure 4.82 and Fig. 4.83 are photographs of Compared with other coatings, hot-dip zinc coating has
unique advantages: metallurgical bonding between zinc and (4) In the marine atmosphere, Cl−-rich sea salt particles are
iron, which is stronger than common coating bonding, and is deposited on the surface of the zinc coating, and the
not easy to fall off when exposed to atmospheric environ- main corrosion products are Zn5(CO3)2(OH)6,
ment; when cracks or damage of the zinc coating endangers Zn5(OH)8Cl2H2O, and NaZn4Cl(OH)6SO46H2O. The
the steel substrate, the zinc will electrochemically protect the initial stage of corrosion in marine environment is
steel substrate in the form of a sacrificial anode. Through mainly pitting corrosion, which gradually develops to
investigation and research, it is found that the transmission overall corrosion. During the whole corrosion process,
tower is in various natural environments when it is in ser- the anodic reaction is mainly the dissolution of zinc,
vice, and it is always subjected to atmospheric corrosion and and the cathodic reaction is determined by the diffusion
the corrosion degree is different under different atmospheric rate of oxygen.
environment conditions. In the rural and urban atmospheric
environment of China, the transmission tower mainly using Atmospheric corrosion mechanism of zinc coating: due to
hot-dip galvanizing and conventional coating can prevent the adsorption on the surface of galvanized steel in different
the corrosion under the general natural environment and has use environments, a layer of liquid film 20–30-molecule-
a long service life because the atmosphere is not polluted or thick moisture film in atmospheric medium will be formed
the degree of pollution is relatively light, which meets the on the zinc coating. Corrosion of the zinc coating occurs
service life of tower setting. However, steel structures in when water-soluble salts are present in the liquid film or
areas of heavy industry, coastal areas, and dry desert areas corrosive gas is dissolved. During the service of galvanized
are subjected to severe corrosion. steel, electrochemical corrosion occurs when the zinc coat-
ing comes into contact with the environment first, which can
1) Corrosion mechanism of transmission tower provide cathodic protection for the steel substrate. After the
corrosion failure of the coating, the insoluble corrosion
China’s transmission towers mainly use galvanized steel for products can also be adsorbed on the surface of the substrate
atmospheric corrosion protection. The electrochemical cor- to inhibit the corrosion of the steel. The corrosion nature of
rosion of galvanized steel generally goes through the follow- zinc coating in atmospheric environment is the process of
ing four steps: the zinc coating is completely covered on the electrochemical corrosion of zinc under thin liquid film. Zinc
entire steel substrate, and the coating is corroded; partial can quickly react with oxygen, water vapor, and other sub-
failure of the coating occurs, and zinc acts as a sacrificial anode stances in the environment to form various basic salts on the
to provide cathodic protection to the steel substrate; the zinc surface of the substrate, thereby inhibiting further corrosion
coating is completely destroyed, the steel substrate begins to of the substrate to a certain extent.
corrode, and the corrosion products of zinc inhibit the corro- The anodic dissolution reaction usually occurs at the
sion process; rapid corrosion of the steel substrate occurs. defects on the zinc surface, and the corrosion morphology
The galvanized coating on the surface of carbon steel has appears as small pores visible to the naked eye. The cathodic
excellent atmospheric corrosion resistance. If the coating of reaction takes place around the small pores. Zn2+ reacts with
galvanized steel is pure zinc, the corrosion process is not OH− around the pores to form zinc hydroxide to deposit
different from the atmospheric corrosion process of zinc. which is then dehydrated to form zinc oxide. The main
Only when the zinc layer is damaged by external force, the environmental factors affecting zinc corrosion: the corrosion
process of galvanic corrosion between zinc coating and steel of metals in atmospheric environment is the result of the
substrate will be different from the process of atmospheric comprehensive action of climatic conditions and atmo-
corrosion of zinc. spheric medium, that is to say, the corrosion resistance of
There are different corrosion processes of zinc in different metals is different under different atmospheric conditions.
typical atmospheric environments: Among the environmental factors related to atmospheric
corrosion of metals, in addition to the surface wetting time
(1) Atmospheric corrosion occurs in humid atmosphere, caused by dew condensation and rainfall, atmospheric pol-
which is mainly affected by the pollutants such as CO2, lutants such as SO2, Cl−, CO2, and NO2 are also very
SO2, and Cl−. important influence factors.
(2) ZnO and Zn5(CO3)2 (OH)6 are formed in the zinc
coating under the action of O2 and CO2 in the 2) Status and characteristics of corrosion
pollution-free rural atmosphere.
(3) Under the industrial atmospheric environment, the main The surface of domestic transmission towers is mostly pro-
corrosive gas is SO2 and the corrosion products of zinc tected by hot-dip galvanizing. The zinc coating has the
coating and its reaction are Zn4SO4(OH)64H2O and function of isolating the base material of the tower from the
Zn4Cl2(OH)4SO45H2O. corrosive environment and protecting the cathode: on the
350 J. Zhang
one hand, the corrosion rate of zinc in the atmosphere is Shandong belongs to warm temperate monsoon humid
about 1/15 of that of steel, which can effectively ensure that and semi-humid climate type with concentrated precipita-
the external corrosive medium is not in direct contact with tion, heat of rain in the same season, short spring and
the steel substrate. On the other hand, corrosion of the autumn, long winter and summer, sufficient light, and
component base material is prevented to ensure the structural abundant precipitation all the year-round. During the
strength of the tower in the form of zinc sacrificial anode. investigation in Zibo area, it is found that the corrosion of
the tower foot of the 500 kV Zibo–Weifang line occurs in
(1) Corrosion status of transmission towers in typical areas the last 4–5 years, which makes the upper base and guard
plate thinner to 1/2 of the design thickness, affecting the safe
Hunan is in a continental mid-subtropical monsoon humid operation of the tower. Through analysis, the content of
climate, rich in light, heat, and rainwater resources. Zhuzhou SO42− and Cl− in soil is high, and the corrosion of tower foot
and Xiangtan are heavy industrial pollution areas where the is the result of surface corrosion and interface concentration
atmosphere contains more corrosive chemical gases and corrosion caused by siphonage humidity of concrete foun-
dust. On the other hand, the rainfall is abundant, the rivers dation. In the investigation of the 500 kV Sichuan-Zibo
are widely distributed, and the annual relative humidity is Line, it is found that the zinc coating of the main materials
more than 85%. In the extremely humid environment where and tie plates of some steel towers have red-brown rust spots
many kinds of chemical gas coexist, the power transmission and are seriously corroded. The tower is located in farmland
and transformation equipment corrodes rapidly and strongly. where there are many factories producing domestic ceramics
In Zhuzhou area, after 5–6 years of service, the steel parts and building ceramics, and there are much industrial exhaust
and bolts of the steel tower on the copper water line of gases such as sintering, causing serious pollution.
110 kV are completely corroded. In some parts, the tower The atmospheric environment with high concentration of
materials are corroded to break or thinned to a thickness of salt pollutants in Beihai, Qinzhou, and other coastal areas of
0.1 mm, and the fastening effect of some bolts is basically Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region seriously corrodes
invalid. This brings great risks to the safe and stable oper- transmission towers. Some hot-dip galvanized iron towers
ation of the power grid. After the transmission lines are put within the territory have just been put into operation soon,
into operation for 5 years in Zibo urban area, the local but local corrosion or yellowing phenomenon appears. The
corrosion of the zinc coating on the transmission tower is coating which has been operated for more than 8 years has
serious. During the snow disaster in southern China in 2008, been obviously pulverized, and the topcoat of some towers
large-area tower collapse occurred in Hunan because lines partially protected for 10 years has peeled off by 50–60%.
were covered with ice, which mainly resulted from the lack Shenzhen in Guangdong Province is close to the South
of strength of tower components due to environmental cor- China Sea. The humid marine climate seriously corrodes the
rosion. The investigation shows that the transmission towers outdoor frame of the transformer substation where Meilin,
in the coastal areas and the heavy industry-polluted areas Xixiang, and Shuibei have been operated for more than
will be rusty after they are put into operation for 3–4 years, 6 years. The concrete surface layer has obvious cracks,
and the whole is corroded within another 1–2 years. bulging, peeling off, and steel bar corrosion, and the exposed
Fujian is located in the subtropical zone with abundant length of steel bar corrosion reaches 200–350 mm, and the
light and rain. There are heavy industry-polluted areas, total strength corrosion loss of steel bar reaches 10–15%. In
coastal climate, and national acid rain control areas. The addition, the corrosion degree of the steel component is also
220 kV Houfu Line of Sanming Bureau is the call wire from serious, and the corrosion rate of the total quantity of the
Houshan Transformer to Fuxing Transformer. It is found framework is more than 90%, which has seriously affected
that the main materials and tie plates of No. 1–3 and 5–10 the normal operation and safe operation of the substation.
are heavily corroded. The main reason is that the Houshan In the coastal areas, a large number of salt particles in the
outgoing line is located at the periphery of Sanming Iron and air easily adhere to the metal surface. In particular, the
Steel Plant, chemical plant, and chemical reagent factory chlorides such as NaCl and MgCl2 have strong hygroscop-
(producing sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid) so that it is icity so that the water film is easily formed on the surface of
affected by pollutants, especially acid mist. Towers of the zinc layer under the condition of high air humidity. The
Jianghong Line 7 and 8 of Xiamen Bureau in the marine water film is essentially an electrolyte film containing dis-
climate are seriously corroded. The 220 kV south line of solved salts. Electrochemical corrosion occurs on the surface
Zhangzhou and the 220 kV added line of Sanming Bureau of zinc coating in the presence of electrolyte film. The closer
are located in the mountainous area where the plants are to the shore is, the higher the concentration of salt mist ions
flourishing and the environment is very humid so that the is, the more severe the corrosion is. The results show that the
tower foot is corroded seriously. corrosion rate of hot-dip galvanizing is 3.7 µm/a in the
Qingdao area near the coast, which is much higher than that Whole tower corrosion. The zinc coating of most tower
in the inland Wuhan area (the corrosion rate is 1.4 µm/a). In parts is completely corroded, and the base steel is seriously
marine climate, the corrosion of hot-dip galvanizing layer is corroded. Corrosion of the whole tower mainly occurs in
aggravated and the service life is shortened due to the larger coastal areas with high-salt mist concentration or industrial
air humidity and salt content. In Yantai area, No. 1 and areas with severe acid rain. In these areas, due to bad envi-
No. 2 Longtang Line, Longdong Line, and Longsheng Line ronment, the transmission towers will become rusty after
and other power station outgoing lines near the coast are being put into operation for 3–4 years. After that, it is grad-
eroded by humid sea wind so that towers and wires are ually changed to whole tower corrosion after 1–2 years. The
seriously corroded. In Nanao County, Guangdong Province, new transmission tower usually uses hot-dip galvanizing
surrounded by the sea, overhead conductors in a 10 kV method to carry out corrosion protection. In the inland envi-
distribution line have been broken for 15 times between ronment with dry and pure air or little corrosion, the hot-dip
1993 and 1997 due to severe salt mist corrosion. Galvanized galvanization can play a good protection role and the pro-
tower iron components begin to rust about half a year and tection time may reach several years or even 10 years.
are rusty within a year. In order to understand the influence However, in heavily polluted industrial areas or urban areas
of atmospheric corrosion on the tower structure of trans- with high exhaust emission, the high-concentration sulfur
mission line, observation is conducted on the zinc coating of dioxide can react with zinc in humid environments to produce
the iron towers of 220 kV transmission line, which has been soluble zinc. When soluble zinc is formed, the zinc layer loses
in operation for about 20 years and is located near the third its protective effect. The more sulfur dioxide pollution is, the
ring road of Beijing, and the newly built iron towers of more seriously the zinc layer is corroded. When the concen-
220 kV line near rivers, farmlands, highways, and towns. tration of sulfur dioxide is constant, the higher the ambient
The results show that the condition of galvanizing layer of humidity is, the faster the corrosion of zinc layer is. The higher
iron towers near urban areas and highways is obviously the environment temperature is, the faster the corrosion of the
inferior to that of iron towers located near rivers and farm- zinc layer is. In Beijing, because of that high concentration of
lands, which indicates that atmospheric pollutants have sulfur dioxide near urban areas and highways, the zinc coating
significant influence on zinc plating layer of iron tower. of transmission towers near these two areas is significantly
Although the relative humidity is low in desert arid area, the inferior to that of the iron towers in rivers and farmlands.
corrosion of electric transmission tower is still serious, From the investigation, it can be found that the
which is mainly due to the corrosion of high-energy sedi- anti-corrosion of hot-dip galvanizing tower and the daily
ment flow and high-salt dust to the tower. The higher the maintenance of zinc-rich coating can’t meet the requirement
wind speed is, the more serious the corrosion is. of design service life, so it is necessary to develop new
For transmission towers, the corrosion degree is also protection technology to prevent the corrosion of tower and
different at different heights and positions. The research ensure the safety of transmission lines.
shows that the corrosion rate of the ground surface is the The atmospheric exposure test results of hot-dip galva-
largest, and the corrosion rate decreases obviously in the nizing conducted by Japan Hot Dip Galvanizing Association
height of 1–9 m, and decreases a little in the height of 9– from 1964 to 1974 are shown in Table 4.25. The service life
25 m. The result shows that the effect of atmospheric of hot-dip galvanizing is shown in Table 4.25 after 10 years
corrosion decreases gradually with the increase in height. of atmospheric test of hot-dip galvanizing in Japan. The test
The corrosion characteristics of transmission towers and of hot-dip galvanizing in Japan proves the above results. In
the corrosion status of steel structure components of recent years, the service condition has shown that the actual
transmission towers are mainly shown in the following two anti-corrosion life of zinc coating is much less than the values
cases. in Table 4.25 mainly due to environmental pollution and
Local corrosion. Most of the components have zinc global climate degradation. In dry air, zinc coating has good
coating on the surface. Part of the coating is intact and part protective performance, but in wet environment such as
has white zinc rust, and rust appears in some local areas or coastal, zinc surface will produce a layer of zinc hydroxide
individual tower parts. The tower foot is easy to accumulate which produces basic zinc carbonate under the action of
ash, and is in the surface environment where the humidity is carbon dioxide. The corrosion products are loose and large in
relatively high, so it is easy to be corroded. Thus, local volume, and the protective effect is remarkably reduced. In
corrosion is likely to occur at the tower foot. When the zinc area with severe industrial pollution, zinc has poor corrosion
coating of individual tower parts has defects such as skip resistance to sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, and the
plating, pitting, and scar, the weak part has poor resistance to corrosion resistance decreases with the increase of sulfur
external corrosion and is prone to local corrosion. dioxide or nitrogen dioxide content in the environment.
352 J. Zhang
Table 4.25 Service life of hot-dip galvanizing

Zinc attachment/(g/m2) Annual corrosion capacity [(g/m2)] and service life
Heavy industrial area Coast Suburb City
400 40.1/9 10.8/33 5.4/67 17.5/21
500 40.6/11 10.9/41 5.2/86 17.7/25
600 40.1/13 10.8/50 5.2/104 17.7/30
600 (no metallic luster) 18.1/30 11.5/47 5.2/104 17.5/31
Note The service life in the table refers to the service life of galvanized steel when 90% is consumed
(2) Corrosion characteristics of transmission towers exposed in the sun and rain because these corrosion
products are either pulverized or washed away. At last,
Transmission tower is the main supporting structure of the zinc coating is eventually thinned and damaged to
overhead transmission line. According to the type of steel lose protection to the tower (Figs. 4.84 and 4.85).
material, transmission tower can be divided into steel pipe B. Stress corrosion. During the service of the transmission
tower and truss tower, all of which belong to space truss tower, different parts of the tower are in different stress
structure. The whole tower is made of angle iron and con- states, and the tower will also be affected by the
necting steel plates connected by bolts, and some parts such guideline galloping and wind vibration, so that some
as the tower feet are welded to form an assembly. Due to the parts of the tower are in the state of stress concentration.
structural characteristics of the tower, each part can be gal- This stress state, in conjunction with the above atmo-
vanized during the construction, and then transported to the spheric corrosion environment, accelerates the corro-
construction site to assemble them into a tower. According sion of the zinc coating. The stress corrosion of the
to the mechanical strength requirement of the tower struc- tower mainly occurs in the position where the stress of
ture, the metal material used in the tower is generally the tower is asymmetrical, or where the vibration is
structural steel, and the bolt material is high-strength steel. frequent. The effect of stress on corrosion of zinc
These steels have low corrosion resistance in the atmosphere coating is obvious. Literature studies show that under
and need to be protected by a zinc coating. In-service the action of stress and corrosion system, the original
transmission towers will encounter a variety of corrosion in protective oxide layer or corrosion products of zinc
various natural environments so that zinc coating is damaged coating will be damaged. The zinc coating at the
rapidly, greatly reducing the mechanical property of cor- damaged place can form a new corrosion electro-
roded transmission towers. Depending on the service envi- chemical system with the zinc coating at the undamaged
ronment, the types of corrosion occurring on the tower may place, which aggravates the corrosion of the zinc
include the following aspects. coating. In this way, the corrosion of the stressed part is
continuously developed until the fracture failure occurs.
A. Atmospheric corrosion. In the atmospheric environ-
ment, a water film is attached to the zinc coating on the
surface of the transmission tower due to rain or day–
night temperature difference, and the water film
becomes an electrolyte liquid film because it contains
chemicals in the atmospheric environment. Under such
conditions, the zinc coating forms an effective corrosion
electrochemical system together with the oxygen in the
air and the electrolyte liquid film so that the zinc coating
on the surface of the iron tower is corroded. Major
factors affecting atmospheric corrosion include climatic
factors such as relative humidity, rainfall, air tempera-
ture, wind direction, wind speed, and pollution sources
such as chloride, SO2, NOx, and particulate matters.
They will affect the corrosion and service life of the
tower. During the corrosion process, zinc on the surface
of the zinc coating is gradually converted into various
corrosion products, and new corrosion interfaces are Fig. 4.84 Corrosion of tower components
Fig. 4.85 Corrosion of upper arm of tower

Fig. 4.86 Corrosion morphology of tower leg concrete
Stress corrosion is a harmful corrosion form. The stress Cl− from industrial and marine environments, as well as
corrosion always occurs at the local position of the corrosion products from the tower itself, such as rust
stress concentration, and the appearance change is not (commonly known as yellow water, Fig. 4.87) are
obvious, so it will cause sudden break and become a included. Foreign corrosion has a great influence on the
major hidden danger of safety production. corrosion of zinc coating. Cl− or SO32− in the liquid
C. Crevice corrosion. The crevice corrosion of the tower film on the surface of the zinc coating has a great
mainly occurs in the joint between the components of influence on the composition and structure of the sur-
the truss tower and the crevice between the tower foot face oxide layer or protective corrosion products of the
and the concrete foundation (Fig. 4.86). In the con- zinc coating, so that the water solubility of these film
struction, the truss tower is composed of finished parts layers is increased and the protective effect on the zinc
assembled by bolts. In assembly, a crevice may occur coating layer is lost. In the presence of rust drip from
between parts due to uneven surface. When the tower is other corrosion rusty parts on the surface of the zinc
in the rain or in the presence of liquid film, electrolyte coating, soluble Fe3+ in the Fe (III) component of the
liquid film will enter into the crevice to form an elec- rust reacts with the zinc coating to convert to Fe
trochemical corrosion system due to capillary action. In (II) component to corrode the zinc coating, and Fe
the corrosion process—the mass transfer of oxygen— (II) component reacts with the oxygen in the air to
internal depolarizer is restricted, so that the inside and convert into Fe (III) component, so that the rust acts as a
outside of the crevice are converted into the corrosion catalyst to promote the corrosion of the zinc coating.
of the closed cell, that is, the dissolution of metal occurs
inside and reduction of depolarizer oxygen occurs
outside. This form of corrosion has a high corrosion
rate. At the same time, as the corrosion progresses, the
pH value of the liquid in the crevice will also decrease.
In addition, the presence of Cl− in the electrolyte system
will also produce a self-catalytic acceleration process,
further speeding up the rate of crevice corrosion. Cre-
vice corrosion is also greatly harmful. The corrosion
occurs inside the crevice and is relatively hidden. It is
not easy to be found in patrol inspection. However,
when the component is corroded and fails, serious
damage may occur.
D. Other. The possible corrosion of the tower also includes
the corrosion of the surface pollutants on the zinc
coating and the abrasion of solid particles in the
atmospheric environment. Sulfur, nitrogen oxides, and Fig. 4.87 Hanging rust flow of tower
354 J. Zhang
In the north area, the sediment blown by the wind in the In order to improve the corrosion resistance of hot-dip
air will wash the surface of the zinc coating, remove the galvanizing coating, hot-dip galvanizing aluminum coating
protective oxidization layer on the surface of the zinc coat- has become a research hotspot in recent decades. The corro-
ing, and promote the corrosion of the zinc coating. There- sion resistance of aluminum is better than that of zinc because
fore, it can be observed that the zinc coating on the of its good passivation property. However, the passivated
windward side is damaged before the zinc coating on the aluminum lacks cathodic protection on the steel substrate, and
leeward surface and rust occurs in the area with large the zinc–aluminum coating has the advantages of both the zinc
wind-blown sediment. coating and the aluminum coating. The more famous com-
mercial coatings are Galfan (Zn + 5% Al), Galvalume
3) Common anti-corrosion measures (Zn + 55% Al + 1.6% Si), and Super Zinc (Zn + 5% Al +
0.1% Mg). The results show that the corrosion resistance of
In face of heavy industry air pollution and marine heavy zinc–aluminum coating is much better than that of pure zinc
corrosion climate, hot-dip galvanize protection technology immersion coating, and the corrosion resistance of zinc–alu-
can’t meet the requirement of service life, so it is urgent to minum coating is also excellent in marine climate and heavy
develop new anti-corrosion technologies. The main industry-polluted area. The corrosion resistance of Galfan in
anti-corrosion technologies of transmission towers are industrial pollution and marine environment is 2–3 times of
hot-dip galvanizing, coating, thermal spraying, weathering that of hot-dip galvanizing, and Galvalume is 3–6 times of that
steel, aluminum alloy, and composite materials. Hot-dip of hot-dip galvanizing. In 1998, Zn–Al–Mg alloy coating
galvanizing technology is the most mature and widely used ZAM developed by Nippon Steel & Sumitomo Metal has not
technology. However, with the increase of environmental only good corrosion resistance of Zn–Al coating, but also
protection requirement, hot-dip coating technology has improved cathodic protection function due to the addition of
serious environmental pollution, and its corrosion resistance magnesium. The results show that adding a small amount of
is inferior to that of thermal spraying coating. Coating is low rare earth element in hot-dip coating can improve the wetta-
in cost and simple in construction technology and it is also bility between plating solution and steel, increase the fluidity,
the main means of tower corrosion protection, but it is poor obtain a uniform coating, and improve the corrosion resistance
in corrosion resistance and short in protection time. At of the clad layer. The addition of alloying elements in the
present, new corrosion-resistant materials (weathering steel, hot-dip galvanizing process hardly increases the production
aluminum alloy, and composite materials) are seldom used cost, but remarkably improves the service life of the coating,
in power grids and towers. The application of new which makes it an ideal substitution technology for hot-dip
corrosion-resistant materials in transmission lines is the galvanizing. However, these hot-dip galvanizing aluminum
inevitable trend of the development of smart and strong technologies have not been widely used in domestic towers.
power grids because it has remarkable environmental pro-
tection effect and economic benefit. (2) Anti-corrosion technology of coating.
(1) Corrosion protection of hot-dip galvanizing technology. Coating has become the main means of corrosion protection
of tower for its low-cost and simple construction technology.
Since 1983, the Austrian Power Grid has started to test the Common coating system is poor in corrosion resistance and
“DUPLEX-coating” protection technology on 380 kV lines. its protection time is only 2–3 years, such as alkyd red lead
The tower is coated immediately after being galvanized in paint. With the development of anti-corrosion technology of
the factory. The result shows that the service life from the transmission tower, heavy anti-corrosion coating system has
commissioning to the first maintenance can be as long as 40– been gradually applied to the protection of transmission
50 years, which greatly improves the corrosion resistance of tower. Heavy anti-corrosion coating system refers to a kind
the galvanized iron tower and greatly reduces the operation of high-performance coating with long-term protective effect
and maintenance cost. Then, it is widely used in newly built under harsh corrosive environment. Commonly used coat-
lines. According to statistics, the increased cost of using ings include polyurethane coating, epoxy resin coating,
“zinc sealing” accounts for 2.5% of the cost of the whole rubber paint and zinc-rich coating usually made of primer,
line. However, from the analysis of the whole life cycle, the intermediate paint, and topcoat with the thickness of above
cost is significantly reduced. Similar results have been 200 lm. The coating composed of the three can exert the
reported by the Netherlands Institute of Hot-Dip Galvaniz- overall effect, and the protection time can reach more than
ing, that is, for hot-dip galvanizing and arc spraying zinc, the 15 years. High cost is a major disadvantage in comparison
service life of the anti-corrosive composite coating is 1.8–2.4 with other protective coatings. Before carrying out cold zinc
times the sum of the service life of the two. coating, the surface treatment of steel structure and outdoor
environment is lower than that of thermal spraying treat- behavior of the coating in 5%NaCl solution is measured by
ment. It can be applied in the environment with relative electrochemical method and compared with the coatings
humidity above 85%. Zinga of Belgium even suggests that it prepared from solid core wire pure Zn, pure Al, and Zn–15%
can be applied on wet surface. After ROVAL cold zinc Al, so as to find out the effect of Al content on corrosion
coating product of Japan is coated on the steel surface with resistance of coating. It is found that Zn–26%Al coating
cleanliness of St2, adhesive force can reach 8.1 MPa. The exhibits superior corrosion resistance in electrolyte solution.
service life of cold zinc coating is 8 years as stipulated in the The result of potentiodynamic polarization test shows that the
Technical Specification for Cold Zinc Coating and Anti-rust corrosion resistance of Zn–Al coating increases with the
Technology for 500 kV Transmission Tower of East China increase of Al content. In recent years, it has been found that
Grid Corporation. The anti-corrosion effect of cold zinc the addition of some other elements (Mg, RE) to the Zn–Al
coating is about the same as that of hot-dip galvanizing. alloy can remarkably improve the corrosion resistance of the
When the tower is used on a large scale, the cost of hot-dip coating. In the coating preparation of various alloying ele-
galvanizing is lower than that of cold zinc coating. However, ments, the powder-cored wire is easier to prepare. The coating
on the coating of small parts, the cost of cold zinc coating is of Zn–Al–Mg–RE is prepared by Liu Yan et al. The result
lower than that of hot-dip galvanizing, and the application is shows that the coating has good corrosion resistance. The
convenient. As the anti-corrosion technology of the tower, corrosion products accumulate into a dense passivation film,
cold zinc coating can’t meet the service life requirement in sealing the micropores on the coating. Self-sealing refers to
the environment of heavy corrosion, but it is a good method that in the corrosion process of the Zn–Al–Mg–RE high-speed
to repair and maintain the hot-dip galvanizing tower. arc spraying coating, corrosion products are formed as the
corrosion reaction proceeds, including a series of basic salts of
(3) Anti-corrosion of thermal spraying technology. Zn, hydroxides of Mg, and the hydrate of the oxide formed by
Mg and Al. These corrosion products not only form a passi-
Thermal spraying technology has been recognized as one of vation film on the surface of the coating but also effectively
the most competitive methods in long-term corrosion pro- plug pores in the coating and cut off the fast passage of the
tection of iron and steel. As early as 1952, Shanghai corrosive medium so that the corrosion resistance of the
Spraying Machinery Factory took Anhui Province as a coating is improved. The laboratory corrosion test data show
long-term steel anti-corrosion demonstration. For the first that in marine environment, the corrosion resistance of Zn–
time, they protected the upper half of 264 high-voltage Al–Mg–RE high-speed arc spraying coating is more than 4
transmission towers in the 45 km area from Huainan Power times that of Zn and Al arc spraying coating, which is directly
station to Bengbu by means of thermal spraying zinc coating related to the self-sealing property of Zn–Al–Mg–RE coating.
in China, and inspected the corrosion status of iron towers in A series of Zn–Al–Mg–RE alloy solid core arc spraying
1978. The spraying layer is in good condition without any wires developed by Shandong Electric Power Research
sign of corrosion. Institute are used to prepare Zn–Al–Mg–RE coatings on
Many researches at home and abroad show that the steel substrate. The results of accelerated salt mist test,
anti-corrosion effect of thermal spraying zinc–aluminum electrochemical test, and immersion test of cupric acetic acid
coating is better than that of pure zinc or pure aluminum show that its corrosion resistance is better than that of
coating. Aiming at the research and development of thermal hot-dip galvanizing and thermal spraying zinc coating, and
spraying Zn–Al coating, there are mainly pseudo-alloy its corrosion resistance life is 1–8 times of that of hot-dip
coating and alloy coating in China. Alloy coating can be galvanizing. The life cycle cost performance analysis is more
divided into powder-cored wire coating and gold wire than 2.4 times that of hot-dip galvanizing. The technology
coating. In the coating composition, the corrosion resistance has begun engineering demonstration application.
of the coating is improved mainly by changing the content of
Al and adding a small amount of metal elements such as Mg, (4) Anti-corrosion of weathering steel and aluminum alloy.
Cu, and rare earth (RE). Since 1985, S. Kuroda et al. of
Japan Association of Corrosion Control Thermal Spraying Weathering steel, also known as atmospheric
Committee conduct long-term exposure test on thermal corrosion-resistant low-alloy steel, is a kind of low-alloy
sprayed coatings of Zn, Al, and Zn–13Al. The results show steel in which a small amount of alloying elements (such as
that the corrosion resistance of thermal spraying Zn–13Al copper, phosphorus, nickel, and chromium) are added to
coating exposed for 10 and 18 years is obviously better than make it have better corrosion resistance than plain carbon
that of thermal spraying Zn and Al coatings. steel in the atmosphere. The alloying element can form a
The Zn–26%Al coating is prepared by powder-cored wire dense and good adhesive protective film on the surface of
and high-speed arc spraying technology. The corrosion steel, which hinders the development of corrosion to the
356 J. Zhang
inside. It is a low-cost low-alloy steel between stainless steel High-Voltage Research Institute successfully developed
and carbon steel. In 1960s, weathering steel in the United anti-lightning and pollution flashover insulation tower head
States was used in transmission towers place instead of and cross arm of a 10 kV line. In 2009, State Grid Corpo-
galvanize steel, and its higher strength was utilized to reduce ration of China (SGCC) began to study the application of
size and structural weight. In 1961, uncoated weathering composite materials on transmission towers from three
steel was used on two transmission towers in Massachusetts aspects: insulation characteristics, anti-icing characteristics,
and then in Pennsylvania on a large scale. However, after and anti-corrosion properties. Some pilot projects have been
several years of operation in a humid environment, the put into operation with good operational status.
corrosion rate is substantially the same as that of bare carbon
steel. In 1975, considering the reduction of tower strength 4) Corrosion protection scheme of transmission tower
caused by pollutant corrosion, Japan began to use weather-
ing steel non-coated angle iron tower in transmission line At present, the main problems of protection methods are as
test and used coated weathering steel towers in 2000. The follows: epoxy zinc-rich primer and anti-rust primer are used
results show that the corrosion resistance of weathering steel as the primer for corrosion protection of tower, but the
is better than that of plain carbon steel in industrial atmo- adhesive force of many coatings on the surface is poor
sphere, marine atmosphere, and acid rain environment, but because of the low surface energy of zinc surface. As a result,
the corrosion of weathering steel at joints and foundation is the protective effect of the coating system is directly affected.
more obvious. Aluminum can rapidly form a dense Al2O3 After the coating is used for repair, the coating needs to be
film in the atmosphere and is stable over a wide pH range. repainted within 2–3 years. Before coating the surface of
Therefore, some countries use aluminum as a transmission steel or zinc layer, it is necessary to remove oil and de-rust.
tower material for its good corrosion resistance in the The traditional methods for de-rusting are manual de-rusting,
atmosphere. The test results in Britain show that the corro- pickling, sediment blasting, or shot blasting. Manual
sion rate of aluminum tower is 2.6 lm/a in polluted atmo- de-rusting method is difficult to remove the rust completely
sphere and 7.3 lm/a in coastal area. For towers with a and difficult to ensure the quality of the coating. Some
design life of 85 years, if plain carbon steel is used as the researchers use phosphating solution to treat the surface of
substrate, coating must be conducted every 15 years in a the old tower to enhance the adhesive force of the coating on
pollution-free environment, and coating must be conducted its surface, but the phosphating of the old tower surface can
every 12 years and 9 years in polluted and marine envi- only be done by wiping or spraying instead of soaking, so
ronments, respectively. Towers made of aluminum don’t defects are easily produced. In addition, in the phosphating
require maintenance within 85 years. Aluminum and carbon process, water is needed to wash and the old tower is rela-
steel towers are estimated to have similar environmental tively high and the area is dispersed, so that the actual
impact over the life cycle, but aluminum can be recycled operation is greatly limited. If the surface treatment process
more. of rust removal can be reduced or omitted, the coating cost
can be remarkably reduced, and the coating process can be
(5) Anti-corrosion of composite materials. greatly simplified, so that the labor intensity and the harm of
rust dust to human body can be reduced. Adhesive strength is
With the development of technology and manufacturing the guarantee of corrosion resistance life of coatings. Because
process of composite materials, fiber reinforced plastics of the low surface energy of zinc coating, many coatings have
(FRP) is a kind of material with lightweight, high strength, poor adhesive force on their surfaces, which directly affect
corrosion resistance, and good insulation, making it possible the protective effect of coatings. Therefore, the problems of
to prepare composite towers. As early as the 1960s, Japan low de-rusting grade and poor adhesive force of the coating
carried out the research on use of glass FRP in transmission on the surface of the substrate must be solved in the process
line cross arms and solved the flashover accident caused by of protecting the corroded transmission towers with the
wind deflection. In the United States and Canada, the anti-corrosion coating.
development of composite towers has been very mature and Based on the service environment characteristic of the
a number of companies have put them into practical pro- transmission network and the corrosion rate prediction of the
duction and application. According to a report by Ebert in abovementioned material and the corrosion morphology that
2006, as of February 2006, Ebert’s all-composite towers may occur in the service of the material, the corresponding
have worked well in heavily corroded coastal areas and have protective measures can be adopted to reduce or eliminate
no rust, no corrosion, and no damage for 10 years. The the hidden dangers caused by various kinds of corrosion.
research and application of composite towers in China is still The optimum protection schemes of corroded towers are as
in the initial stage. In 2007, National Network Wuhan follows.
(1) In combination with the corrosion rate prediction, metal topcoat can play a good role in protection, and the
components with different thicknesses of zinc coating shielding effect of the protective system can be further
should be used in different environments. The zinc enhanced by epoxy mica iron intermediate coat. The
coating on the surface of steel structure has a stable protection schemes of transmission tower in these areas
corrosion rate in a given service environment. There- can be selected as follows: two layers of low surface
fore, in the design stage of electric power construction, treatment primer + one layer of epoxy mica iron inter-
the corrosion rate of different service areas can be mediate paint + two layers of fluorocarbon modified
predicted, and the thickness of zinc coating of steel acrylate topcoat. The wind-drift sediment in the sedi-
structure can be adjusted to ensure the effectiveness of ment storm area is so large that the wear of the pro-
zinc coating protection of metal components during tective layer is serious, so the anti-corrosion coating
design service. system needs to have good wear resistance and corro-
(2) The design of construction technology shall be sion resistance. In addition, the polyurethane coat has
strengthened to eliminate the potential corrosion during the characteristics of strong adhesive force, chemical
installation and construction. In the design and con- medium corrosion resistance, and good wear resistance.
struction of components, combined with the possible Although the aromatic polyurethane topcoat has poor
corrosion morphology, targeted protective measures weather resistance, the aliphatic or acrylate modified
should be taken. For example, we should do a good job polyurethane topcoat has good weatherability, so it can
in the selection and insulation of various components be used for the protection of transmission towers in
and materials in the design in order to avoid the sediment storm areas. The transmission tower protec-
occurrence of galvanic corrosion. The cracks can be tion in these areas can be selected as follows: two layers
eliminated by adding rubber pads or by means of of low surface treatment primer +one layer of epoxy
welding, resin coating. Possible stress corrosion can be mica iron intermediate paint + two layers of poly-
eliminated through structural optimization, and inspec- urethane topcoat.
tion shall be strengthened. At the same time, new
materials and new anti-corrosion technologies should 2. Tower foundation
be actively introduced, such as the use of aluminum–
zinc alloy steel wire whose life can be extended by The tower foundation of transmission line mainly uses
about 2 times compared with the same type of galva- concrete and steel bars as building materials, and the con-
nized steel wire. struction mode can be cast-in-place or prefabricated. When
(3) Reasonable coating and electrochemical methods shall the prefabricated foundation is adopted, the metal material
be adopted. According to the special service environ- (angle iron) is mainly used. Therefore, the main objects of
ment, corresponding protective measures can be taken in corrosion and protection of tower foundation are concrete
combination with the environment characteristics. For and steel bars. When the ground soil or groundwater in the
example, for marine and industrial areas, in addition to area where the transmission line project passes is corrosive,
zinc coating protection, it may also be considered to it may cause corrosion to the concrete or metal components
introduce a coating with good weather resistance for of the tower foundation, resulting in decrease of durability,
auxiliary protection. For the components in soil and which may affect the bearing capacity and normal use of the
water environment, the corrosion rate of components can tower foundation.
be reduced by introducing electrochemical protection.
(4) For the corroded transmission tower, different 1) Corrosion mechanism of reinforced concrete structure
anti-corrosion coating systems can be selected accord-
ing to the specific environment of the tower. For the In the concrete structure, the durability failure is due to the
primer, low surface treatment is required, and the zinc change of the physical, chemical property and geometrical
layer has strong adhesive force and good anti-rust dimension of the concrete or steel bars which in turn causes
function. The topcoat shall be selected according to the the change of the appearance of the concrete components so
need for protection. In general, climate or slightly pol- that it can’t meet the requirement of normal use, ultimately
luted inland areas, low surface treatment primer and affecting the safety of the whole structure. Corrosion of
acrylate topcoat protection system can be selected: two reinforced concrete refers to the corrosion of cement stones
layers of low surface treatment primer + two layers of and steel bars in concrete by corrosive media that include
acrylate topcoat. For the heavily polluted areas and acid, alkali, and salt. The corresponding corrosion mecha-
coastal areas, the protective system of low surface nism of each medium is also different. The corrosion
treatment primer and fluorocarbon modified acrylate mechanism of reinforced concrete in acid medium is that the
358 J. Zhang
related reaction destroys the protective layer of concrete, and line foundation is not only affected by the coupling effect of
then destroys the passivation film on the surface of steel bar erosive substances in rock and soil medium and ground-
in the protective layer, resulting in the corrosion of steel bar. water, groundwater seepage, and chemical corrosion in
The corrosion mechanism of reinforced concrete in alkaline terms of durability. In addition, the part of the foundation
medium is that when alkaline medium intrudes into concrete near the ground or the bare place is affected by the CO2 and
and dry and wet alternates, it will destroy the crystal of Cl− abrasion in the atmospheric environment.
concrete to a certain extent. The salt corrosion medium is The main corrosive environments affecting the durability
mainly sulfate and chloride salt, and the corrosion mecha- of the tower foundation concrete structure of transmission
nism of reinforced concrete is that under the environment lines in China are the coastal salt mist area and the saline soil
condition of alternation of dry and wet, the salt medium (salt lake) area.
intruding into the concrete will react and increase in the Chloride corrosion is dominant in coastal salt mist area,
volume, and then increase the internal pressure of cement, and the structural corrosion is characterized by concrete
causing the concrete to peel off and steel bars to corrode. cracking and steel bar corrosion, as shown in Fig. 4.88.
Sulfate and chloride salts are the most important factors Besides chemical corrosion, the concrete in saline environ-
leading to corrosion of reinforced concrete structures, and are ment in coastal area also has physical corrosion caused by
also the starting point and foothold of related researches on salt crystal expansion. Crystallization corrosion refers to that
corrosion protection technology. Dry–wet condition is an some salts in water or soil are immersed in the capillary
important factor affecting corrosion of reinforced concrete pores of concrete, and the salt solution is concentrated to
structure, and is an important condition for related researches. saturation by alternation of dry and wet action, and crystals
are precipitated when the temperature falls. The continuous
2) Corrosion status and corrosion characteristics accumulation of crystals or the formation of new crystalline
material in combination with certain components of the
The service environment of concrete structure is the most concrete causes the concrete to crack and damage, as shown
direct and important factor affecting its durability. Due to the in Fig. 4.89.
different service environments of concrete structures, the The coastal foundation is affected by the effect of sea-
performance degradation of concrete structures also water abrasion so that the concrete fine aggregate is loosely
shows different characteristics according to their service separated, and the coarse aggregate is exposed. The concrete
environments, such as concrete carbonization, steel bar at the protective cap has low strength, weak weathering
corrosion, chloride salt corrosion, sulfate corrosion, freeze– resistance, and more obvious abrasion or wind abrasion, as
thaw damage, salt freeze–thaw damage, alkali–aggregate shown in Fig. 4.90.
reaction, and other physical, chemical, or biochemical In saline soil (salt lake) area, there exists the co-corrosion
effects. As a form of underground structure, transmission of sulfate and chloride salt, and the structural corrosion is
Fig. 4.88 Surface cracks and internal steel bar corrosion of abandoned foundation of a 35 kV line in coastal area a surface cracks; b internal
corroded steel bars
Fig. 4.89 Salt crystallization corrosion of a 110 kV line near water tower in coastal area (Huanghua Port)
Fig. 4.90 Peeling of fine aggregate and exposure of coarse aggregate a tower foundation; b protective cap
characterized by concrete cracking and peeling of fine durability is the main index of design of HPC. Gener-
aggregate, as shown in Figs. 4.91, 4.92 and 4.93. ally speaking, HPC should ensure high workability of
the mixture, high strength after hardening, and excellent
3) Common anti-corrosion measures durability of mixture during use. As a modern concrete,
HPC is characterized by low water–binder ratio,
In recent years, with the gradual implementation of high-quality raw materials, and a sufficient amount of
extra-high voltage (EHV) and “West-to-East Power Trans- fine mineral admixture and high-efficiency admixture in
mission Project,” more and more transmission line projects addition to cement, water, and aggregate.
have encountered corrosion problems. The anti-corrosion
scheme of tower foundation in highly corrosive area has Active mineral fine admixture such as silicon powder,
become an important subject in engineering design and ground slag, and high-quality fly ash are added into the
construction. At present, the anti-corrosion measures of HPC, and their main active components are active SiO2 that
transmission line tower foundation concrete structure mainly conducts secondary reaction with the cement hydration
include the following aspects. product Ca(OH)2 at the interface, i.e., pozzolanic reaction, as
shown in Formula (4.4):
(1) HPC. HPC is a kind of sustainable concrete with high
durability, high workability, and high strength. The x CaðOHÞ2 þ SiO2 þ m H2 O ¼ x CaOSiO2 n H2 O ð4:19Þ
360 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.91 Rust and expansion crack of steel bars of tower foundation of a line in Golmud salt lake area a surface cracks; b internal corroded steel
bars
Fig. 4.92 “Rotten root” corrosion of concrete structure foundation of a line in Golmud salt lake area a loose peeling of concrete at the root of a
tower foundation; b “rotten root” phenomenon at the root of a thread rod
The formed hydrated calcium silicate gel is deposited in

the pores of the interface, which improves the bonding
strength and impermeability of the concrete interface. Fine
particles of the active mineral fine admixture are uniformly
dispersed into the cement paste to fill the pore of the cement
stone, thereby improving the pore structure of the concrete
and improving the impermeability of the concrete. In addi-
tion, the addition of active mineral fine admixture replaces
part of cement, reduces the initial hydration heat of concrete,
and reduces temperature cracks.
In order to obtain high strength, the amount of cementi-
tious material is large and the water–binder ratio is low for
HPC, and the yield shear stress and plastic viscosity coeffi-
cient of concrete mixture are both high. In order to obtain
Fig. 4.93 Mortar peeling at the ground of a concrete foundation in
Golmud salt lake area
high workability, HPC must be mixed with superplasticizer concrete. Its nondestructive and efficient repair of reinforced
that has a large number of polar groups on the long chain. concrete contaminated by chlorine and salt is promising.
These polar groups are enriched and aligned on the surface
of cement particle due to the surface activity, thus imparting (3) Exterior anti-corrosion coating.
strong negative charge on the surface of cementitious
material particles, reducing the surface tension of sur- a. Geotextile asphalt
rounding water. Besides, cementitious material particles can
also be dispersed sufficiently under electrical repulsion, thus Asphalt is a mixture of black or black-brown solid,
greatly improving the fluidity of the concrete. semi-solid, or liquid consisting of hydrocarbons and their
nonmetallic (oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen) derivatives. Asphalt is
(2) Adding steel bar corrosion inhibitor. a hydrophobic material with compact structure and is almost
insoluble in water and doesn’t absorb water. As an organic
Steel bar corrosion inhibitor is the corrosion inhibitor of cementitious material, it has a very good binding capacity
steel. Adding corrosion inhibitor in concrete is an econom- with geotextile, so asphalt and geotextile are often used
ical and effective method to prevent steel from corrosion. together and widely used in waterproofing and corrosion
What the corrosion inhibitor differs from other concrete protection of civil engineering.
admixtures is that it protects steel bars by inhibiting anodic Most of the asphalt used in civil engineering is petroleum
or cathodic electrochemical corrosion reactions that occur in asphalt, which is classified according to penetration. Asphalt
the concrete and the solution of steel bar interface. There- whose penetration is less than 40 is solid asphalt, which is
fore, the general principle of corrosion protection is that the mainly used for waterproofing and corrosion protection.
corrosion inhibitor is directly involved in the interfacial Asphalt whose penetration is 40–300 is semi-solid asphalt,
chemical reaction to form a passivation film of iron oxide on which is mainly used in road engineering. Asphalt whose
the surface of the steel bar, or to form a barrier layer on the penetration is greater than 300 is viscous liquid asphalt.
surface of the steel bar, or both. There are two main ways to Solid petroleum asphalt with penetration of 10 is used in this
prolong the corrosion time of steel bar corrosion inhibitor: test.
reducing the penetration rate of chloride ion in concrete and The anti-corrosion structure of ordinary grade asphalt
increasing the critical concentration of chloride ion. The first geotextile adopts three kinds of “oil” and three kinds of
developed corrosion inhibitor is nitrite, especially calcium “cloth”, and the total thickness of the anti-corrosion layer is
nitrite, which is very effective to improve the corrosion 4.0–5.5 mm. The anti-corrosion structure of reinforced grade
resistance. So far, it is still an important component of asphalt geotextile adopts four kinds of “oil” and four kinds
composite corrosion inhibitor. Sodium nitrite, which is used of “cloth”, and the total thickness of the anti-corrosion layer
to prevent electrical corrosion of steel bars in concrete, has is 5.5–7.0 mm. The anti-corrosion structure of
also been considered to be a good corrosion inhibitor, but extra-reinforced asphalt geotextile adopts five kinds of “oil”
hasn’t been widely used because it will cause loss of strength and five kinds of “cloth”, and the total thickness of the
of concrete and sodium ions will promote alkali–aggregate anti-corrosion layer is more than 7.0 mm.
reaction. In addition, it is an anodic-type corrosion inhibitor Geotextile asphalt is a kind of external anti-corrosion
whose insufficient dosage will promote local corrosion of measure often used in early transmission line engineering for
steel bars and sodium nitrite is toxic. In addition to nitrite, its low-cost and convenient construction. However, it is easy
Na2PO3F, Na3PO4, and Na2PO4 can also be used as corro- to age under the natural environment, especially under the
sion inhibitor for steel bars. In recent years, organic corro- condition of bad climate and alternation of dry and wet in the
sion inhibitor, which is mainly water-based organic northwest. The anti-corrosion effect is generally lost in 3–
admixture composed of amine and ester, has become an 5 years, which brings hidden danger to the long-term safe
effective method to restrain the corrosion of steel bars in operation of the line.
concrete.
At present, the research of steel bar corrosion inhibitor is b. High chlorinated polyethylene (HCPE)
still developing and new and multifunctional compound
corrosion inhibitor has been developed and applied. Among HCPE is an irregular product produced by the high degree of
them, the migration corrosion inhibitor is a new organic chlorination of chlorine with a chlorine content exceeding
corrosion inhibitor. The corrosion inhibitor generally 60%. HCPE has good weather resistance, ozone resistance,
re-passivates the corroded steel bar through amine and heat resistance, fire resistance, chemical resistance, and oil
alkene amine and organic acid or inorganic acid salts and resistance, and can be used as a film-forming material
sodium monofluorophosphate that can penetrate into the because its molecular structure doesn’t contain double bond
362 J. Zhang
and chlorine atoms are irregularly distributed. By taking be used to prepare waterborne and thick-film (high-solid and
HCPE as the main film-forming material and adding differ- solvent-free) pollution-free heavy anti-corrosion coatings.
ent modified resins, plasticizers, solvents, additives, and
anti-rust pigments, HCPE heavy anti-corrosion coating with d. Spraying polyurea
different uses can be produced.
HCPE coating film has excellent waterproof property, Spraying polyurea is a kind of elastomer waterproof coating,
strong sealing property, ozone resistance, light aging resis- which is composed of isocyanate component as A compo-
tance, weather aging resistance, thermal aging resistance, nent and amine compound as B component. The two com-
excellent anti-corrosion performance to chemical atmo- ponents are mixed and reacted by spraying technology. The
sphere, acid, alkali and salt, abrasion resistance, and strong isocyanate may be either aromatic or aliphatic. A component
stability. In addition, HCPE coating film has strong adhesive is a monomer, a polymer, a derivative of an isocyanate, a
force to various steel structures, concrete facilities, and prepolymer, and a semi-prepolymer. The prepolymer and
wood surface, and can be widely applicable to surface semi-prepolymer are prepared by reacting a terminal amino
anti-corrosion of various industrial equipment and facilities group or a terminal hydroxyl group compound with iso-
in metallurgical, petroleum, chemical, electric power, cyanate. B component is composed of terminal amino resin
mechanical, and other industries, so as to protect them from and terminal amino chain extender.
various corrosive environments and prolong the service life Spraying polyurea began to be used commercially in the
of the coated parts. world in the early 1990s, and was introduced into China in
HCPE is characterized by good adhesive force, tensile the early twenty-first century. Spraying polyurea adopts
impact, rapid drying, good leveling property after film- continuous spraying and the thickness of one construction is
forming, strong hiding power, and so on. It can be applied in unlimited. The construction period is short, the efficiency is
low-temperature environment, and its construction condi- high, the construction of the node detail is convenient, the
tions are so simple that it can conduct brush coating, roll special fiber reinforcement layer is not required, and the
coating, and spraying. Film can dry by itself and drying rate curing rate is so fast that gelling occurs within 5–20 s and
is fast. Raw materials are easily available and price is suit- walking strength reaches in 10 min. In addition, spraying
able, so it has been widely used in chemical, petrochemical, polyurea can resist long-term immersion of acid, alkali, salt,
pharmaceutical, and other industries. As described above, and corrosive ions. It is an excellent heavy anti-corrosion
the modified HCPE anti-corrosion coating has excellent material with strong adhesive force to metal and nonmetallic
performance, mature technology, simple, and easy con- substrate. The bonding strength with the concrete is not less
struction conditions, and can meet the requirements of field than 5 MPa (exceeding the bonding strength between the
construction of transmission line projects. concrete). The coating can be used at −45 to 120 °C for a
long time and the heat resistance reaches 160 °C (can
c. Epoxy resin withstand short-time thermal shock at 160 °C). Besides, it
has low tenderness −45 °C and excellent water permeability
Epoxy resin refers to thermosetting resin whose each with seamless compact and tough tissue, achieving the
molecule contains two or more epoxy groups. There are “skin-type” corrosion and protection function.
many kinds of epoxy resins, including bisphenol A epoxy
resin, bisphenol F epoxy resin, and Novolac epoxy resin. e. Epoxy coal asphalt
Bisphenol F epoxy resin has low viscosity and can be used
to formulate solvent-free or high-solid epoxy coatings. Epoxy coal asphalt coating, commonly known as bitumastic
Novolac epoxy resin has high epoxy group content and can solution, is a two-component coating, which is composed of
be made into coatings with high cross-linking density. Its A component of primer plus B component (curing agent), A
heat resistance and solvent resistance are higher than those component of topcoat plus B component (curing agent), and
of bisphenol A-type epoxy resin. is used with corresponding diluents.
Epoxy resin has excellent adhesive force and low shrink- Epoxy coal asphalt coating has excellent properties of
age and has good corrosion resistance and impermeability to electrical insulation, water impermeability, microbial abra-
water, medium acid, alkali, and other solvents. Besides, it has sion resistance, stray current resistance, heat resistance, and
more curing agent that makes it have good film-forming temperature difference sudden change resistance. The coat-
performance under various construction conditions. It can ing can be used at −4 to −150 °C. It is mainly used for
well mix with various resins, fillers, and additives to formu- anti-corrosion of external wall of buried or underwater oil
late into a series of commonly used heavy coatings, and can transmission, gas transmission, water conveyance pipelines
and thermal pipelines, and is also applicable to anti-

corrosion of various steel structures, wharves, ships, slui-
ces, gas storage tanks, equipment of refining and chemical
plants, and anti-leakage of sewage pools, roof waterproof
layer, and concrete layer in basement.
Epoxy coal asphalt is a kind of external anti-corrosion
measure which is widely used in transmission line engi-
neering at present. It is easy to construct and low in cost, but
it is also easy to age.
(4) Epibolic glass fiber reinforced plastic
Glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP or FRP) is composite

material with a wide variety, different properties, a wide Fig. 4.94 Rigid step foundation GFRP template
range of applications. It is a new type of functional material
made of synthetic resin and glass fiber by composite process.
GFRP is characterized by lightweight, high specific
strength, corrosion resistance, good electrical insulation,
slow heat transfer, good thermal insulation, good resistance
to transient ultrahigh temperature, and easy to color, pene-
tration of electromagnetic waves. Compared with commonly
used metal materials, it also has the following
characteristics:
GFRP has good corrosion resistance to the general con-
centration of acid, alkali, salt, a variety of oils, and solvents,
so it has been applied to all aspects of chemical anti-corrosion.
GFRP products can be designed and compounded
according to different use environments and special perfor-
mance requirements. As long as the appropriate raw material
varieties are selected, it can basically meet the performance
requirements of different applications for the products.
Therefore, GFRP material is a kind of material with Fig. 4.95 Epibolic GFRP tower foundation outcrop
designability.
For GFRP products, one-time molding is another notable
feature different from the metal materials. As long as the strongly corrosive area. The application of anti-corrosion of
proper raw material laying method and arrangement program foundation GFRP in the area of Chaerhan salt lake is shown
are selected according to the design of the product, GFRP in Figs. 4.94 and 4.95.
material and structure can be completed at one time, and the
secondary processing normally required for the metal mate- 4) Anti-corrosion scheme of corroded ground tower foun-
rial is avoided, greatly reducing material consumption of the dation in Harbin–Zhengzhou Line
product, the waste of manpower and material resources.
To sum up, compared with the traditional metal materials The ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line project from Hami
and nonmetallic materials, GFRP material and its products South to Zhengzhou is the first UHV transmission project of
have the characteristics of high strength, good performance, “Xinjiang power transmission” project of SGCC. The pro-
energy saving, large freedom of product design, and wide ject is located in the Gan 6 section of Zhangye City, Gansu
adaptability to use. Province and passes through a large number of salinized soil
According to the experience of Qinghai Electric Power areas, and the foundation soil is highly corrosive. The DC
Design Institute in the salinized soil area for many years and Construction Department of SGCC attaches great impor-
scientific research projects, combined with the operation tance to this project and has carried out a number of special
experience of many lines in the salt lake area, the design studies during the construction stage of the project.
self-standing steel tower foundation adopts GFRP The anti-corrosion technical scheme has been worked out
cylinder-type reinforced concrete integral foundation in the based on the characteristics of the line project through the
364 J. Zhang
Table 4.26 Concrete mix proportion

Strength Cement Fly Slag Fine Coarse Water Water reducing and Corrosion Water– Slump
ash aggregate aggregate air-entraining agent inhibitor cement ratio
C35 365 65 – 704 1149 167 4.3 – 0.38 60–100
C40 368 46 46 712 1161 167 4.6 13.8 0.35 60–100
evaluation and verification of experts. In the scheme, the 200 lm in the medium corrosion area and not less than
internal anti-corrosion measures such as the equivalent 300 lm in the strong corrosion area.
strength grade, the maximum water–binder ratio, the mini- (7) It is necessary to add mineral admixtures such as fly
mum cement content, and the mineral admixture content of ash, ground slag, and silica fume into the foundation
the tower foundation concrete under different corrosion concrete in medium and strong corrosion areas. The
grades are specified, and the technical scheme of exterior concrete type, quality, and quantity shall be determined
anti-corrosion coating and adding steel bar corrosion inhi- by test.
bitor are proposed. The specific scheme is as follows: (8) Steel bar corrosion inhibitor should be added to the
foundation concrete in the strong corrosion area of Cl−.
(1) In weak corrosion area, the strength grade of foundation The variety and dosage of the corrosion inhibitor can be
concrete is C30, the maximum water–binder ratio is 0.5, determined by electrochemical test according to the
and the minimum cement consumption is 300 kg/m3. different contents of Cl−.
No other external protective measures shall be adopted. (9) Cast-in-place pile foundation is adopted in strong cor-
Concrete cushion minimum strength grade is C20, and rosion area, the strength grade of foundation concrete is
the minimum thickness is 100 mm. Concrete strength C40, and the pile cap part is coated with HCPE
grade of cast-in-place pile foundation is C35, and the anti-corrosion coating.
maximum water–binder ratio is 0.45.
(2) In medium corrosion area, the strength grade of foun- Concrete mix proportion with strength grades of C35 and
dation concrete is C35, the maximum water–binder C40 for this solution is shown in Table 4.26. Figures 4.96
ratio is 0.4, and the minimum cement dosage is and 4.97 show the effect of external HCPE anti-corrosion
320 kg/m3. The excavated foundation surface and the coating on tower foundation.
top surface of the cushion layer are all protected by
anti-corrosion coating. The minimum strength grade of 3. Conductor and ground wire
cushion concrete is C25, and the minimum thickness is
100 mm. The excavated foundation, manual excavated Steel-cored aluminum stranded wire is the most widely used
pile foundation, and cast-in-place pile foundation shall conductor in transmission line. It is made of hard aluminum
be coated with anti-corrosion coating at 500 mm below
the ground and the outcrop part.
(3) In strong corrosion area, the strength grade of founda-
tion concrete is C40, the maximum water–binder ratio
is 0.36, and the minimum cement consumption is
340 kg/m3. The excavated foundation surface and the
top surface of the cushion layer are all protected by
anti-corrosion coating. The minimum strength grade of
cushion concrete is C25, and the minimum thickness is
100 mm.
(4) The minimum thickness of reinforced concrete protec-
tive layer of cast-in-place pile foundation is 55 mm in
medium corrosion area and 65 mm in strong corrosion
area, and the minimum thickness of other foundation
protection layer is 50 mm.
(5) All grades of concrete shall be prepared with 42.5
ordinary Portland cement.
(6) Modified HCPE is used as the anti-corrosion coating on Fig. 4.96 External HCPE anti-corrosion coating on straight column
the base surface. The dry film thickness is not less than plate foundation
humidity of the atmosphere and the content of corrosion

medium are two key factors. In general, the higher the value
of both is, the more severe the corrosion is. Other climatic
factors such as sunshine, temperature, wind speed, rainfall,
and dustfall will affect the corrosion of steel-cored aluminum
stranded wire. In addition, the characteristics of the
self-stranded structure and composite structure of the
steel-cored aluminum stranded wire make its atmospheric
corrosion behavior different from that of general metal
materials. The inner aluminum stranded wire is shielded by
the outer aluminum stranded wire so that the abrasion of the
material surface by rainwater is alleviated. The corrosion
products are deposited continuously and the existence time
of the liquid film is prolonged so that the electrochemical
corrosion time is increased. The aluminum strands of the
Fig. 4.97 External HCPE anti-corrosion coating on cast-in-place pile conductor are in contact with the aluminum strands to form
foundation cap crevices, which may cause crevice corrosion. However,
when the aluminum strand is in contact with the steel core,
galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metal will occur due
wire and galvanized steel wire. Galvanized steel strand is a to different potentials. The above characteristics will aggra-
kind of ground wire widely used in transmission line, made vate the atmospheric corrosion of steel-cored aluminum
of galvanized steel wire. Thus, the corrosion of conductors stranded wire [46].
and ground wires is essentially the corrosion of aluminum According to the different types and contents of corrosive
strands and galvanized steel strands. Overhead conductors media, the operating atmospheric environment of steel-cored
and ground wires are not in contact with the ground soil, so aluminum stranded wire can be divided into rural atmo-
they are mainly affected by atmospheric corrosion during spheric environment, urban atmospheric environment,
daily operation. The corrosion of metals under natural industrial atmospheric environment, marine atmospheric
atmospheric conditions is called atmospheric corrosion environment, and marine industrial atmospheric environ-
which is one of the most common corrosions of metals. ment. The rural atmospheric environment is relatively less
When atmosphere contains chemical impurities such as corrosive, and doesn’t contain strong corrosive chemical
moisture, sulfur oxide, and chloride ion, the conductor and pollutants. The gas components mainly include water, CO2,
the ground wire may be corroded. As a result, the conductive O2, etc., and the solid components mainly include inorganic
property and durability of the conductor and the ground wire substances and organic matter particles. Relative humidity,
may be reduced and the ground wire may be broken when temperature, and rainfall are important factors affecting
the corrosion is serious, causing massive blackout [45]. The atmospheric corrosion. The industrial atmosphere contains
corrosion mechanism, anti-corrosion measures of the con- highly corrosive chemical pollutants, such as SO2, one of the
ductor, and ground wire are as follows. most important chemical pollutants, which can be absorbed
by dust or directly dissolved in the water film on the metal
1) Corrosion mechanism of conductor and ground wire surface to form an acidic highly corrosive electrolyte film,
accelerating the corrosion of the metal. As humidity in the
In China, the conductor of overhead transmission line is air increases, the role of SO2 in accelerating corrosion
mainly steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, and the ground becomes more obvious. The typical corrosive particles in the
wire is mainly galvanized steel strand. During operation, the marine atmosphere are salt-containing particles. These par-
steel-cored aluminum stranded wire will be in direct contact ticles essentially form a corrosive environment of Cl−, which
with moisture, chemical gas, and corrosive medium in the has strong water absorption and can form a highly corrosive
atmosphere, and the combined action of these materials will electrolyte film on the metal surface. There are two kinds of
cause atmospheric corrosion of the steel-cored aluminum strongly corrosive media, SO2 and Cl−, in the marine
stranded wire, which is generally electrochemical corrosion industrial atmosphere. The influence of salt particles on
under the electrolyte film. Chemical gas and corrosive media atmospheric corrosion is far greater than other corrosive
dissolve in water to form electrolyte, and oxygen in the air is factors, so the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire is most
a depolarizer for electrochemical corrosion of cathode. vulnerable to corrosion damage in marine atmospheric
Among the many factors affecting the atmospheric corrosion environment and marine industrial atmospheric environment
behavior of steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, the relative [47].
366 J. Zhang
To sum up, chloride salt and sulfate are the main factors there were also four broken strands, resulting in power
leading to corrosion of steel-cored aluminum stranded wire. outage repair accident. The analysis shows that the average
In addition, the steel-cored aluminum strand wire is in a annual humidity of the power station is about 70%, and it is
high-temperature aerobic environment for a long time during easy to form electrochemical corrosion condition. In addi-
current-carrying operation process, so the surface of the tion, the industrial pollution around the power station
aluminum wire will be significantly oxidized. The oxidation increases year by year and the pollution grade deteriorates
film is a poor conductor of electricity, so high-temperature year by year, which accelerates the corrosion of steel-cored
oxidation leads to increase in resistance of the aluminum aluminum stranded wire. In June 2010, a short strand acci-
wire and increase in power loss, affecting the transmission dent occurred on the steel core aluminum stranded wire put
capacity of the line. Therefore, chloride corrosion, sulfate into operation for 24 years of a power supply company in
corrosion, and high-temperature oxidation are the three main Shandong Province. The type of the conductor is
atmospheric corrosion mechanisms of steel-cored aluminum LGJ2-400/50, and it is a light corrosion-resistant steel-cored
stranded wire. aluminum stranded wire. Compared with the common
steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, the steel core is treated
2) Status and characteristics of corrosion with oil immersion, which has anti-corrosion effect on the
steel core. The analysis shows that the working environment
At present, the overhead conductor of high-voltage trans- of the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire is relatively bad,
mission and distribution network in China mainly adopts and the dust and fly ash in the ash field under the tower and
steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, and the overhead the surrounding ash field adhere to the conductors and
ground wire mainly adopts galvanized steel stranded wire. between the conductor layers with the wind. The adsorption
The steel-cored aluminum stranded wire has been in service of fly ash to water and the surrounding high-salt mist envi-
for nearly 40 years in the world since it was used. It is in theronment cause the corrosion of aluminum wire.
middle and late stage of its service life and corrosion has To sum up, the corrosion of transmission line conductors
appeared in many lines, which pose a great potential threat to and ground wire in China is characterized by a wide range
the safe transmission of electric power. In 2002, a large-scale and many forms, and the corrosion mechanism and corrosion
outage in the south caused by the disconnection of the degree are closely related to the regional environmental
460 kV transmission line in Brazil, which affected 11 of characteristics. In recent years, as the air pollution becomes
Brazil’s 27 states and more than 6 million people, and had a more and more serious, the accident frequency of trans-
great influence on the economy of the country. Through the mission line conductor and ground wire corrosion in China
analysis of the structure and service environment of the is increasing.
broken conductor, it is considered that the main causes of the
accident are the wear of the conductor due to the breeze 3) Common anti-corrosion measures
vibration and the electrochemical corrosion of the
steel-cored aluminum stranded wire. Compared with the In recent years, with the rapid development of UHV engi-
developed countries in Europe and America, the service time neering construction in China, the corrosion of conductors
of China’s medium and high-voltage transmission lines is has become more and more frequent. It has become an
shorter by 10–20 years. Transmission line corrosion and important subject in the design and construction of trans-
strand breakage also often occurs in China because of the mission line engineering to formulate the anti-corrosion
vast territory and various climatic conditions and geo- scheme of the conductor in the highly corrosive area. At
graphical environments. In 2002, strand break accidents of present, the anti-corrosion measures for transmission line
transmission line in Chaerhan salt lake area of Xinjiang conductors mainly include the following aspects.
frequently took place, and it was concluded that the high-salt
polluted atmospheric environment was the main cause. In (1) Hot-dip anti-corrosion coating
2003, the Daya Bay Nuclear Power station suffered from the
attack of “Krovanh” typhoon, and many steel-cored alu- In general, the service life of the galvanized steel wire
minum stranded wires in the substation were broken. After bearing force in the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire is
inspection, it was found that the steel-cored wires that played 10–15 years, while the design service life of the steel-cored
a supporting role were not broken, and the aluminum wires aluminum stranded wire is generally 30 years. The service
were broken. The results show that this type of conductor is life of steel-cored wire restricts the service time of
corroded by the marine atmospheric environment. In March steel-cored aluminum stranded wire. In order to solve this
2010, after nearly 40 years of operation of a 220 kV line in problem, it is very important to improve the corrosion
Gongzui Power Station of Dadu River in Sichuan Province, resistance of steel wire. It is an effective method to coat
another metal on the surface of the steel wire to protect the soap-based greases, and special fibers (asbestos), to protect
inner steel wire from corrosion. The anti-corrosion coating the wires from corrosion. In order to improve the service life
of the first generation is galvanization. However, the work- of the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, it is common
ing environment of the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire practice to apply anti-corrosion coating or grease between
is relatively complex. With the increasingly serious air steel core wires and aluminum wires. This method can
pollution, only galvanizing layer cathodic protection of steel effectively reduce the corrosion of corrosive gas and frost,
core can’t meet the requirements. The anti-corrosion coating rain, and dew to the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, so
of the second generation is aluminizing. The corrosion that the service life of the steel core wire is prolonged,
protection mechanism of aluminizing is to form a dense matching with the service life of the outer aluminum wire.
Al2O3 oxidation film on the surface of the coating. The According to the coating location, it can be divided into
formation of the oxidation film increases the resistance of the three categories. The first type is light anti-corrosion
whole system and weakens the corrosion current, thus steel-cored aluminum stranded wire which is only coated
slowing down the corrosion rate. In general, its corrosion with inner steel core coating. The second type is medium
resistance is 3–5 times higher than that of the galvanized anti-corrosion steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, which is
steel wire. However, because of the high energy consump- coated with anti-corrosion coating between the inner steel
tion and cost of the technology (melting point of aluminum core wire and the inner layer aluminum wire. The third type
is 660 °C), the mechanical strength and twist property is is heavy anti-corrosion steel-cored aluminum stranded wire
reduced when coating with aluminum. Therefore, the that is coated with anti-corrosion coating both between the
development of this technology is restricted. The inner aluminum wires and on the outer aluminum wires.
anti-corrosion coating of the third generation is aluminum– Generally speaking, heavy anti-corrosion steel-cored alu-
zinc alloy, which is a newly developed coating in recent minum stranded wire is suitable for coastal areas and areas
years with the function of cathodic protection of zinc coating with corrosive gas.
and oxidation film protection of aluminum coating, as well
as excellent formability, twist property, and weldability. (3) Development of corrosion-resistant conductors
Zinc–aluminum alloy coating is a new type of coating
developed rapidly in recent years. It has better corrosion The aluminum alloy conductor has better performance than
resistance, and its corrosion resistance is 2–7 times of that of the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire. The Brinell Hard-
common zinc coating. The 55% zinc–aluminum alloy coating ness (BH) of the aluminum alloy conductor is over 1 times
high carbon steel wire and steel stranded wire were produced higher than that of the pure aluminum wire, and the damage
in China in 1988. In the 1980s, the International Lead Zinc during manufacturing, transportation, and construction is
Research Organization (ILZRO) developed a new type of hot much smaller than that of the pure aluminum wire. The
coating—Galfan alloy coat, namely, 5% Al–Zn–RE alloy surface quality of the conductor is obviously better than that
coating whose corrosion resistance is 2–3 times of that of of the pure aluminum wire. It has a better level of radio
zinc coating. In addition, the mechanical strength and good interference resistance and a smaller corona loss, as well as
mechanical properties of galvanized steel wire are main- better corrosion resistance. Although the same quality alu-
tained. Since 1990, galvanized alloy steel-cored aluminum minum alloy conductor is 25% more expensive than the
stranded wire has been widely used in electrified railway. Up steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, the unit length is only
to now, there has been no corrosion fracture due to corrosion, 10% more expensive than the pure aluminum wire because
and its corrosion resistance is obviously superior to that of the aluminum alloy conductor is lighter in mass. The use of
ordinary galvanized steel-cored aluminum stranded wire. In aluminum alloy conductor can also reduce the cost of
1993, it began to be popularized and adopted in the overhead engineering transportation. It has stronger corrosion resis-
ground wires and cables of power transmission lines. tance and wear resistance than steel-cored aluminum stran-
ded wire, as well as a longer service life. The United States,
(2) Application of anti-corrosion coating Switzerland, and Germany began to apply aluminum alloy
conductors to high-voltage transmission lines in the 1920s
In order to prevent the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire and achieved good results. In the 1950s, France and Japan
from corrosion, the United States first applied vaseline on also began to apply the technology to power transmission
the wire joints in 1927. Later, Britain, the United States, lines. In the early 1960s, China began to develop such a kind
France, Japan, Germany, and other countries did a lot of of conductor. However, due to technical reasons, the man-
research work, and used quite a lot of anti-corrosion coat- ufacture process of the product is poor and the performance
ings, such as asphalt mixtures, lanolin mixtures, grease can’t meet the requirements of use, and a large number of
mixtures, special metal soap-based greases, special metal strand breaks occur during the trial period, which causes
368 J. Zhang
users’ doubts. Thus, the development, trial, and popular- greater. The tensile strength is twice that of ordinary
ization of the conductor are brought to a standstill. With the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire. At 180 °C, the carrying
improvement of technology and manufacturing level, the capacity is twice that of ordinary steel-cored aluminum
aluminum alloy conductors produced in China have reached strands. The density of the composite is 25% of the steel and
the international standard after 1980s, and the steel-cored the weight per unit length is 70–80% of ordinary steel-cored
aluminum alloy stranded wires have been produced from it. aluminum stranded wire. In this field, Japan and the United
Research and development of new corrosion-resistant con- States made considerable achievements in the 1990s. They
ductors have also been the focus of researchers. not only successfully developed the carbon fiber composite
The round wire concentric stranding is the most common core wire but also applied it to a number of domestic lines
structure of overhead wire, but the wire of this structure has a and achieved good economic benefits. In 2005, two appli-
large gap between each layer of wire and single wire. During cation tests were carried out in France, in which carbon fib
use, the wire is affected by ice, snow, rain, and corrosive gas composite core flexible aluminum conductors of 0.4 and
so that electrochemical corrosion and crevice corrosion are 0.8 km were applied to the power transmission line. The
very easy to occur. If a special wire is used to take place the carbon fiber composite flexible aluminum conductor runs
round wire, the gap between the layers and strands of the wire well. China makes slow progress in this area. In 2005, a
can be greatly reduced. The concentric stranded wires may be number of scientific research institutes began to study carbon
in the shapes of S, Z, and T, and the wires in the shapes of S fiber composite conductors, including Far East Cable, China
and Z are the tightest. The layers and the single-wire gaps Electric Power Research Institute, 43rd Institute of Aero-
form a labyrinth shape. The inherent surface tension of water space Academy, Liaoning Electric Power Co., Ltd and
makes it difficult for moisture to seep in the tight wires, which Harbin FRP Institute, North China Electric Power Research
reduces the possibility for electrochemical corrosion. The Institute, and Hebei Silicon Valley Chemical Co., Ltd.
outer layer of the new conductor is composed of aluminum or China’s first high-strength carbon fiber composite core alu-
aluminum alloy wire with excellent electrical conductivity in minum stranded wire was put into operation on 220 kV line
the shapes of S and Z, and the inner layer is aluminum clad in Fujian Province in 2007. In January 2009, North China
steel stranded wire as a bearing layer. Anti-corrosion grease Power Grid launched the first 500 kV high-strength carbon
is applied between the wire and the wire layer on the outer- fiber composite core aluminum stranded wire in China. Up
most surface of the aluminum wire. The conductor can pre- to now, there are more than 100 carbon fiber composite core
vent rain, mist, and corrosive substances in the air from flexible aluminum conductors in China, with a total length of
entering the inner layer of the conductor, thus greatly 2,800 km, mainly concentrated on 110–220 kV lines.
improving the corrosion resistance of the conductor. In
Europe, the conductor is called zero-corrosion conductor. In 4) Anti-corrosion scheme of typical engineering
addition, this conductor also has good self-damping perfor-
mance, anti-typhoon, and anti-vibration characteristics, In August 2003, “Krovanh” typhoon passed through Daya
which can significantly improve its service life. Bay Nuclear Power station, resulting in multiple strand
With the improvement of science and technology, mate- breakage of 9LGR220 kV portal frame A-phase steel-cored
rial technology, and manufacturing level, new composite aluminum stranded wire (LGJ-240/40), but the steel core
materials have been used to manufacture bearing cores of subjected to tension is not broken. The wire has been used
conductors. Since 1990s, many new composite materials for less than five since it was commissioned in October
have been successfully developed into conductors. Carbon 1998. The portal frame is close to the outlet of circulating
fiber composite core aluminum conductor is a new type of seawater of the power station (about 50 m), the outlet drop is
composite core conductor, which can replace the traditional 8 m, the amount of salt mist is large, and it is close to the
steel-cored conductor. Carbon fiber composite core con- environment of the sea splash zone. In addition, the uptake
ductor is the latest type of conductor, which is composed of of the portal frame is the water outlet. However, B- and
light high-strength carbon fiber composite core and C-phase conductors using LGJF3-240/40-type steel-cored
high-performance ladder-shaped aluminum wire wound on aluminum stranded wires have been used for 12 years and
its outer layer. Due to the application of the new carbon fiber no strand breakage was found.
composite core, the conductor not only has strong tensile Inspection found that there is a large number of block and
strength but has a small density and expansion coefficient. Its light white corrosion products in the plug between steel core
heat resistance and aging resistance are also better than that and aluminum wire in A-phase conductor, and steel core has
of ordinary steel-cored aluminum stranded wire. The density only slight uniform corrosion. However, the inner side of the
is small, so the wire carrying capacity per unit weight is inner aluminum wire in contact with the steel core is in the
Table 4.27 Comparison of anti-corrosion performance of several types of conductors

Type of wire Variety Model Overview of wire structure Usage and selection
principle
Steel-cored aluminum Steel-cored LGJ The inner core is galvanized steel stranded wire, mainly Used in general uses
stranded wire aluminum bearing the tension; the outer layer is an aluminum stranded
stranded wire wire, an electrically conductive part
Corrosion-resistant LGJF Structural and mechanical and electrical properties are the Used in coastal areas
steel-cored aluminum same as those of ordinary steel-cored aluminum stranded and areas with
stranded wire wire-only apply preservatives on steel core corrosive gas
Light Only apply preservatives on steel core
anti-corrosion
Medium Only apply preservatives to steel core and inner aluminum
anti-corrosion wire
Heavy Apply preservatives to steel core, inner and outer aluminum
anti-corrosion wire
Steel-cored RE LGJX The corrosion resistance of Zn–5%Al–RE alloy coating is Used in coastal areas
aluminum stranded better than that of a stranded zinc coating, and its mechanical and areas with
wire and electrical properties are the same as those of ordinary corrosive gas
steel-cored aluminum stranded wire
Galvanized steel Galvanized GJ Stranded wire made of multiple strands of galvanized one Usually used for
stranded wire steel stranded strand overhead lightning
wire conductor
Al–Zn–RE GJX The corrosion resistance of zinc–5%Al–RE alloy coating is Used in coastal areas
alloy-coated steel better than that of one-stranded zinc coating and areas with
stranded wire corrosive gas
shape of peeling off, resulting in a large amount of gray white corrosion primary cell is formed between the aluminum
and massive corrosion products. The further away from the wire and the steel core. The aluminum wire becomes a
steel core is, the weaker the corrosion degree is. Peeling in a sacrificial anode and is corroded. Therefore, the inner
large amount is rarely seen on the outer aluminum wire, but the aluminum wire peels off. The farther away from the
outer aluminum wire has more distributed pits. The C-phase steel core is, the weaker the corrosion is.
conductor is still in good condition for 12 years. (3) Crevice corrosion between aluminum stranded wires.
According to the corrosion product analysis, the corro- There are a lot of gaps between the aluminum stranded
sion reason for A-phase steel-cored aluminum stranded wire wires, and the strong corrosive medium causes the
includes the following three points: metal corrosion in the gaps.
(1) High-concentration salt mist or sea salt particles cause Therefore, the high concentration of sea salt particles
pitting corrosion of aluminum materials. The Daya Bay induces the abovementioned three corrosion forms, causing
area, bordering on the South China Sea, belongs to the great damage to the aluminum wire. In addition, the vibra-
humid marine environment climate of the south sub- tion tension under strong typhoon results in strand breakage
tropical zone. Atmospheric environment and rainfall of the conductor.
contain more highly corrosive sea salt ions and rain- According to the analysis conclusion of the corrosion
water is slightly acidic, but the content of SO2 is lower. reason for the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire, the
Concentration of chloride ions is high outdoors. The anti-corrosion scheme of the wire is worked out as follows:
Cl− in the salt mist has a strong penetrating effect on the In order to reduce or delay the corrosion of the conductor
passivation film on the aluminum surface, causing pit- in the marine atmosphere environment, the corrosion-
ting corrosion. resistant steel-cored aluminum stranded wire must be
(2) Galvanic corrosion exists between aluminum wire and adopted. The anti-corrosion performance and applicable
steel core. When a large amount of salt mist or sea salt environment of several wires that can be used in Daya Bay
particles are concentrated in a plug between the alu- Nuclear Power station are listed in Table 4.27. As can be
minum wires to form a strongly corrosive medium, a seen from the table, the corrosion resistance of the same wire
370 J. Zhang
with anti-corrosion coating is better than that of no coating. 2) Status and characteristics of corrosion
Therefore, in the marine atmospheric area (or near the sea-
water splash zone), the steel-cored aluminum stranded wire In recent years, along with the increasing scale of China’s
with anti-corrosion coating should be selected. power grid, HVDC transmission technology has been
developed rapidly. Many ultrahigh-voltage direct current
(2) Wire used in marine atmospheric environment (or near (UHVDC) transmission projects have been put into opera-
the seawater splash zone) needs to be replaced period- tion, playing an important role in the optimal allocation of
ically. Generally, the replacement period of corrosion- power energy in China. Disk-shaped suspended ceramic and
resistant guide wire is 8 years, and the replacement glass insulators are widely used in HVDC transmission
period of common galvanized steel strand is 4 years. engineering because of their stable electromechanical char-
acteristics and rich experience of operation.
4. Insulators Since October 2011, large-area corrosion of metal
accessories of ceramic and glass insulators has occurred
The insulator body of power transmission line is usually successively in UHVDC transmission projects of ±800 kV
made of electrical ceramic, toughened glass, or composite upward DC and Chusui DC in China after less than 2 years
material with good corrosion resistance. Corrosion of insu- of operation. According to the investigation results of SGCC
lators usually refers to the corrosion of metal parts (iron caps in February 2012, more than 2,000 pieces of ceramic insu-
and steel foot structures) of insulators. Under DC voltage, lators in Enshi, Hubei Province, were corroded in iron caps,
the corrosion of metal parts of insulators is mainly elec- and more than 20,000 pieces of ceramic insulators were also
trolytic corrosion caused by directional leakage current. found to have iron cap corrosion in Qujing section of
In the long-term operation of the metal parts of insulators, Chusui DC in Yunnan Province. In addition, Liuzhou
especially after the corrosion of the steel foot, the diameter Bureau, a UHV transmission company of China Southern
cross section is gradually reduced, the mechanical strength is Power Grid, found that iron cap corrosion also existed in
reduced, and the contact part of the metal parts and the ±500 kV Gaozhao, Xing’an, and Tianguang HVDC lines
cement forms stress due to the expanded volume of elec- under its jurisdiction [49]. It is found that 82 pieces of
trolytic products (such as various zinc salts and alkalis). The insulator with positive polarity in random sampling have the
stress is transmitted through the cement to the ceramic or phenomenon of steel foot corrosion in the anatomical
glass, causing rupture and eventually leading to a fatal detection of isolators. With the increase of running time, the
accident of wire falling [48]. number of metal part corrosion insulators is increasing,
which threatens the safe and stable operation of transmission
1) Corrosion mechanism of insulators lines.
To sum up, the corrosion of the metal parts of the
The corrosion of metal parts of insulator is a common transmission line insulators in China is characterized by
problem in HVDC transmission lines. The corrosion of steel wide range and short cycle, and the corrosion phenomenon
foot occurs early, and the corrosion problem of metal parts is mainly generated in the DC transmission lines. Almost all
of insulator is mainly concentrated on steel foot corrosion at the insulator metal parts of DC transmission lines are cor-
home and abroad. The early domestic literature have studied roded in different degrees.
the corrosion mechanism of steel foot of insulators, believ-
ing that the corrosion of steel foot under DC voltage is 3) Common anti-corrosion measures [50]
mainly caused by electrolytic corrosion, which generally
occurs in the case of positive polarity and is much more In recent years, with the rapid development of power grid
serious than that of AC system. Before the electrolytic cor- construction and gradual improvement of voltage grade in
rosion of the iron cap, the researchers have always believed China, the corrosion phenomenon of insulator metal parts
that there is a big difference in diameter and current density becomes more and more common, which seriously affects
between the iron cap and the steel foot, and that the corro- the safe and stable operation of power grid. Therefore, it is
sion degree is much less obvious than that of the steel foot. very urgent and necessary to take proper measures to protect
With the increase of DC operating experience, the elec- the metal parts of insulators. At present, the anti-corrosion
trolytic corrosion of iron cap will inevitably affect the measures of insulator metal parts of transmission lines
mechanical properties of insulators. mainly include the following aspects.
(1) Suppressing the generation of leakage current material with a negative equilibrium potential is used, the
steel foot and the protective electrode will still be corroded
Electrolytic corrosion is caused by the leakage current flowing due to the small potential difference with iron. In theory,
through the insulator surface. Therefore, to prevent or weaken even materials with a positive potential don’t have a pro-
the electrolytic corrosion of the steel foot can be realized by tective effect if the potential difference between the two
suppressing the generation of leakage current, such as metals is small. The results of the research on the protective
increasing the number of insulators per string, designing and electrode materials show that the zinc sleeve method is
using ideal shaped insulators. However, this method will effective from both the protective effect and the manufac-
increase the overall cost, so it is not suitable to adopt. turing cost.
In zinc sleeve design, the purity of zinc should not be less
(2) Using corrosion-resistant materials than 99.7%. If zinc alloy is used, the galvanic cell causes
corrosion between the grain of the zinc material, and the zinc
The corrosion of steel foot includes electrolytic corrosion, sleeve will soon fail. The zinc sleeve must be sufficiently
rust corrosion, and microbattery corrosion. In terms of cor- fused into the neck of the steel foot without an air gap, and
rosion resistance, the properties of stainless steel and other the melted parted shall be greater than 80% of the total
corrosion-resistant materials are obviously superior to that of contact area between the steel foot and the zinc sleeve. If
common forged steel. However, in terms of resistance to there is an air gap, an oxide barrier may be formed, which
electrolytic corrosion, the properties of corrosion-resistant will weaken the protection of the zinc sleeve. The service
materials are not higher than those of common forged steels life of the zinc sleeve depends on the amount of leakage
because the electrolytic reaction is carried out according to current and is also influenced by environmental conditions
faraday’s law. such as temperature, contamination, etc. At present, zinc
sheath protection has been chosen by more and more
(3) Installing nonmetallic protective sleeve countries. This measure fully shows its superiority in oper-
ation. For the insulator iron cap, zinc ring can also be added
Corrosion of steel feet can also be controlled by installing at the brim of the cap as a sacrificial anode to protect the
nonmetallic protective sleeve. However, this method will iron cap.
bring about many problems, such as natural aging of non- In addition to preventing metal corrosion in the selection
metallic materials, corona discharge, and so on. of new line insulators, it should be pointed out that the
monitoring of the installed insulators should be strength-
(4) Using sacrificial anode ened, and the condition of the steel legs should be checked
piece by piece in combination with the annual insulator
The steel foot can be protected from electrolytic corrosion by cleaning work. The insulator with corrosion phenomenon
adding a sacrificial electrode near the interface between the shall be replaced in time [53].
steel foot and the cement (i.e., the corrosion site). The
material used as the sacrificial electrode should have a higher 4) Anti-corrosion scheme of typical engineering
positive electrochemical potential than that of the steel foot
material (i.e., iron) and should have a greater electrochemi- In February 2012, the operators found the corrosion of iron
cal potential difference with iron [51]. cap on “V” suspension insulator string and “V” insulator
Among the above four measures, it is clear that the use of string for suspension jumpers of tower 957#–965# during the
sacrificial electrode is the simplest and most effective outage of ±800 kV Fufeng Line. The total number of cor-
anti-corrosion measure. It is known from electrochemical roded insulators is 2,144. Corrosion occurs on pole II side,
theory that the metal material used as the sacrificial electrode and no obvious rust is found on pole I side.
should have a higher potential than the material for making At present, the corrosion of iron cap of disk-shaped
the steel foot, and should have a larger potential difference suspension ceramic insulators has occurred in two UHV DC
with iron. When electrolytic corrosion occurs, the sacrificial transmission lines in China. Among them, the corrosion of
electrode is first electrolyzed due to a high potential so that the iron cap of Chusui DC insulators is as follows. In 2011,
the steel foot body is protected. Otherwise, the steel feet will in the ±800 kV Chusui DC line after 2 years of operation,
first suffer from electrolytic corrosion [52]. more than 20,000 ceramic insulator caps were corroded. The
At present, there is a method of adding zinc sleeve near corrosion occurred in pole II and no obvious rust was found
the adhesive end face of steel foot in foreign countries, on pole I side. The insulator strings with corrosion are all in
namely, adding a cathodic protection corrosion electrode in “V”-type arrangement. The common characteristics of two
the boundary area between steel foot and cement gluing. If a insulators with corrosion on UHV DC lines are as follows.
372 J. Zhang
They all appear in pole II, and the conductor is negative; all area which the transmission line passes through are rela-
are “V”-shaped strings; they all appear in wet and rainy area, tively high, the steel and aluminum alloy components in the
only on ceramic insulators. fittings may be corroded, so that the bearing capacity and
The reason for corrosion is as follows: ceramic insulator durability of the components may be reduced. This may
iron cap has no zinc ring, there is about 3 mm gap between cause the breakage of fittings, and then a large-scale power
cap mouth and ceramic, the inside of cap mouth communi- outrage will occur [54]. The corrosion mechanism and
cates with surface leakage current through cement adhesive, anti-corrosion measures of transmission line fittings are as
and the water flow on the upper surface of “V” string follows.
insulator is relatively concentrated. The current density is
large, and the leakage current of the iron cap at the positive 1) Corrosion mechanism of fittings
electrode (steel foot is the negative electrode) starts to be
corroded, and the thinner zinc layer is quickly corroded to China’s transmission line fittings are usually steel or alu-
expose the iron base, thus producing corrosion. The corro- minum alloy components. According to the above, the
sion flows along the surface, forming the main channel of operating atmospheric environment of transmission line fit-
leakage current and accelerating the corrosion of iron base. tings can be divided into rural atmospheric environment,
In view of the above problems, the researchers put zinc urban atmospheric environment, industrial atmospheric
ring on the iron cap for anti-corrosion and verify the environment, marine atmospheric environment, and marine
anti-corrosion effect of the zinc ring through the artificial industrial atmospheric environment. SO2 and Cl− are the two
accelerated electrolytic corrosion test. In April 2012, SGCC most typical corrosive media in the above atmospheric
organized relevant construction units to install a hoop type environment. In addition, some of the current-carrying fit-
and an embedded anti-corrosion zinc ring around the cap tings are in a high-temperature aerobic environment for a
mouth of the disk-shaped suspension ceramic insulator long period of time during the current-carrying operation,
which is prone to iron cap corrosion in the Enshi section of and the surface may undergo significant oxidation, resulting
±800 kV Jinsu DC line. This section is in the same corridor in an increase in resistance and an increase in electric energy
with ±800 kV Fufeng DC line whose iron cap appears loss, thereby affecting the transmission capacity of the line.
corrosion, and the distance between the two lines is within Therefore, like conductors and ground wires, chloride cor-
1 km. rosion, sulfate corrosion, and high-temperature oxidation are
In March 2013, during the investigation of Enshi section the three main atmospheric corrosion mechanisms of trans-
where the corrosion of iron cap occurred in ±800 kV DC mission line fittings.
Fufeng line, it was learned that the Jinsu project “V” was
installed with an anti-corrosion zinc ring and operated for 2) Status and characteristics of corrosion
1 year and no corrosion of iron cap was found in the ceramic
insulator, which fully confirmed the effective corrosion In recent years, with the construction and operation of many
resistance of the zinc ring. Hot casting method is not adopted UHV transmission lines, the development level of China’s
for the connection of the hoop type and embedded transmission line fittings has made great progress. There are
anti-corrosion zinc ring and the iron cap, so the contact many kinds and large quantity of transmission line fittings,
surface of the zinc ring with the iron cap and the insulator which often fail due to corrosion during long-term operation.
ceramic should be paid special attention, so that the leakage In all kinds of fittings, many components are subjected to
current always develops along the order of the iron cap–zinc tensile stress for a long time. When the transmission lines are
ring and ceramic. In this way, the zinc ring can play an subjected to wind deflection and vibration, friction and
effective anti-corrosion effect. collision may occur between the fittings and between fittings
and conductors. Therefore, the corrosion of fittings often
5. Fittings takes place under the synergistic action of atmospheric
corrosion medium and stress or wear, and its corrosion rate
Transmission line fittings are usually made of metal mate- is faster than that of other components, such as tower and
rials such as carbon structural steel, alloy structural steel, conductor of transmission lines. In the presence of tensile
malleable cast iron, or aluminum alloy, so the corrosion of stress, the stress increases the failure degree of the surface of
the fittings is essentially the corrosion of steel and aluminum the zinc coating and increases the crack on the surface so
alloy members. Transmission line fittings are mainly affected that the corrosion medium can easily enter the zinc coating.
by atmospheric corrosion because they are not in contact At the same time, the stress concentrates to generate the
with the ground soil. When the relative humidity and the resident slip band, and the dislocation density is high. The
concentration of chemical gas and corrosive medium in the atoms are highly reactive and tend to become an anode to be
preferentially corroded, and thus the corrosion rate is faster construction. In the design and construction of components,
than that in a resting state. In addition, when friction colli- combined with the possible corrosion patterns, we should
sion occurs between the fittings and between fittings and pertinently take protective measures. For example, the
conductors, a defect due to wear may become a weak point selection and insulation of various parts and materials shall
of the entire fittings, and corrosion rapidly occurs. be done well in the design to avoid the occurrence of gal-
In December 2009, the Power Transmission and Trans- vanic corrosion. The cracks can be eliminated by adding
formation Engineering Research Institute of China Electric rubber gaskets or by means of welding and resin coating.
Power Research Institute investigated the failure of 220 kV Structural optimization can eliminate the possible stress
and above voltage-grade transmission line fittings. The corrosion, and the inspection shall be strengthened.
failure of fittings including hanging clamp, tensile clamp and
connecting fittings, spacer bars, anti-vibration hammers, and (2) Corrosion-resistant steel shall be adopted.
jumper strings are counted. In addition to the lines without
direct operation of East China Power Grid and Central China The alloy elements are added to the body of the steel fittings
Power Grid, there are no failures of fittings in Jilin, Hei- to change the structure of the steel so as to improve the
longjiang, Shanghai, northwest, and Tibet among other 28 corrosion resistance of the steel. Weathering steel is a kind
areas. In the other 23 areas, there are different forms of of atmospheric corrosion-resistant steel developed on this
failure of fittings, among which corrosion is one of the basis. Weathering steel generally contains elements such as
important causes of failure of fittings. In the areas of serious phosphorus, copper, nickel, chromium, and titanium to form
pollution, the corrosion of hanging clamp and right angle a protective layer on the metal surface, thereby improving
hanging plate is more serious. For example, in Henan, corrosion resistance. The low-temperature impact toughness
Sichuan and Chongqing, the corrosion of hanging clamp is of weathering steel is also better than that of general struc-
very serious because of acid rain. In the acid rain environ- tural steel, but the price is higher.
ment, the zinc coating on the surface of the hanging clamp is
quickly corroded, and then the steel body is corroded, and (3) Applying an anti-corrosion coating.
then the clamp fails due to long-term corrosion.
To sum up, the corrosion of transmission line fittings in A sacrificial coating or a corrosion-resistant coating is
China is characterized by wide range and fast speed because applied on the surface of fittings by various methods to
the working conditions of fittings are special (tensile stress, protect fittings from corrosion. The specific process is as
wear), and corrosion usually occurs under the synergistic follows.
action of atmospheric corrosion medium, stress, and wear.
The corrosion rate is fast and the degree is great and part of a. Hot-dip galvanizing coating. Hot-dip galvanizing is to
the fittings even breaks instantaneously, which seriously immerse the steel component after rust removal into
affects the safe and stable operation of transmission lines. molten zinc melted at about 600 °C, so that a zinc coating
is attached to the surface of the steel component to pre-
3) Common anti-corrosion measures vent corrosion. The advantages of this method are long
durability, high degree of industrialization, and stable
Most transmission line fittings are steel components or alu- quality. Al–Zn alloy is a newly developed coating in
minum alloy components, which are prone to corrosion when recent years. It has the function of cathodic protection of
moisture and corrosive medium exist in the atmospheric zinc coating and the protective effect of oxidation film of
environment. Hot-dip galvanizing process is commonly used aluminum coating. Its corrosion resistance is 2–7 times of
for anti-corrosion treatment of fittings at present, but it still that of common zinc coating. In the 1980s, the ILZRO
can’t meet that service life requirement in seriously polluted developed a new type of hot coating—5% Al–Zn–RE
areas. Thus, it is an important subject for the design of alloy coating whose corrosion resistance is 2–3 times
transmission line fittings to make proper anti-corrosion higher than that of zinc coating.
measures so as to improve the durability and service life of b. Thermal spraying aluminum (zinc) composite coating.
fittings. At present, the anti-corrosion measures of transmis- This is a long-term anti-corrosion method comparable to
sion line fittings mainly include the following aspects. that of hot-dip galvanizing. The specific method is to
blast sediment on the surface of steel components to
(1) Strengthening the design of construction technology. remove rust, so that the surface shows metallic luster and
roughening. Then the continuously fed aluminum (zinc)
Strengthening the design of construction technology can wire is melted by an acetylene–oxygen flame and blown
eliminate the potential corrosion during installation and onto the surface of the steel components with compressed
374 J. Zhang
air to form a honeycomb-like aluminum (zinc) spraying coating with excellent anti-corrosion performance will be
layer (thickness of about 80–100 lm). Finally, the pores widely used for anti-corrosion of steel structure. Its main
are sealed with paint to form a composite coating. The properties include good sealing (low porosity) that can com-
advantage of this method is that it is strongly adaptable to plete prevention of water, oxygen, and other impurities pen-
the dimension of the component, and the shape and size etrating through the coating voids and causing corrosion of
of the component are almost unlimited. Another advan- metals, namely, permeable corrosion, high adhesive force.
tage is that its thermal effect is localized and constrained, Only when it firmly adheres to the surface of the base material,
and thus it doesn’t produce thermal deformation. Com- it can effectively avoid the film falling off and stress corrosion
pared with hot-dip galvanizing, this method has the dis- caused by the load-bearing deformation of the steel structure,
advantages of low industrialization and high intensity of and well block the effect of the external corrosion factor, good
sediment blasting and spraying aluminum (zinc). In chemical corrosion resistance. In marine conditions, humid
addition, the quality is easily affected by the change of atmosphere and industrial concentration areas with heavy
operator’s emotion. corrosion, acid, alkali resistance, salt mist resistance, water
c. Paint-coated anti-corrosion coating. The corrosion resis- resistance, and oil resistance of coatings are particularly
tance of the paint-coated anti-corrosion coating method is important. The development of modern anti-corrosion coat-
generally inferior to that of the long-term anti-corrosion ings tends to environmental protection, simple construction,
method. It is low in cost, but relatively high in mainte- and high solid content. Low surface treatment coatings will be
nance cost. The first step in construction is rust removal. more and more recognized by the market.
High-quality coating relies on thorough rust removal. Selection of intermediate paint. In heavy anti-corrosion
High-quality coating generally uses sediment blasting coating system, the function of the intermediate paint is to
and shot blasting to expose the metallic luster and increase the thickness of the coating to improve the shielding
remove all rust and oil stains. The coating for site con- performance of the entire coating system. The intermediate
struction can be de-rusted by hand. The coating is paint shall have good adhesive force to the primer and topcoat.
selected in consideration of the surrounding environment, Selection of topcoat. The main role of the topcoat is to
and different coatings have different resistances to dif- shield the sun’s ultraviolet rays and pollution of the atmo-
ferent corrosion conditions. The coating is generally sphere on the damage of the coating, and to protect against
divided into primer, intermediate paint, and topcoat. The snow and rain. High-performance anti-corrosion topcoat
primer contains more powder, less base material, rough needs not only outstanding weatherability, decoration, but
film-forming, and strong adhesive force with steel. The also good wear resistance.
function of the intermediate paint is to increase the
thickness of the coating to improve the shielding per- 4) Anti-corrosion scheme of typical engineering
formance of the whole coating system, and the interme-
diate paint should have good adhesive force to the primer Shanhe A-B line is a section of Guizhou–Guangdong
and the topcoat. Topcoat has more base materials and 500 kV AC power transmission project from Guizhou
glossy film-forming and can protect the primer from Dushan Substation to Hechi Substation. It is a single circuit
atmospheric corrosion and resist weathering. Attention line erected in parallel and was put into operation in July
should be paid to the compatibility of different coatings 2003. Due to the special geographical conditions of this
when they are selected. The coating shall be applied at an section, there is only one road passage along both sides of
appropriate temperature (5–38 °C) and humidity (relative G323 National Highway in the east–west direction. Within
humidity not greater than 85%). The construction envi- the scope of karst geological conditions, there are many big
ronment of the coating shall be less in dust, and the turning corners, and the conditions on both sides of the
surface of the component shall not have dew. Don’t be national road are very crowded. According to investigations
exposed to rain within 4 h after coating. In general, the and visits, since 2000, more than 10 metal smelting facto-
coating is made in 4–5 layers, and the total thickness of ries, brick and tile plant, and cement factories have been
the dry paint film can be thickened to 200–300 lm. In built along both sides of the national road in this narrow
general, the following points shall be paid attention to in passage, 500–1,000 m far away from Shanhe A-B line.
the selection of anti-corrosion coating: In terms of geographical conditions, Nandan County and
Jinchengjiang District belong to foggy areas. The range of
Selection of anti-corrosion primer. In the anti-corrosion corrosive dust naturally falling along the wind direction
coating system of steel structure, the role of anti-corrosion during smelting in nonferrous metal factories is relatively
primer is very important. It should have good adhesive force wide, and the range within 1,000 m is the effective range of
to steel and can play an excellent anti-corrosion effect. The falling dust. The chemical corrosive dust has very strong
adhesive force and is easily attached to the surface of the appearance with the conventional fittings, so the mate-
transmission line. The dust will not be removed naturally. In rial concentrated accumulation mode shall not be
particular, in the presence of foggy weather, through the adopted during assembly. Instead, each material shall
change of static dry and wet conditions, the corrosive dust have an independent environment, and hemp paper
can be fully embedded in the material body, and the inevi- should be removed before installation. Rope protective
table corrosion conditions are formed in the long term. This measure shall be adopted when lifting to avoid collision
belongs to acidic corrosion environment condition that has with tower body. After the installation of the fitting
enormous danger to lines. string is completed, the worker shall wear protection
In October 2013, the operation personnel inspected the shoes and it is strictly prohibited to have friction on the
operation conditions of the fittings of the line, and found that fitting during the operation.
corrosion occurred in many parts of fittings, including tensile
clamps, hanging clamps, and “U”-shaped hanging rings, 6. Grounding device
which results in strength loss and can’t meet mechanical
strength requirements. The safe operation of transmission 1) Corrosion mechanism of grounding device
lines requires long-term stable and reliable conditions, so the
safety of any component must be paid full attention during For the grounding device, the corrosion mechanism is
operation. The designers put forward the following trans- mainly soil corrosion that in essence is electrochemical
formation schemes according to the results of line inspection corrosion. The corrosion form is mainly pitting corrosion,
and the characteristics of heavy pollution and acid corrosion: local corrosion, macroscopic corrosion, electrolytic corro-
sion, and weak AC corrosion. Generally, the duration of
(1) The RE zinc–aluminum alloy cladding technology is large AC current passing through the grounding device is
adopted for all fittings and accessories (excluding alu- relatively short, and AC corrosion is generally not consid-
minum parts), including steel caps and steel feet of ered. The factors affecting soil corrosivity include conduc-
various types of insulators, and various bolts and gas- tivity, water content, temperature, resistivity, species and
kets, as well as spacers and grading rings of composite quantity of dissolved ions, pH value, oxidation–reduction
insulators. Aluminum or aluminum alloy parts need not potential, organic matter, and microorganisms of soil. The
be treated. combined effect of these factors and external factors leads to
(2) For fittings and accessories of insulators, RE zinc–alu- the corrosion of the grounding device in the soil, and there
minum alloy coating shall not be less than 60 lm, and are mainly four types of corrosion:
for fasteners (threaded parts), RE zinc–aluminum alloy
coating shall not be less than 60 lm, either. The man- (1) Corrosion of microbattery. A battery formed by the
ufacturer shall strictly implement the requirements of presence of many tiny electrodes on the surface of a
the technical specification, have a test report on the ratio metal is called a microbattery. The occurrence of such
of RE zinc–aluminum alloy coating and follow-up corrosion is related to the material and surface defects
management of the overall quality, and issue a test of the grounding electrode, and also to the DC during
report on the corrosion rate in an acidic environment. If the construction of the grounding grid.
necessary, the owner shall designate a unit to supervise (2) Corrosion of macrobattery. Such corrosion battery is
the manufacture and the product shall be mass- generally referred to as “macrobattery” consisting of
produced after the initial coating inspection is qualified. electrodes visible to the naked eye. Macrobattery is
(3) Product packing requirements: all fittings shall be formed by the physical and chemical properties of the
packaged in an independent unit, that is, each product soil in contact with different parts of the same metal
shall be packaged with hemp paper before putting in material. The macrobattery includes an oxygen con-
box. For the manufacturer of composite insulator, all centration battery, a salt concentration battery, an acid
ball heads, bowl heads, grading rings, and exposed concentration battery, a temperature difference battery,
parts of mandrel are required to have the same coating and so on.
as fittings. Each insulator is provided with a stainless (3) Corrosion caused by microbial action. Microbial cor-
steel “L” fitting pin at the bowl head. Except rubber, the rosion is related to the types of bacteria in the soil, and
packing is the same as that of fittings. All products are thiobacillus, and sulfate-reducing bacteria (anaerobes)
sealed with hemp paper. are commonly seen.
(4) Construction protective measures: the fittings are coated (4) Stray current corrosion. Stray current is a leakage
with RE zinc–aluminum alloy and the cladding layer is phenomenon of leakage. In soil corrosion of materials,
100 lm and there is a fundamental change in it is of practical significance to prevent corrosion caused
376 J. Zhang
by it. The concentrated corrosion damage caused by corrosion performance. When the water content is
stray current is very serious. A steel pipe with a wall small, it is not easy to form a water film on the metal
thickness of 8–9 mm can be perforated within a few surface, so the corrosion is small. The corrosivity
months. increases with the increase of water content, and the
corrosion rate of metal reaches the maximum value
The electrochemical corrosion of grounding device in soil when the water content increases to a certain extent.
refers to the electrochemical reaction between some parts of Then the corrosion rate decreases with the increase
grounding grid and surrounding electrolyte (soil), which of water content because the corrosion process
leads to the breakage of grounding grid. In the corrosion requires oxygen which can only diffuse to the metal
process, the grounding grid is in contact with the electrolyte surface over a long period of time after the soil is
(wet soil), so the anodic dissolution process (oxidation) may saturated with water, slowing down the corrosion
occur at the interface of the grounding device and elec- rate. The water-absorbing quality of the soil varies
trolyte. In this case, if the corresponding cathode reduction from soil to soil, so the water content corresponding
process is coordinated at the interface, the electrolyte (wet to the maximum corrosion value also varies from
soil) acts as an ion conductor, and the grounding grid itself soil to soil. The oxygen content depends on the
becomes an electronic conductor, so that a spontaneous cell permeability of the soil.
is formed to continuously dissolve the anode of the b. pH value and salt content. pH value is an index of
grounding grid material and corrosion occurs. Electro- soil acidity and alkalinity. The more pH value
chemical corrosion refers to the destruction caused by deviates from 7, the more corrosive it is, and the
electrochemical reaction between metal surface and ionic more corrosive acidic soil is. The pH value has an
conducting medium. Any corrosion carried out by an elec- influence on the activity of microorganisms, and the
trochemical mechanism comprises at least one anodic reac- soil contains various salts, which not only has an
tion and one cathodic reaction and forms a circuit with the influence on the pH value of the soil but also has a
flow of electrons through the interior of the metal and the strong corrosiveness. Among them, chloride ions are
flow of ions in the medium. The anodic reaction is a the most harmful, which can destroy the metal
hydrogenation process in which metal ions transfers from the passivation film. Sulfate is the basis of corrosion and
metal into the medium and emits electrons; the cathodic destruction by sulfate-reducing bacteria. For marine
reaction is a reduction process in which the oxidant com- and coastal electrodes, the corrosion effect of chlo-
ponent in the medium absorbs electrons from the anode. ride ions on the electrode should be considered.
As for the DC grounding electrode, in the high-voltage c. Soil resistivity. The lower the resistivity of the soil
DC project with the grounding electrode running in the is, the greater the current of corrosion battery is,
world, one grounding electrode in half of the project has which also means that the soil moisture and soluble
been reconstructed or appeared major problem. The life of salts are higher and the corrosiveness to the
grounding electrode mainly involves the condition of elec- grounding device is greater. Soil resistivity is one of
trode site itself, heat generation, corrosion of grounding the indexes to comprehensively reflect water content
electrode material, etc. The main factor affecting the service and salt content.
life of grounding electrode is the solution of feeding material d. Nonuniform electrochemical characteristics of soil.
—electric corrosion. When DC flows through the electrolyte, Nonuniform electrochemical characteristics of soil
an oxidation–reduction reaction will occur on the electrode, may form a macro-corrosion cell. For a vertical
and positive ions in the electrolyte move toward the cathode ground body such as an incoming down lead, a
to proceed reduction reaction with electrons at the cathode; concentration cell and an oxygen concentration cell
the negative ions move to the anode where electrons are will be formed because the water content, the pH
given to carry out an oxidation reaction. Since the earth value, and the oxygen content of the upper and
(such as soil and water) is an electrolyte, when DC is lower parts are different so that the section where the
returned through the earth, an oxidation reaction occurs at soil and air contact is most susceptible to corrosion.
the anode, that is, electrical corrosion occurs. For the long horizontal grounding body, two kinds
The main factors affecting the service life of grounding of soil with different characteristics may be
electrode include the following aspects. encountered, or the soil characteristics are nonuni-
form. For example, soil source of backfill soil during
(1) Influence of soil properties construction may also form a macro-corrosion cell.
a. Water content and oxygen content. Water content e. Stray current. The mechanism of corrosion caused by
and oxygen content are the key factors of soil stray current in earth is similar to that of electrolytic
tank and belongs to electrochemical corrosion.
(2) Influence of project construction welding, soil corrosion, grounding short-circuit current
electrodynamic force, deteriorating the electrical connection
The connection process of grounding device is mainly performance of the power grid, and increasing grounding
welding. The influence of the connection process on the resistance. For the grid in the more corrosive soil, especially
corrosion is as follows: ➀ in the soldering process, the solder in the corrosive saline–alkali soil, the corrosion of grounding
contains impurities, which causes corrosion to the joint; ➁ grid is particularly serious. According to the investigation
joint gap is formed at the welding position; ➂ no sealing and research at abroad, the annual corrosion rate of the grid
treatment or insufficient sealing degree is performed at the metal can reach 2.0 mm in relatively corrosive soil, reach
welding place between the feeder cable and the grounding 3.4 mm in strongly corrosive soil, and reach 8.0 mm in
body; ➃ mixing soil or other impurities in the process of highly corrosive soil. In China, the electric power system
laying coke; and ➄ the coke section does not meet the design accidents caused by the corrosion or breakage of the
requirements or the coke is not compacted according to the grounding grid happen from time to time, and each accident
design requirements during construction. will produce huge economic loss. In such a case, when the
power frequency grounding short-circuit current or the
(3) Effect of end effect and stacking effect lightning strikes current flows through the power grid, the
a. End effect. For the grounding body, the overflow power grid conductor or the grounding down conductor may
density distribution is generally nonuniform, and the be broken due to heat or electrodynamic force, causing
overflow density at the outer edge end is signifi- primary and secondary equipment accidents and danger of
cantly higher than other parts, that is, there is an end electric shock to the human body. The accidents will also
effect. For the electrodes arranged in a straight line, cause huge economic losses.
and the current passing through the electrode ele- For high-voltage DC project with the grounding electrode
ments at the end is much larger than the average running in the world, one grounding electrode in half of the
current of each element. The existence of the end project has been reconstructed or appeared major problem.
effect has a direct influence on the ground step The grounding electrode of the south bridge side of
voltage, (anode) electric penetration, soil thermal Genan DC transmission project in China is made of
stability, and material loss, which determines the U30 mm round steel with linear arrangement and two-point
safety, stability, and service life of the grounding feed. The feed point is at the end, and the earth resistivity is
electrode. less than 2 X m. Since the arrangement of the grounding
b. Stacking effect. Since the resistance of the feeding electrode and the feeding mode are defective under this
material itself exists, the potential of each point on specific electrode site condition with a high salt content,
the ground electrode is also different. Even for a failure occurs when it passes through 228 A. The excavation
standard circular ring electrode, the overflow density inspection shows that the feed bar and the end feed bar near
of each point is different, namely, so-called stacking the current feed point are seriously corroded, and the middle
effect. The stacking degree is in inverse proportion feed bar is less corroded, and there is obvious end effect.
to the soil resistivity and in direct proportion to the
3) Common anti-corrosion measures
resistivity of the feed material. In the case of low
soil resistivity, such as shore electrodes, and high
There are two ways to prevent corrosion of grounding
resistivity of the feed bar material, such as high
device: to change the corrosive environment and reduce the
silicon cast iron, the stacking effect is more obvious.
corrosiveness of the environment; to change the corrosion
The electrochemical corrosion and material loss
body and improve the corrosion resistance of the material. It
caused by the stacking effect will also seriously
is difficult to change the corrosive environment, so enhanc-
affect the safe operation and service life of the
ing the corrosion of grounding device is the fundamental
grounding electrode.
measure to enhance its corrosion resistance.
The common methods are as follows: selection of
2) Status and characteristics of corrosion
grounding materials with good corrosion resistance, tradi-
tional materials such as copper, new materials such as
The basic function of transformer grounding device is to
copper-clad steel, stainless steel, zinc-clad steel; protective
maintain the reliable operation of power system and ensure
measures such as coating layer, cathodic protection tech-
the safety of operators and electrical equipment. The con-
nology, resistance reducing agent, and grounding module.
ductors constituting the grounding device are buried under-
At present, the anti-corrosion methods used in grounding
ground, and corrosion or even breakage of the ground grid
device are mainly anti-corrosion conductive coating and
conductors often occur due to poor welding or missing
cathodic protection.
378 J. Zhang
(1) Anti-corrosion conductive coating needed, but the process is complicated. Carbon-based filler is
cheap and is available in its raw materials, and its research is
Anti-corrosion conductive coating has been used in ground- more mature. Carbon-based filler mainly includes carbon
ing device for more than 10 years with simple design and black and graphite. According to the shape, it can be divided
convenient construction. Domestic anti-corrosion coating into powder and fiber. The conductive fillers used as
used for grounding device mainly includes nickel powder carbon-based conductive coatings mainly include artificial
type, graphite type, and nano-carbon type according to the graphite, natural graphite, graphite fiber, carbon fiber,
category of conductive additives. The anti-corrosion con- high-temperature calcination petroleum coke, various carbon
ductive coating is simple and easy to use, but it requires a lot black, and silicon carbide. Among them, carbon black is the
on conductivity, corrosion resistance, and thermal stability. most widely used. For some high-performance carbon black,
According to the conductive mechanism, conductive such as acetylene carbon black and furnace carbon black, its
coating can be divided into additive type and structural type. particle chain and mesh is easy to form a conductive coordi-
The additive conductive coating refers to adding conductive nation body, so its conductivity is good. A large number of
inorganic particles or organic antistatic agent to the noncon- studies show that the smaller the size of carbon black particles
ductive resin, utilizing the physical and mechanical properties is, the more complex the structure is. The larger the surface
of the organic resin and the conductive ability of the filler. The area of the carbon black particles is, the fewer the surface
conductive mechanism of the additive type conductive coat- active groups are and the stronger the polarity is, the better the
ing mainly has two aspects: the conduction channel theory conductivity of the prepared conductive composite material is.
and the tunnel effect. The conductive channel mechanism At present, the preparation method of conductive
means that part of the conductive particles in the coating can macromolecule for conductive coating mainly focuses on
contact each other to form a chain-shaped conductive chan- making film resin directly from conductive polymer, mixing
nel, so that the composite material can conduct electricity. use of conductive macromolecule with other resin, and using
Tunnel effect is a phenomenon in which electrons can conductive macromolecule material as conductive filler.
flow across a very low potential barrier under the action of However, the current conductive macromolecule used in
an electric field. In the conductive coating, it passes through conductive coatings has some problems, such as difficulty in
a thin polymer coating, so it is considered that the conduc- processing and application, and high price. In solution
tion of the coating does not depend on the direct contact of polymerization with other resin, the resin can influence the
the conductive particles, but the free electrons migrate structure of conductive macromolecule and even destroy the
among the particles due to thermal vibration or internal conjugated structure of conductive macromolecule. There-
electric field. When the content of the low conductive filler is fore, it is only in the stage of experimental research and
lower than that of the external power source, the distance small-scale trial, and its performance remains to be tested
between the conductive particles is larger, and the proba- and can’t be used in the grounding grid.
bility of directly forming the conductive channel is smaller, Nano-carbon anti-corrosion conductive coating is
and the tunnel effect plays a major role. Structural-type obtained by compounding nano-carbon with inorganic–or-
conductive coating refers to the use of itself or polymer ganic polymer material. Nano-carbon is used as the con-
material with the conductive function after “doping” to ductive additive, which gives the coating better conductivity
directly form film or mix with other organic polymers. If than graphite powder and nickel powder. When the particle
there is enough conjugated structure in some special organic diameter of the conductive material is not less than 100 nm,
polymers, the compound can provide free electrons to con- there is only a simple physical mixture between the con-
duct electricity. ductive material and the film-forming material, the interface
The coatings used for anti-corrosion of grounding devices is clear, and the reinforcing property and sealing property are
in China are classified as metal filler type and carbon-based poor. When the particle diameter of the conductive material
filler type according to conductive additives. The metal filler is is not more than 100 nm, the surface area and the surface
mainly made of silver powder, copper powder, and nickel energy of the conductive material are very large, which has
powder. Silver filling coating is studied earlier, which has the commonness of nano-materials. At this time, the
good conductivity and is not easy to oxidize, but is high in nano-conductive material and the film-forming material
price. Copper has high conductivity with relatively cheap penetrate each other with a grain diameter of almost the
price and easily available materials, but it is easy to oxidize, same order of magnitude, and there is no obvious interface
and its oxide conductivity is low, resulting in a decrease in with each other. The sealing function of nano-material is
electrical conductivity. The conductivity of nickel powder is good, so the electrolyte solution can’t penetrate into the coat.
between silver and copper, but it is easy to migrate in the Therefore, nano-carbon antic-corrosion conductive coating
coating and is unstable in performance, which may lead to the adopting the nano-technology has better anti-corrosion per-
decrease of conductivity. Nickel surface modification is formance than the general coating. The aging, leakage, and
washing resistance are greatly improved, and the service life substation faults related to corrosion. At present, the metal
of the coating film is prolonged. components involved in transformer substation and con-
verter station mainly include transformer equipment support,
(2) Cathodic protection transformer frame (portal frame), and so on.
According to the electrochemical corrosion theory of metals, 1. Corrosion mechanism of metal components
metals can only be corroded in the anodic state. The prin-
ciple of cathodic protection is to prevent metal corrosion by The equipment support and transformation frame in the
cathodic polarization of the protected metal facility so that it transformer substations and converter stations are the key
becomes a large cathode. Cathodic protection can be realized parts easy to suffer from corrosion. The corrosion mecha-
by sacrificial anode method and impressed current method. nism of the steel and metal components in the stations is
Cathodic protection is an electrochemical protection method briefly described by taking this as an example.
in which the protected metal is connected with a metal or Equipment supports and transformer frames are usually
alloy (i.e., anode) that can provide cathodic protection cur- made of carbon steel pieces. The structure of carbon steel
rent to polarize the protected body to reduce the corrosion contains pearlite composed of ferrite and cementite. When
rate. In the earth cell composed of the protected metal and water-containing electrolyte is adsorbed on the surface of
the sacrificial anode, the protected metal acts as the cathode. steel, ferrite becomes an anode and cementite becomes a
The potential of the sacrificial anode is often more negative cathode since the electrode potential of ferrite is lower than
than the potential value of the protected metal body. The that of cementite. Both of them directly contact instead of
sacrificial anode is the anode in the protective cell and is conductors and form corrosion microbattery.
consumed by corrosion, so it is called sacrificial anode to In transformer substations and converter stations, the
achieve the purpose of cathodic protection. The “sacrificial” main corrosion products on the surface of unprotected metal
anode materials are usually high-purity magnesium and structures and components are rust, and the phase is Fe2O3,
magnesium alloys, high-purity zinc and zinc alloys, and Fe3O4, FeO(OH), FeO, and other iron compounds. In addi-
aluminum alloys. Cathodic protection of “sacrificial” anode tion to rust, the surface corrosion products of hot-dip gal-
requires excavation inspection every few years to replace the vanizing steel contain many zinc corrosion products, such as
“sacrificial” anode. zinc oxide, basic zinc carbonate, and zinc carbonate and
Based on the optimum protection current density of the other zinc compounds. It should be pointed out that in
“sacrificial” anode and carbon steel in a specific soil corro- addition to the obvious corrosion process mentioned above,
sive environment, the protection life of the grounding device steel components are prone to pitting corrosion in solution
can be calculated. Its disadvantage is that the online moni- containing Cl−, and this local corrosion phenomenon, which
toring of current density is difficult, the protective current usually occurs in easily passivated metals or alloys, is often
density is too small, and the corrosion of grounding device covert and very destructive.
still exists. If the protection current density is too high
(so-called overprotection), electrolytic corrosion of the 2. Corrosion status and characteristics of metal
grounding device will occur under the action of overcurrent. components
4.4.3.2 Transformer Substation and Converter At present, there are few researches on the corrosion of
Station equipment and components on the ground of transformer
As power grid nodes, transformer substations and converter substations and converter stations, and the corrosion of
stations are the key hubs connecting power stations and equipment and components above the ground is atmo-
power users, which are used to transform voltage and dis- spheric corrosion. Atmospheric corrosion is the result of the
tribute electric energy. The operation state and reliability of interaction between the material and its surrounding atmo-
equipment in transformer substations and converter stations spheric environment. Whether or not the material is exposed
directly affect the safe and stable operation of the power grid. to rain, atmospheric corrosion will occur. There are many
There are many metal components in transformer substations factors affecting atmospheric corrosion, including the fol-
and converter stations, and the materials involve copper, lowing three types: climatic conditions, including humidity,
carbon steel, galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminum temperature, sun radiation, and various weather phenomena;
alloy, so the corrosion failure of metal materials is a com- atmospheric composition, including SO2, H2S, oxides of
mon phenomenon. Corrosion of metal components will nitrogen, and solid dust; and state of the metal surface.
reduce the reliability of the equipment, resulting in safety Under normal conditions, the occurrence of corrosion is
hazards. The practice shows that there are many transformer related to the operating time. The longer the time is, the
380 J. Zhang
more serious the corrosion is. However, in lots of inspection structure is not enough or installation is impossible.
of transformer substations and converter stations, many Therefore, the deformation of components should be
equipment components are seriously corroded in a short reduced as much as possible in anti-corrosion
period of time. The location where the corrosion occurs is construction.
often fixed, mainly in bolts and other contact parts, so there (4) Energy saving, environmental protection and low cost
are certain rules to follow. Generally speaking, the common of whole life circle. In view of the above types of
corrosion forms of metal components in transformer sub- corrosion and to minimize the degree of corrosion, the
stations and converter stations are mainly as follows: cre- following work should be done in the actual project:
vice corrosion, contact corrosion, zinc coating defect (1) Crevice corrosion. During the installation of the
corrosion, coating defect corrosion, and stainless steel equipment, special attention shall be paid to the
corrosion. connection of bolts and other fasteners, so as to
ensure that they are assembled in place without
3. Anti-corrosion requirements of metal components obvious crevices. If crevice can’t be avoided, the
and common anti-corrosion measures crevice shall be completely filled with epoxy resin
filler or anti-corrosion paint.
Because of the bad engineering environment of transformer (2) Contact corrosion. The fundamental solution to the
substations and converter stations, the steel structure must problem of contact corrosion is to use the same
adopt high-performance and long-term anti-corrosion material for both metal components in contact.
method. In order to carry out the design concept of Especially for galvanized steel bolts and gaskets,
“resource-saving, environment-friendly and industrialized” stainless steel bolts and gaskets, copper rows, and
substation construction of SGCC, the selection of aluminum row components commonly used in
anti-corrosion method must be based on the principle of transformer substations and converter stations, the
“resource-saving and environment-friendly” in the whole life contact between galvanized steel and stainless
cycle, try to control the cost of whole life circle and use steel, copper, and aluminum shall be avoided, and
energy-saving and environment-friendly materials. the same metal materials shall be uniformly used.
For the copper–aluminum equipment wire clip and
1) Anti-corrosion requirements drain plate, tin should be used on the copper sur-
face to avoid direct contact between copper and
According to the corrosion mechanism, corrosion status and aluminum. If the contact of dissimilar metals can’t
characteristics of metal components in transformer substa- be avoided, the principle of “large anode and small
tions and converter stations, as well as various corrosion cathode” shall be adopted. For the small compo-
types, the macroscopic anti-corrosion requirements of metal nents at the contact position, the metal with higher
components in transformer substations and converter sta- potential shall be used. The metal with low
tions have the following characteristics: potential shall be used for large components.
Besides, sealing materials, such as epoxy filler and
(1) Long-term effect. Because the power distribution frame polytetrafluoroethylene, shall be used as an inter-
and equipment support of the outdoor power distribu- mediate layer to buffer and insulate to prevent
tion device run with electricity all the year-round, it is direct contact between the two metals [55].
very difficult to maintain the equipment. In general, it is (3) Zinc coating defect corrosion. The method to solve
not allowed to carry out large-area maintenance of the problem of zinc coating defect corrosion must
buildings and structures, and it is not possible to fre- start from the source, strengthen the metal quality
quently repair through power outage. Therefore, supervision in the capital construction stage, and
long-term anti-corrosion scheme must be adopted to prevent the unqualified zinc coating products from
avoid maintenance during the service period. flowing into the power grid. The local zinc coating
(2) Adaptability. Anti-corrosion scheme must consider all damage caused during transportation and installa-
kinds of corrosive conditions and have good tion shall be repaired with zinc-rich coating and
adaptability. cold zinc coating in time.
(3) Small deformation. In the project of transformer sub- (4) Coating corrosion. Repair the damage caused by
stations and converter stations, the steel structure transportation and installation of new painting
components are often connected by bolts, so they are equipment in time with anti-corrosion coating
easy to be deformed in the process of anti-corrosion system. Quality acceptance shall be carried out on
construction, so that the installation accuracy of steel the coating layer thickness, adhesive force, and
other key indexes.
(5) Stainless steel corrosion. For stainless steel corro- began to apply zinc metal coating for corrosion pro-
sion, we should select 300 series of stainless steel tection, and its processing technology mainly includes
and strictly check the material quality first. Then thermal spraying and hot plating. In recent years, with
we should increase the width of the crevice from the development of technology, the technology of cold
the design and reduce the occurrence of crevice spraying zinc, which is widely used in foreign coun-
corrosion. Even if the crevice corrosion occurs, it tries, has begun to be applied in the construction of
will not affect the operation. In addition, stainless domestic electric power.
steel is not suitable for the bolts that often need to
be repaired and disassembled. Cold spraying zinc technology has effectively solved the
defects of organic coating, thermal spraying and hot-dip
2) Anti-corrosion measures galvanizing. The technology has got rapid development in
Europe. The cold spraying zinc technology has the advan-
At present, the common anti-corrosion measures for steel tages of energy saving, environmental protection, convenient
metal components in transformer substation and converter construction, easy maintenance and low cost of whole life
station engineering mainly include organic coating cycle. It can carry out the design concept of “resource-saving,
anti-corrosion method, inorganic nonmetallic coating environment-friendly and industrialized” of transformer
anti-corrosion method, and metal coating anti-corrosion substation and adapt to the characteristics of substation
method. Various anti-corrosion methods and measures are engineering. It has good comprehensive cost perfor-
briefly introduced as follows. mance and competitiveness and has a broad application
prospect.
(1) Organic coating anti-corrosion method. Organic coating
anti-corrosion method is a common anti-corrosion
method for steel structure, which is widely used in 4.4.4 Investigation on Corrosion Cost of Power
industrial and civil engineering in China. Due to the Transmission and Transformation
limitation of the protection principle of the coating Engineering
system itself, the anti-corrosion life of the organic
coating anti-corrosion method is generally 5–10 years, The investigation on the corrosion cost of power transmis-
and corrosion will occur after 1–2 years in the weak sion and transformation engineering focuses on the power
link of partial improper treatment. The service life of industry design institutes, including Central Southern China
the transformer project is generally 50 years. In the life Electric Power Design Institute, East China Electric Power
cycle, the anti-corrosion coating must be repaired for Design Institute, North China Electric Power Design Insti-
several times. The maintenance is difficult and the cost tute, Northwest China Electric Power Design Institute,
is high. In addition, the transformer substation needs Zhejiang Electric Power Design Institute, and Hebei Electric
long-term operation, so it should avoid power outage Power Design Institute, all of which are qualified for
and overhaul as much as possible. Therefore, organic Grade A design in power industry.
coating anti-corrosion has some limitations in the According to the statistical analysis of the questionnaire,
application of transformer substation and converter there are 16 transmission line projects or bid sections with
station engineering. effective corrosion cost data, including one 220 kV line
(2) Anti-corrosion method for inorganic nonmetallic coat- project, one ±400 kV line project, five 500 kV line projects,
ing. A coating mainly composed of a nonmetallic ele- one ±660 kV line project, two 750 kV line projects, four
ment oxide or an oxide generated from a metal and a ±800 kV line projects, one 1000 kV line project, and one
nonmetallic element is collectively referred to as an ±1100 kV line project. There are 10 transformer substations
inorganic nonmetallic coating. The inorganic non- and converter stations, including two 220 kV substations,
metallic coating has the advantages of heat resistance, three 500 kV substations, one 750 kV substation, three
corrosion resistance, and high insulation. However, the 1000 kV substations, and one 500 kV substation.
inorganic nonmetallic coating is limited in the appli- At present, Uhlig, Hoar, and Battelle are the main
cation of anti-corrosion of building structures due to its methods to estimate the economic loss caused by corrosion
high brittleness and poor impact toughness. in the world. In this report, Uhlig method is used to estimate
(3) Anti-corrosion method for metal coating. The the economic loss caused by corrosion of power transmis-
anti-corrosion method of metal coating for steel struc- sion and transformation engineering.
ture mostly adopts the coating of zinc and its alloy, or The Uhlig method is used to evaluate the cost of direct
aluminum and its alloy. In the 1950s–1960s, China corrosion protection from the aspects of production and
382 J. Zhang
manufacture. For example, it calculates the cost of various by hot-dip galvanizing, and the concrete foundation shall be
anti-corrosion measures, including coating and application, coated with anti-corrosion paint and GFRP template.
surface treatment of coating and conversion film, corrosion- The total cost of the project construction is RMB 1225.81
resistant material, anti-rust oil, corrosion inhibitor, electro- million, the cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about
chemical protection, corrosion research, corrosion RMB 31.08 million, and the foundation corrosion cost is
detection, etc. about RMB 17 million. The corrosion cost in construction
The steel metal components in transformer substations stage is 3.92%.
and converter stations have strong atmospheric corrosion
characteristics, especially some local corrosion forms, and 3) Changli–Leting double-circuit 500 kV transmission line
their corrosion rate is often longer than the normal service project
life, which has adverse effect on the operation state and
reliability of the equipment. Therefore, it is necessary to start The total length of the project line is 37.6 km, and the total
with structural design, material selection and anti-corrosion number of iron towers is 92 with double circuits. It was put
coating, take targeted anti-corrosion measures according to into operation in 2015 with a design service life of 50 years.
corrosion forms, and strengthen metal quality supervision in The groundwater in the project area is corrosive to the
the design, construction, operation, and maintenance stages concrete structure. All components, bolts, and pins of the
to avoid the development of corrosion in weak parts so as to tower shall be protected by hot-dip galvanizing. The basic
ensure the safe operation of the power grid. anti-corrosion measures are to improve the strength grade of
concrete and the conductor adopts aluminum alloy
4.4.4.1 Transmission Line Project steel-cored aluminum stranded wire for corrosion protection.
The total cost of the project construction is RMB 212.67
1. Calculation of corrosion cost million, the cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about
RMB 9.5741 million, the cost of foundation corrosion pro-
1) Tangshanxi–Liushuquan double-circuit 220 kV line tection is about RMB 0.5086 million, and the cost of cor-
project rosion protection of the conductor is about RMB 0.9625
million. The corrosion cost in the construction stage is
The total length of the project line is 56.6 km, and the total 5.19%.
number of iron towers is 159 with double circuits. It was put
into operation in June 2013, with a design service life of 4) Tianjin Binhai-eastern suburbs–northern suburbs 500 kV
30 years. double-circuit line project
The corrosion of underground water to concrete structure
in this project is medium corrosion, mainly chlorine salt and The total length of this project is 68.7 km, and the total
sulfate corrosion. All components, bolts, and feet of the number of iron towers is 167 with double circuits. It was put
tower shall be protected against corrosion by hot-dip gal- into operation in 2008, with a design service life of 30 years.
vanizing, of which 30-base concrete foundation shall be The corrosion of foundation soil and groundwater to
made of ordinary Portland cement plus SRA-type concrete concrete structure in this project is medium corrosion,
preservative. mainly chlorine salt and sulfate corrosion. All components,
The total cost of project construction is RMB 166.65 bolts, and feet of the iron tower of this project shall be
million, the cost of zinc plating of iron tower is about RMB protected by hot-dip galvanizing. All foundation concrete
3.49 million, and the cost of foundation corrosion protection shall be poured with SRA-type preservative. The foundation
is about RMB 0.37 million. The corrosion cost in con- bottom surface shall be paved with gravel grouting cushion.
struction stage is 2.32%. The total cost of the project construction is RMB 335.48
million, the cost of galvanizing the iron tower is about RMB
2) ±400 kV Qinghai–Tibet network project 8.7615 million, and the cost of foundation corrosion pro-
tection is about 1.944 million. The corrosion cost is 3.19% in
The total length of the project line is 467 km, and the total the construction stage.
number of iron towers is 1,066 with single circuit. It was put
into operation in 2011, with a design service life of 50 years. 5) 500 kV delivery project of Ruihong Power station of
In this project, the corrosion of chloride salt and sulfate Xinjiang Corps
mainly occurs in the foundation soil and groundwater, and the
phenomenon of freeze–thawing exists. All components, bolts, The total length of the project is 2 42.7 km, and the total
and feet of the iron tower shall be protected against corrosion number of iron towers is 204. The foundation soil and
groundwater in this project are both corrosive, and the cor- are corrosive, and the corrosive media are mainly salt mist
rosive media are mainly salt mist and alkaline environment. and alkaline environment. In this project, aviation warning
All components, bolts, and pins of the iron tower of this paint (fluorine carbon paint) is coated on the surface of
project shall be protected by hot-dip galvanizing. The con- crossing tower components, and plays an anti-corrosion role.
crete foundation anti-corrosion measures are to improve the Other iron towers adopt conventional hot-dip galvanizing.
strength grade of the foundation concrete with coating The pile foundation and bearing platform control the dura-
HCPE externally and adding corrosion inhibitor internally. bility index of concrete materials according to the marine
Anti-corrosion measures of grounding device adopt environment, which adds seawater corrosion-resisting agent,
copper-clad steel grounding. adopts solvent-free epoxy elastic coating for corrosion pro-
The total cost of the project is RMB 143.47 million, the tection on the surface, and adopts temperature control mea-
cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about RMB 7.6 sures according to the mass concrete.
million, the cost of foundation corrosion protection is about The total cost of the project is RMB 578.4 million, the
RMB 0.8103 million, and the anti-corrosion cost of cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about RMB 8.52
grounding device is RMB 0.2 million. The corrosion cost in million, and the cost of foundation corrosion protection is
the construction stage is 6.00%. about RMB 2.716 million. The corrosion cost is 1.94% in
the construction stage.
6) 500 kV transmission line project of Yuhuan Trans-
former–Yueqing Transformer Substation 8) Ningdong ±660 kV UHVDC transmission line project
The total length of the project line is 28.5 km, of which the The total length of the project line is 252 km, and the total
large span is 6.48 km with double circuits. It was put into number of iron towers is 548 with single circuit. It was
operation in 2014, with a design service life of 50 years. completed and put into operation in 2013.
The large span section of this project belongs to the marine The foundation soil and groundwater in this project are
environment, and the corrosion medium is mainly chlorine both corrosive, and the corrosive media are mainly salt mist
salt. The foundation soil and groundwater in this project are and alkaline environment. All components, bolts, and pins of
both corrosive, and the corrosive media are mainly salt mist the iron tower of this project are protected by hot-dip gal-
and alkaline environment. In this project, aviation warning vanizing for corrosion protection. The concrete foundation
paint (fluorine carbon paint) is coated on the surface of anti-corrosion measures are to improve the strength grade of
crossing tower components and plays an anti-corrosion role. the foundation concrete with coating HCPE externally and
Other iron towers adopt conventional hot-dip galvanizing. adding corrosion inhibitor internally.
The steel pipe pile foundation in the sea adopts sectional The total cost of the project is RMB 705.6 million, the
epoxy powder coating anti-corrosion combined with sacrifi- cost of galvanizing the iron tower is about RMB 24.7 mil-
cial anode protection. The upper bearing platform controls the lion, the cost of foundation corrosion protection is about
durability index of concrete material, which adds seawater RMB 0.5 million, and the cost of anti-corrosion measures for
corrosion-resisting agent, adopts solvent-free epoxy elastic grounding device is 1.338 million. The corrosion cost in the
coating for corrosion protection on the surface, and adopts construction stage is 3.76%.
temperature control measures according to the mass concrete.
The total cost of this project is RMB 576.64 million, the 9) Santanghu–Hami 750 kV transmission line project
cost of galvanizing the iron tower is about 8.97 million, and
the cost of foundation corrosion protection is about 5.3992 The total length of the project line is 2 70.5 km, and the
million. The corrosion cost is 2.49% in the construction stage. total number of iron towers is 293. It was completed and put
into operation in 2014.
7) Liuheng Power station–Chunxiao 500 kV transmission The foundation soil and groundwater in this project are
line project both corrosive, and the corrosive media are mainly salt mist
and alkaline environment. All components, bolts, and pins of
The total length of the project is 36.552 km, and the long the iron tower are protected by hot-dip galvanizing for
span is 8.488 km with double circuits. It was put into corrosion protection. The concrete foundation anti-corrosion
operation in 2014, with a design service life of 50 years. measures are to improve the strength grade of the foundation
The large span section of this project belongs to the marine concrete with coating HCPE externally and adding corrosion
environment, and the corrosion medium is mainly chlorine inhibitor internally. Anti-corrosion measures of grounding
salt. The foundation soil and groundwater in the project area device adopt copper-clad steel grounding.
384 J. Zhang
The total cost of the project is RMB 467.84 million, the ground and exposed part of the ground. HCPE is used as the
cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about RMB 25 anti-corrosion coating on the base surface, and the dry film
million, the cost of foundation corrosion protection is about thickness of the coating is not less than 300 lm in the strong
RMB 2 million, and the cost of grounding device corrosive area.
anti-corrosion measures is RMB 1.505 million. The corro- Fly ash, ground slag, silica fume, and other mineral
sion cost in the construction stage is 6.09%. admixtures are added to the C35 and C40 base concrete in
medium and strong corrosive areas.
The total construction cost of this section is RMB
10) Xinjiang-northwest networking 750 kV two-channel 294.678 million, the cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is
project about RMB 11.056 million, and the cost of foundation
corrosion protection is about RMB 0.51 million. The cor-
The total line length of this project is 2 116.6 km, and the rosion cost is 3.92% in the construction stage.
total number of iron towers is 498 with double circuits. It
was put into operation in 2013, with a design service life of 12) Hami–Zhengzhou ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line
50 years. project (section of East China Electric Power Design
Chlorine salt and sulfate corrosion mainly occur in the Institute)
foundation soil and groundwater in this project. All com-
ponents, bolts, and feet of the iron tower are protected by The total length of this section is 108.87 km, and the total
hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion protection, and the con- number of iron towers is 214 with single circuit. It was put
crete foundation is coated with anti-corrosion paint. into operation in 2013, with a design service life of 60 years.
The total cost of this project is RMB 610.85 million, the The corrosion of foundation soil and groundwater to
cost of galvanizing the iron tower is about RMB 23.62 concrete structure in this section is medium and strong
million, and the cost of foundation corrosion protection is corrosion, mainly chloride salt and sulfate corrosion. The
about RMB 1.74 million. The corrosion cost is 4.15% in the anti-corrosion measures adopted for the iron tower and
construction stage. foundation of this section are the same as those of section of
North China Electric Power Design Institute.
11) Hami–Zhengzhou ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line The total construction cost of this section is RMB 363.71
project (section of North China Electric Power Design million, the cost of galvanizing the iron tower is about RMB
Institute) 18 million, and the cost of foundation corrosion protection is
about RMB 2.8788 million. The corrosion cost is 5.74%
The total length of this section is 96.3 km, and the total during the construction stage.
number of iron towers is 190 with single circuit. It was
put into operation in 2013, with a design service life of 13) Hami–Zhengzhou ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line
60 years. project (section of Northwest China Electric Power
The corrosion of foundation soil and groundwater to Design Institute)
concrete structure in this section is medium and strong
corrosion, mainly chloride salt and sulfate corrosion. The total length of this section is 106.7 km, and the total
All-steel tower components in this section need hot-dip number of iron towers is 210 with single circuit. It was put
galvanizing for corrosion protection. into operation in 2013, with a design service life of 50 years.
For medium corrosion in this section, C35 strength grade The corrosion of foundation soil and groundwater in this
concrete is adopted and anti-corrosion coating is applied on section is mainly chloride salt and sulfate corrosion. All
the excavated foundation surface and the top surface of components, bolts, and feet of the iron tower are protected
cushion layer. The foundation is coated with anti-corrosion against corrosion by hot-dip galvanizing, and the concrete
coating on the surface 500 mm below the ground and foundation is coated with anti-corrosion paint.
exposed part of the ground. The anti-corrosion coating of the The total construction cost of this section is RMB 357.32
base surface adopts modified highly chlorinated poly- million, the cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about
ethylene (HCPE), and the dry film thickness of the coating is RMB 13.96 million, and the foundation anti-corrosion cost
not less than 200 lm. is about RMB 2.84 million. The corrosion cost is 4.70% in
C40 strength grade concrete is adopted in the strong the construction stage.
corrosive area of this section, and all the excavated foun-
dation surface and top surface of cushion layer are protected 14) Jiuquan–Hunan ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line
by anti-corrosion coating. The excavated foundation is project (section of Northwest China Electric Power
painted with anti-corrosion coating at 1,500 mm below the Design Institute)
The total length of this section is 90.6 km, and the total cost is about RMB 0.58 million. The corrosion cost is 5.50%
number of iron towers is 179 with single circuit. The project in the construction stage.
is under construction and the design service life is 60 years.
The corrosion of foundation soil and groundwater in this 2. Analysis of corrosion cost
section is mainly chloride salt and sulfate corrosion. All
components, bolts, and feet of the iron tower are protected From the above section, it can be seen that the corrosion of
against corrosion by hot-dip galvanizing, and the concrete transmission line project is mainly the corrosion of trans-
foundation is coated with anti-corrosion paint. mission tower metal materials by atmospheric environment
The total construction cost of this section is RMB 470.92 and the corrosion of tower concrete foundation by soil
million, the zinc plating cost of the iron tower is about RMB environment. Although the atmospheric environment also
18.23 million, and the foundation corrosion protection cost has Corrosion effect on conductors, insulators, fittings, and
is about RMB 1.6 million. The corrosion cost is 4.21% in the soil environment corrodes grounding devices, the economic
construction stage. loss is small and the proportion in corrosion cost is also
small. Therefore, the corrosion cost of transmission line is
15) Ximeng–Shandong 1000 kV UHVAC transmission line mainly the corrosion cost of iron tower and foundation.
project (East Beijing–Liuhe Township, Qingxian The results show that the main anti-corrosion measures of
County, Cangzhou) transmission tower are hot-dip galvanizing, and the
anti-corrosion measures of tower foundation include
The total length of this section is 172.3 km, and the total improving the strength grade of concrete, adding corrosion
number of iron towers is 333 with double circuits. It was put inhibitor, and coating anti-corrosion paint.
into operation in 2016, with a design service life of 50 years. Transmission line projects are linear with a wide range.
The corrosion of foundation soil and groundwater to The atmospheric and soil environment along the line are
concrete structure in this section is medium corrosion, complex. According to the results of “corrosion cost calcu-
mainly chloride salt and sulfate corrosion. All components, lation” in the above section, the corrosion cost of transmis-
bolts, and pins of the iron tower in this bid section are sion line project is about 2–6%, which is determined by the
protected against corrosion by hot-dip galvanizing, and corrosive environment strength and corrosion characteristics
foundation concrete is protected against corrosion by adding of the engineering route.
corrosion inhibitor.
The total construction cost of this section is RMB 2615 4.4.4.2 Transformer Substation and Converter
million, the cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about Station
RMB 71.9424 million, and the cost of foundation corrosion
protection is about RMB 0.711 million. The corrosion cost is
2.78% in the construction stage. 1. Corrosion cost calculation
1) East industrial 220 kV transformer substation

16) Changji–Quanzhou ±1100 kV UHVDC transmission
line project (section of Northwest China Electric Power The substation was put into operation in 2012 with a design
Design Institute) service life of 60 years.
The groundwater at the substation site is highly corrosive
The total length of this section is 145 km, and the total to the concrete structure and steel bars in the reinforced
number of iron towers is 259 with single circuit. The pro- concrete structure under the condition of alternation between
ject is under construction and the design service life is dry and wet. Under the condition of long-term immersion, it
60 years. has strong corrosion to concrete structure and weak corro-
The corrosion of foundation soil and groundwater in this sion to steel bars in reinforced concrete structure. The site
section is mainly chloride salt and sulfate corrosion. All foundation soil is moderately corrosive to the concrete
components, bolts, and pins of the iron tower in this bid structure and highly corrosive to steel bars in the reinforced
section are protected against corrosion by hot-dip galvaniz- concrete structure.
ing, and foundation concrete is protected by anti-corrosion The concrete strength grade of the foundation part is
paint. raised to C40. For concrete (including precast piles),
The total construction cost of this section is RMB 906.38 sulfate-resistant Portland cement or ordinary Portland
million, the cost of zinc plating of the iron tower is about cement with tricalcium aluminate content of not more than
RMB 49.29 million, and the foundation corrosion protection 5% mixed with steel bar corrosion inhibitor shall be adopted,
386 J. Zhang
and asphalt paint anti-corrosion coating is applied on the All reinforced concrete foundation surfaces shall be
foundation surface. Precast concrete square pile-to-pile steel coated with cold primer oil once (thickness of 5–8 lm),
parts shall be painted with epoxy asphalt paint for 2 times, epoxy asphalt primer once (thickness of 40–70 lm), and
and the thickness shall not be less than 2 mm. The metal epoxy asphalt (thick paste type) topcoat once (thickness of
components adopt hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion 100 lm). All surfaces of reinforced concrete foundation
protection. beams shall be coated with cold primer oil once (thickness of
The total construction cost of the project is RMB 130.5 5–8 lm) and epoxy asphalt (thick paste type) topcoat once
million, the anti-corrosion cost of the metal components is (thickness of 100 lm). The metal components adopt hot-dip
about RMB 0.3 million, and the foundation anti-corrosion galvanizing for corrosion protection.
cost is about RMB 0.83 million. The corrosion cost is 0.87% The total construction cost of the project is RMB 238.68
in the construction stage. million, the anti-corrosion cost of metal components is about
RMB 1.96 million, and the foundation anti-corrosion cost is
2) Zhonggang 220 kV transformer substation about RMB 0.96 million. The corrosion cost is 1.22% in the
construction stage.
The substation was put into operation in 2013, with a design
service life of 60 years. 4) Bohai 500 kV transformer substation
The groundwater is highly corrosive to the concrete
structure and moderately corrosive to steel bars in the rein- This substation is under construction with the design service
forced concrete structure with no alternation between dry life of 60 years.
and wet. Under the alternating action of dry and wet, the The groundwater is strongly corrosive to the concrete
groundwater is strongly corrosive to the concrete structure structure and steel bars in the reinforced concrete structure
and steel bars in the reinforced concrete structure. The under the alternating action of dry and wet. Under the
foundation soil is weakly corrosive to the concrete structure condition of long-term immersion, it has strong corrosion to
and highly corrosive to steel bars in the reinforced concrete concrete structure and weak corrosion to steel bars in rein-
structure and the steel structure. forced concrete structure. The site soil is highly corrosive to
The concrete strength grade of the foundation part is the concrete structure and steel bars in the reinforced con-
raised to C40. For concrete (including precast piles), crete structure.
sulfate-resistant Portland cement or ordinary Portland The concrete strength grade of the foundation part is
cement with tricalcium aluminate content of not more than raised to C40. For concrete (including precast piles),
5% mixed with steel bar corrosion inhibitor shall be adopted, sulfate-resistant Portland cement or ordinary Portland cement
and asphalt paint anti-corrosion coating is applied on the with tricalcium aluminate content of not more than 5% mixed
foundation surface. Precast concrete square pile-to-pile steel with steel bar corrosion inhibitor shall be adopted, and
parts shall be painted with epoxy asphalt paint for 2 times, asphalt paint anti-corrosion coating is applied on the foun-
and the thickness shall not be less than 2 mm. The metal dation surface. Precast concrete square pile-to-pile steel parts
components adopt hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion shall be painted with epoxy asphalt paint for 2 times, and the
protection. thickness shall not be less than 2 mm. The metal components
The total construction cost of the project is RMB 161.4 adopt hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion protection.
million, the anti-corrosion cost of the metal components is The total construction cost of the project is RMB 378.36
about RMB 70,000, and the foundation anti-corrosion cost is million, the anti-corrosion cost of metal components is about
about RMB 0.73 million. The corrosion cost is 0.50% during RMB 1.44 million, and the foundation anti-corrosion cost is
the project construction stage. about RMB 1.85 million. The corrosion cost is 0.87% in the
construction stage.
3) Huanghua 500 kV transformer substation
5) South Ganzhou 500 kV transformer substation
The substation was put into operation in 2006 with a design
service life of 50 years. The substation was put into operation in 2011, with a design
Groundwater is non-corrosive to concrete structure, service life of 50 years.
highly corrosive to steel bars in reinforced concrete, and The main corrosive environment of this substation is
moderately corrosive to steel structure. The foundation soil acidic atmospheric environment. Metal components are
above the groundwater level is non-corrosive to the concrete protected against corrosion by cold spraying zinc.
structure, moderately corrosive to steel bars in the reinforced The total construction cost of the project is RMB 264.19
concrete, and non-corrosive to the steel structure. million, and the anti-corrosion cost of metal components is
about RMB 1.237 million. The corrosion cost is 0.47% in The total construction cost of the project is RMB 1987.34
the construction stage. million, and the anti-corrosion cost of the metal components
is about RMB 1.254 million. The corrosion cost is 0.06% in
6) Jingzhou 500 kV convertor station the construction stage.
The station was put into operation in 2011, with a design 10) Shijiazhuang 1000 kV transformer substation
service life of 50 years.
The main corrosive environment of this station is acidic The substation is under construction with a design service
atmospheric environment. Metal components are protected life of 50 years.
against corrosion by hot-dip galvanizing. The main corrosive environment of this substation is
The total construction cost of the project is RMB 206.8 chlorine salt and sulfate soil environment. The metal com-
million, and the anti-corrosion cost of metal components is ponents are protected by hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion
about RMB 1.662 million. The corrosion cost is 0.80% in protection, and the concrete foundation is externally coated
the construction stage. with anti-corrosion paint.
The total construction cost of the project is RMB 202.8
7) Wucaiwan 750 kV transformer substation million, the anti-corrosion cost of the metal components is
about RMB 1.98 million, and the foundation anti-corrosion
The substation was put into operation in 2014 with a design cost is about RMB 0.68 million. The corrosion cost is 1.31%
service life of 50 years. in the construction stage.
The main corrosive environment of this substation is
chlorine salt and sulfate soil environment. The metal com- 2. Analysis of corrosion cost
ponents are protected by hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion
protection and the concrete foundation is externally coated It can be seen from the above section that the corrosion of
with anti-corrosion paint. transformer substations and converter stations is mainly the
The total construction cost of the project is RMB 152.28 corrosion of the metal components by the atmospheric
million, the anti-corrosion cost of the metal components is environment and the corrosion of the foundation concrete by
about RMB 4.876 million, and the foundation anti-corrosion the soil environment.
cost is about RMB 5.61 million. The corrosion cost is 6.88% The results show that the main anti-corrosion measure for
in the construction stage. the metal components of transformer substations and con-
verter stations is hot-dip galvanizing, and the anti-corrosion
8) South Tianjin 1000 kV transformer substation measures for concrete foundation include improving the
strength grade of concrete, adding corrosion inhibitor, and
The substation is under construction with a design service coating anti-corrosion paint.
life of 50 years. Different from the characteristics of transmission line
The main corrosive environment of this substation is project, the corrosion cost of transformer substations and
chlorine salt and sulfate soil environment. The metal com- converter stations is mainly determined by the environment
ponents are protected by hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion corrosion characteristics of the station site, which has
protection and the concrete foundation is externally coated obvious regional characteristics. According to the result of
with asphalt. “corrosion cost calculation” in the above section, the cor-
The total construction cost of the project is RMB 2293.93 rosion cost of most transformer substations and converter
million, the anti-corrosion cost of the metal components is stations is less than 2%, and the corrosion cost of individual
about RMB 1.583 million, and the foundation anti-corrosion substations is relatively high, which is related to the envi-
cost is about RMB 3.5 million. The corrosion cost is 0.22% ronment corrosion strength at the station site.
in the construction stage.
9) South Anhui 1000 kV transformer substation 4.4.5 Conclusions and Suggestion
The substation was put into operation in 2012 with a design 4.4.5.1 Conclusions
service life of 50 years.
The main corrosive environment of this substation is (1) The main corrosion of transmission line project is the
acidic atmospheric environment. Metal components are corrosion of metal material of transmission tower and
protected against corrosion by hot-dip galvanizing. the corrosion of tower concrete foundation by soil
environment.
388 J. Zhang
(2) The main anti-corrosion measure of transmission tower an energy sources. For industrial process, an energy source
is hot-dip galvanizing. The anti-corrosion measures of can be described as “a relatively concentrated energy-
tower foundation include improving the strength grade containing body or energy process,” and an energy-carrying
of concrete, adding corrosion inhibitor, and coating resource that can provide light, heat, electricity, power, or
anti-corrosion paint. any form of energy directly or through conversion.
(3) The corrosion cost of transmission line project is about There are many kinds of energy sources, which can be
2–6%. divided into different types according to different classifi-
(4) The corrosion of transformer substations and converter cation methods. At present, there are mainly the following
stations is mainly the corrosion of metal components by seven classification methods.
atmospheric environment and the corrosion of founda-
tion concrete by soil environment. (1) According to their sources, they are classified into three
(5) The main anti-corrosion measure for the metal com- categories. The first category comes from solar energy.
ponents of transformer substations and converter sta- In addition to the direct use of solar energy, coal, oil,
tions is hot-dip galvanizing. The anti-corrosion natural gas, and other fossil fuels are also the accu-
measures for concrete foundation include improving the mulation of solar energy. In addition, biomass energy,
strength grade of concrete soil, adding corrosion inhi- water energy, wind energy, ocean energy, and lightning
bitor, and coating anti-corrosion paint. are also formed through some conversion ways of solar
(6) The corrosion cost of transformer substations and energy. The second is the earth’s own energy, mainly
converter stations is generally less than 2%. geothermal energy, nuclear fuel, and natural energy of
earthquake, volcanic eruption and hot spring. The third
4.4.5.2 Suggestion category is the energy formed by the interaction
between the earth and other celestial bodies, mainly
(1) With the deepening of UHV project and the construction referred to as tide.
of “smart power grid”, more and more “lifeline” projects (2) They are divided into primary energy and secondary
are threatened by environment corrosion, which brings energy according to production way. Primary energy
hidden danger to the normal operation of power grid. refers to the existing energy sources in nature, such as
The durability and anti-corrosion technology of power coal, petroleum, natural gas, water, and so on. Primary
transmission and transformation projects have become energy is divided into renewable energy (water, wind,
the focus of the design and construction units. It is and biomass energy) and nonrenewable energy (coal,
suggested that relevant sectors attach importance to petroleum, natural gas, oil shale, etc.). Secondary
corrosion control of power transmission and transfor- energy refers to other types and forms of energy
mation projects and strengthen relevant research. resources through the direct or indirect conversion of
(2) At present, the industrial and national standards have not primary energy, such as electricity, gas, gasoline, diesel,
been formed in the durability design and construction coke, clean coal, laser, and biogas.
quality control of power transmission and transforma- (3) They can be classified into fuel-type energy sources
tion projects so that relevant personnel can only refer to (coal, petroleum, natural gas, peat, and wood) and
other industry standards in design and construction. It is nonfuel-type energy sources (water energy, wind
suggested that relevant sectors should organize the for- energy, geothermal energy, and marine energy) by
mulation of industrial and national standards for dura- nature.
bility design and construction quality control of power (4) According to whether the energy consumption causes
transmission and transformation projects. environmental pollution or not, they can be divided into
polluted energy sources and clean energy sources.
Polluted energy sources include coal and petroleum
while clean energy sources include water, electricity,
4.5 Report on Corrosion Investigation solar, wind, and nuclear energy.
of Clean Energy Power Generation (5) They can be classified into conventional energy sources
Industry and new energy sources by type of use. Conventional
energy sources refer to the energy sources that are
4.5.1 Introduction technically mature in utilization and widely used,
including renewable water resources in primary energy
4.5.1.1 Summary of Energy and Power and nonrenewable resources such as coal, petroleum,
Generation and natural gas. New energy sources refer to the energy
In a broad sense, any energy-containing substance that is sources that are newly utilized or is being developed,
relatively concentrated and readily convertible can be called including solar energy, wind energy, geothermal
energy, marine energy, biological energy, hydrogen water in the reactor to produce steam, and the steam turbine
energy, and nuclear fuel used for nuclear power drives the generator to rotate to generate electric energy with
generation. the driving of steam. Wind power generation uses wind
(6) They can be divided into solid fuel, liquid fuel, gas fuel, power to drive windmills to drive the generator to generate
water energy, electric energy, solar energy, biomass electricity. There are two kinds of solar power generation:
energy, wind energy, nuclear energy, ocean energy, and solar thermal power generation and solar photovoltaic power
geothermal energy according to morphological charac- generation. Solar thermal power generation uses a heat
teristics or conversion and application levels. collecting device to collect solar heat energy to heat water in
(7) They can be classified into commodity energy sources the water pipe to generate steam, thereby driving a turbine
and non-commodity energy sources according to whe- generator to generate electricity. Solar photovoltaic power
ther they are commodities or not. Commodity energy generation is to use a solar panel made of silicon material
sources refer to the energy sources sold in the energy with a photoelectric effect so as to convert light energy into
market as commodities, such as coal, petroleum, natural electric energy by being irradiated by sunlight energy.
gas, and electricity. Noncommercial energy sources
mainly refer to firewood and crop residues (such as 4.5.1.2 Prospect of Clean Energy Power
straw). Generation in China
Developing clean energy power generation is an inevitable
Electric power is an important secondary energy, which choice for the development of China’s electric power industry.
occupies an important position in various energy sources The development of clean energy power generation can
because it can be produced centrally, easily transported and effectively promote the green transformation of the energy
distributed, easily converted into other forms of energy, and power supply structure, reduce pollutant emission, improve
is free of pollution and easy to use. The electric power the ecological environment, relieve the international pressure
industry is an important part of the national economy, and its of carbon emission, effectively promote regional investment,
mission includes the whole process of generating electricity, taxation, and employment, promote the economic develop-
transmitting electricity, and distributing (selling electricity) ment in the west and northern frontier of China. Besides, it will
to users. Power generation is a process of converting various also drive the development of the equipment manufacturing
kinds of primary energy into electric energy, which is an industry and enhance the competitiveness of photovoltaic
important production link of the electric power industry. In power generation modules, hydropower, and wind turbine
terms of energy use, power generation now mainly includes generators in the international market.
thermal power generation, hydroelectric generation, nuclear In 2014, the Report on the Work of the Government of the
power generation, wind power generation, and solar power State Council put forward clear requirements for China’s
generation. Except thermal power generation, hydroelectric clean energy power generation, including to increase the
generation, nuclear power generation, wind power genera- proportion of nonfossil energy generation, to develop smart
tion, and solar power generation belong to clean energy power grid and distributed energy, to encourage the devel-
generation. In addition, there are magnetofluid power gen- opment of wind and solar energy, to start a batch of
eration, tidal power generation, ocean temperature difference hydropower and nuclear power projects, and to strengthen
power generation, wave power generation, geothermal the application of natural gas, coalbed methane, and shale
power generation, and biomass power generation. gas exploration and exploitation.
Thermal power generation uses the thermal energy gen- It is predicted that by 2020, the installed power–power
erated by burning fuels such as coal, petroleum, and lique- generation of clean energy in China will reach 810 million
fied natural gas to heat the water in the boiler water pipe into kilowatts, accounting for 41% of the total installed capacity;
high-temperature and high-pressure steam, and drives the the power generation will be 2.6 trillion kilowatts,
turbine to rotate, thereby driving the generator to generate accounting for 32% of the total. By 2030, the power gen-
electricity. Hydroelectric power generation converts the eration of clean energy in China will reach 5 trillion kilo-
potential energy of water at a high position flowing to a low watts, making up 42% of the total. By 2050, the installed
position into kinetic energy by building a dam, and the water power–power generation of clean energy in China will reach
turbine installed at the low position of the waterway is dri- 2.48 billion kilowatts, accounting for 62% of the total
ven to rotate by the flow of water. Then mechanical energy installed capacity; the power generation will be 8.1 trillion
is converted into electrical energy by connecting the water kilowatts, accounting for 58% of the total. China’s power
turbine and the generator to drive the generator to rotate. structure will transform from coal-based power generation to
Nuclear power generation uses nuclear power to heat the new generation of clean nonfossil energy generation.
390 J. Zhang
4.5.2 Corrosion Status and Control Results craft. The heating reactor is used to provide heat for heating,
of Nuclear Power Stations seawater desalination, chemical engineering, and other pur-
poses. In the nuclear power station, the power reactor mainly
4.5.2.1 General Situation of Nuclear Power includes light-water reactor, heavy-water reactor, graphite
Station Development in China gas-cooled reactor, and fast neutron increment reactor.
Power stations that use nuclear energy to generate power are A light-water reactor is a reactor in which pressurized
called nuclear power stations. Nuclear reactors are the heart ordinary water (light water) is used as moderator and cool-
of nuclear power stations. There are many types of reactors, ant. Light-water reactor can be divided into pressurized
which can be divided into production reactor, test reactor, water reactor and boiling water reactor. If water is not
power reactor, and heating reactor according to the appli- allowed to boil in the reactor, it is called a PWR. Light-water
cation. Production reactor is used exclusively for the pro- reactor is the most important type at present. The
duction of fissile or fusion-prone substances, the main heavy-water reactor uses pressurized heavy water as a
purpose of which is to produce raw materials and radioiso- moderator, and its coolant can be either heavy water or light
topes for nuclear weapons. Test reactor is mainly used for water.
experimental research, such as basic research on nuclear China’s nuclear power industry began in the 1980s,
physics, radiation chemistry, biology and medicine and which is divided into three stages: start-up, take-off, and
research on reactor materials, components, structural mate- sustained development. The time before 2000 is the start-up
rials, and dynamic and static characteristics of the reactor stage, starting from the combined to the grid of Qinshan
itself. The power reactor is mainly used for power generation Nuclear Power station, the first nuclear power station in
and as propulsion power for submarine, ship, and aerospace December 1991. The design, manufacture, and construction
Table 4.28 Basic conditions of some built nuclear power units in China
Name of nuclear power station Technology Reactor type Rated Business Operating unit
sources power/MW operating time
Phase I of Qinshan Nuclear Power station China PWR 310 April 1, 1994 China National Nuclear
Corporation
Phase II of Qinshan Nuclear Power station Unit 1 China PWR (CNP650) 2 650 April 15, 2002
Unit 2 May 3, 2004
Phase III of Qinshan Nuclear Power station Unit 1 Canada Heavy-water reactor 2 700 December 31,
(CANDU6) 2002
Unit 2 July 24, 2003
Expansion project of Phase II of Qinshan Unit 1 China PWR (CNP650) 2 650 October 21,
Nuclear Power station 2010
Unit 2 April 8, 2012
Fangjiashan Nuclear Power station Unit 1 China PWR 2 108 November 4,
2014
Phase I of Jiangsu Tianwan Nuclear Power Unit 1 Russia PWR (VVER) 2 1060 May 17, 2007 China National Nuclear
station Corporation
Unit 2 August 16, 2007
Fuqing Nuclear Power station Unit 1 China PWR November 22,
2014
Guangdong Daya Bay Nuclear Power station Unit 1 France PWR (M310) 2 983.8 February 1, China General Nuclear
1994 Power Group
Unit 2 May 6, 1994
Phase I of Guangdong Ling’ao Nuclear Power Unit 1 China PWR (CPR1000) 2 990.3 May 28, 2002
station
Unit 2 January 8, 2003
Phase II of Guangdong Ling’ao Nuclear Unit 3 China PWR (CPR1000) 2 1080 September 20,
Power station 2010
Unit 4 August 7, 2011
Guangdong Yangjiang Nuclear Power station Unit 1 China PWR (CPR1000) March 25, 2014
Ningde Nuclear Power station Unit 1 China PWR (CPR1000) 1089 April 18, 2013
Unit 2 Modified PWR 2 660 May 4, 2014
(CPR1000)
Hongyanhe Nuclear Power station Unit 1 China PWR (CPR1000) 1118.79 June 6, 2013
Unit 2 Modified PWR May 13, 2014
(CPR1000)
technology of nuclear power station were mastered, the

design autonomy and equipment localization were realized,
and a complete nuclear industry system was formed. The 2
time from 2000 to 2015 is a take-off stage when the nuclear 1
power installed capacity in China increased rapidly, the
nuclear power equipment has entered the small batch pro-
duction and has the capacity of fuel assemblies for PWRs at 3 4
0.3 million, 0.6 million, and 1 million kilowatts. The time
from 2015 to 2020 is the stage of sustainable development.
By the end of October 2015, China had operated 27
nuclear power units with a total installed capacity of 25.5
million kilowatts. There are 25 nuclear power units under
construction, with a total installed capacity of 27.51 million
kilowatts. China has developed large-scale advanced PWRs
Fig. 4.98 Main buildings of PWR nuclear power station 1. contain-
and high-temperature gas-cooled reactors with independent ment; 2. turbine building; 3. fuel operation building; 4. auxiliary
intellectual property rights. “Hualong No. 1” nuclear power equipment building
technology demonstration project has been developed. Chi-
na’s experimental fast reactor can operate stably at full
power for 72 h, which indicates that China has mastered the transfer the heat to the secondary loop water through the
key technology of fast reactor. steam generator to heat the water to convert it into steam so
In accordance with the goal of China’s medium- and that the steam turbine generator set is driven to generate
long-term nuclear power development plan, the installed electricity. Figure 4.99 shows a schematic diagram of a
capacity of nuclear power in mainland China will reach 58 PWR nuclear power station.
million kilowatts by 2020, of which 30 million kilowatts are The main equipment of the primary loop system includes
under construction. By 2030, China will strive to form a the following aspects.
technical research and development system and supporting
industrial system that can reflect the direction of nuclear (1) Reactor pressure vessel (RPV). RPV is the reactor body
power development in the world. Nuclear power technology pressure-bearing shell for transferring core, supporting
and equipment will occupy a considerable share in the all the components in the reactor and containing and
international market and achieve the goal of building a maintaining the pressure of the primary loop coolant.
powerful nuclear power in an all-round way. Table 4.28 RPV forms the coolant pressure boundary together with
shows the basic conditions of some built nuclear power units the primary loop pipeline. When the fuel element
in China as of January 2014. breaks, the pressure vessel also has the function of
sealing radioactivity and preventing the escape of fis-
4.5.2.2 Basic Composition and Main Metal sion products, that is, it plays an important role in the
Materials of Equipment of PWR Nuclear reactor safety barrier. At the same time, the pressure
Power Station vessel is the largest and nonremovable equipment in the
reactor during the service period of the nuclear power
station, and its service life determines the service life of
1. Basic composition of PWR nuclear power station the entire nuclear power station. Figure 4.100 is a
schematic structural diagram of RPV.
PWR nuclear power station is mainly composed of nuclear (2) Steam generator. A steam generator is a heat exchange
reactor, primary loop system, secondary loop system, and device between the primary and secondary loops in a
other auxiliary systems. The building mainly includes the PWR nuclear power station. It transfers the heat gen-
containment building, turbine building, fuel operation erated by the reactor from the primary side to the sec-
building, and other auxiliary equipment building, as shown ondary side, so that the water on the secondary side
in Fig. 4.98. becomes steam that is subjected to steam–water sepa-
The primary loop system PWR is the reactor coolant ration and drying to drive the turbo-generator system to
system. The main equipment and pipelines constituting the generate electricity.
primary loop system belong to the pressure-bearing equip-
ment at the nuclear safety level. The main function of the There are three types of vertical “U” pipe natural circu-
primary loop system is to conduct the heat generated by lation, horizontal natural circulation, and vertical DC steam
nuclear fission inside the reactor out of the reactor, and then generators widely used in PWR nuclear power stations.
392 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.99 Schematic diagram of a PWR nuclear power station

Fig. 4.100 Schematic structural diagram of RPV
Most PWR nuclear power stations in China adopt the ver- (3) Reactor internals. Reactor internals refer to all other
tical “U” pipe natural circulation steam generator which is components within the reactor pressure vessel other
commonly used internationally. Its structure diagram is than the core group. The reactor internals include the
shown in Fig. 4.101. lower core support structure (basket), the upper core
The main functions of the steam generator are as follows: support structure (compact components), core mea-
➀ providing steam flow, pressure, temperature, and humidity surement support parts, and the irradiation supervisor
to meet the requirements of the steam generator set; ➁ dis- pipe, as shown in Fig. 4.102.
charging the residual heat during reactor shutdown to reduce
the reactor coolant temperature to 180 °C until the residual The main function of the reactor internals is to accurately
heat removal system is put into operation; ➂ performing the support and position the fuel assemblies in the reactor core
function of natural circulation to remove residual heat when to prevent the core assemblies from shifting or moving
the main pump loses the power supply; and ➃ shielding. during operation, to provide precise centering and reliable
394 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.101 Structure diagram of steam generator
guidance of the control rod cluster to enable lifting or cooperation of the relevant auxiliary system. The upper
landing of the control rod cluster during reactor operation, head of the voltage regulator is equipped with a pneu-
and to achieve rapid rod dropping in the event of an accident matic pressure relief valve and a spring-loaded safety
and absorption of impact energy from rapid insertion of the valve for providing overpressure protection of the
control rod assembly. system.
(4) Voltage regulator. Voltage regulator is one of the main Voltage regulator used in a PWR nuclear power station is
equipment of primary loop coolant system in PWR commonly an electrically heated vertical cylindrical voltage
nuclear power station. Its basic function is, when the regulator (Fig. 4.103). When a nuclear power station is
nuclear power station operates normally, it controls the running at full power, the volume of steam and water each
system pressure change to be in the normal range; when accounts for half. The voltage regulator is connected to the
a general operating condition accident occurs in the hot section of the main system by a bottom surge pipe.
nuclear power station, it controls the system pressure Coolant will flow into or out of the voltage regulator through
variation within an allowable range with the the surge pipe when its volume in the main system changes.
Fig. 4.102 Schematic diagram of reactor internals

396 J. Zhang
An electric heater is arranged on the bottom head of the (5) Main pipeline. Reactor coolant pipeline (referred to as
voltage regulator so that a part of the water in the container is main pipeline) connects the reactor, steam generator,
heated and vaporized to control the pressure reduction. and main coolant pump into a closed loop. The main
A sprayer is provided at the top of the voltage regulator. The pipeline includes straight pipe section, tee joint, elbow,
sprayer is connected to the cold section of the reactor coolant and its accessories. The coolant, driven by the primary
system through a connection pipe to atomize the coolant pump, flows through the main pipeline and loop
under-heated water and spray it into the container to inhibit main equipment, transferring heat generated by the
the increase of pressure. The top of the voltage regulator is reactor through the steam generator to the secondary
provided with a pressure relief valve and the main safety loop. The inner wall of the straight pipe section is
valve for overpressure protection. exposed to high temperature, high pressure, high flow
Fig. 4.103 Schematic diagram of voltage regulator

rate, and radioactive borated water. The straight pipe normal operation, the function of the main pump is to cir-
section is subjected to complicated forces under various culate coolant through the core. During accident conditions
operating conditions. When a nuclear power station is (such as loss of power), the main pump is required to con-
in operation, if the straight main pipe breaks, the continue to idle for a period of time (several minutes) in order to
sequences are extremely serious. continue to flow coolant through the core to carry the
(6) Reactor coolant pump and its gland seal system. residual heat of the nuclear fuel and prevent fuel assemblies
Nuclear power station reactor coolant loop (primary) from burning before the shutdown coolant system is put into
pump is usually driven by three-phase induction motors operation. Therefore, whether the main pump operates reli-
and is an air-cooled, vertical, single-stage centrifugal ably is related to the safety of the nuclear power station.
pump with a shaft seal system. Figure 4.104 is a schematic diagram of the main pump.
A reactor coolant pump (referred to as main pump) is (7) Containment. The PWR containment is usually a large
used to deliver a prescribed flow of reactor coolant to cir- cylindrical prestressed concrete building with an inner
culate the coolant in a closed system composed of a reactor, diameter of about 40 m, the wall thickness of about 1 m
a main pipeline, and a steam generator so as to transfer and a height of 65–70 m, with steel lining inside. An
thermal energy generated by the reactor to the steam gen- equipment gate with a diameter of 10 m and a per-
erator in order to generate steam to drive the turbine. In sonnel gate connected to the auxiliary building are
Fig. 4.104 Schematic diagram of the main pump

398 J. Zhang
heater and a high-pressure heater are provided between

the condensate pump and the steam generator and a filter
is provided to remove mechanical impurities. In the hot
well before the inlet of the pump, there is a mechanical
magnetic composite screen made of a stainless steel orifice
plate with a hole of 1 mm and the magnetic screen is a
permanent magnet. A basket structure filter on the pipeline is
mounted on the condensate pump outlet main pipe, and the
equipped electric bypass valve can conduct backlash
regularly.
The secondary loop of the nuclear power station is
basically the same as the steam turbine loop of the thermal
power station, except that the steam heat source of the for-
mer is the primary high-temperature and high-pressure water
converted from the fission energy of the reactor, rather than
the coal and gas of the steam boiler of the thermal power
station.
2. Main metal materials of the equipment
The key metal materials commonly used in nuclear power

Fig. 4.105 Schematic diagram of containment stations can be divided into carbon steel, stainless steel, and
special alloy. For further subdivision, it includes carbon
provided inside, and a polar crane with a hoisting (manganese) steel, low-alloy steel, stainless steel, zirconium
capacity of 250–300 tons is provided at the top. alloy, titanium alloy, and nickel-based alloy. According to
varieties, there are castings, plates, pipes, round steel,
The function of the containment is to contain together the welding materials, and so on. Table 4.29 shows the data of
primary equipment with radioactive material in the primary metal materials of the primary and secondary loops of some
loop, such as the reactor pressure vessel, steam generator, overseas PWR nuclear power stations.
voltage regulator, reactor coolant pump, and some auxiliary
systems and special safety facility systems, so as to prevent 4.5.2.3 Corrosive Environment and Main
the outward diffusion of radioactive material. Even in the Corrosion Types of Nuclear Power Station
event of the most serious accident at the nuclear power The corrosive environment faced by the nuclear power sta-
station, the radioactive material can be completely enclosed tion includes seawater environment, secondary loop
in the containment without affecting the surrounding envi- high-temperature steam–water environment, acid–alkali–salt
ronment. Therefore, containment is also the last barrier to environment, desalting and deoxidizing environment, pri-
prevent leakage of radioactive materials from the reactor, as mary loop boric acid water environment, and marine atmo-
shown in Fig. 4.105. spheric environment.
The fresh steam generated on the secondary loop side of
the steam generator is used to perform work on the 1. Seawater environment
high-pressure cylinder of the turbine, dehumidify the
exhaust steam discharged from the high-pressure cylinder, Nuclear power stations that are operating, are under con-
and even cause continued work on the low-pressure cylinder struction and are to be built in China are all located along the
after overheating, thereby avoiding cavitation on turbine coast and use seawater as the final cooling medium.
blades caused by excessive moisture in the steam. To form a Seawater is a highly corrosive medium, and corrosion modes
closed steam–water circulation loop, a large amount of that may occur include uniform corrosion, crevice corrosion,
triple-loop water, such as seawater/exhaust steam from the galvanic corrosion, pitting corrosion, stress corrosion
cooling turbine, is reused as condensed water. In order to cracking, and corrosion fatigue due to the fact that high
make the condensed water meet the feed temperature content of chloride in seawater promotes most corrosion
requirements of steam generator inlet, a low-pressure modes. Figure 4.106 shows a photograph of seawater
Table 4.29 Data of metal materials for primary and secondary loops of some overseas PWR nuclear power stations
Loop Equipment Material Corrosive environment and water chemistry
characteristics
Primary Reactor (1) Nickel-based alloys (mainly (1) Primary loop water environment of PWR
loop Pressure vessel 600/82/182/690/718, X-750 alloys)
Voltage (2) Low-alloy steel (A533-B, A580-2, A580-3, (2) Environment of purified water in boiling water
regulator A333-6, A516) reactor
Steam
generator
Primary loop (3) Stainless steel (304, 304L, 316, 316L) (3) Reactor environment
pipeline
Reactor
internals
Secondary Steam turbine Nickel-based alloys (mainly alloy 600, alloy 690, Secondary loop hydrochemical environment and its
loop and alloy 800) control parameters
depending on the combination of the following factors:

chemical composition of the pipeline material (mainly the
chromium content), the geometry of the pipeline, flow rate of
the fluid, and the hydrochemistry of the fluid. Figure 4.107
shows the appearance of the pipeline cracking caused by
FAC.
3. Acid–alkali–salt environment
The high requirement of process water quality in the nuclear

power station involves a great deal of water treatment. It is
inevitable that large quantities of chemicals are used in the
water treatment process, most of which are strongly corro-
sive. The risk of corrosion of the corresponding system for
the storage and distribution of these chemicals is also rela-
tively large. Therefore, it is necessary to take full account of
Fig. 4.106 Photograph of seawater corrosion in the water chamber of the risk and take appropriate preventive measures. The
Daya Bay Nuclear Power station
correct selection of equipment components and materials is a
very important factor. Figure 4.108 shows the corrosion
corrosion in the water chamber of Daya Bay Nuclear Power morphology of acid–alkali–salt environment.
station.
4. Desalting and deoxidizing environment
2. Secondary loop high-temperature steam–water
environment If the ion content of other harmful impurity is very low, the
corrosiveness of the desalting and deoxidizing water itself is
The secondary loop hydrochemical environment of PWR not strong, and only uniform corrosion will occur. However,
nuclear power station is as follows: ➀ high “pure water” of it is also a kind of strong electrolyte, which has the condition
0.3 lS/cm is at 270 °C; ➁ the main corrosive substances are of electrochemical corrosion. The electrochemical corrosion
ammonia/morpholine, or ethanolamine; ➂ pH value is about caused by material and structure is also worthy of attention.
6 (pH value is about 9 at room temperature); and ➃ the In addition, if materials containing elements such as copper
corrosion potential of alloy 600 is less than −450 mV (vs. and lead are used in the desalting and deoxidizing water
SHE). The flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) of the pipeline system, these elements may be dissolved in the system and
and the abrasion of the steam turbine mainly occur in the may be deposited in the heat exchanger or the steam gen-
high-temperature steam–water environment of the secondary erator, and may cause stress corrosion cracking. Other
loop, both of which are abrasion–corrosion. FAC can occur harmful impurity ions in the system may also be elevated
not only in a two-phase flow, but also in a single-phase flow, due to some unexpected material factors in the desalting and
400 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.107 Appearance of the pipeline cracking caused by FAC
Fig. 4.108 Corrosion morphology of acid–alkali–salt environment
deoxidizing water system. These problems also deserve reliability of the equipment is related to the safety and
attention. In addition, the corrosion of carbonic acid solution operation of the entire nuclear power station, such as con-
that occurs on the external surface of the refrigeration system taining fuel core, maintaining the primary loop pressure
due to the condensed water is also a very important corro- boundary, cooling core, and preventing the leakage of
sion phenomenon. radioactive materials.
Currently, the design life of PWR nuclear power station is
5. Primary loop boric acid water environment generally 40 years, during which the reactor pressure vessel
and containment can’t be replaced. If they are damaged, it
The main characteristics and parameters of the primary loop means that the nuclear power station is shutdown. Although
hydrochemical environment of PWR nuclear power station the steam generator, main pump, voltage regulator, and
are as follows: ➀ at 288–338 °C, the conductivity at the primary loop pipeline can be replaced, the time required for
beginning of the loop is about 26 lS/cm, and at the end of replacement is long and the maintenance cost is high. From
the circuit is about 6 lS/cm; ➁ the content of B in H3BO3 is past operating experience, corrosion is one of the most
1,200–1,500 10−6, and the content of Li in LiOH is important factors affecting the integrity and life of these
2.25 10−6 at the beginning of the loop; ➂ the content of B devices. The main corrosion in primary loop boric acid water
in H3BO3 is less than 50 10−6, and the content of Li + in environment is primary loop stress corrosion cracking, boric
LiOH is 0.7 10−6 at the beginning of the loop; ➃ pH acid corrosion, stress corrosion cracking caused by irradia-
value is about 7 (pH value is about 6 at room temperature tion, and dead pipe section.
due to H3BO3); ➄ (2,000–4,000) 10−9 of H2 is dissolved;
and ➅ the corrosion potential of the alloy 600 is −750 mV. 6. Marine atmospheric environment
The primary loop of PWR contains the most important
equipment of the nuclear power station, including reactor The chloride ion content in the ocean–atmosphere is relatively
pressure vessel, steam generator, voltage regulator, reactor high, and the corrosion risk to outdoor equipment is high.
internals, primary loop pipeline, main pump, etc. The
4.5.2.4 Several Important Corrosion Types

of Nuclear Power Station and Protective
Measures
1. Boric acid corrosion and protective measures
Boric acid corrosion is one of the most common corrosion

types in PWR nuclear power stations. In PWRs, the effect of
boric acid is related to the control of the reaction. It is mixed
in the reactor coolant at a concentration of less than 1%. This
concentration of acid does not cause significant corrosion of
carbon steel and stainless steel. However, when the reactor
coolant leaks, a high concentration of boric acid solution or
crystals of boric acid is generated due to a large amount of
evaporation of water, thereby causing corrosion, which is Fig. 4.109 Boric acid leakage from pressure vessel head
boric acid corrosion.
According to the influence on increasing leakage rate, Figures 4.110 and 4.111 show the morphology of severe
boric acid corrosion can be divided into two types. The first corrosion of stainless steel parts immersed in boron water in
type is corrosion that has a significant effect on increasing a nuclear power station in China.
leakage rate, and corrosion occurs on the pressure boundary The most practical and economical way to prevent boric
of reactor cooling system, such as reactor cooling pump, acid corrosion is to find and eliminate the source of leakage
which causes serious consequences. The second type is in advance, because the post-treatment of boric acid corro-
corrosion that occurs farther away from the source and has sion requires a lot of resources. Nuclear Regulatory Com-
no significant effect on increasing the leak rate, which can mission (NRC) believes that there should be a plan to control
cause degradation of the pressure boundary of the reactor the boric acid leakage to ensure compliance with the
cooling system. The leak-prone parts are ➀ valve; ➁ flange requirements of nuclear power operating permit. Therefore, a
connection part of main pipeline of steam generator, reactor systematic inspection plan should be established to minimize
head; ➂ The joint of the shell of the main coolant pump leakage, failure, and fracture. The plan contains the
covers; and ➃ weld joint with defects. following:
The corrosion types of boric acid corrosion include uni-
form corrosion, galvanic corrosion, crevice corrosion, and (1) Areas where leakage is likely to cause boric acid cor-
stress corrosion. Table 4.30 shows the possible locations and rosion shall be identified, and these areas are specifi-
influence factors of the four types of corrosion in nuclear cally inspected to determine the areas of pressure
power station systems and equipment. boundary prone to cause boric acid concentration.
Figure 4.109 shows a photograph of corrosion of boric (2) It is important to determine the area of minimal coolant
acid leakage from a reactor pressure vessel head penetration leakage (e.g., leakage rate below the technical standard
of a PWR nuclear power station in China. value), determine the flow path of the coolant leakage
Table 4.30 Locations and influencing factors of boric acid corrosion

Type of Position of corrosion Influence factors
corrosion
Uniform Leaking boric acid crystallizing site Material, temperature, pH value, oxygen content, flow
corrosion rate
Galvanic Both stainless steel and nickel-based alloys are present at the The magnitude of the potential difference between the
corrosion leakage site couple
Crevice Where there are crevices, such as bolt joint Gap size and type of material on both sides of the gap
corrosion
Stress corrosion Bolts Tensile stress magnitude
402 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.110 Corrosion morphology of fastener and pin assembly clearance immersed in boron water
Fig. 4.111 Corrosion morphology of fastener and elastic components (jaws) immersed in boron water
and the reactor cooling system pressure boundary Suzhou Nuclear Power Research Institute has carried out
components that may come into contact with it. This the application of visual check-in boric acid leakage and
may further determine the reaction that may occur corrosion inspection of nuclear power station. Visual check
between the leakage substance and the boundary is classified into three categories: VT-1, VT-2, and VT-3,
material. according to the object and purpose. VT-1 is used to
(3) Establishing a method of inspection management and determine the conditions of parts, components, or surface,
establishing an impact relationship on the pressure including cracking, abrasion, corrosion, or physical damage
boundary of the reactor cooling system by engineering to components. VT-2 is used to measure the leakage position
assessment when the area of leakage is determined. of the pressurized equipment or to determine the abnormal
Prior to the removal of direct evidence of the leak, such leakage position on the equipment with or without the
as boric acid crystallization, the engineering assessment leakage collection system when performing the system
shall also be carried out by rapid collection of the pressure test or the system function test. VT-3 is used to
necessary information through a standardized verify the general mechanical or structural conditions of the
procedure. equipment and its supports.
(4) Taking correct preventive measures to avoid the Visual check of boric acid leakage source basically
recurrence of similar leakage. This should include any belongs to VT-2 visual check. However, for hazard check
meaningful improvement that can be taken at the design caused by boric acid leakage, three types of visual check are
and operating stages, as well as appropriate covered. The check work of boric acid leakage and boric
corrosion-resistant materials or anti-corrosion coatings acid corrosion in PWR nuclear power station mainly
at areas prone to leakage. includes preparation of visual check, implementation of
Fig. 4.112 Visual check flow of boric acid leakage corrosion
visual check, analysis, and evaluation of visual check results becomes thinner and less protective, so that the corrosion
and post-processing and feedback of visual check. The rate of the material becomes large. In a stable FAC state, the
flowchart is shown in Fig. 4.112. corrosion rate of the material is equal to the dissolution rate
of the oxide film, and this process continues with the oper-
2. FAC and protection ation of the nuclear power station. According to world
statistics of more than 12,000 reactors, FAC accounts for
The main water supply pipelines, condensation pipelines, about 33% of pipeline failures at nuclear power stations,
drainage pipelines, and part of steam extraction pipelines of ranking first among all pipeline failure factors.
the nuclear power station are mainly made of carbon steel. When FAC is light, it leads to local rupture of pipeline
During operation of a nuclear power station, corrosion and leakage of working medium. When FAC is serious, it
inevitably occurs in the carbon steel lines in contact with the will lead to shutdown, property loss, and casualty of the
fluid, which is accelerated by the fluid in the pipelines. This nuclear power station. The losses and hazards caused by
phenomenon is known as FAC. It is generally believed that FAC can be fully seen from the accidents of the Surry
the protective oxide film of carbon steel or low-alloy steel Nuclear Power station in the United States and the Mihama
dissolves into flowing water or moisture, and the oxide film Nuclear Power station in Japan. In 1986, a steel pipe with a
on the surface of the material in direct contact with the fluid nominal diameter of 18 in. (1 in. = 25.4 mm) was ruptured
404 J. Zhang
at the Surry Nuclear Power station in the United States, Table 4.31 Major FAC prediction software
resulting in four deaths and four injuries. In 2004, a 22-in. Name of software Developed by
steel pipe at the Mihama Nuclear Power station in Japan CHECOWORKS America
broke, causing loss of as much as JPY 10 billion. The
COMSY Germany
service life of the existing nuclear power stations in China
BRT-CICEHO France
is still short, and there are also accidents of unit shutdown
caused by pipeline rupture caused by FAC. The main fac- RAMEK Russia
tors affecting FAC are as follows: fluid factors (including
flow rate, flow pattern, pipe wall roughness, pipe geometry,
and fluid vapor content), environmental factors (including During the operation of the nuclear power station, the
temperature, pH value, dissolved oxygen, and alkalizer), management system of system and equipment corrosion
and material factor (mainly the mass fraction of Cr). It can shall be established, the management outline shall be for-
be judged that the potential area likely to be affected by mulated, and the critical sensitive equipment, system, and
FAC is limited to the carbon steel manufacturing area location susceptible to FAC shall be evaluated. Besides,
where local water temperature, pH value, mass frac- preventive anti-corrosion management measures shall be
tion of dissolved oxygen, flow rate, and turbulivity are developed and changes in the chromium mass fraction of
in combined action. In actual engineering cases, the carbon steel shall be regularly tested to determine the FAC
following systems and components have been affected resistance of the components. FAC prediction professional
by FAC. software can be used to predict and manage the pipeline to
The system includes a condensate system, a water supply prevent the occurrence of FAC accidents.
system, a boiler blowdown system, and a deaerator. Com- At present, more sophisticated software for estimating
ponents include feed regulating valve bypass pipeline, feed and predicting FAC in the world is listed in Table 4.31.
heater tube plate, feed heater pipe bundle inlet terminal, feed Currently, the standard Guide for Screening FAC Sensi-
pipeline (especially in elbow, valve, tee), heater drainage tive Pipelines for PWR Nuclear Power Stations (NB/T
pipeline (especially the pipeline behind the drain regulating 25033-2014) was promulgated and implemented by National
valve) and extraction steam pipeline (wet steam), etc. The Energy Administration in August 2014. This will be the
occurrence of FAC must involve water and FAC doesn’t guiding document for the identification of FAC-sensitive
occur in dry steam pipelines. The probability of FAC pipelines, the screening method of sensitive fittings, the
occurring in the secondary loop steam–water pipeline of the inspection and evaluation, the adjustment requirements of
conventional island of nuclear power station is much higher sensitive pipelines and sensitive fittings, and the preventive
than that of the conventional nuclear power station. There- management requirements for the conventional islands of
fore, great attention should be paid to FAC in the design and PWR nuclear power stations in China. The State Nuclear
operation of the nuclear power station. Power station Service Company has developed the man-
During the design of the nuclear power station, the fol- agement information exchange platform for reducing the
lowing points should be noted: wall thickness of the secondary loop pipeline of the nuclear
power station, which can realize the information sharing of
(1) Rational selection of materials which are not prone to each nuclear power station, and help to improve the FAC
FAC for pipelines and components of systems in order management level of each operating nuclear power station.
to improve corrosion resistance; During the preliminary design phase of Phase II of
(2) Control the range of pH reasonably; Ling’ao Nuclear Power Project, the pipeline materials used
(3) Reasonable selection of control mode of pH value; in the Phase I project of Daya Bay Nuclear Power station
(4) Properly increase the wall thickness of pipeline sus- and Ling’ao Nuclear Power station, which are generally
ceptible to FAC to improve its corrosion resistance; contracted by ALSTOM Company of France, are fully
(5) The arrangement of pipeline and its components shall studied and verified. In the following sensitive pipeline
avoid close connection between pipe fittings, and bend systems, carbon steel material and low-alloy steel material
pipe and elbow with large bending radius shall be used pipes containing Cr are selected to maximize the localization
to the maximum extent. If possible, we should minimize of pipe materials and reduce the influence of FAC:
bypass and tee connections. The pipeline arrangement
should comprehensively consider the problem of (1) The main condensate water pipelines on the condensate
improving the balance between the fluid flow charac- extraction system (CEX) and the low-pressure feed
teristics and the elastic requirements of the pipeline. heater system (ABP) are made of 20 Cr-controlled
carbon steel material (i.e., ordinary 20 steel added with experience has shown that alloy 600 will produce primary
Cr element with a mass fraction of 0.2%); side stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) in high-purity
(2) For extraction system pipeline (AHP), the medium belongs water. Based on this, alloys 800 and 690 that are more
to wet steam before entering the steam/water separation stress corrosion-resistant have been developed.
reheater (MsR), and the material ASm A335P22 with a
mass fraction of Cr of 2.25% is selected for the pipeline; (2) Connection of pipe to tube plate
(3) The stainless steel material 022Cr19Ni10 made in
China is used after the drainage pipe regulating valve PWR SG heat transfer pipes are mounted on thick tube
because the medium is steam–water two-phase flow. plates. For the early PWR, the connection of the annealed
pipe to the tube plate was to insert the pipe into the bottom
3. Stress corrosion of the tube plate with a length of 60–100 mm, leaving a
crevice of about 0.2 mm. Concentration of the chemical
The corrosion phenomenon of metal materials under the action medium occurred in the radial crevice between the pipe and
of tensile stress and corrosion medium is called stress corro- the tube plate at the upper part of the tube plate (about
sion. Stress corrosion cracking mainly occurs in such parts of a 460 mm). The steam generators designed by Westinghouse
PWR nuclear power station as steam generator, primary loop prior to the mid-1970s used an extrusion pipe expansion
stainless steel pipeline, high-strength alloy bolt, fuel cladding process (Wextex expansion) in the field or plant along the
and structural components in the reactor, and steam turbine. thickness of the tube plate. Field experience has shown that
this can result in nonuniform pipe extrusion in some pipes,
1) Stress corrosion of steam generator such as transition areas with secondary extrusion or no
extrusion. Steam generators manufactured by Westinghouse
The steam generator is the key equipment connecting the pri- in the late 1970s used full-thickness hydraulic expansion
mary and secondary loops of PWR nuclear power station. The pipes completed in the plant. Steam generators manufactured
steam generator heat transfer pipes are operated under by Siemens/Carvans prior to the late 1980s have been using
high-temperature, high-pressure, stress, and complex media for a three-step or two-step mechanical rolling expansion pipe.
a long time, and different kinds of rupture and failure of heat In recent years, PWR adopts the full-thickness hydraulic
transfer pipes are easy to occur. This is mainly caused by pipe expansion of the tube plate, and then performs one or
various types of corrosion, the most important of which is two-step mechanical rolling expansion at the head and the
stress corrosion. The materials and processes used to make tail part of the expansion pipe (closed rolling), and the
steam generator equipment significantly affect their corrosion through part is deformed by the hydraulic expansion pipe.
susceptibility, particularly stress corrosion cracking. Other The residual stress of this expansion process is smaller than
aspects of the steam generator design also have an impact on that of mechanical rolling expansion. Mechanical rolling of
the degradation of the SG heat transfer pipes, such as the design the pipe near the top or at both ends of the tube plate pro-
of the pipe support mode and the method of pipe installation, vides greater grip force than hydraulic pipe expansion.
which may become a weak link in the structure. French steam generators have used closed rolling to
install the pipes to the tube plate since 1980, which reduces
(1) Heat transfer pipe. In order to reduce leakage and avoid the residual stress on the secondary side but increases the
contamination of the secondary loop by radioactive susceptibility to axial cracking of the primary side surfaces.
medium of primary loop, the steam generator heat transfer Westinghouse only uses hydraulic expansion pipes and
pipe shall be able to withstand high temperature, high processes the tube plate surface to a parallelism of 0.38 mm
pressure, pressure difference between the medium inside so that the secondary side gap depth is less than 2.5 mm.
and outside the pipe, corrosion, and hydraulic vibration.
For this reason, the heat transfer pipe material should have (3) Pipe support. Most steam generators originally designed
the following properties: ➀ good thermal strength, thermal by Westinghouse use plate-like pipe supports where the
stability and welding performance; ➁ stable matrix pipe passes through an opening in the plate, leaving a
structure, high thermal conductivity, small thermal narrow gap around the pipe, with secondary coolant
expansion coefficient; ➂ strong resistance to uniform flowing between the pipe and the plate. There are also
corrosion and local corrosion; and ➃ sufficient plasticity smaller holes in other locations to allow secondary side
and toughness to adapt to the processing and anti- coolant to flow through. CE’s SG pipes are mostly sup-
vibration of bend pipe and expansion pipe. Early steam ported in the form of fences (egg grids), but some drilled
generator heat transfer pipe materials typically used alloy plates are also used in the “U” pipes. B & W uses a
600. However, decades of nuclear power station operating plate-like pipe support, but the hole is a noncircular hole
406 J. Zhang
with three-point support for the pipe, which has a larger The typical cracks in PWSCC have the following char-
diameter so that coolant will flow (clover-shaped opening) acteristics by checking the pipes where PWSCC occurs and
between the support points. Later, Westinghouse’s design by eddy current detecting of the multifunctional rotating flat
also uses perforated pipe support plates (four-point sup- coils:
port—four-leaf clover-shaped design), reducing the con-
tact area between the support plates and the heat transfer (1) Cracks at “U” bend are characterized by an axial
pipes to about 6%. In this way, the concentration of direction, although a non-axial crack is occasionally
impurities in the furnace water can be reduced, which is detected.
advantageous for corrosion resistance of the pipe. At the (2) Most of the cracks in the rolling transition zone are
same time, the flow resistance of the support plate can also axial, but occasionally circumferential cracks occur
be reduced. Carbon steel was used as pipe support between the axial cracks, and isolated circumferential
material in the early stage, and corrosion-resistant ferritic cracks are rarely detected. The cracks on the roll closure
stainless steel 405 was used in the later stage. pipe are always axial, and their growth rate slows down
as the crack length increases.
Shockproof rods or plates are used in the “U” shape of the (3) Large circumferential cracks are detected in the area of
re-circulating steam generator pipe to fix the pipe and limit sludge accumulation in French plants using closed
its amplitude. The section of the Westinghouse anti- rolling expansion pipes. In some cases, large circum-
vibration bar was designed to be square and fabricated ferential cracks are also located in the same transition
from chrome-plated 600 alloy. zone as the exponentially increasing axial cracks. In
Stress corrosion occurs on both the primary and sec- addition, there is no axial crack after the appearance of
ondary sides of the steam generator. large circumferential cracks.
(4) The cracks in the exposed transition zone are typical
a. PWSCC circumferential cracks, but occasionally axial PWSCC
is also found by eddy current test of rotating flat coils.
Studies have shown that SCC of austenitic stainless steel and (5) The primary side crack at the sunken part at the inter-
nickel-based alloy requires at least three conditions: sensitive face of the heat transfer pipe support plate is axial, but
pipe microstructure, high stress, and corrosive environment. some circumferential defects are also found.
Sensitive pipe microstructure includes the effect of alloy (6) Cracks located in the sunken part in the upper part of
content or minimal intergranular carbides; high stress that is the tube plate are circumferential due to sludge accu-
generally close to or greater than yield strength; corrosive mulation (found in France).
environment refers to high temperature, high pressure, and (7) In the case of axial cracks, leakage occurs before the
water. SCC of austenitic stainless steel at high temperature, critical crack size (resulting in pipe cracking) is reached.
high pressure, and water containing dissolved oxygen and In other words, circumferential cracks are unknown.
chloride is well known. However, it was reported by Coriou Therefore, pipes with circumferential cracks shall be
et al. in France in 1959 that even in high-temperature pure plugged or lined immediately after they are found to
water, nickel-based alloy would still appear intergranular avoid possible pipe breakage.
stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) due to high stress. In the
primary side environment of PWR, some nickel-based alloys b. Secondary side stress corrosion cracking (ODSCC)
such as 600, X-750, 718 alloys have experienced IGSCC.
Such IGSCC of a material due to the action of high stress in ODSCC, including IGSCC and intergranular corrosion
the primary side environment of PWR is internationally (IGA) occurring on the outer surface of the pipe, occurs
referred to as PWSCC. Figure 4.113 shows the effect of mostly in the gaps between the pipe and tube plate and
nickel content in an austenitic alloy containing 18% chro- between the pipe and the support plate. However, ODSCC at
mium on stress corrosion when the stress is slightly higher sludge accumulation and free span zones has been found in
than the yield stress of the material in de-ionized water or some plants. Like PWSCC, IGSCC on the secondary side
water containing 1 g/L chloride ions. As shown in the figure, requires three conditions: tensile stress, sensitive material,
600 alloy is sensitive to PWSCC), while 690 alloy and and corrosive environment (in this case, active chemicals are
annealed 800 alloy are insensitive to PWSCC. Austenitic contained in high-temperature water). IGSCC cracks along
stainless steel containing nickel of less than 15% is sus- the crystal boundary, controlled by the maximum principal
ceptible to transgranular stress corrosion cracking (TGSCC) stress. IGA is characterized by local occurrence, loss of cor-
in water containing a certain amount of chloride (1 g/L). rosion at the crystal boundary, and no need for large tensile
Fig. 4.113 Effect of nickel content on SCC susceptibility of an austenitic alloy containing 18% chromium in water at 350 °C
stress. However, stress accelerates the production and prop- environment. Condensation droplets, liquid film, or solution
agation of cracks. The occurrence of ODSCC in a steam drying residue on the surface of the components form a
generator is strongly dependent on the concentration of cor- corrosive environment. At the same time, the structure of
rosive impurities. The level of secondary side system impu- turbine rotor, blade, and groove bear high static and dynamic
rities is very different and influenced by the geometry of the load, so it is easy to produce corrosion damage problem,
gap, the type of cooling water (freshwater, saltwater, seawa- inducing nuclear power turbine accident. The main reasons
ter), materials used in the secondary loop (such as copper for stress corrosion of steam turbine in nuclear power sta-
currently used), leakage history of condenser, history of air tions are as follows.
entering leakage site, history of water temperature, secondary
side water chemistry and form, and application history of (1) Stress is a necessary condition for stress corrosion. The
remedial measurement. ODSCC occurs in the gap between structural design, machining precision, assembly
the pipe–tube plate and the pipe support plate, in the sludge dimension clearance, and assembly process of the
accumulation zone and in the free span zone, especially in the equipment will lead to the existence of external and
free span zone where sundries accumulate. Most ODSCC is residual stress in the process of installation and opera-
mainly axial crack. However, in some steam generators, cir- tion of the steam turbine.
cumferential cracks are also found in the rolling pipe (2) Yield strength, corrosion resistance of equipment
expansion area, and the circumferential ODSCC sometimes materials, and process control of equipment processing.
occurs near the sunken part. Axial cracks may occur indi- Material selection of equipment is not suitable for
vidually or multiply in a network, and are sometimes masked important and special working environment. Materials
by the IGA. Shallow circumferential cracks sometimes occur with low yield strength and low threshold value of
in areas affected by IGA, resulting in grid-like axial and cir- stress corrosion are selected. No stress annealing is
cumferential cracks (called grid-like corrosion). performed prior to use of the material to reduce residual
stress, and welding stress is not eliminated during
2) Stress corrosion of steam turbine equipment welding.
(3) Working environment factors, including medium, oxi-
SCC is an important failure mode in the structure of nuclear dant, temperature, metal factor, etc. The risk of SCC of
power steam turbine. A nuclear power steam turbine has steam turbine blades poses a serious threat to the safe
multistage blades and rotor sections operating in a wet steam operation of steam turbine units. Chlorine salt corrosion
408 J. Zhang
is one of the important factors. The concentration of increased. For important welding parts, reasonable
chloride salts (NaCl, MgCl2) is the highest in the water high-standard welding technology should be selected to
droplets in the transition zone from superheated steam eliminate welding stress.
to wet steam. The commonly used stainless steel con- (3) The monitoring of operating parameters of steam tur-
taining 13% of Cr is quite sensitive to the corrosion of bine and auxiliary system should be strengthened, and
chloride salts. When corrosion occurs, the fatigue limit chemical sampling monitoring is carried out for boiler
of the blade is generally reduced by about 50%. The feedwater, steam turbine condensate water, condensate
results show that the content of chloride ion in the water fine treatment and other links on time according
corrosion pit is 30 times as high as that in the to requirements, so as to reduce the corrosion ion
non-corrosion area, and 6 times as high as that in the content in the steam turbine. After the installation of the
hard damage such as knife mark and scratch. The main unit is completed, each medium pipeline shall be
reason is that electrochemical corrosion occurs. The purged and flushed according to the requirements of the
corrosion pit is small, so the pit bottom can act as the national standard, and evaluated strictly according to
anode of corrosion current, and the surrounding area the accepted standard of the project. As key equipment
around the pit acts as cathode. In the pit, iron, and of nuclear power station, large-scale steam turbine is
chromium continuously lose electrons, and electrons prone to SCC in the low-pressure rotor combined with
basically migrate to the cathode through metal to pro- the operation and maintenance of nuclear power steam
duce reduction reaction. Under the action of electric turbine for many years. According to many theoretical
field, the iron and chromium ions continuously move studies, the generation and diffusion of SCC are mainly
out of the pit, and the negative ions such as OH− and controlled by the working environment, the working
Cl− move from the solution to the pit. The secondary stress of each component of the equipment, and the
corrosion reaction occurs at the pit mouth, further yield strength of the equipment material. Therefore, the
accelerating the corrosion, so that the chloride ion is main measures adopted in the anti-stress corrosion
enriched at the pit mouth. According to the surface design of steam turbine at present are as follows: low
inspection of the overhaul blades of a certain unit, small yield limit and better toughness steel are used as much
pockmarked pits with different depths appear in the first as possible in selecting rotor material, and a special
six stages of the pressure stage. According to the welding material can be used to replace when local
analysis of the shape of corrosion pits, the pits are first stress is too high. The working stress of the rotor
caused by collision of welding slag, oxide scale in the component is reduced by various stress releasing means
pipeline with turbine blades rotating at high speed such as special heat treatment of material, or the
before commissioning. This first destroys the rein- working stress of the root of the impeller is reduced by
forcement layer on the blade surface, creating condi- welding rotor technology. The working environment
tions for the subsequent corrosion of the chlorine salt. factors can be controlled, such as steam quality. The
abovementioned design preventive measures have been
Considering the three main causes of stress corrosion of widely used in the design of nuclear power steam tur-
steam turbine, the methods of reducing and eliminating bines such as CPR1000 in China, and have also
stress corrosion of steam turbine should be studied in three obtained good practical results in recent years.
aspects.
3) Irradiation of stainless steel for internals accelerates
(1) From the beginning of equipment structure design stage stress corrosion
to the end of equipment installation, each link is opti-
mized to reduce the equipment manufacturing and As the key equipment of nuclear power station, the reactor
assembly dimension error. Stress between the parts of internals have the function of supporting and fixing the core
the equipment due to the appearance structure, manu- assembly, which is directly related to the operation safety
facturing error, and improper assembly process should and efficiency of the reactor. Under PWR, the internals are
be eliminated. operated under severe conditions such as high temperature,
(2) In the process of material selection, casting and weld- high pressure, water corrosion, and strong neutron radiation
ing, each link is optimized, the material selection (the maximum cumulative neutron flux of internals is esti-
standard of the cylinder, impeller, and blade of the mated to be 1 1027 m−2 for a reactor of 60 years). When
nuclear power turbine is improved, the metal material the irradiation of the internals with stainless steel exceeds a
with relatively low yield strength is selected within a certain neutron flux limit, even though the internals are at a
reasonable range, and the stress corrosion threshold is low stress level, irradiation accelerated stress corrosion
cracking (IASCC) will occur due to defects, crystal bound- island through the culverts. The design cooling water con-
ary segregation, and stress changes induced during irradia- sumption of each unit is 183,600 m3/h.
tion, resulting in failure of internals. Tianwan Nuclear Power station is designed by Russia.
Solutions for IASCC mainly include the following: Most of the process equipment is manufactured and supplied
by Russia. The equipment and components involved in
(1) Control of chemical elements. Reasonable control and seawater medium or contact with seawater are supplied by
addition of alloying elements have a direct effect on the Russia. The equipment mainly includes cooling water sys-
reduction of IASCC of stainless steel. tem and cooling water mechanical purification system of the
(2) Microstructure treatment. The most influential factor of primary loop; cooling water system and cooling water
IASCC is irradiation. Improving the radiation resistance mechanical purification system of the secondary loop (dirt
of the material can effectively improve the resistance of cleaner and rotary filter), main cooling water system (4 cir-
the material to IASCC, and grain refinement is an culating water pumps and pipelines), auxiliary cooling water
important means of effectively improving the radiation system (5 seawater pumps and pipelines), condenser con-
resistance of the material. nected pipe, condenser, main cooling water evacuation
(3) Control of stress level. In IASCC, the crack tip strain system, heat exchanger, and various valves in the system.
rate is caused by heat-activated creep or During the inspection of marine engineering system, it is
irradiation-induced creep, and radiation-induced creep found that corrosion appears in some parts of the circulating
has a significant effect on crack initiation and crack pump, and the corrosion characteristics are representative. In
early growth of low stress level component, resulting in particular, the corrosion of the fasteners in the pump case is
more severe IASCC. particularly severe and has posed a threat to the safe oper-
(4) Control of hydrochemical environment. In the primary ation of the equipment.
loop water of the nuclear power station, neutron irra- Corrosion mainly occurs on two types of components: one
diation and c irradiation can produce a large amount of is the pump shaft, and the corrosion is concentrated in several
irradiation products, including H2, O2, and H2O2 so that specific locations that the shaft and other structures form gaps;
the internals are in a state of high electrochemical the other is the fasteners that make up all kinds of structures.
corrosion potential of 100–300 mV. IASCC process is Almost all structural components, including sealing rings,
related to the concentration of oxidizing substances in separators, bearing blocks, and bearings, are connected by
water. The concentration is proportional to the square fasteners. Fasteners, together with the structural components,
root of the irradiation dose in a closed system. In the are immersed in seawater, forming a necessary condition for
early stage, in the United States, hydrogen was injected corrosion. Types of fasteners are studs, single-headed screws,
into the primary loop water of a nuclear power station to pins, and gaskets. However, some components in contact with
form hydrogen water chemistry to suppress the gener- the flowing seawater, such as the fairing, the main impeller, and
ation of oxidative irradiation products. At present, noble its fasteners, don’t show serious corrosion, and only slight
metals such as Pt, Rh, and Pd are added to the primary corrosion is observed in individual cases.
loop water to form noble metal water chemistry so that The corrosion area of the pump shaft mainly lies in the
the concentration of the oxidizing substance can be packing area, the guide bearing area, the water sealing area
controlled. at the edge of the bearing bush, and between the packing and
the bearing bush. The corrosion forms are mainly surface
4.5.2.5 Corrosion and Protection Cases abrasion and pitting corrosion, as shown in Fig. 4.114.
of Nuclear Power Stations in China Severe flaking corrosion occurs in the packing area,
which may be related to the use of graphite asbestos material
for packing. Asbestos is hygroscopic filler that remains
1. Seawater corrosion and protection of secondary loop moist for a long time even after the seawater has been dis-
circulating cooling water pump in Tianwan Nuclear charged. Graphite belongs to the material with very strong
Power station positive electric property. Both of them work together to
form a harsh corrosive environment and condition. The wet
The cooling water source of Tianwan Nuclear Power station is environment first causes the destruction of the passivation
seawater, and the head of water intaking is located at Gaogong film on the stainless steel surface and creates a potential
Island, Lianyungang, Yellow Sea, about 3 km away from the difference between the graphite stainless steel, resulting in
site of the power station. Seawater is diverted into the plant galvanic corrosion of the pump shaft. Corrosion in the
through diversion culverts. The primary loop cooling water is bearing area is characterized by typical crevice corrosion,
sent to the nuclear island through the forebay in the plant, and which occurs at the edge of the bearing bush in contact with
the secondary loop cooling water is sent to the conventional the shaft, showing the deepest edge trace corresponding to
410 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.114 Corrosion of pump

shaft a sealing packing area;
b bearing area
the bearing bush. According to the inspection result of the of the fasteners in the medium flow field is slighter than that
pump shaft, the maximum corrosion failure depth is up to of the static fasteners, indicating that the corrosion of
4 mm. Crevice corrosion in the bearing area is caused by stainless steel can be reduced by the flow of seawater around
long periods of standing parts in wet conditions. the component surface.
Most of the fasteners in contact with seawater inside the The corrosion form of the fastener has a distinct crevice
pump are corroded, and the severely corroded parts even corrosion characteristic that occurs in the bolt-to-part joint,
have lost their design function due to corrosion, as shown in or a gap formed by bolt-to-nut connection. Since the cor-
Fig. 4.115. rosion resistance of the bolt material in seawater is lower
The fasteners are divided into two categories according to than that of the component base material and nut material, it
their functions: One is the fasteners that make up all kinds of is the bolt that is corroded. The degree of corrosion is related
structural components, which don’t bear large loads, but are to the local environment, and the threads on the nuts with
in the complex structure and have bad local environment. serious corrosion are all corroded.
The other is load-transmitting fasteners. For example, the In order to effectively solve the corrosion problem of
main impeller fastener bears a larger load, but it is in the seawater equipment in power station, the following treat-
seawater circulation. Type OB2-185E circulating pump is ment schemes and measures are developed:
made of stainless steel of the same material for both types of
fasteners: high-temperature stainless steel for nuts and 1) Repair of pump shaft
martensitic stainless steel for bolts. The inspection reveals a
big difference in corrosion conditions. The site disposal shall be carried out on the premise that the
Most structural fasteners are subjected to severe corro- pump group does not disintegrate. First, the defect proper-
sion, and the main impeller fasteners are slightly corroded. ties, defect depth, defect distribution, and geometrical
This indicates that the corrosion of the fasteners in different dimensions are determined and measured. Second, the defect
working environments is also very different. The corrosion is repaired so as to ensure that the pump shaft normally
transmits torque without risk of fracture without exceeding
the design range, and the surface of the pump shaft at the
sealing packing root part and the bearing part is mainly
treated. Finally, the comprehensive method of electric spark
repair welding and brush plating is adopted to repair, and the
function of the pump group is evaluated after the repair,
including hydraulic performance, power consumption,
vibration, noise, etc.
2) Replacement of fastener material
In view of the fact that most structural fasteners have been

corroded and damaged to varying degrees, and the corrosion
resistance grade of the original design material is low, it is
decided to improve the corrosion resistance grade of struc-
tural fastener materials. The bolts are changed from
Fig. 4.115 Corrosion of fastener martensitic stainless steel to austenitic stainless steel, and the
nuts are changed from deformed high-temperature alloy to second loop but there was no abnormal sign on the outer
austenitic stainless steel. Considering that the main impeller surface of the elbow. The thinning position was mainly
fastener is in the main flow seawater passage and bears a located on the inside of the inlet and outside of the outlet of
large load, the material is not suitable to be replaced, but the the elbow. The researchers selected one of the elbows and
structural fastener material shall be completely replaced. analyzed the reasons for the thinning. The thinned elbow is
an electric main feedwater pump system located downstream
3) Improvement of operating conditions of the front pump. Figure 4.116 shows the location,
(1) The moisture-absorbing graphite asbestos packing is macrophotograph, and thickness measurement points of the
changed into polyfluoroplastic packing to prevent the thinned elbow.
pump shaft from being in a damp state for a long time in In normal operation, two electric feed pumps are put into
the shutdown period of the pump unit, and reduce the operation as load pumps, and another electric feed pump is
risk of pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion; used as a standby pump. If one of the two pumps is tripped,
(2) Fasteners shall be coated with protective coating, and all the standby electric feed pump is quickly started to ensure
fasteners shall be coated with AMC lubricating oil proper operation of the steam generator. Each electric feed
mainly composed of aluminum stearate and cylinder oil; pump unit consists of a front pump and a pressure stage
(3) Freshwater supply shall be increased to the chambers at pump. The pump set has a variable speed function to meet
the packing seals and bearing assemblies in the upper the steam generator control feed flow requirements
bearing area, and the residual seawater and sediment in throughout the thermal power range of the reactor. Elbow
the area shall be flushed to reduce chloride and sedi- has nominal outer diameter of 406 mm, wall thickness of
ment impurities in the area so as to reduce corrosion and 11 mm, and design flow of 2298.5 m3/h (flow rate 5.5 m/s).
wear risks; The design material is carbon steel ST45.8-III (German
(4) Improving the sediment discharging effect of the sepa- Standard DNl7175). According to the data of nuclear power
rator and enlarging the sediment discharging holes of station, the operating temperature of feedwater in the elbow
the separator is favorable for separating the mud and is 149 °C in pure liquid phase. pH is adjusted by ammonia
sediment; and hydrazine, pH25 is maintained between 9.4 and 10.0, and
(5) Adding the anodic protection. Connect the original dissolved oxygen is less than 0.5 ppb during operation. Wall
anode on the pump body with the pump shaft when the thickness gauge (GEDM5E) is used to measure the thickness
pump unit is stopped, and strengthen the protection of of the elbow point by point. The results show that the wall
the rotor during the pump unit shutdown. thickness of the elbow has been reduced, the locations of
area 1 and area 2 in Fig. 4.117 are abnormal thinning areas,
After the corrosion parts of the pump shaft are treated by and the rest is a slightly thinned area. The area 1 has an
electric spark welding and brush plating, the joint acceptance average thickness of 7.0 mm, the area 2 has an average
and inspection results conform to the design requirements, thickness of 8.5 mm, and the rest has a wall thickness of
and the functions of the specified pump group are restored. 9.5–10.5 mm.
At the same time, cathodic protection and freshwater supply For the location distribution of elbow tinning, please refer
are added to the rotor of the pump set, which reduces the risk to the design data. The material of this pipeline is ST45.8-III,
of re-occurrence of corrosion and wear. No re-occurrence of and it is manufactured by standard DN17175. After sam-
corrosion is found during the inspection 38 months after pling the drillings on the elbow, the chemical composition is
treatment. analyzed by ICP and carbon–sulfur analyzer. Although the
After replacement of fasteners and implementation of contents of elements in the matrix meet the requirements of
auxiliary corrosion protective measures, and after 8 months DN17175 for ST45.8-III, the Cr content in the elbow is very
of operation monitoring and inspection, all components are low (0.01%) and belongs to the FAC-sensitive material.
in good condition and no corrosion is found. Sampling is taken at the locations of thinning area 1, thin-
ning area 2, and slightly thinning area and is numbered by
2. Cause analysis of elbow thinning in secondary loop sample 1, sample 2, and sample 3, respectively. The
water supply system of a PWR nuclear power unit macrophotographs of sample 1 and sample 3 are shown in
Fig. 4.118, showing that a significant wall thickness reduc-
In March 2012, during the outage of a nuclear power station tion has occurred in sample 1, and the metal loss in area l has
in China, ultrasonic thickness measurement was carried out reached the macroscopic degree.
on some secondary loop pipelines according to the pre- The inner surfaces of samples 1–3 are analyzed macro-
screened sensitive pipelines. The inspectors found that scopically and microscopically by 3D stereomicroscope and
abnormal thinning occurred in part of the elbow of the scanning electron microscope. Macroscopically, the inner
412 J. Zhang
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 4.116 Thinned elbow location (a), macrophotograph (b), and thickness point (c)
Fig. 4.117 Elbow thinning area

Fig. 4.118 Comparative photograph of sample 1 and sample 3
Fig. 4.119 XRD analysis of sample of area 1
surfaces of all samples are covered with “horseshoe pits” or caused by chemical action. In comparison with sample 3, the
“honeycomb” pits. The morphology is a typical single-phase inner wall of sample 1 is large in pit depth and small in
flow-induced FAC morphology. An X-ray diffractometer width, which indicates that the action of the fluid is more
(XRD) is used to perform phase analysis on the inner wall of severe and the degree of rupture and dissolution of the
the area 1 (seriously thinned area) to detect whether harmful oxidation film is higher.
elements remain in the phase on the inner surface, and the In order to study the flow state of single-phase flow in the
result is shown in Fig. 4.119. The corrosion product on the elbow, the finite element software ANSYS is used to sim-
inner wall of the thinned sample is mainly Fe3O4, and no other ulate the flow rate distribution in the elbow. The elbow
phases and harmful elements are found except the matrix. model is set to be: outer diameter of 406 mm, wall thickness
The cross-sectional metallographic phase of sample 1 and of 11 mm, and inlet flow rate of 5.5 m/s. After calculation,
sample 3 is shown in Fig. 4.120. There are “wave crests” cross sections are taken at elbow inner inlet, 1/4 length, 3/4
and “wave troughs” where there are no abnormal metallo- length, and at the outlet to investigate the distribution of flow
graphic structure and no plastic deformation in the inner rate, as shown in Fig. 4.77.
wall. This proves that the morphology is not caused by As can be seen from Fig. 4.121, at the inlet of the elbow,
mechanical thinning caused by impact, but local dissolution the velocity on the inside is large. At the same time, a large
414 J. Zhang
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.120 Cross-sectional Metallographic phase of sample 1 (a) and sample 3 (b)
velocity gradient is formed, which inevitably leads to thin- elbow is thin, and the mass transfer coefficient and fluid
ning of the inside fluid boundary layer, the increase of shear turbulence are relatively large. In terms of mass transfer rate,
stress and mass transfer coefficient (increase of mass transfer the inner side of the inlet and the outer side of the outlet of
coefficient, increase of iron ion transfer rate generated by the the elbow are sensitive locations of the FAC, which is
dissolution of the oxidation film), thereby accelerating the consistent with the actual abnormal thinning location of
corrosion rate. Along the flow direction of the fluid inside elbow in the literature (and the thinning location of other
the elbow, the velocity gradient on the inside starts to single-phase flow elbows in this overhaul). Therefore,
become smaller and the maximum position of the velocity through the analysis of domestic and foreign-related data and
gradient starts to move to both sides and completely shifts to cases, it is concluded that the elbow thinning is caused
the outside at the outlet. The boundary layer outside the by FAC.
Fig. 4.121 Flow rate distribution in different sections of elbow

3. Wear corrosion and coating protection of SEC pump typical wear corrosion through the macroscopic analysis of
overflow parts in Phase II of Qinshan Nuclear Power the pictures of the damaged parts. In the light corrosive
station environment, mechanical factors in the abrasion play main
role. Therefore, the mechanical abrasion, wear, and damage
The function of the safety water-consuming system (SEC rate of sediment in the overflow parts of SEC pump are
system) of Phase II of Qinshan Nuclear Power station is to much greater than its corrosion rate. In addition, due to the
transfer the heat load collected by the equipment cooling characteristic of pipeline arrangement and operation mode,
water system (RRI system) to the final heat trap—seawater, the impeller of SEC pump suffers cavitation within several
and the SEC pump is the power source of cooling water. minutes of pump start-up, causing damage to the impeller.
Four SEC pumps of Qinshan Phase II Unit 1 were put in When the SEC pump is switched to operation, the inlet
commissioning and operation in the second half of 2001. By pipeline is blocked by the sludge, which increases the
April 4, 2003, the four pumps were in switched operation pipeline loss. The vacuum degree at the inlet of the pump is
state. At the end of the first operating year, it was detected large, resulting in cavitation phenomenon. With the start-up
that the operating current of the pump deviated from the operation of the pump, the inlet sludge is taken away and the
rated operating current and was reduced from the rated cavitation gradually disappears. Cavitation failure is mainly
current 43 A to 30–35 A. All flow components of SEC manifested by the occurrence of pinholes, pockmarks,
pumps are made of super duplex stainless steel whose PREN spongy in directionality on the abraded surfaces.
value of 40.50, a ferrite content of about 48%, and a Brinell According to the abrasion of the overflow parts of the
hardness of 229–241 HB. SEC pump, the surface coating protection is added to the
The maximum seawater sediment content of Hangzhou spare parts such as the impeller, pump case, pump cover, and
Bay is 4.22 kg/m3, with an average of 2.5 kg/m3. The sus- all port rings of the SEC pump. The overflow surface of
pended matter content of 500–2300 mg/L is mainly com- pump case and pump cover shall be protected with glass
posed of cohesive fine granular silt. The mineral composition fiber coating which can be painted manually. Such a coating
of silt is mainly quartz and orthofeldspar whose Vickers is convenient for construction and has smooth coating sur-
hardness is 7 and 6 (HV950-HV1200), respectively, the face. WC–Co–Cr hard coating is used for impeller and all
average grain is 0.036 mm, and most of them are lamella. port rings.
During the disassembly inspection of SEC pump, it is found The base metal of the SEC pump impeller, pump case,
that the overflow parts of the pump body are seriously cor- and pump cover port ring is substantially unworn after one
roded. 60% of the pump case port ring has been worn into cycle, and the shape is intact, and only the surface coating
large pits, mainly concentrated in the beveled portion. The portion is worn away. Compared with the wear of the
diameter of the pit is 4.15 mm, the depth is 6–20 mm, and the overflow parts without the coating protection, the abrasion
inner wall of the pit is smooth. In the flow passage of the resistance of the parts after the coating protection is greatly
pump case are fish scale-like wear surface and many small improved.
pits whose diameter is 3–5 mm, and the depth is 24 mm. The
wear area is more in the lower part of the pump case, and the 4. Study on pipeline corrosion mechanism and coun-
wear condition of the pump outlet part is better than the inside termeasures of drinking water system in a nuclear
of the pump case. The wear part of the upper and lower port power station
rings of the impeller reaches 70–80%, and there are more
groove marks in the axial direction on the mating surface The function of drinking water system (SEP system) is to
corresponding to the pump case port ring and the pump cover distribute domestic water to each plant of the nuclear power
port ring. The front cover plate of the impeller and the blade station (part of the system also undertakes the fire fighting
inlet have large wear and marks, large-area perforation of the function of the plant), so as to meet the domestic water
blade, sharp cutting edge on the outlet side edge of the blade, requirement of each plant. SEP system water distribution net-
and large loss of base material. The upper and lower cover work has two pipelines coming out of the freshwater plant and
plates of the impeller are also significantly thinned. forms a main loop around the nuclear island and several aux-
Some researchers believe that during the operation of the iliary loops around the auxiliary system (BOP) in the plant.
pump, the overflow parts on the metal surface suffer from the SEP system is widely distributed, connected with as many as
impact of small and loose flow particles. In addition, the 17 functional systems. In different buildings, SEP system
chloride ion contained in the seawater is a corrosive medium pipelines and valves connected with different systems are
and has a certain chemical corrosion effect. According to the selected with different materials according to their functions
wear corrosion mechanism, the damage of the overflow parts and working conditions. SEP system pipeline materials of the
of the SEC pump in the sediment-containing seawater is nuclear power station are shown in Table 4.32.
416 J. Zhang
Table 4.32 Summary of SEP system pipeline materials

No. Location Pipeline Purpose
material
1 Nuclear island workshop Galvanized Water for eye washer, shower, and toilet
steel pipe
2 Room of auxiliary system (BOP) Galvanized Water for eye washer and toilet
steel pipe
3 Process pipe trench (GB) Carbon steel Supply of mains and branch pipes for
drinking water to other buildings
4 Conventional island (MX) plant Carbon steel Water for flushing and equipment shaft
sealing
5 Combined pump room (PX) Carbon steel Water for fire fighting and equipment shaft
sealing
6 Radioactive overhaul building, electrical building (LX), Carbon steel Water for cooling and toilet
demineralized water building (YA)
Fig. 4.122 Statistics of SEP pipeline perforation events from 2004 to 2013
The first unit of the plant was put into operation in 2002. some areas. From longitudinal section of the pipeline, it can be
Since 2004, the SEP drinking water pipelines have been found that a layer of orange corrosion products generally
perforated. According to incomplete statistics, as of August adheres to the inner wall of the pipeline, and the average
15, 2013, there have been about 443 historical work orders thickness is about 1.0 mm (the thickness of the protruding part
related to the maintenance of SEP pipeline perforation, is not calculated). On these corrosion products are distributed
which increases year by year and brings heavy load to the various sizes of pipe nodules, some of which are large in
maintenance work. The perforated pipelines are mainly volume, some of which may be up to 100 mm in length (the
distributed in PX, MX building, GB, LX and YA, as shown length covered by the pipe nodules) and 20–25 mm in height.
in Figs. 4.122 and 4.123. These large pipe nodules are distributed irregularly on the inner
When the pipeline is cut laterally and viewed inward from wall of the pipe. Numerous small pipe nodules are only a few
the exposed nozzle, it can be found that the inner wall of the millimeters in size and relatively evenly distributed. After the
pipeline is surrounded by corrosion products of uneven large pipe is excavated, it can be found that part of the inner
thickness, and local corrosion products form “corrosion wall of the pipeline under the pipe nodules is recessed inward
nodules,” as shown in Fig. 4.124. to form pits, but the depth of the pits is different. The perfo-
From the cut old pipeline, it is found that this kind of cor- ration of the pipeline can be found at the arc bottom of some
rosion nodules seriously blocks the flow of the water body, and corrosion sites, which is caused by corrosion. Further obser-
may even block nearly 2/5 of the diameter of the pipeline in vation of the internal structure of the pipe nodules shows that
No. 2 conventional No. 1 conventional Process Electric United pump Demineralized

Plant island island pipeline building room building
(MX) Other (MX) (GB) (LX) (PX) (YA)
Failure ratio /% 6 24 12 9 39 4 6
Fig. 4.123 Statistics of SEP pipeline perforation events from 2004 to 2013
Fig. 4.125 Cut pipe nodules
Fig. 4.124 Corrosion nodules subshell of the lower pipe nodule, which in turn may form a
relatively complete multilayered structure of pipe nodules.
the single-pipe nodule is mostly layered. The outermost orange
shell is hard, and its structure will not be damaged by tapping 5. Corrosion analysis and prevention of EPR gallery in
with iron slightly after drying. One or more layers of black Taishan Nuclear Power station
material are present inside the shell, and the black layers are
arranged in alternating layers with the yellow layers. Some- Taishan Nuclear Power station is a third-generation EPR unit
times, the black layers also disappear and are completely (1/2# 2 1750 MW) with a large number of galleries which
laminated by a plurality of yellow corrosion products which are mainly include comprehensive gallery, important water-
relatively loose with many fine pores inside, as shown in consuming gallery, fire fighting gallery, waste liquid gallery
Fig. 4.125. Below this laminated structure, i.e., in the center of and electric gallery, circulating water gallery, and drainage
the pipe nodules, are looser and more stray orange corrosion culvert.
products. In some case, lots of pipe nodules are stacked toge- The reinforced concrete gallery at SEN exit of a nuclear
ther to form a larger tubular nodule. The liquid-filled chamber power station in China is seriously corroded with corrosion
of the upper pipe nodule is connected to the outer shell or products appearing in a large area. The steel bars have been
418 J. Zhang
of the crack. The 21UMA95110 concrete wall precipitates a

large amount of white crystals, as shown in Fig. 4.128.
6. Discussion on countermeasures for defects of poly-

urea coating in demineralized water tank of nuclear
power stations
Polyurea elastomer (SPUA) is a new type of green envi-

ronmental protection material, which is characterized by
high strength, good flexibility, waterproof, anti-corrosion,
anti-wear, anti-slippery, antiaging, thermal shock resistance,
frost resistance, and good decoration. Compared with the
Fig. 4.126 Whole corrosion of SEN outlet gallery
traditional anti-corrosion measures, SPUA has excellent
construction performance and high construction efficiency so
that it solves the common problems of solvent pollution, thin
thickness, and long curing time in traditional coating tech-
nology. So far, it has become a mature anti-corrosion tech-
nology, and widely used in construction, transportation,
energy, chemical, and other fields. However, due to impro-
per construction, poor quality control, and other factors,
polyurea coating will often produce a variety of defects,
affecting the performance of materials and may even leading
to the failure of the entire project.
The steel demineralized water tank of a nuclear power
station is in a cylindrical capping structure with a capacity of
3,000 m3. It is made of Q235B steel plate by welding. The
Fig. 4.127 Local corrosion of SEN outlet gallery box body and the top cover adopt butt welding process and
the bottom adopts lap welding process. The top cover is
arranged with more reinforcement ribs, and the inner wall of
the box body has no reinforcement ribs. In the water tank,
imported pure polyurea is sprayed for integral corrosion
protection, and the design thickness of the polyurea for the
wall plate and the bottom plate is 1.5 mm, and the top plate
is 1 mm. After the demineralized water tank is put into
operation for more than 1 year, it is found that the blow-
down valve is blocked by the peeling polyurea coating.
During the subsequent inspection, a large number of visible
defects are found in the polyurea coating inside the dem-
ineralized water tank by visual inspection and electric spark
leak detection. Further thickness measurement and adhesion
test show that the local polyurea coating thickness is smaller
than the design requirements, and the adhesion test value of
the polyurea coating near the circumferential weld is lower
than the relevant standard. It is then treated by both manual
urea scratch repair and spraying polyurea repair. The specific
Fig. 4.128 Corrosion crystallization of drainage channel wall
problem description is as follows.
seriously corroded. The whole gallery is wholly corroded 1) Bubbling

and partially corroded as shown in Figs. 4.126 and 4.127.
During the patrol inspection of a power station in 2011, Figure 4.129 shows bubbling morphology. There are two
the floor of room 11UQA99211 was found to have irregular different types of bubbling. One starts from the base of
cracks with a maximum width of 3 mm. In 24 h, the water carbon steel and the other is from between the layers of
percolating capacity is about 50 mm in width along the width
Fig. 4.131 Rusting

Fig. 4.129 Bubbling morphology
function of isolation, which is the most serious defect. The

rusting mostly occurs near the circumferential weld inside
the demineralized water tank.
4) Pinhole
Figure 4.132 shows the pinhole morphology. The pinhole is

not easy to be detected because of its small shape. It is
usually found by electric spark leak detection. Generally, the
surface of pinhole found by visual inspection has rust. After
the polyurea coating is cut, the internal metal matrix is found
to be corroded.
5) Sagging
Figure 4.133 shows the sagging morphology. Sagging

Fig. 4.130 Peeling morphology
mostly occurs at the top of the demineralized water tank and
the thick area, which generally does not affect the function.
polyurea, and the second type of bubbling is apparently
sprayed for several times.
2) Peeling
Figure 4.130 shows the peeling morphology. The thickness

of the peeling polyurea film is generally relatively thin, and
there is still a layer of complete polyurea coating under the
peeling part. It can be seen that the part is formed by
spraying for several times. It is possibly due to insufficient
thickness of the first spraying, and the polyurea is addi-
tionally sprayed.
3) Rusting
Figure 4.131 shows the rusting morphology. The rusting

location indicates that the metal substrate is in contact with
the medium and corrodes, and the polyurea coating loses the Fig. 4.132 Pinhole
420 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.133 Sagging Fig. 4.135 Physical damage
and the metal matrix is exposed in the serious part. During

the process of water tank filling and draining, the combined
action of water and oxygen will lead to the corrosion of
exposed carbon steel, which brings risks to the structural
integrity of the demineralized water tank, and also affects the
quality of demineralized water.
8) Insufficient thickness
The design thickness of the polyurea coating on the wall and

bottom plate of the demineralized water tank is 1.5 mm, and
the design thickness of the polyurea coating on the top plate
is 1 mm. Magnetic thickness gauge is used to measure the
thickness of polyurea coating. The thickness of some mea-
suring points is lower than the designed value, but the
measuring point less than the designed value is less than
Fig. 4.134 Over-spraying 10%, which meets the acceptance requirements.
However, the excess polyurea burr may fall off and enter 9) Poor adhesive force
into the demineralized water and affect the water quality.
The adhesive force of polyurea coating is tested by hubbing
6) Over-spraying method. It is found that the adhesive force value of coating
near the circumferential weld of box body is less than 4 MPa,
Figure 4.134 shows the over-spraying morphology. In the which doesn’t meet the specification requirements. In addi-
process of spraying polyurea, the finished surface is not tion, local defects of the polyurea coating not only affect the
effectively shielded so that the paint of the polyurea is overall anti-corrosion effect but also form a channel between
sprayed on the finished surface and form particle after being the metal and the polyurea to spread around. Therefore, local
solidified. Some particles are easy to fall off, which will defects of polyurea coating are repaired by manual urea
affect the quality of demineralized water. scraping and spraying polyurea in time.
The demineralized water tank B is repaired by manual urea
7) Physical damage scraping. The surface to be coated is pretreated and a primer is
applied to the metal substrate surface, and an interfacial agent
Figure 4.135 shows the morphology of physical damage. is applied to the old polyurea surface to increase adhesive
Physical damage is mostly caused by the collision of the force. After curing, manual urea scraping is conducted with a
scaffold, and the polyurea coating is completely damaged scraper. The manual urea is a two-component, and the two
components must be fully stirred at a ratio of 1:1 before being the same structure and consists of a carbon steel shell, a copper
used. It is ready-to-use and can’t be mixed too much at one alloy tube plate, and 6808 titanium pipes expanded on the tube
time so as to avoid deterioration. plate. The medium on the cold side of the condenser is sea-
The demineralized water tank A is repaired by spraying water. During normal operation, the seawater temperature is
polyurea. The surface to be coated is pretreated, a primer is 23 °C, the cooling water flow is 44.96 m3/s, and the flow rate
applied to the metal substrate surface, and an interfacial of seawater in the titanium pipe is 2.44 m/s.
agent is applied to the old polyurea surface to increase After the operation of the nuclear power station, the
adhesive force. After curing, the polyurea shall be sprayed in corrosion of copper alloy tube plate always exists, and the
accordance with the Technical Specifications for Coating corrosion gradually intensifies with the extension of the
Engineering of Sprayed Polyurea Protective Materials operation time. Especially during the 13th overhaul of the
(HG/T 20273-2011). power station, the corrosion phenomenon is more obvious,
The repair of polyurea coating defects inside demineral- as shown in Fig. 4.136. There are many reasons for corro-
ized water tanks A and B is completed by the same group of sion of tube plate, and the main factor is galvanic corrosion
constructors at the same time, and the same surface treatment formed by titanium pipe and copper alloy.
method is adopted. However, 2 months after completion of Initially, the carbon steel shell of the condenser is inter-
the repair of the demineralized water tank B (without water), nally protected against corrosion by a glass flake reinforced
the surface of the manual urea repair area is found to be epoxy coating to improve the abrasion and corrosion resis-
cracked and not completely cured. This may be caused by tance of the shell. The corrosion of carbon steel shell is solved
defects in the manual urea material itself which is inferior to by changing the coating to the lining protection because of the
the properties of the sprayed polyurea, the hand-stirred mix, corrosion and perforation of the shell caused by the damage of
and the blade coating process. The research shows that the the coating. The corrosion problem of copper alloy tube plate
construction method of manual scraping coating can’t meet has not been solved, and there is a certain tendency of
the requirements of high-speed reaction of polyurea. How- aggravation after the liner protection is added. Combined with
ever, no obvious defects are found in the demineralized the field data and corrosion law, it is inferred that the tube
water tank A repaired by spraying polyurea. Therefore, the plate will not meet the design service life of the condenser. In
effect of repairing by spraying polyurea is better. After that, order to control the corrosion of copper alloy tube plate, the
the demineralized water tank B is reworked, and all repaired impressed current cathodic protective measure is adopted.
parts are repaired by spraying polyurea again. The impressed current cathodic protection system is mainly
composed of a DC power supply, an anode, a reference
7. Corrosion analysis and impressed current cathodic electrode, and cables. Each water chamber of the condenser is
protection of condenser tube plate in Daya Bay an independent structure. In order to accurately control the
Nuclear Power station protective potential of each water chamber, each water
chamber is equipped with an independent impressed current
Daya Bay Nuclear Power station includes two sets of 900 MW cathodic protection system. Metallic titanium has the char-
steam turbines produced by GEC Company of BRITAIN, acteristics of hydrogen evolution corrosion, so the potential
each of which is equipped with three columns of condensers must be strictly controlled to prevent hydrogen embrittlement
A, B, and C. Each column of condensers is divided into two of titanium pipes when impressed current is applied.
groups. That is, each condenser includes six inlet water After 50 days of operation of the protection system, the
chambers and outlet water chambers. Each water chamber has polarization of the water chamber is substantially completed.
Fig. 4.136 Corrosion of copper

alloy tube plate of condenser
a inlet side tube plate; b outlet
side tube plate
422 J. Zhang
After long-term polarization, the potential of all water

chambers has reached the predetermined potential and
entered the stable region of copper, thus solving the corro-
sion problem of copper alloy tube plate.
8. Cause analysis and countermeasure of iron anode

peeling in seawater chamber of condenser in a Fig. 4.137 Welded sacrificial anode
nuclear power station
anode body and 304 iron core are cast into one body and
The condenser of a steam turbine generator set in a nuclear installed, as shown in Fig. 4.137.
power station is designed and manufactured by a metal fac- When the seawater chamber of the condenser is inspected
tory in Leningrad, Russia. There are four condensers in a during the second overhaul, it is found that one sacrificial
single unit in double-flow and single-flow cooling type, anode in each of the four seawater chambers falls off due to
divided into two groups. Each group of condensers is local breakage of the stainless steel iron foot. After replacing
arranged at both sides of high-pressure cylinder and is divi- the peeled iron anode with the improved iron anode, no
ded into high-pressure and low-pressure condensers. The fracture of iron foot is found after it is tracked for one
condensers are cooled by seawater. Each unit has a cooling overhaul period and the cathode protection system is in
area of about 82,000 m2 and a cooling water flow of normal operation.
175,000 m3/h. The cooling water is supplied to the condenser
by four circulating water pumps, and then discharged to the 9. Cause analysis and improvement suggestions for
sea for open circulation of the cooling water. The temperature inner wall coating peeling of SEC system pipeline in
of cooling water is 5–35 °C (calculated temperature: 18 °C). Phase II of Ling’ao Nuclear Power station
Each condenser is composed of shell pipe bundle water
chamber and the tube plate is titanium steel composite plate Pipeline of important service water (SEC) system of Phase II
NC501 (ASTM B265Gr1, ASTM A516Gr70). The cooling of Ling’ao Nuclear Power station is made of P265GH with
pipe adopts titanium pipe (ASTM B338-95Gr2, size wall thickness of 8 mm. The medium is seawater, the tem-
28 mm 0.6 mm, length 12,000 mm), expanded and wel- perature is 6.5–33.0 °C, the working pressure is 0.40 MPa,
ded on the tube plate. The shell is carbon steel CT20, MAJ the highest pressure is 0.70 MPa, and the flow rate is
pipe (vacuum at side of air exhaust) bar, and wall plate is 2.46 m/s for single pump operation and is 3.25 m/s for
austenitic stainless steel 10 X17 H13 M2 T (SS316). double pump operation. The pipeline inner wall shall be
During the first overhaul of unit 1, the inspection finds protected by heavy anti-corrosion coating combined with
extensive pitting corrosion of the MAJ pipeline and tendons, impressed current cathodic protection.
and the depth of corrosion exceeds 5 mm. The main corro- The power supply of the protection system is a digitally
sion forms are galvanic corrosion between titanium tube controlled high-frequency switching DC power supply, the
plate and stainless steel water chamber, stainless steel bar auxiliary anode is a mixed metal oxide titanium anode, and
and vacuum pipe, and weld corrosion at stainless steel weld. the reference electrode is a silver/silver chloride reference
Considering that the critical potential of hydrogen evolution electrode. Figure 4.138 shows the upper computer control
of titanium under cathodic polarization is about −0.70 V (vs. panel of the equipment. The panel displays the operation
SCE) and the cathodic protective potential must not be less mode and operation parameters (output voltage, output
than −0.70 V (vs. SCE), aluminum-based and zinc-based current, and potential of each reference electrode). The
sacrificial anode can’t be used. Instead, iron-based sacrificial auxiliary anode, cathode, reference electrode, and measuring
anode cathodic protection is adopted, and the protective grounding cable of the system are connected to the cathodic
potential range is controlled between −0.50 and 0.65 V (vs. protection power supply unit, and the output potential or
SCE), so that galvanic corrosion of stainless steel and tita- current is automatically controlled through program setting
nium can be effectively prevented and titanium material does to ensure good cathodic protection effect. Both the mea-
not undergo hydrogen evolution. In view of this situation, surement grounding point and the cathode grounding point
ferroalloy sacrificial anode cathodic protection is installed in are set up in the system independently. The cathode junction
the water chamber of titanium steel condenser of the two cable leading from the pipeline is connected to the negative
units, and good anti-corrosion effect has been obtained. electrode of the cathodic protection power supply unit, and
The main composition of iron sacrificial anode is Fe–Cr– the measurement grounding point near the reference elec-
Mn–Al. The iron foot is made of 304 stainless steel. The trode leads out the cable to the measurement terminal of the
reaches −2 V and exceeds the hydrogen evolution potential,

resulting in coating bubbling near the anode and continuous
large current output, which leads to that a large amount of
Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrates and deposits on the exposed
points (pinhole point, bare points of edges and corners) on
the cathode surface. Continuous overprotection current out-
put is a typical failure phenomenon of cathodic protection
system. All reference electrodes in the impressed current
cathodic protection system participate in the control calcu-
Fig. 4.138 Power supply unit of cathodic protection lation. In the constant potential control mode, when most of
the reference electrodes are out of alignment, the system will
continuously increase the current in order to reach the preset
potential. When the abnormal operating conditions can’t be
found in time on the site, the system will continue to operate
in an overprotected state, resulting in coating bubbling and
falling on the pipeline surface. The fault reference electrodes
will be returned to the plant for cause analysis of misalign-
ment. After comprehensive evaluation of the reference
electrodes by the manufacturer, the causes of misalignment
and overprotection of the system are as follows: potential
drift of the reference electrodes may be related to unstable
chloride content in site; the seawater contains unknown
pollutants; continuous water flow and pressure in the pipe-
line causes vibration of the reference electrodes, which
results in leakage of the reference electrodes and misalign-
ment of the reference electrodes; the composite reference
Fig. 4.139 Photograph of pipe coating bubbling and peeling
electrodes are liable to fail in a short period of time under
this operating condition.
cathodic protection power supply unit. When the pipeline All silver/silver chloride reference electrodes are replaced
coating and cathodic protection system are inspected during with high-purity zinc reference electrodes. The reasons for
the overhaul of the control panel of the upper computer, it is the replacement of the high-purity zinc reference electrode
found that the coating bulling and peeling occur near most are as follows:
auxiliary anodes of the pipeline (Fig. 4.139). At the same
time, a large amount of white crystals are produced at the (1) The high-purity zinc reference electrode is a metal rod
local damage part of the coating, the root of the auxiliary with a simple structure, which is different from the
anode, and around the reference electrode. During daily composite reference electrode of silver/silver chloride
inspection, the protective potential of the pipeline protection and has no risk of leakage and contamination.
system basically meets the specification requirements, but (2) High-purity zinc reference electrode is suitable for
individual protective potential does not meet the require- low-salinity seawater environment. The factor of low
ments, and the output current is too large. During the salinity in seawater can’t be excluded at present, so the
overhaul, 12 reference electrodes are calibrated and 10 are potential instability caused by the instability of salt
found to be severely misaligned. After all reference elec- content will be overcome by using high-purity zinc.
trodes are replaced with high-purity zinc, the protection
system begins to function normally. After replacement of high-purity zinc reference electrode,
Historical data show that from May 2011 to September the system installation will be checked, including the check
2011, the current reached 80 A and the potential reached of installation quality and correctness of the system hard-
−2 V or more. It can be seen from this that the cathodic ware equipment before water passes through the pipeline so
protection system fails and there is continuous overprotec- as to ensure the correct installation according to the draw-
tion current output. During the overhaul, it is found that ings; check of equipment installed on the pipeline after water
coating bubbling and peeling occurs on the pipeline surface passes through the pipeline so as to ensure that the con-
near the auxiliary anode, and a large amount of white nection is firm, watertight and vibration-proof; input
powder precipitates. The reason lies in that the potential inspection of cathode protection power supply unit, cathode,
424 J. Zhang
range of −100 to 270 mV, and there is no obvious fluctua-

tion, indicating that the system operates stably under this
condition.
After the replacement of high-purity zinc reference elec-
trode in Phase II of SEC pipeline of Ling’ao Nuclear Power
station, the cathodic protection system remains stable, fun-
damentally solving the problem of coating bubbling and
falling off, but the periodic inspection of the system is still
Fig. 4.140 Operation data of upper computer of cathodic protection needed. Constant current mode control is recommended to
power supply unit
avoid long-term high current output, and periodic calibration
and cleaning maintenance of all high-purity zinc reference
and anode wiring, and independent operation state inspec- electrodes shall be carried out.
tion of cathode protection power supply unit before the
system is powered on to eliminate defects for system oper-
ation debugging. Figure 4.140 shows a photograph of the 10. Restoration and reconstruction of CPS cathodic
operation of the upper computer of the cathodic protection protection system for condenser of a nuclear power
power supply unit. station
Table 4.33 and Fig. 4.141 show the operation data of
SEC cathodic protection system. It can be seen from A nuclear power station has two 900,000 kW units and each
Table 4.33 and Fig. 4.141 that in the constant current mode, unit has three condensers. Each condenser has two inlets and
when the output voltage is 2.3 V and the output current is two outlet water chambers. The condenser consists of tita-
about 0.5 A, it is relatively stable. All cathodic protection nium pipe, copper tube plate, and molten steel chamber. The
potentials meet the design requirements, and are within the cooling water used is seawater. Since the condenser is made
Table 4.33 System operation data

Output Output Measured potential/mV
voltage/V current/A Ref1 Ref2 Ref3 Ref4 Ref5 Ref6 Ref7 Ref8 Ref9 Ref10 Ref11 Ref12
2.3 0.5 69 1 26 38 –63 –18 38 7 50 57 141 193
Fig. 4.141 Potential of system cathodic protection

Fig. 4.142 Tube plate corrosion

of condenser
of different metal materials, severe galvanic corrosion occurs connection condition, and insulation effect between auxiliary
under the action of seawater, remarkably accelerating the anode and reference electrode. This inspection shall be
corrosion of the molten steel chamber and copper tube plate, carried out under the condition that the overhaul water room
as shown in Fig. 4.142. In order to avoid and reduce the is free of water and the access door is open. In several
corrosion of molten steel chamber and aluminum bronze overhauls of D113, D114, and D214, inspection has been
tube plate, the condenser water chamber is added with rub- carried out on auxiliary anode, visual status of reference
ber lining and cathodic protection. electrode, installation and fastening status, electrical con-
The CPS cathodic protection system for condensers is an nectivity and ground insulativity of No. 1 and No. 2 water
automatically controlled impressed current cathodic protec- chambers, and the requirements for transformation have
tion system specially designed for the condensers of the been met.
nuclear power station so as to protect the aluminum bronze Before this transformation, the self-corrosion potential of
tube plate on the seawater side, to prevent the galvanic each water chamber is mainly tested. The results of
corrosion of the aluminum bronze tube plate caused by the No. 1 and No. 2 condensers are similar. The test results are
titanium pipe and its own electrochemical corrosion, and to shown in Tables 4.34 and 4.35.
effectively reduce the corrosion of the molten steel chamber
in combination with the rubber. Since the steel chamber of
the condenser is mainly protected from corrosion by rubber
lining, the cathodic protection system does not take it as the Table 4.34 Self-corrosion potential value of water inlet of No. 1 con-
main protection object but mainly protects the aluminum denser (unit: mV)
bronze tube plate. Ref1 Ref2 Ref3
In January 2000, CPS cathodic protection system was A1 –427 –427 –203
installed in the condenser water chamber of the nuclear
A2 –400 –370 –196
power station to solve the corrosion problem of the tube
B1 –492 –500 –261
plate. In 2005, the carbon steel water chamber was modified
with rubber lining. The corrosion problem of condenser has B2 –402 –399 –21
been completely solved through transformation for twice. C1 –464 –496 –217
However, due to the fact that the CPS DC power supply in C2 –433 –434 –212
Britain is controlled by a nonindustrial control computer and
is frequently shutdown due to overheating, the CPS is in a
state of paralysis, and the corrosion of the tube plate is Table 4.35 Self-corrosion potential value of water outlet of No. 1 con-
difficult to be suppressed but aggravated at present. There- denser (unit: mV)
fore, the CPS system is restored and reformed again. Ref1 Ref2 Ref3
Before the transformation of the CPS cathodic protection
A1 –40 –40 –61
system of condenser, the original cathodic protection hard-
A2 –218 –211 –122
ware equipment is inspected to prepare for the transforma-
tion, and the self-corrosion potential before the B1 –57 –49 –92
transformation of the water chamber is detected to compare B2 –29 –32 –17
the effect after the transformation. C1 –90 –73 –106
The hardware inspection mainly includes auxiliary anode, C2 –32 –33 –60
silver/silver chloride reference electrode condition, cable
426 J. Zhang
The self-corrosion potential of the inlet water chamber of

No. 1 unit is more than that of the outlet water chamber
mainly because the gravel filter in the lower part of the inlet
water chamber is equipped with sacrificial anode which will
slow down the corrosion of inlet water chamber tube plate
when the unit is operated for a long time. The potential of
the water chamber is shifted to the negative direction. The
reference three potentials of all water chambers are relatively
positive, and reference No. 1 is similar to reference No. 2,
which results from the different mounting positions of the
reference electrode and the auxiliary anode. The reference
No. 1 and the reference No. 2 are symmetrically located in
the lower part of the water chamber, and the reference
Fig. 4.143 Reformed potentiostat engine room
No. 3 is at the top of the water chamber, so that the reference
potentials of No. 1 and No. 2 are similar. The reference
No. 3 is more positive because it is far from the sacrificial Table 4.36 Operation potential of inlet water chamber of No. 1 unit
anode in the lower part of the water chamber and has limited for 7 days (unit: mV)
protection by the sacrificial anode. 1–13 1–14 1–15 1–16 1–17 1–18 1–19
Before the transformation of outlet water chamber of
A1 –640 –640 –640 –645 –630 –640 –645
No. 1 unit, there is no sacrificial anode effect, so its corrosion
A2 –650 –650 –650 –650 –655 –655 –655
is inevitably more serious than that of inlet water chamber.
The potential of reference No. 3 and the reference No. 1 and B1 –645 –650 –625 –645 –645 –645 –645
No. 2 of the outlet water chamber are close to each other at B2 –645 –650 –650 –650 –660 –650 –655
the initial time because the state of each part of the water C1 –645 –645 –650 –645 –645 –645 –650
chamber is relatively uniform and the corrosion severity is C2 –615 –640 –645 –645 –645 –645 –645
almost the same under the condition of no sacrificial anode
influence. The situation of No. 2 unit is basically the same as
that of No. 1 unit.
After modification, the CPS impressed current cathodic corrosion condition is worse than that of the inlet water
protection system of condenser mainly includes DC power chamber, but finally the protective effect is achieved.
supply, anode, reference electrode, and cable. In order to To sum up, the CPS cathode protection system of the
control the potential accurately, each water chamber adopts a condenser effectively suppresses the corrosion of the tube
set of independent impressed current cathodic protection plate and achieves the effect of protecting the nickel alu-
system. There are 12 water chambers in one unit with three minum bronze tube plate of the condenser.
condensers, so 12 sets of impressed current cathodic pro-
tection systems are required. The potentiostat, as the catho- 4.5.2.6 Case Study on Corrosion Cost of Nuclear
dic protection power supply unit, can provide cathodic Power Station
protection DC current for the protected structure automati- A nuclear power station was put into operation in 1991 with
cally (constant potential) or manually (constant current), as more than 500 employees. Among all the posts in the enter-
shown in Fig. 4.143. As the water temperature and flow rate prise, there are 16 posts for corrosion and protection. The
change, the running time is prolonged, the rubber lining is
damaged and aged, which will lead to the change of output Table 4.37 Operation potential of outlet water chamber of No. 1 unit
current. Automatic (constant potential) operation can auto- for 7 days (unit: mV)
matically adjust the output current. 1–13 1–14 1–15 1–16 1–17 1–18 1–19
Tables 4.36 and 4.37 are the results of potential mea- A1 –635 –635 –635 –635 –635 –610 –635
surements for the inlet water chamber and outlet water A2 –640 –640 –640 –640 –635 –645 –645
chamber of No. 1 unit running for 7 days, respectively.
B1 –650 –650 –645 –645 –650 –645 –645
According to the reference potential for 7 days, the auto-
B2 –640 –640 –635 –645 –640 –640 –645
matic mode of potentiostat is stable to the potential control
and the deviation is within ±20 mV, which meets the design C1 –640 –640 –640 –640 –635 –635 –640
requirements. The initial potential of the outlet water C2 –635 –635 –635 –635 –635 –635 –635
chamber of No. 1 unit is relatively positive, and the
Table 4.38 Management cost and corrosion cost of a nuclear power station (unit: RMB 10,000)
No. Index 2013 2014
1 Annual management cost 340 380
2 Direct cost Cost of maintenance, replacement and transformation – –
3 Cost of coating 900 900
4 Cost of electrochemical protection 80 80
5 Medicament cost (corrosion inhibitor, bactericide, cleaning agent, etc.) 300 300
6 All kinds of supervision and inspection expenses 150 150
7 Indirect cost – –
8 Total of corrosion cost 1,430 1,430
Table 4.39 Corrosion cost statistics of a nuclear power station (1) Requirements for Content of Corrosion Management
Index 2013 2014 Outline of Mechanical Equipment in Nuclear Power
station (GB/T 25314-2010).
Corrosion cost/RMB 10,000 1,430 1,430
(2) Technical Specifications for Anti-corrosion Operation
Installed capacity/MW 4,396 4,396
of Seawater Circulatory System of Nuclear Power
Corrosion cost per unit installed capacity/ 0.33 0.33 station (GB/T 31404-2015).
(RMB 10,000/MW)
(3) Guidelines for Screening Fluid Accelerated Corrosion
Annual power generation/0.1 billion kW h 345.9 345.46
Sensitive Pipelines for Conventional Island of PWR
Corrosion cost per unit of electricity generation/ 4.13 4.14 Nuclear Power stations (NB/T 25033-2014).
[RMB 10,000/(0.1 billion kW h)]
(4) Specifications for Protective Coating for PWR Nuclear
Annual management cost/RMB 10,000 340 380 Power stations’ Facility Equipment, Part 1: General
Multiple of corrosion cost in annual 4.21 3.76 Requirements (NB/T 20133.1-2012).
management cost
Power stations’ Facility Equipment, Part 2: Test
Method for Evaluation of Coating Systems under
number of units in 2013 and 2014 was 7. Tables 4.38 and 4.39
Simulated Design Basis Accident Conditions (NB/T
are annual management costs and corrosion-related cost data
20133.2-2012).
and statistical results for the plant in 2013 and 2014,
respectively.
Power stations’ Facility Equipment, Part 3: Test
In 2013, the corrosion cost was RMB 14.3 million and the
Methods for Coating Systems Affected by Gamma-Ray
annual management cost was RMB 3.4 million. The corrosion
Irradiation (NB/T 20133.3-2012).
cost was 4.21 times of the annual management cost. The
installed capacity was 4,396 MW, and the corrosion cost per
Power stations’ Facility Equipment, Part 4: Determi-
installed capacity was RMB 3,300/MW. Annual power gen-
nation of Decontamination of Coating System (NB/T
eration was 34.59 billion kW h, and corrosion cost per unit
20133.4-2012).
annual power generation was RMB 41,300/(0.1 billion kW h).
In 2014, the corrosion cost was RMB 14.3 million and
Power stations’ Facility Equipment, Part 5: Determi-
the annual management cost was RMB 3.8 million. The
nation of Chemical Resistant Media for Coating System
corrosion cost was 3.76 times of the annual management
(NB/T20133.5-2012).
cost. The installed capacity was 4,396 MW, and the corro-
sion cost per installed capacity was RMB 3,300/MW.
Power stations’ Facility Equipment, Part 6: Coating
Annual power generation was 34.546 billion kW h, and
Operation (NB/20133.6-2012).
corrosion cost per unit annual power generation was RMB
(10) Corrosion Inspection of Secondary Loop Thermal
41,400/(0.1 billion kW h).
Equipment of PWR Nuclear Power station (NB/T
20221-2013).
4.5.2.7 Related Technical Standards
(11) Commissioning and Operation Criteria for Cathodic
for Corrosion of Nuclear Power Stations
Protection System of Buried Metal Structures in PWR
in China
Nuclear Power station (NB/T 20322-2014).
At present, the technical standards related to the corrosion of
nuclear power stations in China include
428 J. Zhang
(12) Design Specifications for Marine Structures of Nuclear 4.5.3 Research Results on Corrosion Status
Power station (NB/T 25002-2011). and Control Measures of Wind Farms
(13) Corrosion Control and Electrolytic Seawater Anti- in China
fouling of Seawater Cooling System for Nuclear Power
station (NB/T 25008-2011). 4.5.3.1 General Situation of Wind Power
(14) Investigation and Assessment of Soil Corrosion in the Development in China
Site of a 300,000 kW PWR Nuclear Power Station (EJ China’s wind power generation began in the 1970s and
484-1989). grid-connected units were developed in 1980s. At present,
China has become the largest and fastest growing market for
4.5.2.8 Summary wind power generation in the world.
In 2014, a total of 76,241 wind turbine generators were
(1) The reactor type of nuclear power station in China is installed nationwide (excluding Taiwan region), with a
mainly PWR. PWR nuclear power station is mainly total installed capacity of 114,609 MW. Figure 4.144
composed of nuclear reactor, primary loop system, shows the newly increased installed capacity and accu-
secondary loop system, and other auxiliary systems. mulated installed capacity of wind power in China from
Reactor pressure vessel, steam generator, internals, 2004 to 2014.
voltage regulator, main pipeline, reactor coolant pump, In 2014, Gansu, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, and
and their gland seal systems, and containment are major Shanxi ranked among the top five provinces in the newly
equipment for the PWR nuclear power station. increased installed capacity of wind power in all provinces
(2) The key metal materials commonly used in nuclear and cities, accounting for 52.6% of the total installed
power stations are carbon (manganese) steel, low-alloy capacity in China. In 2014, Inner Mongolia ranked first in
steel, stainless steel, zirconium alloy, titanium alloy, the total installed capacity of wind power in China (ex-
nickel-based alloy, etc. The corrosive environments cluding Taiwan region), accounting for 19.5% of the
mainly include seawater environment, secondary loop country, followed by Gansu which accounted for 9.36% of
high-temperature steam–water environment, acid–al- the country. Hebei and Xinjiang accounted for 8.61% and
kali–salt environment, demineralized and deoxidized 8.44%, respectively. In 2014, 61 installed offshore wind
environment, primary loop boric acid water environ- power units were installed, with a capacity of 229.3 MW
ment, and marine atmospheric environment. and an increase of 487.9%. Among it, installed capacity in
(3) Important corrosion of nuclear power stations includes the intertidal zone is 130 MW, accounting for 56.69% of
uniform corrosion in seawater environment, crevice the total installed capacity of offshore wind power. By the
corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting corrosion, SCC and end of 2014, the installed capacity of offshore wind power
corrosion fatigue, pipe FAC in secondary loop projects in China was 657.88 MW. The total installed
high-temperature steam–water environment and abrasion capacity of intertidal zone reached 434.48 MW, accounting
of steam turbine, primary loop SCC, boric acid corrosion, for 66% of the offshore installed capacity. The installed
radiation-induced SCC, and dead pipe section phenom- capacity of offshore wind power accounted for 34.0%,
ena in the primary circuit boric acid water environment. including the large-scale project of Donghai Bridge off-
(4) At present, the anti-corrosion measures adopted by shore project (102 MW) and its second-phase project,
nuclear power stations in China mainly include the use Longyuan Rudong (intertidal zone) offshore demonstration
of corrosion-resistant materials, control of water qual- wind farm, and Jiangsu Rudong expansion project. The
ity, improvement of operating conditions, use of rest are mainly test prototypes installed by manufacturers
anti-corrosion coatings, and implementation of cathodic of wind turbine generators. Figure 4.145 shows the newly
protection. The effectiveness of anti-corrosion measures increased and accumulated installed capacity of offshore
depends on the design, construction, and maintenance wind power in China by the end of 2014. In 2015, the
management of the anti-corrosion scheme. installed capacity of wind power increased by 30.5 million
(5) Some national and industry specifications related to the kW, a year-on-year increase of 31.5%. The accumulated
corrosion protection of nuclear power stations have installed capacity was 145 million kW, a year-on-year
been formulated in China, but there is no special design increase of 26.6%.
specification for corrosion protection.
Fig. 4.144 Installed capacity of wind power in China from 2004 to 2014. Source of data CWEA
Fig. 4.145 Newly increased and accumulated installed capacity of offshore wind power in China by the end of 2014. Source of data CWEA
430 J. Zhang
4.5.3.2 Wind Farm and Wind Turbine Generator According to Design Requirements for Offshore Wind
System Turbine Generator System (GB/T 31517—2015/IEC 61400
—3: 2009) and China Classification Society’s standard
Authentication Specifications for Offshore Wind Turbine
1. Wind farm Generator System (2012), the offshore wind turbine gener-
ator system is composed of wind turbine-engine room
Wind power generation refers to the utilization of wind components and support structure that includes tower, sub-
turbine generator system to convert wind energy resources structure, and foundation. The tower connects the wind
into electric energy. From the scale of wind power genera- turbine-engine room components and the substructure. The
tion and the way of power transmission and utilization, the substructure extends upwardly from the seabed and connects
current wind power generation is divided into small off-grid the foundation and the tower. The foundation transfers loads
wind power and large grid-connected wind power. The small acting on the support structure to the seabed. Figure 4.146
off-grid wind power system is an independent power supply shows the different foundation forms and other components
system composed of a single small wind turbine generator of the offshore wind turbine generator system. According to
system, storage battery, and inverter device. The large-scale Design Requirements for Wind Turbine Generator System
grid-connected wind power system is a large-scale power (GB/T 18451.1-2012), the supporting structure of onshore
system which is utilized by the end users by a plurality of wind farm includes only tower and foundation.
high-power (megawatt) wind turbine generator systems to
input the generated power into the grid system through the 2) Classification of wind turbine generator system
power control equipment.
According to the definition of Design Requirements of There are many kinds of wind turbine generator systems, and
Wind Turbine Generator System (GB/T 18451.1-2012), the there are also various classification methods. According to
system that converts the kinetic energy of wind into elec- the spatial position of the wind turbine shaft, the wind tur-
trical energy is referred to as a wind turbine generator sys- bine generator system can be divided into horizontal axis
tem, and one or more wind turbine generator systems are wind turbine generator system and vertical axis wind turbine
commonly referred to as a wind farm. At present, the generator system. The wind wheel of the horizontal axis
completed wind farms include onshore wind farms and wind turbine generator system rotates around a horizontal
offshore wind farms. Offshore wind farms refer to wind axis, and the rotation plane of the wind wheel is perpen-
farms near sea with water depth of about 10 m. Compared dicular to the wind direction. The rotation axis of a wind
with the onshore wind farms, the offshore wind farms have wheel of a vertical axis wind turbine generator system is
the advantages of not occupying land resources, basically perpendicular to the ground or airflow direction.
not affected by landform and landform, higher wind speed, According to the connection between the wind wheel and
larger capacity of wind turbine unit, and higher annual uti- the generator, the wind turbine generator system can be
lization hours. However, the technical difficulty of offshore divided into direct drive wind turbine generator system and
wind farm construction is relatively large, and the con- variable speed wind turbine generator system. According to
struction cost is generally 2–3 times that of onshore whether the blade can rotate around its longitudinal axis, the
wind farms. wind turbine generator system can be divided into fixed pitch
According to the definition of Grade Division and Design wind turbine generator system and variable pitch wind turbine
Safety Standard for Wind farm Project (Trial) (FD generator system. According to the load form of the generator
002-2007), all wind farms set up in plains, hills, mountain system, the wind turbine generator system can be divided into
areas and coastal areas are collectively referred to as onshore grid-connected wind turbine generator system and off-grid
wind farms. Among them, the coastal wind farms refer to the wind turbine generator system. According to the type of the
wind farms located above the average low tide level in the wind turbine generator system, the wind turbine generator
coastal narrow land zone. system can be divided into DC generator wind turbine gen-
erator system, synchronous AC generator wind generator
2. Composition and classification of wind turbine gen- system, asynchronous AC generator wind generator system
erator system and AC permanent magnet motor-type wind turbine generator
system. According to the rated power, the wind turbine gen-
1) Composition of a wind turbine generator system erator system is divided into large-scale (more than 1 MW),
medium-scale (100 kW–1 MW), and small-scale (1–
The wind turbine generator system is the core component of 100 kW) one. Wind turbine generator system with capacity
a wind farm and also the highest investment in the wind farm less than 1 kW is classified as miniature one in China.
project for both the onshore and offshore wind farms.
Fig. 4.146 Composition of offshore wind turbine generator system
At present, the horizontal shaft wind turbine generator 3. Main materials for wind turbine generator system
system is the most widely used in the world with the most
mature technology. The wind turbine-engine room compo- The main materials used for wind turbine generator system
nents of the horizontal axis wind turbine generator system are metal materials, fiber reinforced plastics, reinforced
are mainly composed of wind wheel, engine room and gear concrete, and prestressed reinforced concrete. Metal mate-
transmission system, generator, direction adjusting device, rials can be divided into casting parts, weld parts, forged
speed regulating device, and braking device. A typical parts, bolts, and other standard parts. There are many casting
structure is shown in Fig. 4.147. parts for wind turbine generator system, such as front-engine
432 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.147 Schematic diagram of wind turbine-engine room components of horizontal axis wind turbine generator system
room chassis, hub, bearing seat, speed-up gearbox, and organic or inorganic material fibers and products. Reinforced
reducer shell. Forged parts are mainly shaft, yaw friction concrete and prestressed reinforced concrete are used for the
disk, tower flange, and main bearing and internal and manufacture of foundation.
external ring gear of pitch yaw rotary bearing. There are
many parts using welding parts, such as generator shell, 4. Corrosive environment of wind turbine generator
tower barrel, foundation, foundation ring, front and rear system
chassis sling, rear chassis, damping ring, guardrail, elevator
frame, main shaft staircase, various small supports, wiring The wind turbine-engine room components and towers of
board, and connecting frame. Fiber reinforced plastics are the wind turbine generator system of the onshore wind farm
used in the manufacture of wind turbine blades. Commonly are in the atmospheric environment, and the foundation is in
used matrix resins include epoxy resins, unsaturated polye- the soil environment. The offshore wind farm is located in
ster resins, and vinylite, and commonly used reinforcing the marine environment, the wind turbine-engine room
materials are glass fiber, carbon fiber, aramid fiber, and other components of the wind turbine generator system are located
Table 4.40 ISO 12944-2 classification of typical corrosive environment
4
Type of After the first year of exposure Typical environment in a temperate climate (for
corrosion reference only)
Low-carbon steel Zinc External Internal
Mass Thickness loss/ Mass loss/(g/m2) Thickness
loss (g/m2) lm loss/lm
C, very low <10 <1.3 <0.7 <0.1 – Inside the
heated
building, the
air is clean,
such as public
rooms,
shops, and
schools, hotels
C2, low 100–200 1.3–25 0.7–5 0.1–0.7 Air pollution is Condensation
low, mostly in may occur in
rural areas unheated
areas, such as
warehouses,
gyms
C3, medium 200–400 25–50 5–15 0.7–2.1 Urban and High humidity
industrial and some
atmosphere, polluted
medium sulfur air production
dioxide areas, such as
pollution, food
Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategy in the Energy …
low-salinity processing
coastal areas plants, laundry
C4, high 400–650 50–80 15–30 2.1–4.2 High-salinity Chemical
industrial zones plants,
and swimming
coastal areas pools,
sea boats,
shipyards
C5-I, 650–1,500 80–200 30–60 4.2–8.4 Industrial areas Condensation
very high of high-salinity and
(industrial) and harsh high-humidity
atmosphere buildings and
places
C5-M, very 650–1,500 80–200 30–60 4.2–8.4 High-salinity Always in a
high (marine) coastal and high-humidity,
offshore areas high-pollution
buildings or
other places
Corrosion classification of water and soil
Classification Environment Examples of environment
and structure
Im1 Freshwater Installation structure of river, hydroelectric power station
Im2 Seawater and Structure of the port area, such as gate,
saline water breakwater, inshore work
Im3 Soil Buried storage tanks, steel columns, and steel pipes
433
434 J. Zhang
in the marine atmospheric environment, and the supporting corrosion types that may occur mainly include uniform
structure is located in four areas of marine atmosphere, water corrosion, pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, impact cor-
level fluctuation, underwater, and sea mud. rosion, cavitation erosion, galvanic corrosion, and corrosion
Table 4.40 is the classification of corrosive environment fatigue.
according to the international standard ISO 12944-2: 1998
Corrosion Protection of Paint and Varnish Protective Coat- (1) Uniform corrosion refers to corrosion carried out at
ing Systems against Steel Structures, Part 2: Classification of almost the same rate on a metal surface.
Environmental based on corrosion losses of low-carbon steel (2) Pitting corrosion refers to deep corrosion pores in local
and zinc after first-year exposure. According to this standard, areas of the metal surface, while the rest of the surface
the corrosion categories of the environment where the wind is often free of any obvious corrosion. Once the etching
turbine generator system of wind farm is located include C2, hole is formed, it has the power of “deep excavation,”
C3, C4, C5-M, Im2, and Im3. Generally, the atmosphere is namely, the effect of accelerating to the depth auto-
divided into rural atmosphere, urban atmosphere, industrial matically. Therefore, pitting corrosion has great hidden
atmosphere, and marine atmosphere. According to interna- danger and destructiveness. Pitting corrosion on metals
tional standard ISO 9223: 2012 Corrosion of Metals and exposed to the marine atmosphere may be caused by
Alloys—Atmospheric Corrosion—Classification, Determi- dispersed salt particles or atmospheric pollutants. Sur-
nation and Estimation, the atmospheric corrosivity is divided face conditions or metallurgical factors such as inclu-
into six grades (C1–Cx) based on the corrosion rate for the first sions, cracking, segregation, and surface defects of
year of exposure of metal. Table 4.41 is the corrosion data of protective film can also cause pitting corrosion. Pitting
carbon steel, zinc, copper, and aluminum. National standard corrosion is likely to occur on the material forming the
Classification of Atmospheric Environmental Corrosion passivation film on the surface, or the metal coated with
(GB/T15957-1995) classifies the corrosive environment into cathode plating on the surface.
non-corrosion, weak corrosion, light corrosion, medium cor- (3) Crevice corrosion. For parts in the medium, small cre-
rosion, relatively strong, and strong corrosion according to the vices between metal and metal or metal and nonmetallic
corrosion rate of carbon steel in the first year under different make the medium in the crevice in a state of stagnation
atmospheric environments, as shown in Table 4.17. to cause accelerated corrosion of the metal. Such local
corrosion is called crevice corrosion. Crevice corrosion
5. Corrosion and protection of wind turbine generator is usually the most serious in the underwater and splash
system zones of seawater. Crevice corrosion is also found in
the marine atmosphere. Crevice corrosion is sometimes
1) Corrosion and protection of steel structures caused by unreasonable structural design or may be
caused by marine organisms on the surface.
Steel structures are widely used in wind turbine generator (4) Impact corrosion. In certain specific parts of the
system, such as engine room, hub, and supporting structure. equipment and components, the rapid increase in the
They are in various corrosive environments, and the velocity of the medium creates turbulence, and the
Table 4.41 Corrosion rates of carbon steel, zinc, copper, aluminum in various atmospheric environments
Corrosion grade Corrosivity Unit Corrosion rate according to the first year of material exposure (r)
Carbon steel Zinc Copper Aluminum
C1 Very low g/(m a)2
R 10 r 0.7 r 0.9 Negligible
lm/a r 1.3 r 0.1 r 0.1 –
C2 Low g/(m2 a) 10 < r 200 0.7 < r 5 0.9 < r 5 r 0.6
lm/a 1.3 < r 25 0.1 < r 0.7 0.1 < r 0.6 –
C3 Medium g/(m2 a) 200 < r 400 5 < r 15 5 < r 12 0.6 < r 2
lm/a 25 < r 50 0.7 < r 2.1 0.6 < r 1.3 –
C4 High g/(m2 a) 400 < r 650 15 < r 30 12 < r 25 2<r 5
lm/a 50 < r 80 2.1 < r 4.2 1.3 < r 2.8 –
C5 High g/(m2 a) 650 < r 1500 30 < r 60 25 < r 50 5 < r 10
lm/a 80 < r 200 4.2 < r 8.4 2.8 < r 200 –
Cx Very high g/(m2 a) 1500 < r 5500 60 < r 180 1500 < r 5.6 r > 10
lm/a 200 < r 700 8.4 < r 25 5.6 < r 10 –
abrasion caused by turbulence is called turbulent abra- structure include coating protection, metal thermal spraying
sion. Impact corrosion basically belongs to the category protection, cladding technology, and cathodic protection.
of turbulent corrosion, which is the result of both
mechanical failure and electrochemical corrosions of (1) Coating protection. Coating protection is the most
high-speed fluid. widely used anti-corrosion protective measures for wind
(5) Cavitation erosion. High-speed relative motion between turbine generator system. It can be used in every part of
the fluid and the metal component produces eddy cur- wind turbine generator system, and the corresponding
rents in local area of the metal surface, accompanied by coating system should be selected according to the
rapid generation and collapse of bubbles on the metal environmental conditions. Schemes of coating for metal
surface. This results in failure characteristic similar to structure are suggested by referring to different corrosive
pitting corrosion, which is known as cavitation abra- environment grades (ISO 12944-2 classification method)
sion. Cavitation abrasion is caused by the combined given in China Classification Society’s standard
action of the shock wave of electrochemical corrosion Authentication Specifications for Offshore Wind Turbine
and bubble burst on metal. Generator System (2012) and National Energy Admin-
(6) Galvanic corrosion. When two different metals are istration’s standard Offshore Wind farm Steel Structure
connected and exposed to an electrolyte environment, a Anti-corrosion Technical Standard (NB/T 31006-2011).
corrosion couple is formed due to the potential differ- (2) Thermal spraying metal protection. Thermal spraying
ence between the two metals. The more active metal metal protection can be used to anti-corrosion protec-
becomes anodic dissolution and the inactive metal tion of wind turbine generator system in marine atmo-
(metal with higher corrosion resistance) is the cathode sphere and splash zone. According to the Technical
with little or no corrosion. This corrosion is known as Standard for Corrosion protection of Steel Structure of
galvanic corrosion, or contact corrosion, also known as Offshore Wind Farm (NB/T 31006-2011), zinc, zinc
bimetal corrosion. alloy, aluminum, and aluminum alloy can be used for
(7) Corrosion fatigue. Under the action of cyclic stress or thermal spraying.
pulsating stress and corrosive medium, the corrosion (3) Cathodic protection. Cathodic protection can be used to
caused by metal is called corrosion fatigue. The marine protect tower and foundation of wind turbine generator
environment is very abominable. Besides corrosion, the system against corrosion. Cathodic protection can be
fan supporting structure also suffers from the action of carried out by means of impressed current and sacrifi-
wave, wind wave, earthquake, and other mechanical cial anode. The impressed current is supplied to the
factors. Therefore, corrosion fatigue of steel structure is protected metal with a cathode current from a DC
one of the important factors affecting the safety of source. The protection system is mainly composed of
supporting structure of offshore wind turbine generator DC power supply, auxiliary anode, reference electrode,
system. and cable. The sacrificial anode protection is to connect
a metal or alloy with a more negative electrode potential
The anti-corrosion of steel structure should be based on (called a sacrificial anode) to the protected metal to
reasonable material selection and detailed anti-corrosion obtain a cathodic current by self-dissolution and con-
structure design, and corresponding anti-corrosion measures sumption of the sacrificial anode. The principle and
should be taken according to the environmental conditions. effect of the impressed current and sacrificial anode
The interior of the steel structure is usually protected by protection are the same, but each has its advantages and
coating, while the interior air must be kept dry. disadvantages (Table 4.42) and is suitable for different
Anti-corrosion measures commonly used outside steel occasions. The selection of the two protection methods
Table 4.42 Advantages and disadvantages of impressed current method and sacrificial anode protection
Protection mode Advantage Disadvantage
Impressed (1) The output current is continuously adjustable (1) External power supply is needed
current (2) The scope of protection is wide (2) Large interference to adjacent structures
(3) Not limited by the environmental resistivity (3) Heavy workload of maintenance and
(4) The bigger the project is, the more economical it is management
Sacrificial anode (1) No external power supply is required (1) The protection current is almost unadjustable
(2) There is no interference or little interference to adjacent (2) High one-time investment
structures
(3) No management is required after commissioning
(4) Uniform protection current distribution and high utilization
ratio
436 J. Zhang
mainly depends on the actual conditions of the project oxygen into the interior of the concrete to some extent. Fur-
and the specific conditions on-site. thermore, carbonization lowers the pH value of the concrete,
and the pH value of the fully carbonized concrete is 8.5–9.0.
2) Corrosion and protection of concrete structures Carbonization of concrete develops from the surface to the
inside. When the carbonization depth reaches the surface of
Concrete structures are mainly used for the foundation of the steel bar and the pH value of the concrete around the steel
wind farm, including reinforced concrete and prestressed bar is less than 11.5, the passivation film of the steel bar no
reinforced concrete structures. In normal condition, the longer stabilizes and the steel bar begins to be corroded com-
concrete around the steel bar is highly alkaline, and a dense pletely. In carbonized neutral concrete, steel corrosion prod-
passivation film is formed on the surface of the steel bar, ucts are more soluble and can spread to the surface of the
which has strong protection ability to the steel bar so that the concrete, showing rust stains, rather than being deposited in the
steel bar is not subjected to corrosion. concrete to create stress, resulting in cracking of the concrete.
In the process of pouring and curing, the cement in the The factors affecting the diffusion of carbon dioxide into
concrete undergoes hydration reaction, and saturated solution the concrete and the above chemical reaction rate will affect
containing NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2 is formed in the pores the carbonization rate of concrete, mainly including environ-
of the cement paste. In general, its pH value is 13.0–13.5. The mental conditions (carbon dioxide concentration, tempera-
steel bar is in a highly alkaline environment, and oxides of ture, and humidity) and concrete quality (water–cement ratio,
solid iron, such as Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 or hydroxides, will be type of cement, concrete admixture, compressive strength of
formed without the influence of any other factors. These concrete, construction quality, and curing conditions).
compounds may develop into a protective film, commonly Concrete contains a certain amount of chloride, which is
referred to as a passivation film, on the surface of the steel bar. usually referred to as chloride contamination. During the
Under the influence of many factors, pH value of newly construction of concrete and the service of concrete struc-
poured concrete pore liquid will change. Thus, the formation ture, the concrete may suffer from chloride contamination.
of the passivation film on the surface of the steel bar during Chloride contamination during concrete construction is
concrete pouring process may also be affected. Under certain mainly due to the chlorides in raw materials, such as mixing
conditions, the passivation film may be incomplete or unsta- water, cement, aggregates, mineral admixtures, and various
ble. Even if a good passivation film is formed on the surface of admixtures. Theses chlorides are commonly referred to as
the steel bar during the formation of the concrete and the chlorides inside the concrete. During the service period of
concrete provides a thick protective layer for the steel bar, the the concrete structure, chloride ion in the exposed environ-
harmful medium in the environment can still penetrate into the ment can penetrate into the concrete through gel pores and
concrete through the concrete pores or cracks during use of the capillary pores in the concrete and cracks in the concrete
concrete structure, causing the destruction of the steel bar’s structure, so that the concrete structure suffers from chloride
passivation film. The damage of steel bar’s passivation film contamination. These chlorides are commonly referred to as
may be the overall damage caused by the overall change of the chlorides outside the concrete. The chloride admixture in
thermodynamic conditions of concrete, or may be the local concrete mixture is an important source of chlorides inside
damage caused by local chemical corrosion and mechanical the concrete. Deicing salt, high chloride soil, and ground-
damage. Carbonization of concrete and chloride abrasion are water used in marine and winter snow deicing are important
the main reasons leading to the overall and local damage of sources of chlorides outside the concrete.
steel bar’s passivation film. When the passivation film is In practical engineering, the lack of durability of concrete
incomplete or damaged, activation corrosion will occur as structure is very common, which seriously affects the safe
long as the necessary conditions for corrosion exist. use of concrete structure. The durability failure of concrete
The phenomenon that the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere structure usually begins with material degradation of con-
diffuses into the concrete through the pores in the concrete and crete or steel bar. The main degradation forms include car-
reacts with the hydration products in the cement to form cal- bonization of concrete, freeze–thaw damage, chemical
cium carbonate or other substances is called the carbonization abrasion, surface wear, corrosion of steel bars, and alkali–
of concrete, which is an extremely complicated multiphase aggregate reaction. For concrete structure exposed to cor-
physical and chemical process. Calcium carbonate, the main rosive environments such as carbonized and chloride envi-
product of carbonization reaction, belongs to insoluble cal- ronments, corrosion of steel bars is the main cause of
cium salt and expands by about 17% in the volume compared durability failure of concrete structure.
with the original reactant. Therefore, gel pores and part of Corrosion of steel bars to failure of concrete structure or
capillary pores of concrete are blocked by carbonization need for repair can be represented by two stages of corrosion
products, so that the compactness and strength of concrete are beginning and corrosion development, as shown in
improved, which hinders the diffusion of carbon dioxide and Fig. 4.148. The stage of corrosion beginning is from the
Fig. 4.148 Corrosion and development of steel bars
completion of construction of concrete structure to the Design Code for Durability of Concrete Structure (GB/T
beginning of corrosion of steel bars. The time depends on the 50476-2008), the supplementary measures taken to further
transmission process of medium, the carbonization of con- improve the durability of concrete structure are called
crete, and the intrusion of chloride ion. The influence factors anti-corrosion additional measures on the basis of conven-
include concrete quality, concrete cover thickness, exposure tional means such as improving the compactness of concrete,
conditions, and sulfate content. The stage of corrosion increasing the thickness of the protective layer and making
development is from the beginning of corrosion to the failure use of waterproof and draining measures. At present,
of the concrete structure or the need for repair. The time anti-corrosion additional measures mainly include steel bar
depends on the corrosion kinetics of steel bars. The influence corrosion inhibitor, corrosion-resistant steel bar, concrete
factors include concrete quality, moisture content, resistivity, surface sealing, and electrochemical anti-corrosion.
temperature, oxygen supply, and pH value of pore liquid. According to the MOHURD’s standard Technical Speci-
The anti-corrosion of reinforced concrete structure has fications for Application of Steel Bar Corrosion Inhibitor
two levels of meanings. One is to take a series of (JGJ/T 192-2009), the steel bar corrosion inhibitor is added to
anti-corrosion measures during the construction of concrete or painted on the surface of concrete or mortar. It is a chemical
structure to prevent the corrosion of steel bars and prolong substance that prevents or retards corrosion of steel bars.
the service life of concrete structure. The other one is to take According to the different methods of application, the corro-
further anti-corrosion measures when the concrete structure sion inhibitor can be divided into two types: internal admix-
is deteriorated due to the corrosion of steel bars during use, ture and external coating. The internal admixture is the steel
so as to prevent the further corrosion or reduce the corrosion bar corrosion inhibitor which is added in mixing concrete or
rate of steel bars so that the purpose of repairing the concrete mortar. The external coating is the steel bar corrosion inhibitor
structure is achieved. According to the national standard coated on the surface of concrete or mortar and able to
438 J. Zhang
penetrate into the periphery of the steel bar to protect the steel the surface of steel bars is small, usually 2–20 mA/m2.
bar, also called penetration-type or migration-type steel bar Electrochemical desalting and electrochemical re-alkalization
corrosion inhibitor. Corrosion-resistant steel bars usually refer require short-time power supply to concrete structure.
to metal steel bars with better corrosion resistance than plain Besides, the current density on the surface of steel bars is
carbon steel bars. Up to now, the corrosion-resistant steel bars high, usually up to 1–3 A/m2.
for concrete structure mainly include ➀ epoxy-coated steel bar
that epoxy coating is fused on carbon steel bar matrix; ➁ 3) Corrosion and protection of wind turbine blade
stainless steel bar made of stainless steel material; ➂ stainless
steel cladding steel bar with a layer of steel bar made of The wind turbine blade is one of the key components of the
stainless steel wrapped around the carbon steel core; ➃ hot-dip wind turbine generator system, and its performance will
galvanizing steel bar formed on the surface of carbon steel bar affect the whole system. In the atmospheric environment, the
by hot-dip galvanizing technology; ➄ MMFX steel bar, a blade is always eroded by various media in the air. Light-
patented product in the United States, which is a low-carbon ning, hail, rain, snow, sediment, and dust may cause harm to
steel containing 9% Cr and has a unique microstructure; and ➅ the wind turbine generator system at any time. The main
composite coating steel bar coated with composite coating. causes of blade damage are the damage caused by trans-
For example, Zn/EC steel bar is a kind of composite coating portation and hoisting, the damage caused by natural causes,
steel bar which is coated with epoxy coating after zinc is arc the damage caused by improper operation and maintenance,
sprayed on the surface of carbon steel bar. and the slight damage changing into serious damage after
The sealing of concrete surface usually includes silane operation. The common types of blade damage are leading
impregnation and coating on the surface of concrete. The edge corrosion, leading edge cracking, trailing edge damage,
silane impregnation on the concrete surface is to impregnate and surface cracking. Figure 4.149 shows several typical
the surface layer of the concrete with silane-based liquid so that blade leading edge conditions, and Fig. 4.149a shows slight
the surface layer has low water absorption rate, low chloride leading edge. The leading edge appears sediment hole-like
ion permeability, and high air permeability. The coating is pitting corrosion. As the leading edge abrasion progresses,
applied on the concrete surface to form a sealing coating. sporadic distribution of groove-like defects occurs, and the
Electrochemical corrosion protection is a method of protective layer is severely damaged, as shown in
inhibiting corrosion of steel bars by applying cathodic direct Fig. 4.149b. As the degree of corrosion increases, the lead-
current to steel bars in concrete, which mainly includes ing edge presents continuous groove-like defects, the leading
cathodic protection, electrochemical desalting, and electro- edge coating is completely peeled off, and the leading edge
chemical re-alkalization. Cathodic protection and electro- matrix of the blade is broken, delaminated and peeled, as
chemical desalting are applicable to the corrosion protection shown in Fig. 4.149c.
of concrete structural steel bars polluted by chloride, and According to the different installation locations and
electrochemical re-alkalization is applicable to the corrosion turbine/blade designs, the influence of environmental factors
protection of carbonized concrete structural steel bars. on leading edge corrosion is quite different, but the factors
Cathodic protection requires that long-term power supply be causing leading edge corrosion of wind turbine blade mainly
provided to the concrete structure, and the current density on include two aspects: ➀ abrasion of particles in the air around
Fig. 4.149 Blade leading edge corrosion photos at different stages

the blade, including raindrops, hail, sea waves, salt mist, corrosion protection. It is specified that the composite blade
dust/sediment stones as well as field flying insects and shall be covered with a gel protective coating. Effective
organisms, which are the leading factors of leading edge anti-corrosion measures shall be taken for wind turbine
corrosion; and ➁ aging of ultraviolet light and moisture. generator systems operating in coastal areas.
Rain abrasion is the most important factor causing wind In the “863” plan of “Localization of Raw Materials for
turbine blade leading edge corrosion. In wind field with Wind Turbine Blade of MW Wind Turbine Generator Sys-
more rainfall, the leading edge corrosion caused by rain tem”, the protective coating on blade surface is required to
abrasion is very serious. Rain abrasion is a corrosion phe- improve the resistance to ultraviolet aging, sediment abra-
nomenon caused by the high-speed impact of raindrops on sion, wet heat, and salt mist corrosion of the blade, in order
the leading edge surface of the blade. Since the tip leading to meet that needs of wind farm under different extreme
edge is relatively thin and the tip rotational speed is fastest, climatic conditions in the south and north of China, so that
the leading edge near the tip is most severely abraded. For the design service life of the wind turbine blade for 20 years
offshore wind turbine generator system, the wave impact is ensured. The specific index requirements are ➀ adhesive
from the sea surface is also an important factor threatening force 5 MPa; ➁ natural surface dry/8 h, 40 °C dry/3 h; ➂
the leading edge of the blade. The impact of the wave on the wear resistance 500 g/500 r 20 mg; ➃ salt mist resis-
leading edge of the blade is similar to the characteristics and tance 2000 h, no peeling off, adhesive force maintaining
pattern of the high-speed raindrop impact on the leading 80%; and ➄ dust resistance test meets GB/T 2423.37-2006.
edge of the blade. What is different is that the impact of the It has been reported that the conventional blade coating is
wave on the leading edge surface of the blade generally damaged at the leading edge of the blade after 1–2 years of
appears as an intermittent instantaneous impact of high flow, operation, which can’t meet the need for blade protection.
and the sea wave contains 3–3.5% NaCl salt particles, which The research and development of new long-acting blade
will cause corrosion of the metal parts of the wind turbine leading edge protective material and protection technology is
generator system. The salt particles accumulated in the an important research topic at present.
leading edge of the blade will reduce the aerodynamic per-
formance of the blade. 4) Corrosion and protection of metal parts
The corrosion degree of sediment dust and other particles
on the leading edge of the blade is closely related to the The main anti-corrosion methods applied to the metal parts
installation position of the wind turbine generator system. In of the wind turbine generator system are hot-dip galvanizing,
the warm and dry climate environment, the sediment and electro-galvanizing, Dacromet (zinc chromium coating
dust may cause corrosion on the leading edge of the blade. technology) and Geomet technology (chrome-free zinc–
These problems will not exist in areas where it is wet and aluminum coating), and thermal spraying zinc (aluminum)
there is more green vegetation. Similarly, sediment abrasion (or zinc infiltration). In addition, corrosion-resistant metal
is also an important factor in leading edge corrosion of blade materials such as weathering steel, anti-corrosion material,
in offshore areas. and rust-proof grease are applied. Steel structure support of
Blade coating has become an essential means of blade wind turbine generator system fairing and nacelle cover,
protection. According to the national standard Wind Turbine cable bridge in tower, steel structure ladder, and other pipe
Blade of Wind Turbine Generator System (GB/T and steel components with complicated structures and
25383-2010), the corrosion effect of salt mist on the blades shapes can be protected by hot-dip galvanizing technology.
should be considered for wind turbine generator systems in Some bolts, nut collars, electrical connections, and structural
coastal areas. Anti-corrosion measures shall be taken in fittings with no high-strength connection (less than grade
accordance with ISO 12944-3 Paint and Varnish Protective 8.8) are generally protected from corrosion by electro-
Coating Systems for Anti-corrosion of Steel Structure, Part galvanizing technology. High-strength connecting bolts
3: Design Considerations and ISO 12944-5 Paint and (usually for bolts and nut collars above grade 8.8), such as
Varnish Protective Coating Systems for Anti-corrosion of foundation anchor bolts, connecting bolts between blades
Steel Structure, Part 5: Protective Coating Systems”. and hub, connecting bolts for each section of tower, are
According to the “Wind Turbine Blade of Wind Turbine usually protected against corrosion by Dacromet technology.
Generator System (JB/T 10194-2000), the structural design The bearing and the connecting flange of the tower can be
of corrosion protection and corrosion reduction has a great protected against corrosion by thermal spraying zinc (alu-
influence on the implementation, effect, and repairability of minum) coating.
440 J. Zhang
4.5.3.3 Case of Corrosion and Protection of Wind finish 40 lm (total dry film thickness of 400–430 lm).
Farms in China The external parts of the engine room and complex
tubular parts (platforms, fences) outside the tower with
diameters less than 500 mm shall be sealed by hot-dip
1. Anti-corrosion coating scheme for Wailuo offshore galvanizing + coating. The coating system is hot-dip
wind farm in Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province galvanizing 80 lm + (low surface treatment) epoxy
paint 40 lm + epoxy mica iron paint 200 lm +
The Wailuo offshore wind farm is located in the Wailuo Sea polyurethane topcoat 40 lm + fluorocarbon finish
of Qiongzhou Strait in the east of Xinliao Island, Xuwen 40 lm (a total of 400 lm). The inner wall of the tower
County, Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province. It is 9–12 km adopts an aliphatic polyurethane topcoat with excellent
from the coast of Xinliao Island, and the seawater’s depth light and color keeping property. The coating structure is
range is 2.5–9 m. Qiongzhou Strait, one of the three major epoxy zinc-rich primer 70 lm + epoxy mica iron paint
straits in China, is the connecting water area between 150 lm + polyurethane topcoat 60 lm (a total of
Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan Island. It connects the 280 lm). Accessories welded to the inner wall of the
northern South China Sea and the Beibu Gulf in the east– tower shall be protected by painting according to the
west direction. In terms of natural climatic conditions, coating structure of the inner wall of the tower.
typhoon, ocean current, sea tide, and atmosphere have a (2) The material of the equipment casting and the steel
great effect, and the corrosive environment is relatively bad. structural parts of the tower and the engine room/hub
The transparency of seawater in Qiongzhou Strait is 5 m, the and engine room elbow is iron casting, and the coating
salinity is about 3.0%, and the average annual temperature is on the outer surface of the exposed iron casting is epoxy
25–27 °C. The high tide position appearing every 50 years is zinc-rich primer 70 lm + epoxy mica iron paint
5 m, and the high tide position appearing every 100 years is 230 lm + polyurethane topcoat 60 lm (a total of
5.42 m. In terms of geographical conditions, the wind farm 360 lm). The coating of steel component parts on the
is greatly affected by typhoons and tropical storms. The inner surface of the exposed iron casting and inside the
planned installed capacity of the first phase of the wind farm engine room and hub is epoxy zinc-rich primer
is 48 MW, and 16 sets of Mingyang SCD3 MW wind tur- 60 lm + epoxy mica iron paint 160 lm +
bines are installed. The first wind turbine generator system is polyurethane topcoat 60 lm (a total of 280 lm). For
1 km from the seawall and the seawater is about 2 m anti-corrosion protection of exposed metal parts inside
deep. The foundation is a reinforced concrete cap structure, tower, engine room and hub, hot-dip galvanizing,
and the concrete base cap is located in a tidal range zone, a thermal spraying zinc, zinc (aluminum) penetration,
splash zone, and a seawater zone. The design service life of Dacromet technology, as well as composite coating of
concrete foundation is 30 years. epoxy zinc-rich primer, epoxy mica iron intermediate
The anti-corrosion coating scheme for the concrete paint, and acrylic polyurethane topcoat is adopted
structure of the wind farm is as follows: respectively according to the material properties, posi-
tions, and structural characteristics of steel and iron
(1) For embedded anchor bolts, the composite casting except that attention should be paid to special
anti-corrosion protection scheme of Dacromet + epoxy requirements on material selection.
thick paste paint + PVC sleeve + bolt protection cover (3) Anti-corrosion technology of electrical components
shall be adopted. inside tower and engine room/hub. The electric control
(2) The anti-corrosion coating scheme of epoxy concrete equipment inside the tower, the engine room cover and
sealing paint + epoxy thick paste paint + polyurethane the fairing, such as the thin steel plate material of the
top paint is adopted for the bottom of concrete foun- control cabinet, frequency converter, shall be sprayed
dation and the outer surface of the cap, respectively. with coating (epoxy powder coating) on the inner and
outer surfaces, and special treatment measures such as
Anti-corrosion coating scheme for steel components of ventilation and moisture absorption shall be taken to
wind power equipment of wind farm is as follows: better meet the electrical equipment moisture-proof, salt
mist resistance, and other anti-corrosion requirements.
(1) The inner and outer walls of the tower. The outer wall of Considering the performance requirements of electrical
the tower is sealed by arc spraying zinc–aluminum equipment such as insulation and antistatic property, the
alloy + coating. The coating system is thermal spraying inner and outer surfaces of the cabinet body are sprayed
zinc/aluminum alloy coating 120–150 lm + epoxy according to the plastic (powder) process, with a
sealing coating 40 lm + epoxy mica iron paint thickness of 50–100 lm and a surface color of
160 lm + polyurethane topcoat 40 lm + fluorocarbon RAL7035. The electric control unit (device) in the
cabinet shall meet the requirements of “salt mist resis- engine room are of fully sealed structure. The tower is
tance, damp heat resistance and mold resistance.” equipped with a ventilation system, and the air inlet is
(4) The modified polyurethane topcoat with high corrosion equipped with a filter, which can filter the moisture and salt
resistance and good ultraviolet aging resistance is used in the air. The filtered clean air is allowed to enter the tower
on the blade surface. and then be discharged through the air outlet at the upper
part of the tower door. The atmospheric area of the com-
2. Anti-corrosion scheme of Donghai Bridge Offshore ponent is protected by coating, and the underwater part is
Wind Farm protected by coating combined with sacrificial anode.
Shanghai Donghai Bridge Offshore Wind Farm is the first (1) Environmental protection grade of external surface of
large offshore wind farm in Asia, located on both sides of tower and hub: C5-M
Donghai Bridge 1000 m away from Lingang New City to Coating system: Four layers of epoxy resin, including
Yangshan Deepwater Port. The northernmost end is nearly TSM zinc-rich primer and polyurethane topcoat, with
6 km from Nanhuizui coastline and the southernmost end is the minimum nominal dry film thickness (NDFT) of
13 km from the shoreline and all located in Shanghai. 350 lm. In addition, the external surface coating of the
The wind farm consists of 34 domestic 3 MW wind tur- tower also has the function of abrasion resistance and
bine generators with a total installed capacity of 102 MW. ultraviolet-proof.
The wind farm adopts four-pile foundation, the lower (2) Environmental protection grade for internal surface of
structure is quadrangular frame structure, and the tower is tower, engine room, and hub: C4.
steel pipe. Coating system: Two layers of coating, including
The sea area where the Donghai Bridge Offshore Wind zinc-rich primer and epoxy thick-paste-type paint with
Farm is located is affected by a large amount of sediment and minimum NDFT of 190 lm.
nutrient salts entrained by the runoff of the Yangtze River (3) The anti-corrosion of mechanical parts shall be gener-
and the Qiantang River. The concentration of suspended ally carried out according to the location and with ref-
solids and inorganic nitrogen is relatively high, exceeding erence to the two methods listed above.
three types of standards for seawater quality. Sulfate con- (4) Anti-corrosion of electrical components. Important
forms to the class II standard of seawater quality, and other electrical components, such as motors, pumps, encoders,
pollutant indexes all conform to the class I standard of sensors, and limit switches, are selected from marine
seawater quality. The sediments in the sea area are of good grade electrical components. The main control system
quality and all conform to the marine sediment quality cabinet selects the cabinet with IP66 protection level
standard. added with anti-corrosion coating. In case of power
The sea area where the project is located is weak corro- failure, desiccant is added to dehumidify inside the
sion to steel bars in concrete structure under long-term cabinet. In the case of power supply, a heating and
immersion, strong corrosion under dry–wet alternating state, dehumidified device is installed in the cabinet, and the
medium corrosion to steel structure, and weak corrosion to heating and dehumidified device are started by detecting
concrete structure. the humidity in the cabinet through a control system. In
The concrete cap of fan foundation adopts a combined addition, a salt mist-resistant screen is added at the
anti-corrosion method of C45 high-performance marine ventilation inlet and outlet of the cabinet.
concrete and silane impregnation. The converter cabinet is completely sealed and
Different anti-corrosion measures are adopted for steel water-cooled to reduce the probability of internal elec-
pipe piles according to different anti-corrosion zones. The trical components coming into contact with the air inside
combined anti-corrosion method of fusion bonded epoxy the tower.
powder coating of 800 lm and sacrificial anode is adopted Marine cables shall be used for the internal cables of the
for steel pipe piles in full immersion area. The steel pipe unit. The design of the transformer shall meet the
piles in part splash zone adopt the anti-corrosion technology requirements of the marine environment.
of glass fiber composite coating. For other steel structures in (5) Anti-corrosion of flange surface. Nonworking surface
the splash zone, modified epoxy primer of 800 lm + acrylic shall be protected by thermal spraying zinc + epoxy
polyurethane topcoat of 60 lm shall be used. Modified zinc-rich primer, while the working face is coated with
epoxy primer of 440 lm + acrylic polyurethane topcoat of anti-rust oil and sealant on the outside to prevent con-
60 lm is used in the atmospheric area. The unit adopts the tact with air.
anti-corrosion scheme of sealing anti-corrosion combined (6) Anti-corrosion of fasteners. High-strength bolts shall be
with micro-positive pressure anti-corrosion. The hub and treated with Dacromet anti-corrosion method. Common
442 J. Zhang
The anti-corrosion measures of the fan are as follows: the

underwater area is protected by coating and sacrificial anode,
the area under the mud is protected by sacrificial anode, and
the splash zone and atmospheric area are protected by
coating. Figure 4.151 shows a schematic diagram of a sac-
rificial anode arrangement.
4. Cathodic protection for grounding body of booster

station of Jiangsu Dongtai Wind Farm
220 kV booster station of Jiangsu Dongtai Wind Farm covers

an area of 10,000 m2. The horizontal grounding body and
ground down conductor of the booster station adopt galva-
nized flat steel with specification of 60 mm 6 mm and
total length of about 2,800 m. The vertical grounding body
adopts galvanized angle iron with specification 2,500 mm
50 mm 50 mm 5 mm, and the number is 8.
The farm is located in the coastal plain with low terrain,
fine sediment particles, shallow groundwater level, gentle
hydraulic gradient, high groundwater salinity, and poor
Fig. 4.150 Jacket foundation water quality. The surface water and shallow groundwater in
the farm are slightly turbid, light yellow brackish water,
brackish water or brine, and the chemical type is hyper-
bolts shall be galvanized and passivated. The external
salinity sodium chloride (potassium) water. The earth
bolt material of the unit is stainless steel meeting C5-M
resistivity q of 1.0 m underground of the booster station is
grade. After the bolts are tightened, coating can be
1.72 Ω m, and the earth resistivity q of 2.0 m underground
applied for auxiliary corrosion protection.
is 1.71 Ω m.
(7) Other aluminum, hot-dip galvanizing and stainless steel
The fan foundation of the wind farm does not adopt
components are not subjected to additional coating
cathodic protection, and the grounding body and under-
protection.
ground conductor are protected by sacrificial anode. A to-
tal of 56 sets of zinc alloy anodes and 4 sets of test
3. Cathodic protection for fan foundation of an offshore
devices are installed, as shown in Figs. 4.152, 4.153, and
wind farm
4.154.
The protective potential and anode output current are
An offshore wind farm is located in the sea area at the Pearl
measured twice after the installation of the anti-corrosion
River Estuary of the South China Sea. The submarine
system at the welding site. The results are shown in
landform is simple, and the underwater topography is rela-
Tables 4.43 and 4.44. The protective potential meets
tively flat. The elevation of seabed mud surface is −6.4 to
the design requirement of −0.85 V protective potential
−10.5 m, and the average water depth is 711 m. Thus, it
standard.
belongs to the offshore wind farm. The planned sea area is
about 62.3 km2, and the installed capacity is 200 MW. The
5. Study on remote monitoring system for cathodic
sea area where the project is located belongs to the sub-
protection of fan foundation structure in Donghai
tropical monsoon climate. The local hydrological environ-
Offshore Wind Farm
ment is that the average temperature is 20–24 °C, the
sunshine time is 1700–2000 h, and the annual average rel-
The prototype of Phase II Project of Donghai Wind Power
ative humidity is 75–85%. From May to August, the average
Farm adopts six u2000 mm steel pipe pile foundation
relative humidity is 85–88%. The air temperature is high, the
structure, and each steel pipe pile adopts anti-corrosion
sunshine is strong, and the relative humidity is high. It
protective measures including glass fiber reinforced plastic
belongs to the typical ocean-atmospheric environment with
cladding, epoxy powder coating, and sacrificial anode pro-
high temperature and high humidity. The foundation is in the
tection. Anti-collision box girders are installed in the splash
form of a jacket foundation, as shown in Fig. 4.150.
zone and the water level fluctuation area.
Fig. 4.151 Schematic diagram of sacrificial anode arrangement
Fig. 4.152 Sacrificial anode embedding
Offshore wind farms are usually located in the sea far also tens of square kilometers, and hundreds of draft fans are
from the coastline, with straight distances of more than tens scattered sporadically in this area. Routine maintenance
of sea miles and longer fairways. The area of wind farms is detecting is quite difficult. It is impossible to find problems
444 J. Zhang
Table 4.44 Measurement result of second protective potential and

anode output current
No. of Protective Anode output Note
test pile potential/(–V) current/mA
1 0.9261 30.90 Soil is backfilled
2 0.8730 38.40 Soil nearby is
not backfilled
not backfilled
Fig. 4.153 Test pile embedding

Ag/AgCl reference electrode is usually used for the
detecting element. The on-site measurement and control unit
is composed of a signal transmitter, a data acquisition
module, a microcontrol unit, a power supply module, and a
communication module. The type of communication module
can be selected according to the on-site communication
resources. Generally, submarine optical cable will be laid at
the initial stage of offshore wind farm construction to
transmit various monitoring data of the fan, so the system is
designed for using optical fiber communication mode. In
some specific situations, it is also possible to first convert
through a communication protocol, and then adopt other
types of data transmission, such as GPRS/3G public
network-based transmission. The central control unit is
mainly composed of a central controller and an alarm
Fig. 4.154 Cable module, which is mainly used to receive on-site monitoring
data, judge whether to respond to an over-limit alarm
according to the monitoring data and send monitoring
Table 4.43 Measurement result of first protective potential and anode
output current instructions. It is usually installed in a project monitoring
center or a machine room.
No. of Protective Anode output Note
test pile potential/(–V) current/mA When the remote monitoring system is installed, a water-
proof junction box shall be installed on the draft fan cushion
cap. The signal line of reference electrodes of No. 1, No. 2,
and No. 3 in Fig. 4.156 is selected to connect to the junction
not backfilled
box. After the signal is conditioned by the signal transmitter, a
not backfilled
special cable is used to connect the standard current signal to
the measurement and control unit located in the fan tower to
collect, store, and forward the data. Figure 4.156 shows a top
view of the basic structure of fan and a schematic view of
installation of the remote monitoring system.
for the first time by manual means. The workload in the large
Figure 4.157 shows the monitoring data curve of cathodic
wind farm is also quite large, so detection work can’t be
protection potential of No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 steel pipe
completed in a short time. Therefore, a remote monitoring
piles within 15 days. The monitoring data curve of cathodic
system for cathodic protection has been developed. The
protection potential of three groups of steel pipe piles fluc-
monitoring system is mainly composed of detecting ele-
tuates with the fluctuation of tide level, but is all in the range
ments, on-site measurement, and control unit and central
of −1.05 to −0.78 V, and the steel pipe piles are in good
control unit, as shown in Fig. 4.155.
protection state.
Fig. 4.155 Composition of remote monitoring system of cathodic protection
6. Failure analysis of variable propeller bearing of wind Fig. 4.158. After the fracture is cut and cleaned, the
turbine generator in a wind farm macroscopic morphology is shown in Fig. 4.159. As can be
seen from the figure, the inner wall of the hole is corroded
After the 850 kW imported wind turbine generator of a unevenly and the crack originates from the area where the
certain wind farm was put into operation for 4 years, the inner wall of the bolt hole has relatively serious corrosion. It
outer ring of the pitch bearing broke accidentally, resulting has multisource features, and obvious shell grain features
in the falling of the blade and the accident of the wind can be seen on the cross section. And the crack propagation
turbine. A pitch bearing is mounted at the root of the blade area accounts for more than 95% of the whole fracture, and
and is fixed to the hub to support the connection and rotation the instantaneous fracture area is only 1–2% of the area near
of the blade to the hub. The material of bearing outer ring is the inner and outer sides of the bearing outer ring. There are
42CrMo4. The heat treatment process adopts integral hard- obvious marks of abrasion. The uncracked bolt holes are cut
ening and tempering treatment. After hardening and tem- and it is found that approximately two-thirds of the threaded
pering, the hardness is 229,269 HB, the tensile strength is holes are covered with a rust coating and approximately
840,950 MPa, the yield strength is 620 MPa, elongation one-third of the area have a zinc coating color.
12%, and impact value 27 J. The raceway part adopts sur- The metallographic examination shows that there are
face hardening with the hardness of 5,562 HRC. The fracture corrosion pits in the longitudinal direction of the crack hole
position of the bearing outer ring is located at one of the bolt and the surface of the hole, and obvious corrosion products
holes (the bolt hole inner wall is not threaded) and has been can be seen at the bottom of the corrosion pits at high power.
cracked through along the inner wall of the hole, as shown in The average depth of corrosion pit is 158 lm.
446 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.156 Top view of the basic structure of fan and schematic view of installation of the remote monitoring system
Fig. 4.157 Monitoring data of

cathodic protection potential of
No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 steel pipe
piles within 15 days
7. PHC pipe pile and foundation anti-corrosion in east coast of Dongying City, south of Yongfeng River about
Phase I Project of Dongying Wind Farm 20 km east of Dongcheng District, north of north cofferdam,
and outside of sea wall and wave wall. Each fan road is
The phase I project of a wind farm in Dongying is the first connected to sea wall road at 90° and crosses the wave wall
intertidal wind farm project in Shandong Province. The of sea wall road. The designed elevation of the road surface
installed capacity is 49.5 MW. 33 wind turbine generators is equal to the actual elevation of the road surface at the
with a unit capacity of 1.5 MW are installed in the whole entrance of original sea wall road. F24–F30 fans are located
site. The F24–F33 among 33 generators are located in the in Kenli County, F31–F33 fans are located in Dongying
structure according to type II site environment; for steel bars in

the reinforced concrete structure, seawater of 0–5.0 m has
strong corrosiveness, and less than 5.0 m has weak corrosive-
ness, and has moderate corrosiveness to steel structure. The sea
area of Dongying is of semi-closed type. The tide in most of the
coast is irregular half-day tides, occurring twice a day. The
daily high–low tidal range is generally 0.2–2 m, and the spring
tide usually occurs in March–April and July–November. The
area is prone to storm tides, with seven storm surges occurring
in the past 100 years with tidal level above 3.5 m. Dongying
City is located in the Yellow River estuary delta area and
belongs to the north temperate semi-humid continental climate.
Its climate characteristics are moderate temperature and distinct
temperature difference in four seasons. This area is adjacent to
Bohai Bay where the climate changes obviously with the
seasons in the year, so it is obviously affected by the monsoon
Fig. 4.158 Macroscopic morphology of fractured bearing outer ring climate. In spring, it gets warm quickly and the climate is dry;
in summer, temperature is relatively high, the climate is humid,
and the precipitation is concentrated; the temperature drops
rapidly in autumn; it’s cold in winter with little rainfall. PHC
prestressed pipe pile is adopted in the project. According to the
corrosiveness of groundwater in the project, PHC pipe pile is
considered to adopt sulfate-resistant cement mixed with
sulfate-resistant admixture to improve the ability of resisting
sulfate ion abrasion of pile body. For chloride ion corrosion, the
design requires that the anti-chloride ion permeability of pile
concrete should not be more than 1000 C and the diffusion
coefficient of chloride ion should be less than 2 10−11 m2/s
by adding steel bar corrosion inhibitor and mineral admixture.
The pile foundation will adopt epoxy coal tar pitch thick paste
coating (bicomponent), epoxy glass flake anti-rust paint (bi-
component), polyurethane anti-corrosion coating, and poly-
urethane top coating. The groundwater is seawater which is
highly corrosive to the steel bars in the reinforced concrete
structure and weakly corrosive to the concrete structure.
According to the relevant provisions in the code for
Fig. 4.159 Macroscopic morphology of fracture anti-corrosion design of industrial buildings, slag Portland
cement is used for all foundations of the booster station, mixed
with NC-Z powder type steel bar corrosion inhibitor, and the
City, and the total length of designed road is 2.72 km. The dosage is 4% of the total mass of cement. The foundation of 10
terrain of the site area to be built is relatively flat, and the fans of F24–F33 is located outside the damp-proof dike. The
genetic type of geomorphology is marine depositional plain, storm surge level is 3.63 m once every 50 years in this area,
and the geomorphic type is flat. The ground elevation is 0.84– and the average submergence depth is about 2 m. In the civil
4.30 m. The stratum is mainly the Quaternary Holocene sea– engineering design, the design method of Code for Design and
land facies alternate deposit, and the local surface distribution Construction of Breakwater (JTJ 298-98) is used for reference,
has the Quaternary system artificial fill soil layer. The lithology and the tower foundation is constructed by filling bags with
is plain fill, silt, muddy silty clay, silty clay, clay, and silty polypropylene fiber geotextile. The construction of tower
sediment. The type of groundwater in the site area to be built is foundation with polypropylene fiber geotextile filling bags for
seawater. The rise and fall of the groundwater are controlled by embankment shall be carried out in strict accordance with the
seawater tide. The seawater submerges the surface at high tide requirements of technical regulations for foundation treatment
and approaches the surface at low tide. According to the result of electric power projects. High-performance concrete (HPC),
of corrosion analysis of water quality of water sample taken at which has high durability, high-dimensional stability, good
the site, groundwater has weak corrosiveness to concrete workability and high strength, and high resistance to chloride
448 J. Zhang
ion permeability, is preferably used for concrete exposed to a wind farm are in the atmospheric environment, and the
splash zone, which can fundamentally improve the reinforce- foundation piles are in the soil environment. The off-
ment property of the concrete itself. Heavy anti-corrosion shore wind farm is located in the marine environment,
coating shall be adopted for the foundation anti-corrosion the wind wheel-engine room components of the wind
coating. The concrete method is to apply KH-559 (D) adhesive turbine generator system are located in the marine
to the outside of the design elevation below 0.5 m of the atmospheric environment, and the supporting structure
outdoor ground of all structures in the booster station for three is located in four areas of marine atmosphere, water
times. KH-559 (B) adhesive is applied on the outside of all level fluctuation, underwater, and sea mud.
embedded steel pipes below the ground for three times for (3) Steel structures are widely used in onshore and offshore
corrosion protection. The cable support adopts SMC composite wind turbine generator systems. The types of corrosion
support. For the fan foundation surface in the underwater area mainly include uniform corrosion, pitting corrosion,
and under the mud area, one layer of epoxy sealing primer and crevice corrosion, impact corrosion, cavitation abrasion,
three layers of heavy anti-corrosive intermediate paint are galvanic corrosion, and corrosion fatigue. Coating
applied. The thickness of the intermediate paint film shall not protection, metal thermal spraying protection, and
be less than 800 lm. For the fan foundation surface in the cathodic protection are the main anti-corrosion mea-
atmospheric area, splash zone and water level fluctuation area, sures of wind farm steel structures in China. China
one layer of epoxy sealing primer + three layers of heavy Classification Society’s standard Code for Authentica-
anti-corrosion intermediate paint + two layers of polyurethane tion of Offshore Wind Turbine Generator System (2012)
topcoat is applied. and National Energy Administration’s standard Anti-
corrosion Technical Standard for Offshore Wind Farm
4.5.3.4 Technical Standards Related to Corrosion Steel Structure (NB/T 31006-2011) make relevant
of Wind Farms in China technical provisions for the implementation of these
At present, the technical standards related to corrosion of anti-corrosion measures.
wind farms in China include (4) The reinforced concrete structure is mainly used for the
foundation of the wind turbine generator system of the
(1) Tower of Wind Turbine Generator System (GB/T onshore wind farm. On the basis of improving the
19072-2010). concrete compactness, increasing the thickness of the
(2) Wind Turbine Blades of Wind Turbine Generator Sys- protective layer and utilizing the conventional measures
tem (GB/T 25383-2010). of water prevention and drainage, it is important to add
(3) Design Requirements for Offshore Wind Turbine Gen- additional anti-corrosion measures (mainly including
erator System (GB/T 31517-2015). steel bar corrosion inhibitor, corrosion-resistant steel,
(4) Technical Conditions for Manufacture of Wind Turbine concrete surface sealing, electrochemical corrosion
Barrel-type Tower (NB/T 31001-2010). protection, etc.) in order to improve the durability of
(5) Technical Standards for Corrosion protection of Off- concrete structures. The corrosion protection of rein-
shore Wind Farm Steel Structure (NB/T 31006-2011). forced concrete structures is mainly based on the
(6) China Classification Society’s standard “Code for Certifi- anti-corrosion specifications of reinforced concrete
cation of Offshore Wind Turbine Generator System (2012). structures in other industries.
(7) China Classification Society’s standard “Specifications (5) The common damage types of wind turbine blades are
for Wind Turbine Generator System (2008). leading edge corrosion, leading edge cracking, trailing
(8) Wind Turbine Blades of Wind Turbine Generator Sys- edge damage, and surface cracks. Coating has become
tem (JB/T 10194-2000). an essential means of blade protection. National stan-
dard Wind Turbine Blades of Wind Turbine Generator
4.5.3.5 Summary System (GB/T 25383-2010) and mechanical industry
standard Wind Turbine Blades of Wind Turbine Gen-
erator System (JB/T 10194-2000) have made specifi-
(1) The wind farms in China include onshore wind farms cations for blade corrosion protection.
and offshore wind farms. Wind turbine generator sys- (6) The main anti-corrosion methods for the metal parts of
tem is the core component of a wind farm and also the the wind turbine generator system include metal coat-
most invested part in the wind farm project. ing, corrosion-resistant metal materials such as weath-
(2) The wind wheel-engine room components and towers ering steel, coating anti-corrosion materials, and
of the wind turbine generator system of the onshore anti-rust grease.
4.5.4 Research Results on Corrosion Status major provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities
and Control Measures of Solar Power directly under the central government), mainly distributed in
Stations the northwest of China.
By the end of 2014, the total installed capacity of pho-
4.5.4.1 Development of Solar Power Generation tovoltaic power generation in China was 28.05 million kW, a
in China [56–61] year-on-year increase of 60%, including 23.38 million kW
Solar photovoltaic power generation and photothermal of photovoltaic power and 4.67 million kW of distributed
power generation are currently the two main ways of solar power. Annual power generation is about 25 billion kW h, a
power generation. The photovoltaic power generation is year-on-year increase of more than 200%. In 2014, the new
characterized by that it can be used as a distributed power installed capacity was 10.6 million kW, accounting for about
source, installed in the load center, and used in situ power one-fifth of the new installed capacity in the world and
generation without long-distance transmission. At the same accounting for one-third of the output of photovoltaic cells
time, it can be modularized and installed at random scale and in China. The average annual increase of 10 million kW has
can be installed on the roof and wall surface to save space. been achieved in the Opinions of the State Council on
The photovoltaic output coincides with the peak power Promoting the Healthy Development of the Photovoltaic
consumption during the day and can enjoy the peak elec- Industry.
tricity price or peak clipping for the power grid. Photovoltaic power generation has shown the pattern of
In photothermal power generation, solar energy is col- common development between the east and the west. The
lected by a condensing system such as a reflector to heat a new installed capacity in the mid-east region has reached 5.6
certain working medium, and then superheated steam at high million kW, accounting for 53% of the country, of which 1.52
temperature and high pressure is generated through a heat million kW is added in Jiangsu Province, second only to the
exchanger to drive a steam turbine and a generator to gen- Inner Mongolia; 0.97 million kW is added in Hebei Province,
erate electricity. There are five kinds of solar thermal power ranking first in the country. In the western provinces, Inner
generation systems: tower, trough, disk, solar pool, and solar Mongolia, Qinghai, Gansu, and Ningxia are larger.
thermal airflow. The characteristic of photothermal power The development of photothermal industry in China has
generation is that the solar energy is first converted into gone through three stages: technical start-up, scientific
thermal energy to generate electricity, which can suppress experiment, and commercial demonstration. In the 1970s,
the fluctuation of sunlight to a certain extent. This is rela- some domestic scientific research institutes began to carry
tively friendly to the power grid, and the thermal energy can out basic researches on the application technology of pho-
be stored effectively and economically. The heat source can tothermal power generation. Since the 1980s, China has
be complementary to the thermal power station to increase opened the prelude to the construction of the photothermal
the number of generating hours and peak shaving and pro- power test demonstration project. The first experimental
vide dispatching power. demonstration project is the tower photothermal demon-
At present, solar power generation that has achieved stration project completed and put into operation at the end
industrial application includes mainly solar photovoltaic of 2012 with the installed capacity of 1 MW in Badaling,
power generation and solar photothermal power generation. Yanqing. In 2013, the photothermal industry of China was
In recent years, the cost of photovoltaic and photothermal transferred from the scientific experiment stage to the com-
power generation has rapidly declined and solar energy has mercial demonstration stage, and the first commercial
become the fastest growing clean energy as technology operation project—the first phase of the 10 MW tower-type
advances. By the end of 2013, the total installed capacity of photothermal power station of center-controlled Delingha—
grid-connected photovoltaic power generation in China was was connected to the grid in July 2013. Up to now, the
19.42 million kW, including 16.32 million kW for photo- project has been running for 2 consecutive years, and over 8
voltaic power generation and 3.1 million kW for distributed million kW h of power generation was realized in 2014.
photovoltaic power. Annual cumulative power generation is As of 2014, the installed capacity of photothermal grid
9 billion kW h. connection in China was about 18 MW (another statistical
In 2013, the installed capacity of photovoltaic power caliber is 13.88 MW, with little difference). Except that the
generation was 12.92 million kW, including 12.12 million 10 MW project of the first phase of center-controlled Del-
kW of photovoltaic power and 0.8 million kW of distributed ingha is a commercial demonstration project, other
photovoltaic power. By the end of 2013, there were a total of grid-connected projects are all scientific experiment projects
741 large-scale photovoltaic power generation projects in 22 with the installed capacity of below 1 MW.
450 J. Zhang
4.5.4.2 Overview of Solar Power Station [62–67] several battery modules are required to form a solar cell
array after being connected in series and parallel.
(2) Storage battery. The main function of the battery is to
1. Overview of solar photovoltaic power station store the electric energy generated by the solar cells and
to provide power to the load at any time. The basic
According to GB 50797-2012 Design Specification for Pho- requirements of solar photovoltaic power generation
tovoltaic Power Station, the power station mainly consisting system are low self-discharge rate, long service life,
of photovoltaic power generation system, including all kinds high charging efficiency, strong deep discharge capa-
of buildings (structures) and auxiliary facilities, maintenance, bility, wide operating temperature range, little mainte-
and living auxiliary facilities, is referred as a photovoltaic nance or no maintenance, and low cost. At present,
power station. Photovoltaic power generation system is a maintenance-free lead–acid batteries are mainly used
system that uses the photovoltaic effect of solar cells to for photovoltaic systems. In small- and microscale
directly convert solar radiant energy into electric energy. systems, nickel–hydrogen batteries, nickel–cadmium
Photovoltaic power generation systems can be divided into batteries, lithium batteries, or super capacitors can also
grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems and be used. When large-capacity electric energy storage is
independent photovoltaic power generation systems accord- required, it is necessary to connect a plurality of bat-
ing to whether they are connected to a public power grid. teries in parallel or series to form a storage battery.
Grid-connected photovoltaic power generation systems can (3) Photovoltaic controller. The function of the solar pho-
be divided into user-side photovoltaic power generation tovoltaic controller is to control the working state of the
systems and grid-side photovoltaic power generation systems whole system. Its functions mainly include protection
according to the difference of access to grid supply points. against overcharge of the storage battery, protection
Photovoltaic power generation systems can be divided against overdischarge of the storage battery,
into the following three systems according to installation short-circuit protection of the system, protection of
capacity: polarity reversal of the system, and protection against
overcharge at night. When the temperature difference is
(1) Small photovoltaic power generation system: installed large, the controller also has the function of temperature
capacity of less than or equal to l MWp; compensation. In addition, the controller also has
(2) Medium-sized photovoltaic power generation system: operation modes such as light control switches and time
installed capacity of greater than l MWp and less than control switches, and display functions of various
or equal to 30 MWp; operation states such as state of charge and battery
(3) Large-scale photovoltaic power generation system: power. Photovoltaic controllers can be divided into
installation capacity of greater than 30 MWp. low-power, medium-power, high-power, and
wind-solar complementary controllers.
According to whether the photovoltaic power generation (4) AC inverter. An AC inverter is a device for converting a
system is combined with the building, the photovoltaic direct current output from a solar cell module or a
power generation system can be divided into photovoltaic storage battery into an alternating current to be supplied
power generation system combined with the building and the to a power grid or an AC load. According to the
ground photovoltaic power generation system. The solar operation mode, the inverter can be divided into inde-
photovoltaic power generation system is mainly composed pendent operation inverter and grid-connected inverter.
of a solar cell module (or square array), a storage battery Independent operation inverter is used in independent
(group), a photovoltaic controller, an inverter (used when it operation solar power generation system to supply
is required to output alternating current), and some auxiliary power to independent load. Grid-connected inverter is
facilities such as detecting, monitoring, and protection. used for grid-connected operation solar power genera-
tion system.
(1) Solar cell module. The solar cell module, also called (5) Auxiliary facilities of photovoltaic power generation
solar panel, is the core part of the solar photovoltaic system. The auxiliary facilities of photovoltaic power
power generation system and the most valuable part of generation system include DC distribution system, AC
the solar photovoltaic power generation system. Its distribution system, operation monitoring and detecting
function is to convert the radiant energy of sunlight into system, lightning protection, and grounding system.
electric energy, and send to the storage battery for
storage, which can also be directly used to push the load There are many kinds of solar cell modules, which can be
to work. When the power generation capacity is large, divided into crystalline silicon (monocrystalline,
polycrystalline silicon) solar cell module, amorphous silicon (1) Roof support. Roof support can be made of angle iron
thin film solar cell module, and gallium arsenide cell module through welding, or custom-made components that can
according to the type of solar cell chip. According to the be used to fix the special steel stamped structure. Fig-
different encapsulation materials and processes, it can be ure 4.161 shows a schematic view of a support for a
divided into epoxy encapsulation panel and laminate slope and flat roof, and Fig. 4.162 shows a stereogram
encapsulation solar cell module. According to the different of a triangular component support made of angle iron.
uses, it can be divided into ordinary solar cell module and Figure 4.163 shows a schematic view of a structural
building material solar cell module, wherein the building method for fixing a cell module with a steel stamped
material solar cell module is further divided into a structural member for a roof, and Fig. 4.164 shows a
single-sided glass light-transmitting cell module, a photo of a solar cell module of a solar photovoltaic
double-sided adhesive-sediment glass cell module, and a power station on a roof in Shandong.
double-sided hollow glass cell module. The cell modules (2) Ground support. Ground photovoltaic square support is
made of crystalline silicon solar cell chips account for more generally a triangular support made of angle iron and its
than 85% of the market share. base is cement concrete foundation. Figure 4.165
The main materials for manufacturing the solar cell shows an example of fixed mounting applications of
module include panel glass, EVA glue film, back sheet two ground square arrays, and Fig. 4.166 shows a photo
material (toughened glass, organic glass, aluminum alloy, of the installation of solar modules of the Shigatse
TPT composite glue film), aluminum alloy frame (stainless ground solar photovoltaic power station.
steel and reinforced plastic are also used), connection box, (3) Ground support foundation. The support foundation of
connection line, and interconnection bar. Solar cell module photovoltaic module mainly includes independent
frame material mainly uses aluminum alloy, as well as foundation, strip foundation, prefabricated pile foun-
stainless steel and reinforced plastic. The frame of cell dation, bored cast-in-place pile foundation, and steel
module is to protect the laminated cell module, and to spiral pile foundation. The independent foundation is
facilitate installation of module. Whether the cell module is simple in form, wide in use, deep in bury, and large
separately installed or assembled into a battery array, it is in excavation amount and backfilling amount. The
fixed by the frame and support. In general, the proper parts of embedding depth of strip foundation may be relatively
the frame are perforated, and the corresponding parts of the shallow, but the excavation amount and backfilling
supports are also perforated, and then fixed and connected by amount are relatively large, and the concrete amount
bolts. The surface of aluminum alloy frame material shall be is relatively large. This type of foundation is mostly
anodized. The general types and corner aluminum appear- used in the flat single-axis photovoltaic support with
ance are shown in Fig. 4.160. There are two methods for poor bearing capacity and high requirement for
fixing the four corners of the frame of aluminum alloy frame. uneven settlement. The prefabricated pile foundation
One method is to insert the tooth angle aluminum into the can be manufactured in batch, the construction speed
four corners of the frame, and then hit and fix them with a is fast, the construction does not have the filling
special angle striker; the other method is to fix the four cor- excavation, and only the flat field is needed. However,
ners of the frame with stainless steel bolts. when the pile body is squeezed into the soil by static
The solar cell module support and basic solar cell module pressure or hammering equipment, the pile body is
include a roof support and a ground support. liable to break, so the top of the pile needs to be
Fig. 4.160 General types of aluminum alloy and corner aluminum appearance
452 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.161 Schematic diagram of roof support
reinforced with steel barnet, which increases the cost

and makes it not easy to guarantee the verticality. It is
mainly used for muddy soil, cohesive soil, filling soil,
collapsible loess, and so on. The bored cast-in-place
pile foundation is easy to form holes. The top ele-
vation of the foundation can be adjusted according to
the topography and is easy to control. The amount of
concrete reinforcement is small, the amount of exca-
vation is small, the construction is fast, and the
original vegetation is less damaged. However, it is
only suitable for general filling soil, cohesive soil, silt,
sediment for on-site hole forming, and pouring of
concrete.
Fig. 4.162 Stereogram of triangular component support
Fig. 4.163 Schematic diagram of fixed cell module of steel stamped Fig. 4.164 Solar photovoltaic power station on a roof in Shandong
structure
Example (1) Example (2)
Fig. 4.165 Example of application of fixed installation of two ground square arrays
subsystem, auxiliary energy subsystem, and turbine power

generation subsystem.
(1) Condenser heat collection subsystem. The condenser

heat collection subsystem includes a condenser, a
receiver, and a tracking device. The condenser is used to
collect sunlight and concentrate it on a limited size sur-
face to increase the solar irradiance per unit area, thereby
increasing the operating temperature of the heated
working medium. The concentrator is a key component
of a solar photothermal power generation system through
which incident sunlight is first emitted to a receiver. The
receiver is a component that converts solar radiant
Fig. 4.166 Shigatse ground solar photovoltaic power station energy into thermal energy by receiving focused sunlight
and transfers it to a working medium. The working
Steel spiral pile foundation is convenient in the hole medium is heated by the solar radiant energy to become
forming and the top surface elevation of the foundation can superheated steam which is sent to the steam turbine
be adjusted according to the topography. It is not affected by through a pipeline. The tracking device is arranged so
the groundwater, and the construction is as usual under the that the solar radiation of the whole day can be reflected
winter climate condition. It is quick in construction and by the emission of a mirror onto a stationary receiver.
flexible adjustment in elevation with little damage to the (2) Heat storage subsystem. Heat storage subsystem is an
original vegetation and no need for flat field. It is applicable indispensable part of solar photothermal power gener-
to desert, grassland, mudflat, gobi, frozen soil, and so on. ation system. Solar photothermal power generation
However, it is relatively large in steel consumption amount system must rely on stored solar energy to maintain
and relatively high in cost, and is not suitable for highly normal operation both in the morning and in the day-
corrosive foundations and rock foundations. time during periods of cloud cover.
(3) Auxiliary energy subsystem. The auxiliary energy
2. An overview of solar photothermal power station subsystem is to add conventional fuel boilers to the
system for start-up on rainy days and night to keep the
1) Composition of solar photothermal power generation plant running continuously.
plant (4) Turbine power generation subsystem. The turbine
power generation subsystem is a power generation unit
A typical solar photothermal power generation system con- for solar photothermal power generation system.
sists of condenser heat collection subsystem, heat storage
454 J. Zhang
Modern steam turbine, gas turbine, low boiling medium

steam turbine, and stirling engine can be selected.
2) Classification of solar photothermal power generation

system
Solar photothermal power generation system mainly

includes tower, trough, disk, solar pool, and solar thermal
airflow power generation systems. The tower solar thermal
power generation system is also called a concentrated solar
thermal power generation system, which utilizes a plurality
of planar mirror arrays to emit solar radiation to a solar
receiver placed at the top of the tower to heat the working
medium to generate superheated steam so that the turbine Fig. 4.167 Beijing Badaling solar photothermal power station
generator set is driven to generate electricity, thereby con-
verting solar energy into electric energy.
Trough solar thermal power generation system is the
abbreviation of trough parabolic reflector solar thermal
power generation system, also known as dispersed solar
thermal power generation system. It makes numerous trough
parabolic condensation heat collector in series and parallel
arrangement so as to collect the thermal energy of higher
temperature, heat the working medium, generate superheated
steam, and drive the steam turbine unit to generate
electricity.
The disk solar thermal power generation system is to
collect solar energy by use of a rotating parabolic mirror,
which is a concept proposed very early. In recent years, with
the rapid development of new power machines and other
Fig. 4.168 Phase I of Qinghai Delingha 50 MW Tower Solar
related technologies, the rotating parabolic mirror is com- Photothermal Power station
bined with a new type of power generator set to form a
modern disk solar thermal power generation device.
Solar pool thermal power generation system is to build project was commenced on December 26, 2015 and is
the natural saltwater lake into a solar pool, which is a huge expected to be completed and put into operation by the end of
flat solar collector to absorb solar energy. The working 2017.
medium is heated through a heat exchanger to generate
superheated steam to drive the steam generator. 4.5.4.3 Corrosion and Protective Measures
The solar thermal airflow power generation is to build a of Solar Power Station
high vertical chimney in the center of the huge ground At present, most of the solar power stations in China are
canopy-type solar air collector with the ground as the photovoltaic power generation. Therefore, this report only
heat-absorbing material. The bottom of the chimney has an discusses the corrosion and protection of photovoltaic power
exhaust inlet under the transparent cover plate of the near-air stations.
collector and installs a wind wheel above the plate. The In the solar photovoltaic power station, the aluminum
ground air collector produces hot air according to the tem- alloy frame and the support are exposed to the atmospheric
perature effect, enters the chimney from the exhaust inlet, environment, and the foundation of the ground support is
forms the hot airflow, and drives the wind wheel installed in exposed to the soil environment, so these components are
the chimney to drive the generator to generate electricity. easily corroded. The roots of the supports on the ground and
Beijing Badaling Solar Photothermal Power station on the concrete foundation are prone to corrosion
(Fig. 4.167) and Phase I 10 MW of Qinghai Delingha 50 MW (Fig. 4.169), which is caused by the high humidity of the
Tower Solar Photothermal Power station (Fig. 4.168) are ground and the concrete surface subjected to rain and the
tower solar photothermal power generation systems. Del- long soaking time of the metal. There is a potential differ-
ingha 50 MW Tower Solar Photothermal Power station ence between the parts buried under the ground and the
concrete and the externally exposed parts, thus increasing
Table 4.45 Minimum thickness of oxidation film

Corrosion Minimum Minimum local
grade thickness/lm thickness/lm
Weak 15 12
corrosion
Medium 20 16
corrosion
Strong medium 25 20
may be adopted. The minimum thickness of anodic oxi-

dation film shall conform to the provisions of Table 4.45.
According to the national standard Technical Specifica-

tions for Solar Power Station Support Foundation (GB
51101-2016) which is being prepared, the anti-corrosion
Fig. 4.169 Corrosion of support root
treatment of steel pile foundation in the soil environment
with corrosion grade of medium and below shall comply
the corrosion rate. In addition, the joint of the support and with the following provisions: the anti-corrosion treatment
the solar panel, and the part where the bolt hole is in direct of steel pile foundation can adopt such measures as coating
contact with different metals also likely occur corrosion. the outer surface with anti-corrosion layer, increasing cor-
The corrosion of the ground support foundation in the soil rosion allowance, and adopting special anti-corrosion
environment depends on the corrosiveness of soil. In the material. When the inner wall of steel pipe pile is isolated
west of China with abundant solar energy resources, the from the outside, anti-corrosion of the inner wall may not be
saline soil is widely distributed. In such an environment, the considered. The durability design of concrete foundation
support foundation will suffer serious corrosion damage. shall conform to the relevant provisions of the current
According to the Design Specifications for Photovoltaic national standard GB/T 50476 Code for Design of Durability
Power Station (GB 50797-2012), the photovoltaic support of Concrete Structures and the current industrial standard
shall be designed according to the actual materials selected JGJ 94 Technical Specifications for Building Pile Founda-
by the project, design structure scheme, and construction tion. Concrete foundations in corrosive environments shall
measures, so as to ensure that the support structure meets the be protected against corrosion in accordance with the rele-
requirements of strength, stability, and rigidity during vant provisions of the current national standard GB 50046
transportation, installation, and use, as well as meet the Code for Anti-corrosion Design of Industrial Buildings.
requirements of anti-seismic, anti-wind, and anti-corrosion.
The material of photovoltaic support should be steel, and the 4.5.4.4 Corrosion and Protection of Solar Power
selection of material and the design of support should con- Stations in China [68]
form to the current national standard GB50017 Code for A large photovoltaic power station in northwest China was
Design of Steel Structure. Corrosion protection of supports built in May 2010, with installed capacity of 5 MW. In
shall meet the following requirements: November 2011 and February 2012, the first field observation
and the second tracking observation were carried out on the
(1) The support structure shall be convenient for inspection photovoltaic array foundation of the power station, respec-
and cleaning; tively. Field observation and investigation show that white
(2) Hot-dip galvanizing shall be adopted for corrosion powdery substance and corrosion phenomenon of different
protection of steel supports, and the average thickness degrees appear in the part of the contact between the pile
of galvanized layer shall not be less than 55 lm; foundation and the ground of the photovoltaic power station,
(3) When the aluminum alloy material contacts and fastens and rust occurs in part of the grounded counterpoise. This is
with other metal materials other than stainless steel or due to the heavy salt alkalinity of the land in the area where
with acid or alkaline nonmetallic materials, isolation the power station is located and the corrosion of soluble salt in
measures should be taken; the soil to the piles. Field observation has shown that some of
(4) The aluminum alloy support shall be subjected to the cement foundations have appeared the phenomenon of
anti-corrosion treatment, and anodic oxidation measure salt deposit corrosion. In the second follow-up observation, it
456 J. Zhang
is found that both the screw pile (ground anchor) foundation 4.5.4.5 Technical Standards Related to Corrosion
and the cement concrete foundation have different degrees of of Solar Power Stations in China
salt deposition corrosion. Compared with the first observation At present, the technical standard’s corrosion related to solar
result, the corrosion of the salt–alkaline soil to the cement power generation in China include
concrete foundation is more prominent. Some of the cement
concrete foundations are cracked, and the screw pile (ground (1) Design Specifications for Photovoltaic Power Station
anchor) foundations are corroded relatively lightly (GB 50797-2012).
(Figs. 4.170 and 4.171). Therefore, the spiral pile (ground (2) Salt-spray Corrosion Test of Photovoltaic Module
anchor) foundations should be used as much as possible in (GB/T 18912-2002).
large photovoltaic power stations in salinas and saline soils in (3) Technical Specifications for Solar Power Station Sup-
the northwest of China on the premise that the cost permits. port Foundation (GB 51101-2016).
Fig. 4.170 First follow-up observation of corrosion of earth piles in 2011 a screw pile (ground anchor) foundation; b cement concrete foundation
Fig. 4.171 Second follow-up observation of corrosion of earth piles in 2012 a screw pile (ground anchor) foundation; b cement concrete
foundation
4.5.4.6 Summary The unique geographical conditions make the theoretical

reserves of hydropower resources in the mainland of China
reach 676 million kW, and the annual power generation is
(1) Solar photovoltaic power generation and photothermal 5.92 trillion kW h. The total amount of technically exploi-
power generation are currently the two main ways of table hydropower resources is 542 million kW, and the
solar power generation. annual power generation is 2.47 trillion kW h. The total
(2) The solar photovoltaic power generation system mainly amount of economically exploitable hydropower resources is
consists of a solar cell module (or square array), a 402 million kW, and the annual power generation is 1.75
storage battery (group), a photovoltaic controller, an trillion kW h, accounting for 74.2% and 70.8% of the
inverter (used when it is required to output alternating technically exploitable installed capacity and annual power
current), and some auxiliary facilities such as detecting, generation, respectively. Among them, the technically
monitoring, and protection. exploitable small hydropower resources are 128 million kW
(3) In photovoltaic power stations, aluminum alloy frames and the annual power generation is 0.58 trillion kW h,
and supports are exposed to the atmospheric environ- accounting for 23.6% of the total exploitable amount of
ment, and the foundations of the ground supports are hydropower resources in China. The economically exploi-
exposed to the soil environment, so they are prone to table small hydropower resources are 95 million kW, and the
corrosion. The parts where the support is joined to the annual power generation is 0.41 trillion kW h, accounting
solar panel, and where the bolt holes are in direct contact for 23.4% of the total economically exploitable amount of
with different metals, are also prone to corrosion. Cor- hydropower resources in China. The development capacity
rosion of the ground support foundation in the soil of Chinese hydropower resources is 2.3 times that of Russia,
environment depends on the corrosiveness of the soil. 2.5 times that of Brazil, 3 times that of the United States, and
(4) Technical Specifications for Solar Power Station Sup- 3.5 times that of Canada in the regions with relatively
port Foundation (GB 51101-2016) stipulates corrosion abundant water resources in the world.
protection of solar power station support foundations. In July 1905, Guishan Hydropower Station in Taiwan, the
first hydropower station in China, was completed with an
installed capacity of 500 kW. In 1912, the first hydropower
station in mainland China—Shilongba Hydropower Station
4.6 Report on Corrosion Investigation in Kunming, Yunnan Province, was completed and began to
in the Hydropower Industry generate electricity with a capacity of 480 kW. In 1949, the
total installed capacity of hydropower in the country was
4.6.1 Basic Situation 163,000 kW and reached 72.97 million kW by the end of
1999, second only to the United States and the second lar-
4.6.1.1 Development History, Status Quo, gest in the world. By 2005, the total installed capacity of
Prospect, and Significance hydropower in the country reached 115 million kW, ranking
of Hydropower Industry in China first in the world and accounting for 14.4% of the exploitable
hydropower capacity and 20% of the total installed capacity
of the national electric power industry. By August 2010,
1. Status quo of hydropower resources in China with No. 4 unit of Huaneng Xiaowan Hydropower Station
put into operation for power generation, the installed
The reserves of hydropower resources are the theoretical capacity of electric power in China reached 900 million kW,
average output of hydropower resources calculated from of which the installed capacity of hydropower exceeded 200
section to section for the average discharge and total fall of million kW. Therefore, the total installed capacity of
rivers. The amount of hydropower resources in a country is hydropower in China ranked first in the world. After more
related to its land area, river runoff, and topographic than 60 years’ efforts, as a whole, the installed capacity of
drop. China has the approximate size as Brazil, Russia, hydropower in the country reached 319 million kW in 2015,
Canada, and the United States. China’s annual runoff is less and the annual power generation was 1.11 trillion kW h,
than those countries, but its reserves of hydropower ranking first in the world in terms of installed capacity and
resources rank first in the world, which thanks largely to the power generation. By 2020, the total installed capacity of
large-fall staircase geographical characteristics between the hydropower in China will reach 420 million kW. That is, in
east and west of China. There is a large fall of over 4,000 m the next 5 or 6 years, the hydropower capacity will increase
from the “third pole of the world” Qinghai–Tibet Plateau to by 100 million kW. China has established a long-term
the coastal plain of only 50 m above sea level, which is cooperative relationship with more than 80 countries in
unique in the world. hydropower planning, construction, and investment, and has
458 J. Zhang
become an important force in promoting world hydropower south so that about 70% of the hydropower resources are
development. concentrated in the southwest region. About 70–80% of
China’s hydropower stations, such as Three Gorges, large-scale and super-large hydropower stations are dis-
Ertan, Xiaolangdi, Liujiaxia, Shuikou, Longjiaxia, Yantan, tributed in the four southwest provinces (Yunnan, Guizhou,
Lijiaxia, Geheyan, Tianshengqiao Grade I and Grade II, Sichuan, and Tibet), and the distribution of hydropower
Wuqiangxi, Wanjiazhai, Dachaoshan, Gezhouba, and Bais- resources is very nonuniform. At present, “West-to-East
han are famous hydropower stations of more than one mil- Power Transmission Project” has been listed in China’s
lion kW. The pumped-storage hydropower station is built important strategic planning for the development of the west.
late but at a high speed. Guangzhou, Tianhuangping, and The exploitable amount of the west accounts for 82% of the
Shisanling pumped-storage hydropower stations with large country’s total developable volume and the exploited amount
capacity and high water head have been built. The dam is less than 10%. The total fall of the main tributaries of the
elevation of the Three Gorges Hydropower Station is 185 m, Yangtze River is 5,800 m, and the hydropower reserves are
the water storage elevation is 175 m, the reservoir length is 268 million kW, accounting for 38.89% of the country. The
2,335 m, and the total investment is RMB 95.46 billion. In exploitable capacity is 197.24 million kW, and the annual
the Three Gorges Hydropower Station with an installed average power generation is 1.0275 trillion kW h, accounting
capacity of 22.5 million kW, its last hydroelectric generator for 40% of the national exploitable capacity. The hydropower
set was put into operation on July 4, 2012, which means that reserves in southwest China are 267 million kW, the
the Three Gorges has become the largest hydropower station exploitable capacity is 90 million kW, the annual average
and clean energy production base in the world. With the power generation is 506.7 billion kW h, accounting for
large-scale development of water conservancy and hydro- 18.26% of the whole country, and the development and uti-
power construction, the corresponding level of science and lization of hydropower resources is insufficient.
technology is rapidly raised, and talents are constantly
trained and grown, thus promoting the development of water 2. Prospect and significance of hydropower industry
conservancy and hydropower construction [69].
However, from the degree of hydropower development, Comrade Hu Jintao has solemnly promised to the interna-
the degree of hydropower development in China is far lower tional community that the proportion of nonfossil energy in
than that of western countries with mature hydropower China will reach 15% by 2020. According to the “12th
development. According to the statistics of Chinese National Five-Year Plan for Energy Development”, the proportion of
Committee on Large Dams, the average development degree nonfossil energy in primary energy in 2015 was set at 11.4%,
of hydropower in developed countries is over 60%, of which and hydropower would account for at least 9%. Therefore, by
about 82% has been developed in the United States, about 2020, hydropower will remain the most important source of
84% in Japan, about 65% in Canada, and about 73% in Ger- nonfossil fuels. According to the result of the first national
many, and above 80% in France, Norway, and Switzerland, water survey, there are 46,758 hydropower stations in China.
while about 27% in China. At present, the degree of devel- According to the renewable energy plan, it is still difficult to
opment and utilization of hydropower resources in China is achieve the goal of 420 million kW by 2020.
less than 30%, which is far behind that of western developed As the most important type of clean energy and renew-
countries. It can be seen that the utilization of hydropower able energy in the electric power industry, the hydropower
resources in China has huge space for development [70]. industry occupies an extremely important position and has
According to the census and statistics, there are 1,946 huge development space. Entering the twenty-first century,
stations with the installed capacity of more than 10 MW in a the advancement of electric power system reform has
single station in China, with an allowable installed capacity aroused the enthusiasm of the whole society to participate in
of 0.357 MW and an average annual power generation of hydropower development and construction, and hydropower
1.92 trillion kW h. There are 203 large-scale hydropower in China has entered a period of accelerating development.
stations with the installed capacity of more than 250 MW in a In 2004, the No. 1 unit of Gongboxia Hydropower Station
single station with the installed capacity and average annual was put into operation as a symbol. The installed capacity of
power generation accounting for about 80% of the total hydropower in China exceeded 100 million kW, surpassing
resources. There are 33 super-large hydropower stations with that of the United States and becoming the largest hydro-
the installed capacity of more than 2,000 MW in a single power country in the world [71]. A large number of giant
station with the installed capacity and average annual power hydropower stations, including Xiluodu, Xiangjiaba, Xiao-
generation accounting for about 50% of the total resources. wan, and Laxiwa, have been started construction. The Three
The proportion of large-scale and super-large hydropower Gorges Hydropower Station, the world’s largest hydropower
stations is very large. The terrain features of high west and engineering across the century, will also be fully completed.
low east in China, so the main rivers, often originate from the In 2010, with Xiaowan Unit 4 put into operation as a sign,
southwest plateau. In addition, the rainfall is abundant in the China’s hydropower’s installed capacity has exceeded 200
million kW. At present, China is not only the world’s largest defense. Thus, there are more and more uncertainties and
hydropower installation country but also the largest and more and more risks.
fastest growing country in the world. China has gradually Although China has rich coal resources, there are a few
become the center of world hydropower innovation. industrial reserves that can build the mine and the geological
In accordance with the current standard coal consumption exploration degree is very low in the proved recoverable
of 3,709/(kW h) for power generation, the annual power deposits. According to the forecast of China Coal Industry
generation of the exploitable hydropower resources in China Development Research and Consulting Center, the supply
is calculated and the electric energy is accumulated in gap will expand to 620–780 million tons by 2020 according
100 years. The amount of resource is 64.75 billion tons of to the supply–demand relationship of coal. According to the
standard coal, accounting for 42.4% of the total conventional report issued by China University of Geosciences, the raw
energy resources, close to the coal resource reserves. If these coal gap will be increased to 1 billion tons and the petroleum
water resources are fully developed in time, they can replace gap will be increased to 250–330 million tons by 2020.
more than 600 million tons of standard coal every year. Therefore, excessive use of fossil energy not only seriously
According to the principles of socioeconomic efficiency and affects the atmospheric environment of China but also leads
sustainable development, hydropower is usually listed as a to further dependence on imports due to the shortage of
priority energy project in national energy development energy resources in China, which greatly affects the energy
planning. Therefore, hydropower should be more exploited security and social economic security of China. In compar-
both for environmental and economic benefits. ison, the annual power generation of the technically
Priority development of water resources is in line with exploitable hydropower in China is 2.47 trillion kW h which
China’s energy situation. With the implementation of the can be converted into 1.24 billion tons of raw coal or 620
national policy of “energy conservation and emission reduc- million tons of crude oil. Early development makes early
tion,” energy alternative emission reduction has become Chi- benefit, and late development is equivalent to a loss of 1.24
na’s practical choice and hydropower has become the first billion tons of raw coal or 620 million tons of crude oil per
choice of renewable energy. At present, hydropower enterprises year.
with cost advantage will enter the fast lane of rapid develop- In view of the fact that China’s renewable energy reserves
ment. Therefore, the domestic outstanding hydropower enter- and development conditions are limited, the rapid growth of
prises pay more and more attention to the research on industrial economic growth on electricity demand, and the rapid
market, especially to the industry development environment increase of dependence on energy imports, it is bound to
and industry buyers. Just because of this, a large number of raise the development of hydropower to the national energy
domestic outstanding hydropower enterprises rapidly rise, and security strategy. At the same time, people should pay more
gradually top in China’s hydropower industry. The future attention to ecological environment problems and actively
prospects for hydropower industry are unlimitedly bright! develop hydropower so as to enhance national energy
At the same time, hydropower development is of great security and provide powerful support for building a well-off
significance to energy development in China. According to society in an all-round way.
the forecast, China’s energy demand will continue to
maintain rapid growth in the next 15–20 years. According to 4.6.1.2 Type, Structure, Form of Hydroelectric
the analysis and forecast of the Development Research Power Equipment, and Main Buildings
Center of the State Council, China’s GDP will exceed $5
trillion dollars and the power demand will reach 4.6 trillion 1. Layout form of hydropower station
kW h (the corresponding installed capacity exceeds 1 billion
kW) by 2020. Energy shortage is a challenge for China at In order to make full use of the water resources of the river,
present and for a long time to come. China’s per capita share the upper and lower reaches of the hydropower station must
of energy resources is only half of the world average level. first form a certain fall and constitute the water head of
According to the current development efforts, the recover- power generation. Therefore, according to the different ways
able reserves of petroleum, gas, and coal in China can only of concentrating water head, the hydropower station of
be maintained for 20 years, 50 years, and 100 years. Import developed river hydroenergy can be divided into three basic
doesn’t solve the problem, either. At present, China’s pet- modes: dam-type, diversion-type, and mixed-type.
roleum’s dependence on foreign countries has reached more
than 50% and natural gas supply and demand gap has 1) Dam-type hydropower station
reached 24% of the demand. Moreover, the import of pet-
roleum and natural gas is not a simple issue of international The dam constructed at the river valley and the water in front
trade but related to foreign affairs, politics, and national of the dam form a concentrated fall at the dam site, which is
the dam-type development. In the dam site, the water flow in
460 J. Zhang
the upstream reservoir is drawn, and the tailwater is led to population. It is suitable to be built on the river with gentle
the downstream original channel after power generation slope drop and large discharge, and has the condition of dam
through the water turbine in the powerhouse of the hydro- and reservoir construction.
power station, and the water level difference between the
upstream and the downstream is the head obtained by the (2) Form of dam-type hydropower station
hydropower station. A hydropower station using a dam for
concentrating head is called a dam-type hydropower station. a. Riverbed-form power station
(1) Characteristics of dam-type hydropower station [72] Generally, it is built on the river section with gentle longi-
tudinal slope in the middle and lower reaches of the river. In
The head of a dam-type hydropower station depends on dam order to avoid a large number of submergence, low dams or
height. At present, the maximum head of a dam-type gates are built, as shown in Fig. 4.172. Applicable water
hydropower station does not exceed 300 m. The dam-type head for large and medium size is less than 25 m and for
hydropower station has a large referral flow and a large small size, it is less than 8–10 m.
scale, so the hydroenergy can be fully utilized (due to the The plant and the retaining dam are built in the riverbed
dam, the reservoir formed upstream can be used to regulate side by side to block the water together, so the plant also has
the flow). At present, most of the giant hydropower stations the problem of anti-sliding stability. The height of the plant
with installed capacity of more than 2,000 MW in the world depends on the water head. It is characterized by large referral
are dam-type hydropower stations. flow and low head. The buildings mainly include retaining
In addition, the comprehensive utilization benefit of a dam, discharge dam, plant, ship lock, fish channel, and so on.
dam-type hydropower station reservoir is high, which can
meet the requirements of flood control, power generation, b. Dam-behind hydropower station
and water supply at the same time. However, the dam-type
hydropower station is large in investment, long in con- When the water head is large, the plant itself can’t resist the
struction period, large in scale and wide submergence scope thrust of the water, so the plant is moved behind the dam to
caused by the reservoir, and large in the migration block the water, as shown in Fig. 4.173. The dam-behind
Fig. 4.172 Riverbed-form hydropower station

Fig. 4.173 Dam-behind hydropower station
hydropower station is usually built in the middle and upper comprehensive utilization value is poor. The storage
reaches of the river. With large storage capacity and good capacity of the power station is very small, there is basically
regulation performance, the Three Gorges Hydropower Station no reservoir submergence loss, the engineering quantity is
is a dam-behind hydropower station. In the case of earth dams, small, and the unit cost is relatively low. Its types can be
river bank-type power stations may be constructed. divided into pressure-free water diversion-type and pressure
water diversion-type. It is suitable for mountain river reach
2) Diversion-type hydropower station with steep slope drop and small discharge.
A low dam (or no dam) is built on the section with steep (1) Pressure-free diversion power station
river slope to draw water, and water is diverted to the
downstream of the section through the artificially built The diversion structure is pressure-free, such as open-channel
channel (channel, tunnel, and pipeline) to concentrate the and pressure-free tunnel. The main structures include low
drop. And then water is diverted to the turbine through the dam, water inlet, sedimentation tank, diversion channel
pressure pipeline for power generation. A power station (tunnel), regulating tank, pressure front tank, pressure water
using a water diversion channel to concentrate water head is pipeline, plant, and tailrace, as shown in Fig. 4.174.
called a diversion-type hydropower station.
It is characterized by relatively high water head, and the (2) Pressure diversion power station
current maximum water head has reached more than
2,000 m. The referral flow is small, there is no reservoir The diversion structure is pressurized, such as pressure
regulating runoff, the water utilization rate is low, and the tunnel, low dam of main structure, diversion tunnel (with
462 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.174 Layout of pressure-free diversion-type hydropower station
pressure), surge chamber, pressure water pipeline, plant, and reservoir suddenly becomes steep or the river has a large
tailrace, see Fig. 4.175. turn. It has the advantages of dam-type and diversion-type
hydropower station.
3) Mixed-type hydropower station
2. Main buildings of the hydropower station
In a river section, the use of high dam and pressure head race
to concentrate drop is called mixed-type development. After Typical hinge structures of a hydropower station mainly
a part of the drop of the dam is concentrated, another part of include water-retaining structure, water discharge structure,
the drop in the reach after the dam is concentrated through water inlet structure, water diversion and tailwater structure,
the pressure head race, thus forming the total head of the horizontal water structure, and plants. The auxiliary build-
power station. Hydropower station in this type of develop- ings of a hydropower station mainly include the buildings
ment is referred to as a mixed-type hydropower station, as for passing through ship, wood, fish, and for sediment
shown in Fig. 4.176. blocking and sediment flushing.
It is suitable for the upstream dam site and reservoir Water-retaining structures refer to hydraulic structures
construction while the river course immediately below the such as dam, sluice gate, or plant of riverbed-type
Fig. 4.175 Layout of pressure diversion-type hydropower station
hydropower station used to cut off water flow, concentrate 3) Water diversion structures
drop, and form a reservoir, including concrete gravity dam,
arch dam, earth-rock dam, rock-fill dam, and regulating dam. Open channels and their canal system buildings, pressure
tunnels, and pressure pipelines that deliver power generation
1) Drainage structures flow to the hydropower station.
Buildings used to drain floods or empty reservoirs, such as 4) Horizontal structures

open river bank spillway, spillway dam, spillway tunnel, and
drainage bottom hole. Structures used to stabilize the change of the flow and
pressure in the diversion structures to ensure the stable
2) Water inlet structures regulation of the hydropower station when the load of the
hydropower station changes. The pressure diversion hydro-
The head buildings of a channel that introduce power gen- power station is a surge shaft or a pressure regulating tower,
eration flow from a river or reservoir according to power and the pressure-free diversion hydropower station is the
generation requirements, such as pressure and nonpressure pressure forebay at the end of the channel.
water inlets.
464 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.176 Layout of mixed-type hydropower station
5) Plant power equipment refers to a water turbine generator system

composed of a water turbine and a water turbine generator,
The plant structures of a hydropower station mainly refer to as well as an auxiliary speed controller, an oil pressure
the main powerhouse, the auxiliary powerhouse, the trans- device, and an excitation device. The electrical equipment of
former yard, the high-voltage switch station, the traffic road the power station includes generator voltage distribution
and the tailwater structure of the hydropower station. These equipment, boosting transformer, high-voltage distribution
buildings are generally centrally located in the same local equipment and monitoring, control, measurement, signal and
area to form a plant area. The plant area is the center of protective electrical equipment in addition to the water tur-
power generation, transformation, distribution, and power bine generator, and its auxiliary equipment.
transmission, and is the center of electric energy production.
1) Water turbine
3. Main power equipment of hydropower station
Water turbine is a kind of power equipment which converts
The equipment of the hydropower station is mainly the water energy into mechanical energy. Its output mainly
electromechanical equipment that converts water energy into depends on the head and flow of hydropower station. In
electric energy, which is called power equipment of hydro- order to meet the needs of hydropower stations in different
power station. In a conventional hydropower station, the situations, different types of water turbines have been created
in long-term practice. According to the different ways of

changing the flow energy of the runner, the turbines are
divided into reaction turbines and impulse turbines. The
reaction turbines include mixed-flow turbine, axial-flow
turbine, oblique-flow turbine, and trough-flow turbine.
Impulse turbines are divided into bucket-type and oblique
strike-type turbines. Table 4.46 shows the classification,
type, and application of water turbines.
When passing through the flow passage of the rotor
blade, the water flow in the runner region of the reaction
turbine always continuously fills the pressure flow of the
entire wheel, and continuously change the magnitude and
direction of the flow velocity under the constraint of the
space curved surface-shaped blades of the runner so as to Fig. 4.177 Mixed-flow turbine, 1. principal axis; 2. blades; 3. guide
generate a reaction force to the blades of the wheel and drive blade
the wheel to rotate. As the water flows through the turbine,
most of its kinetic and potential energy is converted into
rotational mechanical energy of the runner. Figures 4.177,
4.178, 4.179, and 4.180 show diagrams of various reaction
turbines.
The runner of the impulse turbine is always in the
atmosphere and the high-pressure water flow from the pen-
stock has been converted into high-speed free jet which
impinges on part of the blades of the runner before entering
the turbine. Under the constraint of the blades, the speed and
direction of the flow change sharply so that most of its
kinetic energy is transferred to the blades, driving the wheel
to rotate. During the whole process of the jet impinging on
the blades, the pressure in the jet is basically constant, which
Fig. 4.178 Axial-flow turbine 1. guide blade; 2. runner; 3. principal

axis
Table 4.46 Classification and application of water turbines

Type name Application situation
Reaction Mixed-flow Universal application, stable performance, high effect (up to 94%), applicable water head range from more
turbine turbine than 10 m to 600–700 m, single-unit capacity ranges from several thousand watts to several hundred
thousand kilowatts, and can be suitable for large- and medium-sized hydropower stations
Axial-flow Axial-flow propeller turbine: suitable for low head, large discharge, large- and medium-sized hydropower
turbine stations, large unit capacity, up to more than 200,000 kW, stable performance, wide high-efficiency area;
axial-flow fixed-blade turbine: suitable for low head, large flow, small- and medium-sized hydropower
stations, the single-unit capacity is from several thousand watts to several hundred kilowatts, the operation
stability is poor, the efficiency is low at low load operation
Oblique-flow The oblique-flow turbine is a new type with wide water head, up to 200 m, stable performance, wide
turbine high-efficiency area, and also suitable for pumped-storage power station
Trough-flow High water passing capacity, low hydraulic loss, high efficiency, compact structure, applicable head of more
turbine than 20 m, single-unit capacity from tens of millions of watt to tens of thousands of kilowatts, suitable for
low-head hydropower station and tidal power station
Impulse Bucket type Suitable for high-head (up to 1,760 m) power station, single-unit capacity from more than 10 kW to more
turbines than 200,000 kW, stable performance, lower efficiency than reaction turbine, but simple junction structure
Oblique strike The water head is suitable for 20–300 m, the runner structure is simpler than the bucket type, easy to
type manufacture, and the water passing capacity is larger than the bucket type
466 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.181 Bracket turbine
Fig. 4.179 Oblique-flow turbine 1. volute; 2. water guide blade; 3.

blades; 4. draft pipe
Fig. 4.182 Oblique runner
to the position of thrust axis. A vertical hydro-generator

is generally composed of rotor, stator, bearing, frame,
exciter, permanent magnet machine, brake room, and air
cooler.
Fig. 4.180 Trough-flow turbine 1. runner; 2. principal axis; 3. draft
pipe; 4. gearbox; 5. generator
4.6.1.3 A Summary of the Main Materials Used
in Hydropower Equipment and Major
is approximately atmospheric pressure. Figures 4.181 and Structures
4.182 show diagrams of impulse turbines.
2) Hydro-generator 1. Anti-corrosion materials and methods for major

structures of hydropower station
Hydro-generator is one of the main equipment of hydro-
power station. It converts the mechanical energy of water The structures of hydropower station can be divided into
turbine (input) into electrical energy. When the water turbine earth-rock dam, concrete dam, rubber dam, and steel gate
and generator operate together, they are combined into a dam according to different dam materials. In ancient times,
hydro-generator system. they were filled with earth and stone while they are made of
Hydro-generators can be divided into horizontal and reinforced concrete in modern times. Hydraulic concrete is
vertical ones according to shaft type. Horizontal hydro- the concrete used in hydraulic structure which is often or
generators are commonly used in small- and medium-sized periodically subjected to environmental water. It should not
hydropower stations and tubular units. Vertical hydro- only meet the strength requirements but also meet the
generators are mostly used in large- and medium-sized requirements of frost resistance, seepage resistance, crack
hydropower stations. The vertical hydro-generator can be resistance, abrasion resistance, and abrasion resistance
divided into suspension type and umbrella type according according to the location and conditions of the concrete.
Therefore, concrete, reinforced concrete, and steel are the aggregate are the main factors affecting the abrasion resis-
main materials of structures in hydropower engineering. tance of concrete.
The structures of hydropower station mainly include Based on the development and application of hydraulic
water-retaining structures, such as dams and sluices which anti-abrasion materials at home and abroad, it can be found
are needed to form reservoirs; drainage structures that dis- that the material properties are not only greatly improved in
charge excess water, such as spillways, overflow dams, and strength but also improved in crack resistance, toughness,
drainage opening; a water inlet for drawing water for elec- and homogeneity. In order to solve or slow down the
tricity generation; water diversion structures of the hydro- problems of abrasion resistance and cavitation damage of
power station from the water inlet to the water turbine; water discharge and energy dissipation structures, the fol-
horizontal water structures (surge chamber, forebay) and lowing two aspects are mainly considered at present.
plants, tailwater channels, boosting switch stations for sta-
bilizing flow, and pressure variation of water diversion 1) Continue to study the application technology of
structures. The water discharge structures in these structures high-strength and high-performance concrete
suffer the most serious abrasion and damage. Therefore, the
selection of materials should be beneficial to the reduction of With the development of high-performance concrete tech-
environmental abrasion, erosion, and cavitation on the sur- nology, researchers introduce the design idea of modern
face of buildings by high-speed water flow and sediment, as high-performance concrete to develop the research work of
well as the effect of wear and vibration on the structure. new abrasion-resistant concrete. In addition, researchers
In recent years, in order to meet the needs of compre- make use of active admixtures such as grade I, II fly ash,
hensive utilization of water resources and rapid development ganister sediment fiber to produce impact-resistant and
of national economy on demand for water resources and wear-resistant concrete with good workability, high density,
power supply, the construction of high dams has ushered high strength, small shrinkage, strong crack resistance, and
unprecedented opportunities and challenges. Along with the excellent abrasion resistance. The development of abrasion
implementation of the Great Western Development Strategy resistance concrete technology mainly focuses on the fol-
and West-to-East Power Transmission Project, China has lowing three aspects. First, superplasticizer is used to reduce
built a number of large-scale high-head power stations, such the water–cement ratio and improve the strength of concrete.
as Xiaowan, Longtan, Laxiwa, Goupitan, Xiluodu, Second, mineral admixture powder, polymer, or fiber is added
Xiangjiaba, Jinping, Baihetan, and Nuozhadu. Great to improve the performance of the glue to improve the
achievements have been made in high dam construction strength, toughness and anti-abrasion performance of con-
technology in China. With the increase of the height and crete. Third, the anti-abrasion performance of aggregate is
quantity of high dam construction, the safety and durability improved so as to enhance the anti-abrasion capability of
of high dam at the overflow surface, spillway, stilling pool, concrete. At present, the commonly used wear-resistant
and apron become the key points to be considered in engi- materials and technologies mainly have the following aspects.
neering design, construction, and operation stage. The dis-
charge flow velocity of the discharge structures is up to 40– (1) Ganister sediment concrete. Ganister sediment concrete
50 m/s, and higher requirements are put forward against has high compressive strength, good abrasion resis-
crack resistance, abrasion resistance, and quick workability tance, anti-seepage, and low heat properties, so as to
(especially for protection and repair materials). resist the impact of high-speed sediment-containing
The damage forms of high-speed water flow to the dis- flood and is widely used in engineering. However,
charge structure are abrasion, cavitation, and hydraulic ganister sediment series abrasion-resistant concrete has
abrasion. Both erosion and cavitation erosion occur on the the problems that the early strength develops too fast,
concrete surface at the drainage site, and the abrasion the strength increases slightly in the middle and late
damage often induces the cavitation erosion. Under the period, the hydration heat is intensively released, the
impact of suspended load and bed load sediment, the part of dry shrinkage and the self-drying shrinkage are large,
concrete with poor impact and wear resistance will be and the crack easily occurs. In addition, ganister sedi-
ground off first, and the part with strong abrasion and wear ment concrete has difficulty in construction and is easy
resistance will be exposed and subjected to more abrasion. to produce problems such as honeycomb hemp surface,
Improving the impact resistance and wear resistance of each poor surface flatness, and serious cracks.
component in the concrete and the proportion and improving (2) Polypropylene fiber concrete. Compared with ordinary
the interface bonding condition between the components are concrete, polypropylene fiber concrete decreases in the
beneficial to the improvement of the impact resistance and brittleness index and elastic modulus but increases in
wear resistance of the concrete. The varieties of cement and the ultimate tensile deformation. These characteristics
468 J. Zhang
are beneficial to improving the ductility of concrete, (5) New anti-abrasion concrete with multicomponent jel-
improving the deformation performance of concrete, ling powder. The multicomponent jelling powder
effectively restricting the expansion of concrete cracks, material can be obtained by mixing fine admixtures
and improving the bearing capacity of concrete after with different particle distributions and activities into
cracking. Polypropylene fiber concrete can resist acid, cement. The core idea of the multicomponent jelling
alkali, and salt corrosion. It is characterized by small powder material is the close packing effect and the
specific gravity and low cost. It can effectively restrain compound jelling effect. The particle gradation of
the plastic crack of concrete, improve the performance cement clinker powder is adjusted by adding the pow-
of abrasion resistance, impermeability resistance and der with specific particle distribution, so that the mixed
frost resistance of concrete, and is widely used in powder has a close packing structure. Optimizing the
engineering. However, polypropylene fiber concrete is active components, content, and fineness of the multi-
difficult to mix evenly, easy to agglomerate, and has component jelling powder and regulating the process
little effect on improving dry shrinkage cracks and matching, hydration exothermic process, and strength
temperature cracks of concrete. development process of each component of the multi-
(3) Iron–steel-sediment concrete. In recent years, because of component jelling powder can achieve customized
its excellent physical and mechanical properties and high design of multicomponent jelling powder according to
resistance to abrasion and impact, the application of iron– needs. High-performance and high-impact-abrasion
steel-sediment concrete in engineering is increasingly concrete is prepared to overcome the weakness of
expanding. For iron–steel sediment as aggregate, its early strength development of ganister sediment series
hardness is far higher than that of ordinary natural sedi- impact-resistant concrete, concentrated release of
ment stone. Iron–steel-sediment concrete has high tensile hydration heat and large dry shrinkage, and make full
and compressive strength, small dry shrinkage rate, and use of strength increase in middle and later period.
high impact strength, and its abrasion resistance is (6) Steel plate lining technology. Steel plate lining is to make
strengthened with the increase of strength. Iron–steel- full use of the tensile, compressive, bending, and shear
sediment concrete also overcomes the disadvantages of mechanical properties of steel to install it on the surface of
low early strength of general anti-abrasion concrete and the building. The engineering application proves that the
avoids cracks caused by cold wave or dry shrinkage. steel material plays a prominent role in the building
However, the disadvantages of iron–steel-sediment con- which is mainly resistant to bed load abrasion. However,
crete are large water consumption, high cement the price of steel is relatively high and construction
consumption, poor workability, obvious bleeding phe- quality requirements are also strict. Thus, it is generally
nomenon, and poor construction performance. used in the main parts of the project and parts difficult to
(4) High-strength wear-resistant fly ash (HF) concrete. HF repair or easily destroyed. Parts of the work steel plates
concrete is a new type of protective material which can are damaged, torn, and washed away, which usually
meet the requirements of preventing mainly, taking into occurs at the welding place or the part where grout is not
account the excellent wear and cavitation erosion resis- dense. Therefore, during construction, good quality
tant, and meeting the requirements of high-speed water should be ensured, welding joint must be firm and must
flow pulsating pressure and dynamic water pressure and be connected with other components as a whole. The use
maintaining its own stability. The strength difference of steel plate wear-resistant material requires more
between HF concrete and aggregate is reduced due to the anchorage bar steel and other fixed steel. Besides, the
improvement of the binding force between them. The cavity between steel plate and base concrete must be
concrete forms a relatively homogeneous material body, filled with backfilling grouting, and the construction
and stress concentration failure is not easy to occur. Due technology is relatively difficult. An accident in which
to the improvement of strength and corrosion resistance the steel plate is rolled up and washed away took place in
of HF concrete, under the action of cavitation abrasion the wear-resistant steel plate of Yingxiuwan Hydropower
and abrasion, the entire surface is substantially uniformly station, so it is quite difficult to repair.
worn to form a relatively smooth surface, and the cement
material and mortar will not be worn off. Unevenness 2) Impact and abrasion-resistant technology of new type of
caused by cavitation damage caused by exposure of organic polymer composite material
aggregate occurs again. Therefore, HF concrete has good
impact and abrasion resistance, wear resistance, and The high-strength and high-toughness characteristics of
cavitation abrasion resistance, but HF concrete also has special polymer materials are used to solve the impact and
problems such as poor workability. wear of high-speed sediment-containing flow.
Most of the researches in this field are aimed at the the modified epoxy impact and wear-resistant mortar and
modification of epoxy resin in order to improve the brittle- protective coating still contain more volatile solvent com-
ness, the fracture toughness, and wear resistance of epoxy ponent, and the workability in wet and water environment is
resin. Furan concrete, epoxy concrete, high-fiber concrete, not significantly improved, the flexibility is still insufficient,
high-strength concrete, polymer mortar, and other materials and it is easy to empty, crack, and peel off. Before applying
have also appeared in the research and engineering appli- steel plate to protect concrete, the combination of steel plate
cation of using special concrete as anti-abrasion and and concrete should be solved. In addition, only partial line
anti-cavitation repair material or surface material in China. protection can be performed because of the high price. It is
However, there are also many problems with these materials. sensitive to vibration so it is not suitable for high cavitation
For example, in the aspect of resin concrete, furan concrete erosion area. Fracture due to fatigue is the weakness of steel
and epoxy concrete are high in cost and inconvenient in plate protection material. In addition, although the
construction, so they are generally used only for filling pits high-strength concrete and the steel fiber concrete are lower
and repairing. However, research and practice in large-area in cost than the resin concrete and the construction is more
surface protection materials are insufficient. In addition, convenient, the construction quality is difficult to control due
cracking, warping, and peeling easily occur under the action to the large consumption of cement and can’t reach the
of environmental climate and changing load because the expected effect. The abrasion resistance and cavitation ero-
antiaging ability of the epoxy resin is very poor and the sion resistance are not ideal.
linear expansion coefficient of the epoxy resin is relatively Therefore, in order to deal with the damage of structures
large. Besides, the construction is inconvenient and there is a caused by high dam discharge and overflow, the traditional
certain amount of contaminating volatiles. Therefore, the anti-abrasion and wear-resistant materials and technologies
applicability of the project is poor and can’t be used in a of hydraulic concrete have their own application limitations
large number of projects. In addition, its use effects in dif- and need further research and development and emergence
ferent projects are not the same and have a great relationship of new materials and new technologies.
with construction technology and construction conditions.
In the 1990s, the United States took the lead in the 2. Anti-corrosion materials and methods for hydro-
development of spraying polyurea elastomer technology. power equipment
This new material has excellent abrasion resistance, aging
resistance, corrosion resistance, and unique construction Water turbine and water turbine generator are basic
performance. Polyurea is a kind of elastomer material with equipment for hydropower generation. In order to ensure
high strength and high toughness. It adopts new organic safe and economic operation, corresponding mechanical
polymer composite material anti-abrasion technology and and electrical equipment, such as water turbine governor,
takes advantage of the characteristics of high strength and oil pressure device, excitation equipment, low-voltage
high toughness of special polymer material to solve the switch, automatic operation, and protection system, are
impact and wear of high-speed sediment-containing flow. also provided in the plant. The boosting transformer,
Polyurea has excellent impact resistance, abrasion resistance, high-voltage distribution switch device and monitoring,
and abrasion resistance of high-speed sediment-containing control, measurement, signal and protective electrical
water flow, and can effectively prevent abrasion and wear of equipment are mainly set in the boosting switch station of
high-speed sediment-containing water flow from damaging the hydropower station. Most rivers in China contain a
hydraulic concrete. In addition, the superelasticity of polyurea large amount of sediment, so the hydraulic machinery
gives the material excellent anti-cracking performance so that components such as turbine blades of hydropower station
it has good inhibiting effect on cracks and crack propagation are seriously corroded and severely damaged, which is also
of concrete dam surface. In recent years, this technology has the main form of failure of hydraulic machinery such as
been extended to the field of wear resistance and water turbine. Therefore, the design and selection of
anti-corrosion of hydraulic structures. With the deepening of abrasion-resistant materials and material protection tech-
research, it will have a broad application prospect in water nologies is one of the important research contents of
conservancy and hydropower engineering. hydropower development in China [73].
The impact and wear resistance of the above concrete is
significantly improved compared with ordinary concrete. 1) Development history and prospect of anti-abrasion
However, in the course of engineering application, due to the materials
limitation of selecting raw materials, composition formula,
and technical route, it is variety of weaknesses that are Early turbine parts are often made of bronze and cast iron.
exposed in the construction and application. For example, Although they are cheap, their erosion and cavitation
470 J. Zhang
resistance is poor. Since the 1950s, they have been gradually (1) Nickel-based alloy has good abrasion resistance and
replaced by carbon steel and alloy steel. Copper and its alloys cavitation erosion resistance. The composition and
have low hardness and lower abrasion resistance than carbon proportion of the existing nickel-based alloy are further
steel. The abrasion resistance of ordinary cast iron is very improved to make the hardness of the coating as high as
poor. Only the small turbine till use it to replace the spare HRC70 or higher, so that the ballast-based coating
parts at any time after wear in consideration of its low price. material has high anti-abrasion performance. Copper-
Integral casting of carbon steel is used in water turbine based alloy is cheap and has excellent plasticity and
components. In the 1950s, China mainly adopted No. 25 and toughness. By adjusting its composition and structure, it
No. 30 cast steel, and then gradually changed to 20SiMn is possible to form a material with excellent cavitation
steel. The anti-abrasion and anti-cavitation performance of resistance.
carbon steel is low, so it is not suitable to be directly used as (2) Superelasticity alloy. Because of its pseudo-elasticity, it
anti-abrasion and anti-cavitation material. However, it has can absorb more impact kinetic energy when subjected
good workability, weldability, and mechanical properties to particle impact or micro-jet, so it may be used in
and low price. What’s more, erosive cavitation wear is anti-abrasion and anti-cavitation materials.
performed only in the surface layer of the material. Thus, the (3) Composite material. As long as the materials with dif-
surface coating protection treatment can be performed by ferent kinds and different properties are combined
using ordinary carbon steel or low-alloy steel as a base together properly, the composite materials with excel-
material. lent properties can be formed. If the copper-based alloy
In recent year, alloy steel has been widely used in water or nickel-based alloy with excellent cavitation resis-
turbine components, particularly in the manufacture of large tance is selected as the matrix and ceramic particles are
and giant turbine flow components. The steel grades such as added to resist the abrasion of slurry, the composite can
Cr5Cu, Cr8CuMo, 0Cr13Ni4CuMo, 0Cr13Ni6Mo, and resist the combined destruction of slurry erosion and
0Cr13Ni4-6Mo have been developed by researchers in cavitation erosion.
China [74]. It has been proved by practice that a new type of
steel with good laboratory performance must be solved in 3) Anti-abrasion protection technology and development
smelting, casting, heat treatment, and machining in order to direction
be popularized in power station production. At present,
0Cr13Ni4-6Mo martensitic stainless steel has good Because of the high price, the integral material with excel-
anti-abrasion performance, and its manufacturing and pro- lent abrasion and cavitation resistance is limited in practical
cessing problems have been well solved and have been application. Erosion and cavitation damage of hydraulic
widely used in large- and medium-sized hydropower stations machinery flow parts only occur on the surface. Therefore,
in China. This material is used almost entirely in many low-cost carbon structural steel or low-alloy structural steel
power stations in China. The abrasion resistance of the is used as the base metal for coating treatment. In the way,
0Cr13Ni4-6Mo martensitic stainless steel is already good. valuable materials are saved, and the part where the erosion
However, it is not specifically designed for abrasion resis- and cavitation are serious is properly protected, so that the
tance. Thus, when used as a material for a water turbine flow surface coating treatment is an economical and effective
component, it is necessary to carry out overhaul regularly measure.
(usually 1–3 years). Anti-abrasion and anti-cavitation per-
formance is not ideal, so it is an urgent problem to design (1) Coating method. In China, epoxy resin and its com-
and develop new anti-abrasion materials. pounds were applied to the anti-abrasion protection of
hydraulic turbines as early as the 1960s and 1970s. In
2) Prospects for abrasion-resistant materials the 1980s, nonmetallic coatings such as composite
nylon coating, polyurethane coating, rubber coating,
As for the abrasion-resistant materials, the abrasion resis- and ceramic coating were developed. Epoxy and poly-
tance of the slurry should be considered first to ensure a urethane series were developed overseas. It has been
sufficient number of hard strengthening phases whose proved by practice that the bonding strength between
hardness can be counteracted with the sediment in the nonmetallic coating and metal substrate is not high, and
material. Second, the cavitation resistance should be con- the problem of exfoliation has not been solved com-
sidered. Based on the good cavitation resistance, the abra- pletely, so it is difficult to achieve the expected
sion resistance of the material should be improved. anti-abrasion effect.
(2) Surfacing method. The surfacing method equipment is the anti-abrasion protective measures adopted at home and
simple and the hydropower station overhaul workshop abroad in the hydraulic machinery flow components mainly
has this equipment. This technology is mature and is have the following aspects.
still the most common wear-resistant repair method at
present. The surfacing method can form metallurgical (1) Hypersonic WC spraying coating. Hypersonic WC
bonding between the welding layer and the substrate, spraying coating adopts wolfram carbide (WC) particles
and the bonding strength is high, but the punching rate whose velocity is as high as 2,300 m/s, to impact the
is large. The thickness of the welding layer is not uni- surface of the hydraulic machine and embed into the
form, the machining allowance is large, and the weld- matrix. The bonding strength of the base layer and the
ability of the workpiece is high. Before cavitation matrix exceed 60 MPa, so that the coating is denser,
damage occurs on the surface of turbine blade treated and the bonding strength and the self-strength with the
by surfacing method, new cavitation damage occurs matrix are increased, making it possible to solve the
rapidly around the surfacing point to the bottom of the problem that the spraying coating is not tightly bonded
surfacing layer. Therefore, the surfacing method can’t to the matrix. The actual observation shows that the
completely solve the problem of slurry erosion and strength of the hard particles embedded in the surface of
cavitation of hydraulic machinery flow components. the overflow components is relatively high, but the
(3) Spray welding method. Spray welding method is a kind particles sprayed subsequently collide and bond
of surface protection technology developed on the basis between the hard particles of the same kind, and the
of spraying and surfacing. By means of oxyacetylene adhesive force is affected. However, the hardness of
flame, the self-fluxing alloy powder with special taste WC coating is too high, so its resistance to deformation
property is sprayed and welded to the surface of and cavitation impact appears to be imperfect.
workpiece matrix by special spraying and welding (2) Plasma arc spray welding technology. The temperature
torch. In the process of remelting, the spray welding of the plasma flame stream is high (up to 2000 °C) and
layer forms metallurgical bonding with the substrate, the powder travels fast, so coating is denser and has
and the bonding strength can reach 300–500 MPa. The higher bonding strength. At the same time, it is suitable
cladding layer is as-cast crystal structure with uniform, for high melting point hard materials such as boride,
compact, and nonporous structure, and the surface is nitrides, carbides, and cermets.
smooth with the advantages of material saving, good (3) Spray welding or spraying of alloy powder. The process
quality, and high efficiency. The hardness of spraying– of thermal spray welding alloy powder is that the alloy
welding coating can reach HRC60-70, and the service powder is melted in the surface layer of the matrix,
life can be extended 6–10 times. This method is suitable which belongs to metallurgical bonding and has obvi-
for the field operation of large-scale hydraulic ous anti-abrasion effect. However, it is seldom used for
machinery. It is easy to master the technology. It is an the protection of new units because the high tempera-
ideal surface protection technology for repairing and ture easily causes blade deformation during spraying.
pre-protecting the flow components. The deformation of the old unit should also be strictly
controlled when spraying the alloy powder; otherwise,
4) Development prospect of surface protection technology the convection current and the unit efficiency will be
adversely affected.
The surface protection technology can improve the (4) Nonmetallic coating. Domestic nonmetallic coatings are
anti-abrasion and anti-cavitation performance of common paid attention to by users because their price is rela-
materials to the maximum extent by consuming less tively low, construction technology is suitable for site
high-quality materials. The abrasion occurs on the surface of conditions, and anti-abrasion performance basically
the overflow components, so that the abrasion resistance of meets the requirements of protection. At present, the
the surface of the overflow components is enhanced or the normal temperature silicon carbide epoxy composite
abrasion resistance function is enhanced by coating the coating, the high-temperature (200 °C) composite
surface of the overflow components with an anti-abrasion nylon, and the multilayer surface polyurethane elas-
material by means of coating spraying. With the increasing tomer based on it have been developed. Although sili-
requirement of large capacity and high efficiency of hydro- con carbide epoxy composite coating has strong
power station, the further revelation of the mechanism of adhesive property, its cavitation resistance is poor, so its
slurry erosion and cavitation, and the development of new protective effect on moderate or above cavitation ero-
materials for abrasion and cavitation resistance, new surface sion is limited. The domestic composite nylon coating
protection technologies will appear continuously. At present, and the developed multilayer polyurethane elastomer
472 J. Zhang
are limited to the application of relatively small water destruction of the material. Generally, bubbles are formed in
turbines or pumps which are easy to be heated because the liquid flow in the low-pressure region, and then the
the protected workpieces should be operated at a high bubbles are brought to the high-pressure region by the water
temperature of 200–120 °C. The bonding strength of flow to condense to cause destruction of the material surface
the bottom layer is up to 80 MPa, so the surface elas- caused by the generation and condensation of the bubbles,
tomer is the best material to resist cavitation erosion. which is called cavitation and cavitation erosion.
According to the investigation of many hydropower sta-
tions in China, the aerofoil cavitation and cavitation erosion
of the axial-flow turbine mainly occur at the discharge edge
4.6.2 Corrosion and Protection on the back of the blade and near the connection between the
blade and the hub, as shown in Fig. 4.183a. The airfoil
4.6.2.1 Main Corrosion Problems Faced cavitation and cavitation erosion of mixed-flow turbine may
by Hydropower Equipment and Major occur mainly in the four regions A–D as shown in
Buildings Fig. 4.183b. Area A is the discharge edge of the lower half
The metal structures and equipment of the hydropower sta- of the blade; Area B is the back surface of the blade close to
tion mainly include water turbine and various steel gates, the lower ring; Area C is the inner side of the lower ring
diversion penstock, trash rack, hoist, transmission and elevation; Area D is the junction between the back of the
transformation tower, track beam of bridge crane, steel runner blade and the crown.
structure of plant, etc. They are located in the atmospheric,
dry–wet alternating, submerged, and high-speed water flow 2) Gap cavitation and cavitation erosion
environments, and exposed to various environmental influ-
ences such as water quality, gas, sunlight, and temperature, Gap cavitation and cavitation erosion is a form of cavitation
as well as chemical, physical, and electrochemical effects and cavitation erosion that occurs when the water flows
such as impact and friction of sediment, ice, and floating through a narrow channel or gap and causes local flow
matter. Besides, they are affected by biological attachment velocity to rise and pressure to drop to a certain extent, as
and microorganisms in the water and are inevitably sub- shown in Fig. 4.184. The gap cavitation and cavitation
jected to corrosion and damage or performance degradation. erosion mainly occur in the clearance of upper and lower
labyrinth rings of mixed-flow turbine runner, the clearance
1. Corrosion form of water turbine of hydropower between the outer edge of blade and runner chamber, the
equipment [75] clearance between blade root and hub, and the clearance at
the end face of guide vane.
1) Cavitation and cavitation erosion phenomena
3) Local cavitation and cavitation erosion
When the water flows through the passage of the water tur-
bine, the pressure in some parts may decrease. Once the The local cavitation and cavitation erosion are mainly caused
pressure drops below the vaporization pressure under the by the sudden change of local fluid state caused by surface
current water temperature, the water will appear cavitation, irregularity, sediment hole, and air hole caused by casting
releasing a large number of bubbles, and the air originally and machining defects. For example, local cavitation and
dissolved in the water will escape with the water vapor. When cavitation erosion of a propeller turbine generally occur at an
the escaping bubble is brought to a region higher than the uneven step or behind a local pit of a runner chamber con-
vaporization pressure by the water flow, the water vapor in nection. Local cavitation and cavitation erosion may also
the bubbles rapidly condenses, the volume suddenly con- occur at the blade fixed screws and seal screws due to the
tracts, and the surrounding water flow particles collide into indentation or protrusion of the screws. The cavitation and
the bubbles at an extremely high speed, causing a sudden cavitation erosion damage of upper crown drain hole of
increase in pressure (sometimes up to a few tens or even mixed-flow turbine runner is also a kind of local cavitation
hundreds of atmospheric pressure). Then the substance and cavitation erosion.
compressed by a strong impact diffuses in the opposite
direction due to the reaction force, thereby causing the 4) Cavity cavitation and cavitation erosion
pressure in the bubble to drop sharply. Thus, the above
process of expansion and compression is repeated with Cavity cavitation and cavitation erosion are a kind of vortex
extremely high pressure, so that the metal surface in the flow cavitation peculiar to the reaction turbine, as shown in
passage is repeatedly impacted, thereby causing fatigue and Fig. 4.185. When the reaction turbine is operated under
(b)
(a)
Fig. 4.183 Main parts of aerofoil cavitation erosion of water turbine a main parts of axial-flow aerofoil runner cavitation erosion; b main parts of
mixed-flow aerofoil runner cavitation erosion
Fig. 4.184 Gap cavitation and cavitation erosion

474 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.185 Shape of cavity cavitation erosion vortex belt
normal working conditions, the outlet of the runner always the penstock of the Japanese hydropower stations is
has a certain circumferential velocity, which causes the 0.1 mm/a, and the average corrosion rate of hydropower
water flow to rotate in the draft pipe to form a vacuum vortex stations in China is about 0.23 mm/a. Once the penstock is
belt. When the negative pressure at the center of the vortex corroded, the safe operation and durability of the penstock
belt is less than the vaporization pressure, cavitation will will be seriously affected, and even the power generation
occur in the water flow, and the rotating vortex belt will capacity of the hydropower station may be greatly affected.
periodically collide with the tailwater pipe wall, causing The corrosion forms of water delivery penstock mainly
cavitation and cavitation erosion on the tailwater pipe wall, include the following aspects.
which is called cavity cavitation and cavitation erosion.
To sum up, the water turbine blades mainly exhibit cav- 1) Wear corrosion
itation corrosion. The cavitation and cavitation erosion of
mixed-flow turbines are mainly airfoil cavitation and cavi- Wear corrosion is that the metal surface of penstock is
tation erosion, while gap cavitation and cavitation erosion, damaged by both corrosion and wear caused by fluid. Under
local cavitation, and cavitation erosion are only minor. The the impact of high-speed fluid, the metal surface of the
propeller turbine mainly suffers from gap cavitation and penstock will cause damage to the protective film, and the
cavitation erosion. Cavitation and cavitation erosion of metal at the crack will accelerate the corrosion rate.
impulse turbines mainly occur at nozzles and needles, while
cavitation erosion often occurs at the diversion edge of a 2) Bubble corrosion
water bucket due to high-speed water flow. In the above-
mentioned four kinds of cavitation and cavitation erosion, Bubble corrosion is a special form of wear corrosion, also
gap cavitation and cavitation erosion, local cavitation and known as cavitation erosion. It mainly occurs in the envi-
cavitation erosion generally occur in a small local range, but ronment with pressure change and high-speed fluid opera-
airfoil cavitation and cavitation erosion are the most com- tion equipment. In the vortex situation, air bubbles are often
mon and serious cavitation and cavitation erosion phenom- entrained in the high-speed water flow. When the
ena. Cavity cavitation and cavitation erosion may be so fast-flowing water with bubbles impacts the metal surface,
serious for some hydropower stations that the stable opera- the protective film may be broken and the shock wave
tion of water turbine is affected. pressure generated by bubble bursting can generally be as
high as 4,000 MPa. As a result, metal protective film of the
2. Penstock penstock is broken and even the metal particles are cracked,
leading to local corrosion of the metal.
The water delivery penstock is an important part of the
hydropower station. The operation and production of the 3) Crevice corrosion
hydropower station are directly affected by the reliability and
safety of the water delivery penstock. Therefore, it is very In the electrolyte solution, a gap exists between the metal
important to improve the reliability and safety of the pen- and the nonmetallic or between the metal and the metal, and
stock, and the corrosion protection and control of the pen- the width of the gap allows the corrosive fluid to go into the
stock are becoming increasingly important. The average gap. However, the fluid in the gap can’t flow but is only in a
corrosion rate of the penstock of the Mingchal Water Control stagnant state, which leads to intensified crevice corrosion in
Project in Russia is 0.26 mm/a, the average corrosion rate of the inside of gap, thereby forming corrosion. This kind of
corrosion is called crevice corrosion. Crevice corrosion is condition for the pitting corrosion of the stainless steel. The
usually the most serious in the splash zone or total immer- typical galvanic corrosion is formed between the stainless
sion area where rapid corrosion occurs under the gap, and steel and the carbon steel, and the galvanic corrosion state
there is a tendency to be sensitive to crevice corrosion in of the large cathode and small anode is formed in the
seawater. Once crevice corrosion is formed, it is difficult to corroded part and other parts, so that the corrosion speed is
be suppressed. greatly accelerated and the structure is corroded and per-
forated within 2 years.
3. Corrosion of common steel structures in hydropower
engineering 4. Six reasons of concrete corrosion in hydropower
station
The result of environmental water quality investigation of
steel structures shows that the steel structures in freshwater The reasons of concrete corrosion can be divided into
environment are subjected to less uniform corrosion. Envi- physical action and chemical action. Physical action mainly
ronmental conditions, structural forms, and operating con- includes surface abrasion and material loss caused by abra-
ditions are the main factors affecting the corrosion of steel sion, denudation and cavitation erosion, normal temperature
structures. According to the analysis of corrosion investi- and humidity gradients, crystallization pressure of salts in
gation of steel structures in hydropower engineering, the the pores, structural load, and cracking caused by exposure
corrosion forms of steel structure are as follows: of the structure to rapidly changing temperatures (such as
The steel structures and equipment in the atmospheric icing or fire). Chemical action mainly includes hydrolysis of
environment mainly suffer from uniform corrosion, and a cement mortar components by soft water, cation exchange
few components in the ponding areas suffer from local reaction between erosive liquid and cement mortar, resulting
corrosion of different degrees due to the occurrence of cre- in reaction of expansive products such as sulfate expansion,
vice and oxygen concentration corrosion. The steel struc- alkali–aggregate expansion, and corrosion of steel bars in
tures in water mainly suffer from local corrosion. Under the concrete. The physical action and chemical action of con-
condition of still water or low-speed moving water, the gate, crete damage are mutually promoting and overlapping.
sediment discharge hole, and trash rack mainly suffer from Through field investigation, focusing on the situation of
pit erosion. Areas where gates are subjected to high-speed the hydropower station, combining the topography, climate,
water flow and sediment scouring show wear corrosion, as concrete composition, and operation mode of the hydro-
shown in Fig. 4.186. The investigation results of compre- power station, and drawing on the advanced research
hensive gate, trash rack, and other components show that the experience of foreign countries, the six corrosion reasons
average uniform corrosion rate of steel structures in hydro- and hazards affecting the durability of the concrete of the
power engineering is 0.01–0.04 mm/a under the condition of hydropower station are water erosion, cracks, carbonization
corrosion protection. The average local corrosion rate is of surface layer, freeze–thaw frost heave, permeation cor-
0.015–0.889 mm/a, which is significantly higher than the rosion, impact abrasion, and cavitation erosion. There are
average uniform corrosion rate. The local corrosion rate is other hazards, such as steel corrosion, engineering wear,
obviously different for steel components under different man-made damage, natural damage, and so on.
operating conditions. The average local corrosion rate of
steel components is generally less than 0.1 mm/a under the 1) Water erosion
condition of static water and low flow velocity, and the local
corrosion rate is generally 0.1–1 mm/a at the gate washed by The hydropower station is operated by water circulation and
high-speed water flow. hydropower to generate electric energy. Therefore, water
For example, the stainless steel composite steel plate erosion is inevitable for hydropower stations. It is found that
adopted in the sediment discharge hole of a project is the water erosion of hydropower stations in China is mainly
composed of 4 mm stainless steel and 16 mm carbon steel. due to the existence of aggressive chemicals, such as sulfate
After 2 years of operation, the composite steel plate with a ions, carbon dioxide, and alkaline substances (or water
thickness of 20 mm appears corrosion perforation, as contents opposite to the pH value of concrete). When sulfate
shown in Fig. 4.187. This is mainly due to the fact that the reacts with Ca(OH)2 in the concrete structures to form other
sediment discharge hole is always located in the static substances, the composition of the concrete is changed, and
water position. In addition, many anchor bars are welded the durability of the concrete is affected accordingly. There
on that outer wall of the steel pipes embedded in the are many similar problems, for example, the concrete is
concrete, which causes the reorganization of the stainless mixed with calcium and silicon, so it is alkaline. However,
steel part of the composite steel plate and creates the the water is generally acidic, and the neutralization of both
476 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.186 Wear corrosion of

gate
Fig. 4.187 Corrosion

perforation of composite steel
plate
will change the pH of the concrete, which also affects the The largest dam height of Fengwei River Hydropower
durability of the concrete to some extent. China’s Ertan station in Yunnan Province is 48.5 m. Its concrete masonry
Hydropower station, Liujiaxia Hydropower station, Fengwei dam is composed of C10 concrete, the sclerotin of which is
River Hydropower station, and BaPan Gorge have different carbonaceous limestone that is brittle and easy to be dis-
degrees of damage, and their durability of concrete is very solved. This is mainly because it is chemically activated and
worrying. easily synthesized with chemicals in water. Ganister
sediment can be added into the concrete for fusion to make by the corrosion of steel bars, so that the whole concrete is
the chemical structure of the concrete more stable while not safe.
increasing the durability of the concrete.
4) Freeze–thaw frost heave
2) Concrete cracks
The hydropower stations in China are distributed all over the
The main cause of cracks in the concrete of hydropower country, especially in the northwest and northeast China so
station is the change of climate, especially the long drought that they are facing severe climate test. For example, the
in hot weather, which easily causes the concrete to crack. Liujiaxia Dam is located in Yongjing County, Gansu Pro-
There are also cracks in concrete caused by changes in the vince where snowfall begins around November, and con-
structure of underground rock because of crustal movement. tinues until March of the next year, with soil freezing
Almost every hydropower station has cracks of varying thickness at about 1 m and cycle freezing of more than 50
degrees, with 70% of large cracks and 30% of small- and times. The average temperature of the coldest month is −10 °
medium-sized cracks. Cracks of reinforced concrete struc- C, and freezing will make dam become very brittle. When
ture are inevitable, but their risk can be reduced and con- the dam is filled with water, the bottom volume of the dam
trolled within a certain range. 3,332 cracks are found in becomes larger after it is frozen, so that the dam is subjected
Danjiangkou Hydropower station, 1,869 cracks in Qiantang to great tension. The main dam and auxiliary dam of Liuji-
River Hydropower station, and 2,698 cracks in Ertan axia Dam are tested, respectively, and it is found that the
Hydropower station. More than 90% of the cracks are cre- frostbite depth has reached 4 cm and the area has reached
ated after the hydropower station is operated. Among them, 52 m2. At the same time, there are many areas of lower
there are more than 100 cracks whose danger coefficient temperature of −40 °C. The frostbite depth is deeper and
exceeds normal value, so repair crack is an extremely destructive force is larger. However, if freeze–thaw frost
important job. heave damage is to be prevented, water seepage must be
Liujiaxia Hydropower station has been operated for more prevented.
than 40 years and has brought great economic benefits to
China. Recently, it has been found that there are many huge 5) Permeation corrosion
cracks under the dam. The largest crack is 1–2 mm wide, the
longest vertical crack is 25 m long, and the longest con- The permeation of concrete may cause the increase of internal
struction level is 65 m long. These cracks are the dam’s fatal uplift pressure, make the dam bear great pressure so that steel
danger. Once the water potential increases, the crack bars of the dam are deformed, corroded, and rusted, and may
increases, and the solidness and durability of hydropower also cause the change of concrete composition and reduce
station concrete face big challenge. durability. Luowan Dam’s dam body is large in permeability,
and high arch dam is the same. A large amount of water
3) Surface carbonization permeates and dissolves the corridor, so that the corridor
pipeline is deformed, with more than 20 10-cm-deep cracks.
Surface carbonization is a common phenomenon of concrete The experimental results show that the permeability coeffi-
buildings. It refers to the damage of concrete surface in cient of concrete is only 1/5 of that without aerating agent
different degrees due to the long time. In the past 10 years, it when the gas content in concrete is more than 4.8%. There-
has been found that the carbonization speed of hydropower fore, permeation can be prevented only if the concrete
stations built before the reform and opening-up is fast. composition is strictly formulated and factors such as the
A large number of investigations and tests have shown that inclination of the dam are taken into account.
the surface carbonization rate of concrete made by normal
proportioning is generally less than 1 mm/a. At the same 6) Impact abrasion and cavitation erosion
time, it is found that the ability of resisting carbonization of
concrete of hydropower station in China is low. The main The topography of China determines the large amount of
reason for carbonization of concrete surface layer is that CO2 sediment in rivers, especially the Yellow River. Sediment
in the air enters along the gap of concrete and reacts with Ca control is also the biggest obstacle of river regulation in
(OH)2 to form CaCO3, which is chemical damage and causes China. At the same time, most of component of China’s
the change of concrete composition. In particular, a hollow sediment is hard quartz which is highly abrasive and
shell appears on the surface. The main harm of surface destructive. The erosion of the river bed and dyke by the
carbonization is the local instability of the building caused high-speed river with the highly threatening river sediment
478 J. Zhang
can’t be neglected. For example, for the Gongzui Dam on the 1) Reasonable selection of materials
Dadu River in the southwest mountain area, the sediment in
front of the dam has been further coarsened in recent years, Reasonable selection of materials is the most common
and a maximum particle size of 2.7 mm has been found, and method to control corrosion. What should be considered is
large blocks of pebbles have been found to pass through not only the mechanical properties and manufacturing pro-
during the flood season. The bottom is covered with pebbles, cess properties of the material but also the corrosion resis-
making it difficult to improve the situation. Loose steel bars, tance of the material in a specific medium. Appropriate
protruding aggregates and other problems still exist [76]. protective measures should be combined to meet the
requirements of service life. At the same time, under the
4.6.2.2 A Detailed Description of the Types premise of ensuring service performance and service life, the
of Anti-corrosion Methods, Including cost should be reduced as much as possible, including
Anti-corrosion Methods for Different manufacturing cost and maintenance cost.
Equipment and Buildings When selecting materials and designing, the problem
of galvanic corrosion shall be fully considered. The mea-
1. Anti-corrosion measures for steel structures of sures to prevent galvanic corrosion mainly include the
hydropower engineering [77] following:
The basic way of anti-corrosion of steel structure is to take (1) The same materials should be selected as far as possi-
effective anti-corrosion measures on the basis of reasonable ble, or the materials closer in the potential sequence
material selection and detailed anti-corrosion structure should be selected. It is generally believed that no
design. For underwater steel structures, the main measures significant galvanic corrosion occurs when the electrode
adopted at present are coating protection, metal thermal potential difference is less than 50 mV.
spraying and cathodic protection. For the steel structures of (2) The welding material should be chosen to be cathodic
special parts, thickened steel plate, corrosion-resistant metal, relative to the base metal, and the potential difference
and cladding technology are also adopted. The selection of between the two should be as small as possible.
anti-corrosion measures depends on the structural form of (3) When two kinds of metals with large potential differ-
the structure, the design service life, the corrosion area, the ence are connected, the connection shall be electrically
investment cost capability, and the construction experience insulated with insulating material.
of the corrosion control technology. At present, a large (4) When the two materials have to contact each other, the
number of steel structure anti-corrosion standards and norms area ratio of cathode and anode should be as small as
have been formulated in the world. possible, and coating protection or cathodic protection
shall be adopted.
(1) DET NORSKE VERITAS’s standard,
DNV-OS-C101-2011 Design of Offshore Steel Struc- 2) Anti-corrosion structure design
tures, General Provisions;
(2) National Association of Corrosion Engineers’ Standard, If the structural design is unreasonable, the corrosion of the
NACE RP 0176: 2007 Corrosion Control of Offshore structure will be aggravated. The structural design shall fol-
Fixed Steel Oil Production Platforms; low the anti-corrosion principle. For example, the structural
(3) Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of components shall be simple in shape and in the same material
China, JTS 153-3-2007 Technical Specifications for as far as possible, and avoid gaps and dead corners as far as
Corrosion protection of Steel Structure of Harbor possible. For anti-corrosion structural design of steel struc-
Engineering; tures, please refer to international standard ISO 12944-3 Anti-
(4) China’s electric power sector’s standard DL/T corrosion Protection for Steel Structures by Paint and Var-
5358-2006 Technical Specifications for Anti-corrosion nish Protective Coating Systems, Part 3: Design Considera-
of Metal Structure Equipment for Water Conservancy tions. When designing the structural strength, the appropriate
and Hydropower Engineering; corrosion allowance shall be determined according to the
(5) China’s water conservancy industry’s standard SL corrosion rate of the material in the environment, the impor-
105-2007 Code for Anti-corrosion of Hydraulic Metal tance of the component, and the service life.
Structures.
3) Coating protection formulates international standard ISO 8501-1 Visual

Assessment of Cleanliness of Steel Treatment before Coating
Coating protection is a kind of anti-corrosion measure widely Oil Paint and Related Products, Part 1: Rusting Grade and
used in the steel structure of hydropower engineering. The De-rusting Grade of Steel before Coating and after Com-
coating has anti-corrosion, decoration, and anti-fouling plete Removal of the Original Coating. The international
effects on underwater steel structure of hydropower engi- standard ISO 12944-4 Anti-corrosion Protection of Steel
neering. It can not only prolong the service life of the Structures by Paint and Varnish Protective Coating Systems,
structure but also improve the working performance of the Part 4: Type of Surface and Surface Treatment refers to ISO
structure. Coating construction is not limited by the structure 8501-1, and the corresponding national standard of China is
size and shape and is easy to use and maintain with low cost. GB 8923 Rusting Grade and De-rusting Grade of Steel
The coatings used for underwater steel structures of Surface before Coating.
hydropower engineering are classified into anti-corrosion For the coating protection of offshore engineering steel
coatings and anti-fouling coatings according to their appli- structure, many standards and specifications at home and
cations. The anti-corrosion principle of anti-corrosion coat- abroad have put forward the recommended coating systems,
ings is mainly to prevent various corrosive media such as such as the international standard ISO 12944-5: 2007 Anti-
water, oxygen, chloride, and sulfur dioxide from penetrating corrosion Protection of Paint and Varnish Protective
into the metal surface, so as to isolate the corrosive agents Coating Systems for Steel Structures, Part 5: Protective
such as oxygen and water from the metal surface, thereby Coating System, the international standard ISO 20340 Per-
preventing the corrosion of the metal. At the same time, the formance Requirements for Paint and Varnish for Marine
cathodic metal and corrosion inhibitor are added to the and Related Structural Protective Coatings, Norsk Petro-
coating, so their cathodic protection and corrosion inhibition leum Standardization Organization’s standard NORSOK
are used to further enhance the protective performance of the M-501: 2004 Surface Treatment and Protective Coatings,
coatings. The anti-fouling effect of anti-fouling coatings is NACE’s standard RP 0176-2007 Corrosion Control of Off-
achieved by adding anti-fouling agents to the coatings. shore Fixed Steel Oil Production Platforms and Ministry of
The corrosion of underwater steel structure of hydro- Transport of the People’s Republic of China’s standard JTS
power engineering is controlled by many factors. In different 153-3-2007 Technical Specifications for Corrosion protec-
corrosive environments, the factors that affect metal corro- tion of Steel Structure of Harbor Engineering.
sion and damage of coating are different. Therefore, when Table 4.47 is the seawater and brine (Im2) environmental
the underwater steel structure of hydropower engineering is coating system given in the international standard ISO
protected by coating, the coating system and coating con- 20340 “Performance Requirements for Paint and Varnish for
struction should be selected according to the structural form Marine and Related Structural Protective Coatings”.
of the structure, the environmental conditions, the protection Table 4.48 is a coating system of freshwater (Im1) and
life of the structure, the construction environment, and the seawater, brine (Im2) with the environmental design service
project cost. In order to ensure the anti-corrosion effect of life of more than 15 years given by the international standard
coating protection, the surface treatment quality before ISO 12944-5: 2007 “Anti-corrosion Protection of Paint and
coating should be strictly controlled, the coating matching Varnish Protective Coating Systems for Steel Structures,
system should be correctly selected, and the standard coating Part 5: Protective Coating System”.
construction and the strict coating quality inspection should Table 4.49 shows the carbon steel surface coating scheme
be carried out. The research data show that the steel surface for the offshore splash zone and underwater zone given in
treatment quality before coating is the most important factor Norsk Petroleum Standardization Organization’s standard
to determine the protective performance of coating film. NORSOK M-501: 2004 Surface Treatment and Protective
At present, many countries have formulated relevant Coatings.
standards and specifications, which provide technical guar-
antee for the effective implementation of steel structure 4) Metal thermal spraying protection
coating protection.
The most famous standard for surface treatment before In the thermal spraying, the spraying material is melted and
steel coating is the Swedish industrial standard SIS 055900 atomized into small droplets and small solid droplets by a
Standard for Surface De-rusting before Coating, which has heat source, and these suspended small liquid (solid) dro-
long been cited by all over the world. Paint and Varnish plets are sprayed onto the substrate surface at a certain speed
Technical Committee Steel Surface Treatment Branch of by the power of the heat source or the applied compressed
International Organization for Standardization (ISO/TC35/ gas. Then they are compressed, cooled, and solidified to
SC12), on the basis of Swedish standard SIS 055900-1967, form a new layer of surface.
480 J. Zhang
Table 4.47 ISO 20340: 2003 Coating systems and basic performance requirements
Substrate Carbon steel spray cleaning: Sa2 1/2 or S3; surface roughness: medium (G)
Grade of corrosive environment Im2
First coating Zn(R) organica Other
Dry film thickness/lm 40 60 200 –
Layer number of coating 3 3 2 1
Dry film thickness for coating system/lm 350 450 600 800
a
Zn (R) = Zinc-rich primer in accordance with ISO 12944-5
Table 4.48 ISO 12944-5: 2007 Coating systems and basic performance requirements (over 15 years)
Substrate: low-alloy steel
Surface treatment: Sa21/2; Rust grade A, B, C (refer to ISO 8501-1)
No. of system Primer Lower Coating system
channel
coating
Resin Type of Layer number Dry film Resin binder Layer number Dry film
binder primera of coating thicknessb/lm of coating thicknessb/lm
Corrosive environment: Im1 and Im2
A6.02 EP Zn(R) 1 60d EP, PURC 3–5 540
A6.04 EP Misc. 1 80 EPGF, EP, 3 500
PUR
A6.06 EP Misc. 1 800 – – 800
c d
A6.07 ESI Zn(R) 1 60 EP, EPGF 3 450
A6.08 EP Misc. 1 80 EPGF 3 800
A6.10 EP, Misc. – – – 1–3 600
PUR
Table 4.49 NORSOK M-501: 2004 coating scheme

Corrosive environment Surface treatment Coating system Average dry film
thickness/lm
Coating system No. 7A Cleanliness: ISO 8501, Sa21/2 Two-component epoxy coating with a 2 175
Surface of carbon steel in splash Roughness: ISO 8503 medium minimum of two layers
zone and underwater area grade G (50–85 lm, Ry5)
According to different heat sources, thermal spraying can the flame wire spraying is obviously a layered structure, and
be divided into flame spraying, plasma spraying, arc spray- the coating has more pores and oxide inclusions.
ing, and explosion spraying. According to different spraying Arc spraying is to generate an arc between two wire-like
materials, thermal spraying can be divided into wire spray- metallic materials. The heat generated by the arc melts the
ing and powder spraying. At present, the flame wire spraying wire, and the melted portion is atomized by a stream of
and arc spraying are mainly used to protect underwater steel compressed air and sprayed on the surface of the substrate to
structures of hydropower engineering against corrosion by form a coating. Arc spraying is the most important thermal
thermal spraying metal. spraying method in the steel structure metal thermal spraying
Flame wire spraying is one of the earliest spraying anti-corrosion construction at present. Its characteristics are
methods and its equipment is simple and easy to operate. It is as follows:
a method of forming a coating by using a combustion flame
of oxygen and acetylene to heat a wire-like or rod-shaped (1) High production efficiency, about 3–4 times the pro-
spraying material to a molten or semi-molten state and then duction efficiency of ordinary flame spraying.
spray it on the surface of a substrate. The coating structure of (2) Low oxide content of the coating.
(3) The coating has a high binding force to the metal Aluminum and Alloys (the latest edition of which is ISO
substrate. 2063: 2005 Thermal Spraying Metals and Other Inorganic
(4) The energy utilization rate reaches 90%, which is the Coatings of Zinc, Aluminum and Alloys; GB/T 19352-2003
highest among all spraying methods. Quality Requirements for Thermal Spraying Structure is
(5) Equipment is easy to operate and maintain. equivalent to the international standard ISO 14922 Quality
Requirements for Thermal Spraying Structure; GB/T
Aluminum, zinc, and zinc–aluminum alloys are the most 19355-2003 Guide for Corrosion-resistant Protective Zinc
commonly used spraying materials for corrosion protection and Aluminum Coatings for Steel Structures is equivalent to
of marine steel structures. The surface of thermal spraying the international standard ISO 14713: 1999 Guide for Zinc
coating is usually sealed by coating. The anti-corrosion and Aluminum Coatings for Corrosion Protection of Steel
effect of thermal spraying aluminum and zinc coating on Structures). In addition, the Ministry of Machinery Industry
steel structure is mainly based on the following aspects. of the People’s Republic of China’s standard JB/T 8427-96
of the Guidelines for the Selection and Application of
(1) The thermal spraying coating acts the same physical Thermal Spraying Coatings of Zinc, Aluminum and Alloys
barrier as the painting. The composite coating formed for Corrosion protection of Steel Structures, China’s electric
by thermal spraying coating is compact and intact, so power sector’s standard DL/T 5358-2006 Technical Speci-
the steel substrate can be well separated from water, air, fications for Anti-corrosion of Metal Structure Equipment
and other media. The corrosion resistance of aluminum for Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering and
and zinc is much better than that of steel, and its life is Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of China’s
longer than that of coating. Therefore, the shielding standard JTS 153-3-2007 Technical Specifications for Cor-
effect of this spraying coating is better than that of rosion protection of Steel Structure of Harbor Engineering
painting. all put forward the recommended schemes of thermal
(2) Because the electrode potential of aluminum and zinc is spraying coating for underwater steel structures of hydro-
lower than that of steel, when the aluminum and zinc power engineering.
coating is locally damaged or has porous in the med- Table 4.50 is a metal thermal spraying coating system
ium, the aluminum–zinc coating is the anode, the steel recommended by the international standard ISO 2063: 2005
is the cathode, and the aluminum–zinc coating will be ISO Thermal Spraying Metals and Other Inorganic Coat-
consumed continuously as a sacrificial anode, so that ings of Zinc, Aluminum and Alloys.
the steel substrate can be protected. Table 4.51 is the metal thermal spraying coating system
(3) The bonding between thermal spraying zinc–aluminum with service life of more than 20 years in underwater zone
coating and steel substrate is semi-molten metallurgical recommended by the national standard GB/T 19355-2003
bonding, and its bonding strength is higher than that of Guide for Corrosion-resistant Protective Zinc and Alu-
painting and steel substrate. In addition, that sealed minum Coatings for Steel Structures.
coating can be firmly attached to the spraying coating Table 4.52 is the metal thermal spraying coating system
with both pores and uniform roughness, so that the with service life of more than 20 years recommended by
composite coating composed of the thermal spraying China’s electric power sector’s standard DL/T 5358-2006
coating and the sealing coating is not easy to be peeled Technical Specifications for Anti-corrosion of Metal Struc-
off, and the anti-corrosion effect is further enhanced. ture Equipment for Water Conservancy and Hydropower
Engineering.
At present, countries all over the world have formulated
the corresponding standards and specifications, and have 5) Cathodic protection
made provisions on the design and construction quality
requirements of the thermal spraying metallic protective Cathodic protection is an electrochemical anti-corrosion
coating scheme for steel structures, thus providing technical protection technology that applies sufficient cathode current
guarantee for the effective implementation of the technology. to the protected metal surface to make its cathode polarized
At present, several national standards on thermal spraying to reduce or prevent metal corrosion. It is the fundamental
coating metal for steel structures in China have adopted method to prevent the electrochemical corrosion of metal,
equivalent international standards. For example, GB/T which can prevent metal from being corroded in various
9793-1997 Thermal Spraying of Metallic and Other Inor- electrolytes, such as soil, seawater, and freshwater. Cathodic
ganic Coatings of Zinc, Aluminum and Alloys is equivalent protection can not only prevent the uniform corrosion of
to the international standard ISO 2063: 1991 Thermal metal but also effectively prevent various kinds of local
Spraying of Metallic and Other Inorganic Coatings of Zinc, corrosion, such as pitting corrosion, intergranular corrosion,
482 J. Zhang
Table 4.50 ISO 2063: 2005 Metallic thermal spraying coating stress corrosion, and welding corrosion, so as to prolong the
Environmental Type of spraying Minimum thickness of service life of the protected structure. The economic benefits
region thermal spraying are remarkable.
coating/lm Cathodic protection can be performed by both impressed
Im1 Aluminum 200 current and sacrificial anode (Fig. 4.188). The impressed
(freshwater) spraying current is supplied with a cathode current to the protected
AlMg5 spraying 150 metal by a DC power supply. The protection system is
Zinc spraying 200 mainly composed of DC power supply, auxiliary anode,
Aluminum 150 reference electrode and cable, etc. The sacrificial anode
spraying + sealing protection is to connect a metal or alloy with a more negative
AlMg5 100 electrode potential (called a sacrificial anode) to the pro-
spraying + sealing tected metal to obtain a cathodic current by self-dissolution
Zinc spraying + 100 and consumption of the sacrificial anode. The basic principle
sealing and protection effect of the impressed current and sacrificial
ZnAl15 100 anode protection are the same, but each has its advantages
spraying + sealing
and disadvantages (Table 4.53) and is suitable for different
Im2 (seawater Aluminum 200 occasions. The choice of the two protection methods mainly
and brine) spraying
depends on the actual conditions of the project and the
AlMg5 spraying 250 specific conditions on-site.
Zinc spraying + 100 The cathodic protection technology has a history of more
sealing
than 100 years. At present, the standards and specifications
Aluminum 150 for cathodic protection of steel structures at home and abroad
spraying + sealing
include DET NORSKE VERITAS RP B401-2010 Cathodic
AlMg5 200 Protection Design, British national standard BS EN
spraying + sealing
12954-2001 Cathodic Protection of Metal Structures Buried
ZnAl15 100
in Soil or Immersed in Liquid, Ministry of Transport of the
spraying + sealing
People’s Republic of China’s standard JTS 153-3-2007
Technical Specifications for Corrosion protection of Steel
Structure of Harbor Engineering.
Table 4.51 GB/T 19355-2003 Metallic thermal spraying coating In China, cathodic protection is widely used in seawater
Environmental Type of Minimum thickness of thermal and soil environment but relatively seldom in freshwater
region spraying spraying coating/lm environment. This is because it is difficult to carry out cathodic
Underwater Aluminum 150 protection because of the high resistivity of freshwater envi-
area spraying ronment, especially for some equipment with complicated
Zinc 250 structure in hydropower engineering, such as gate and trash
spraying rack. There are still many problems to be solved in the
selection of protection mode, selection of protection param-
eters, anode material, and arrangement mode of cathodic
Table 4.52 DL/T 5358-2006 Metallic thermal spraying coating protection. However, in recent years, with the improvement of
technical level, the technology has been gradually applied in
Environmental Spraying Minimum thickness of thermal
region system spraying coating/lm
water conservancy and hydropower engineering.
Freshwater Zinc 200
spraying 2. Measures to mitigate hydropower damage
Aluminum 160
spraying In view of the causes of hydropower failure, the following
Seawater Zinc 300
measures and methods are adopted in operation mode of
spraying water turbine, design of hydropower station, structure design
Aluminum 200 of water turbine, application of main material of water tur-
spraying bine, and anti-abrasion coating from the perspective of
prevention and protection.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.188 Schematic diagram of cathodic protection
Table 4.53 Advantages and disadvantages of impressed current method and sacrificial anode protection
Method of Advantages Disadvantages
protection
Impressed current Output current is continuously adjustable Need for external power supply
Protection scope is wide Interference with adjacent structures is large
Not limited by environmental resistivity Heavy workload of maintenance and management
The bigger the project is, the more economical it is.
Sacrificial anode No need for external power supply The protection current is almost unadjustable
No interference to adjacent structures or little interference High one-time investment
No management is required after commissioning
Uniform protection current distribution and high utilization ratio
(1) When arranging hydraulic structures reasonably and up sediment discharge facilities according to the topo-
reducing the amount of sediment passing through the graphic conditions to reduce the entry of sediment, as
machine, especially the positions of water intake and well as select the appropriate time to adjust the water
bottom holes for flushing sediment, we should fully and sediment. For example, after Sanmenxia Hydro-
take factors of sediment into account and reasonably set power station changes the original sediment discharge
484 J. Zhang
mode, the sediment discharge bottom hole is utilized in 3. Strengthening concrete surface protection of water
the flood season to reduce the amount of sediment diversion and power generation tunnel
passing through the machine by 50%, which not only
reduces the impact of erosion and abrasion but also To minimize the occurrence of water seepage in the water
enables the turbine to generate electricity at full load in diversion and power generation tunnel, some necessary
the flood season, making full use of water resources. measures shall be taken to deal with the tunnel body and
(2) Optimization of water turbine structure and improve- relevant parts after the excavation of the water diversion and
ment of machining process. From the mechanism of power generation tunnel. Through the relevant experiments,
abrasion and cavitation corrosion, it can be seen that the we can find that the basic treatment methods of different rock
water turbine and its flow passage components running strata are also different to some extent. For example, after the
in the sediment-containing water area are important excavation of the power generation tunnel, combined with
factors of abrasion and cavitation corrosion as sidewall. the geological conditions of the site where the project is
In particular, it is the most important in the design, located, the tunnel body of surrounding rock II is treated
material, and processing technology of turbine runner. with shotcrete support, while the tunnel body of surrounding
The development of CFD calculation in recent years has rock III and IV is treated with C25 concrete lining support.
provided a powerful tool for the analysis of water tur- Although the treatment methods of different rock tunnel
bine structure and aerofoil cavitation. It has been proved bodies are different, they can basically create certain con-
by practice that the cavitation resistance of turbine has ditions for reducing the occurrence of mountain seepage
been greatly improved after cavitation resistance phenomenon. In addition, in order to minimize the corrosion
transformation. of concrete, it is necessary to start from the improvement of
Materials of high hardness, good toughness, even dis- the corrosion resistance of the cement itself. In the project,
tribution of quality, high fatigue limit, and fine crystal the basic treatment method is to change the type of cement
grain are most used in runner casting materials, such as used for the tunnel section with serious seepage phe-
martensitic stainless steel 0Cr13Ni4Mo, 0Cr13Ni5Mo, nomenon. That is to say, the ordinary Portland cement used
and ZG06Cr16Ni5Mo. The power generation test of in the original design is changed into the alkali-resistant 42.5
Sanmenxia Hydropower station shows that the corro- high-sulfate-resistant cement, which can fundamentally
sion resistance of ZG06Cr16Ni5Mo cast steel is better improve the corrosion resistance of the concrete and lay a
than that of martensitic stainless steel 0Cr13Ni4Mo. foundation for the normal performance of the water diver-
(3) Coating protection. Erosion is inevitable as long as the sion and power generation tunnel.
water turbine is operated in sediment waters. Therefore,
the coating protection of water turbine runner has been 1) Improving the proportion of materials in the concrete
the focus of research at home and abroad, and has
achieved remarkable results in both coating material In order to fundamentally solve the corrosion of concrete in
and spraying technology. Spraying materials are metals, water diversion and power generation tunnel and reduce the
alloys, ceramics, and plastics. The spraying technology possibility of corrosion of concrete, it is necessary to start
gradually develops from surface brushing, surfacing from the proportion of various materials of concrete. On the
and electroplating into flame spraying, arc spraying, and basis of ensuring the basic properties of concrete, the com-
plasma spraying. For example, Dongchuan Power Sta- ponents that can react with alkaline substances in concrete are
tion adopts the electroplating method, and an RE reduced as much as possible. For example, barium calcium
chromium alloy-based electroplating layer is formed on sulphoaluminate cement with good water resistance or
the surface of the water machine so that its hardness is cement with high content of tetracalcium ferrite can be
as high as HV1000 with good anti-abrasion perfor- selected. It lays a foundation for improving the anti-corrosion
mance. The anti-abrasion and anti-cavitation effects of performance of concrete. In the concrete mix proportion
polyurethane coating and tungsten carbide hard coating construction, the mix proportion of each component of the
used in Xiaolangdi Hydropower station have given concrete shall conform to the relevant national standards.
some useful suggestions [78]. In addition, shot blasting
technology is used to strengthen the surface of 2) Strengthening the anti-seepage performance of the tunnel
hydraulic machinery and the fatigue life of mechanical body
materials is improved. Besides, numerical simulation
can be carried out by using ANSYS software, and The most important factor causing the concrete corrosion of the
verified with test data so as to obtain the effectiveness of water diversion and power generation tunnel is mountain
shot blasting technology. seepage, so it is of great importance to strengthen the
anti-seepage performance of the tunnel body to solve the con- In the same way, it is a difficult problem in the con-
crete corrosion of the water diversion and power generation struction and operation of hydropower project that the
tunnel. During the construction of the water diversion and high-speed sediment-containing water flow will destroy the
power generation tunnel of Daktucker Power Station, there are concrete on the flow surface of hydraulic structures. The
many parts of the tunnel that may cause water seepage, which abrasion, wear, and cavitation corrosion of high-speed
directly affects the performance of concrete. Due to the unique sediment-containing flow on the flow surface of hydraulic
location of the Daktucker Hydropower station, its water quality concrete structures will lead to large area of denudation on
is highly alkalized. As can be seen from the specific water surface concrete, and serious denudation will cause catas-
quality conditions, the water quality in the area where the trophic accidents.
hydropower station is located is not particularly in line with the Because of the relatively large sediment content in Chi-
general conditions for construction water. This is one of the na’s rivers, abrasion and cavitation corrosion are inevitable
main causes of concrete corrosion in the water diversion and in the operation of water turbine, resulting in considerable
power generation tunnel. The process of improving the water economic losses. Therefore, the hydropower industry atta-
quality will be an extremely long process, so it is not realistic to ches great importance to corrosion protection. In view of the
solve concrete corrosion of the water diversion and power influence of the working environment of each hydropower
generation tunnel by changing the water quality conditions at station and other factors, the anti-abrasion and
present. Therefore, what people can do is mainly in the aspect of anti-cavitation corrosion measures are also changeable, and
prevention and protection. First of all, in order to enhance the the effects are different.
anti-seepage performance of the water diversion and power The prevention of water machine abrasion and the existing
generation tunnel, it is necessary to strengthen the use of con- measures at home and abroad have been studied and applied
struction materials with superior waterproof performance in the for many years. By summarizing the law of abrasion and the
construction process so as to fundamentally reduce the occur- mechanism of cavitation erosion, some ideas for preventing
rence of seepage phenomenon in the tunnel body. In addition, and controlling the abrasion of hydraulic machinery by sed-
after that construction of the tunnel body is basically completed, iment under the existing conditions in China have been found
consolidate grouting is performed on the concrete lining sup- out. It is necessary to adopt comprehensive measures,
port section, and relevant technical means are adopted to pre- including optimizing hub design, unit selection and protec-
vent the positions where cracks may occur, so as to lay a tive measures, and explore and implement various
foundation for the improvement of the anti-seepage perfor- anti-abrasion and cavitation corrosion measures, which is of
mance of the whole body to the maximum extent [79]. great reference value and guiding significance for the eco-
nomic operation of hydropower stations. For the power sta-
4.6.2.3 In Recent Years, the Corrosion Control tion that has been put into operation, the development of new
Effect of the Industry and the Importance anti-abrasion materials and the application of high-tech
of Corrosion Protection (Including spraying technology can provide a strong guarantee for
the Input of Corrosion Personnel, improving the economic operation of the hydropower station.
Scientific Research, and Investment)
Corrosion phenomenon is common in all industries, and (1) Reasonable arrangement of hydraulic structures. In the
corrosion wear phenomenon is not only common in hydro- design of machine-crossing sediment hub, the rational
power industry but also very serious, because of the large arrangement of topography, channel inlet elevation,
sediment content of rivers in China. There are 115 rivers bottom hole, and other hydraulic structure should be
with sediment transportation amount of more than 10 million brought into full play, so as to reduce the passage of
tons per year throughout the country, ranking first in the sediment, especially to prevent and reduce the passage
world. Moreover, in the areas with the most abundant water of coarse sediment. At the same time, the reservoir is
resources, such as northwest, southwest, and north China used to adjust water and sediment reasonably, store
where the sediment content of rivers is high, the components clear and discharge muddy water, and reduce the
of the water turbine are not only affected by the erosion, amount of sediment passing through the machine.
abrasion, and mechanical force of the high-speed water flow
but also by abrasion and wear of the medium such as sedi- After Sanmenxia Power Station is rebuilt, the overflow
ment contained in the flow, so the material loss is very dam section is provided with a bottom hole with an inlet
serious. In addition, in the hydropower stations of South bottom lower than the inlet elevation of the unit by 7 m.
Central China and East China, although the wear loss of However, before the muddy water power generation, the
water turbine parts due to the small sediment content in the reservoir will flush out the sediment regulating capacity of
river is small, the cavitation carrion of water flow seriously 50–60 million m3 (corresponding water level 305 m) in the
damages the turbine impeller material in the deepwater.
486 J. Zhang
near dam section by means of flood or lowering the reservoir station. This kind of high-strength stainless steel has been
water level, and utilize the topography in front of the dam and widely used as structural material of water turbine runner. Its
the funnel bed shape near the dam section to make distribution anti-abrasion performance has been improved to some
of velocity, sediment concentration, and streamlines in front extent. Recently, ZG006Cr16Ni5Mo with lower carbon
of the dam favorable to reducing the change of content and better welding performance has been introduced,
machine-crossing amount. In addition, in the power genera- which is evolved by martensitic precipitation stainless steel
tion operation period, the bottom hole discharge is opened as (17-4PH) with excellent abrasion resistance.
much as possible according to the operation condition of the
unit and the situation of incoming water and sediment so that (4) Coating protection at abrasion sites of overflow com-
the outflow ratio is increased to reduce the machine-crossing ponents. The abrasion occurs on the surface of the
amount by 11–21%. However, the machine-crossing amount overflow components, so the abrasion resistance of the
of d 0.05 mm is 2.5–54% less than that of out of storage. surface of the overflow components is enhanced or the
During the mixed operation of various drainage bottom holes abrasion resistance function is enhanced by coating the
in the period of muddy water power generation, the surface of the overflow components with an
machine-crossing amount is reduced by 16% compared with abrasion-resistant material by means of spraying.
the average amount of sediment, and the machine-crossing Advanced technologies, such as ultrahigh sonic WC
amount of d 0.05 mm is reduced by 27%. At present, the spraying, alloy powder spray welding or spraying, and
sediment discharge bottom hole is generally arranged on the plasma arc spray welding, can be used for corrosion
heavily sediment-carrying rivers. For example, the bottom protection. Besides, furan resin modified epoxy coating,
hole layout design of Liujiaxia Hydropower station is more spray polyurea elastomer, and other new materials can
reasonable than that of Sanmenxia [80]. be adopted. In order to guarantee the normal operation
of hydraulic machinery, the corrosion protection is
(2) Reasonable selection of parameters and control of the connected with local protection and whole safe opera-
relative overflow speed. The allowance should be tion, and the exploration direction shall be turned from
reserved for the installed elevation. The selection of abrasion phenomenon and law to control and protection.
reasonable unit parameters and the control of overflow
speed are one of the keys that must be considered in In recent years, scientific and technological cooperation at
sediment-containing flow power stations. The influence home and abroad is active, and the domestic wear-resistant
of sediment abrasion and flow speed on water turbine is materials and cast industry develop rapidly, which promotes
very great. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the the scientific and technological cooperation among enter-
parameter level, especially to control the overflow prises, between enterprises and universities and scientific
speed in selecting the turbine parameters of the heavily research institutes at home and abroad. Many internationally
sediment-carrying river power station. well-known companies have come to China for cooperation or
(3) Optimizing the material of water turbine. As a whole, procurement and have invested in establishing enterprises in
the anti-abrasion materials should have comprehensive China. Many domestic universities and scientific research
properties of high toughness, high hardness, uniform institutions have also actively cooperated with enterprises to
quality, fine crystal grains, compact structure, strong jointly tackle key problems in technology and equipment
tensile force and high fatigue limit, workability, and manufacturing. Through continuous research and develop-
weldability. The experimental research and application ment and the above effective anti-corrosion measures, the
of anti-abrasion materials are obtained through explo- material wear and corrosion phenomenon of hydropower
ration and practice. In the initial stage, Cr5Cu with high engineering have been effectively controlled, and the main-
hardness and 0Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel with tenance cycle has been greatly improved. In view of the
anti-abrasion fatigue are the first choice. remaining problems existing in the engineering application of
wear-resistant materials and combined with the Great Western
After it is used in 4# turbine of Sanmenxia Hydropower Development Strategy, the demand for highly wear-resistant
station, the results show that the abrasion resistance of materials for the construction of large-scale high-head power
Cr5Cu is not as good as that of epoxy silicon carbide coating stations is realized. The researchers are making full use of the
and the abrasion resistance of 0Cr18Ni9Ti austenitic stain- new achievements and new technologies of modern material
less steel in muddy water is not good. The Gezhouba and adopting new technical ideas to develop a new generation
Hydropower station is made of martensitic stainless steel of high-performance and highly wear-resistant materials to
0Cr13Ni4Mo and 0Cr13Ni6Mo. New cast runner meet the needs of high-performance and wear-resistant
0Cr13Ni5Mo is used for 4# turbine of Liujiaxia Hydropower
materials for the current and future construction of high dams Rules for Equipment Inspection and Repair of Power Gen-
and large reservoirs. eration Enterprises, the overhaul interval is 2–3 years, the
minor repair interval is 4–8 months, the overhaul items, the
construction period arrangement, and the maintenance per-
4.6.3 Summary of Investigation Data iod shall be determined by the superior competent depart-
and Results of the Hydropower Industry ment according to experience. In the long-term continuous
operation of hydropower station units, there are many kinds
4.6.3.1 Total Maintenance Cost of Hydropower of corrosion faults, such as wear, rusting, vibration, cavita-
Stations in China in 2013 and 2014 tion corrosion, and so on, which may affect the safe opera-
By the end of 2013, the total installed capacity of hydro- tion of the units and even cause accidents. It is necessary to
power in the country was 280 million kW, a year-on-year maintain and repair the units. The development of hydro-
increase of 12.3%. By the end of 2014, the total installed electric power generation equipment overhaul technology
capacity of hydropower reached 302 million kW, accounting can be divided into three stages: accident repair, regular
for 22.2% of the total power installed capacity of the repair, and condition maintenance [81]. Accident repair is
country, and the annual power generation of hydropower conducted after failure occurs. Regular repair shall be carried
reached 1.06 trillion kW h. By the end of 2015, the total out in accordance with the requirements of overhaul regu-
installed capacity of hydropower in China reached 319 lations. When the specified overhaul period is reached, the
million kW, and the annual power generation was 1.11 overhaul shall be carried out regardless of whether the
trillion kW h. China’s hydropower stations rank first in the equipment has large defects and whether it can operate
world in terms of quantity, installed capacity, and power safely. The overhaul interval is 2–3 years. The content and
generation, and China has become the largest hydropower period of maintenance work shall be predetermined, and the
country in the world. cost for maintenance shall be estimated.
Under normal conditions, hydropower equipment is in In contact with the professionals of some hydropower
24 h of uninterrupted operation. In order to ensure the nor- enterprises and institutions, it is found that, in order to
mal operation of hydropower stations, maintenance of facilitate preliminary estimation, the percentage calculation
hydropower stations becomes an important part of the work of the total investment is commonly used, and the annual
of hydropower enterprises. At present, regular preventive operation cost of the hydropower station can be estimated by
maintenance is adopted in China, and maintenance man- 1–2% of its investment or construction cost. At present, the
agement generally takes the form of extended overhaul, average investment per kilowatt of hydropower station is
general overhaul, minor repair, temporary repair, and so on. about RMB 10,000. It is known that the annual operating
According to China’s electric power industry standard Guide cost per unit kilowatt is RMB 100–200, namely, RMB 100–
Fig. 4.189 Proportion of the number of different-scale hydropower stations

488 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.190 Proportion of installed capacity of different-scale hydropower stations
200/kW. Large power stations take lower value, while small- The installed capacity of small- and medium-sized
and medium-sized power stations take higher value. hydropower stations accounts for only 36.9%. The calcu-
According to statistics, there are 46,758 hydropower lation shows that the maintenance cost of hydropower
stations in China, including 22,190 hydropower stations stations in China is RMB 137/kW. In 2013, the total
above the scale and 24,568 hydropower stations under the hydropower installed capacity in the country was 280
scale. Figure 4.189 shows the proportion of the number of million kW, and the hydropower maintenance cost was
different-scale hydropower stations, and Fig. 4.190 shows RMB 38.36 billion. In 2014, the total hydropower
the proportion of installed capacity of different-scale installed capacity in the country was 302 million kW, and
hydropower stations. the hydropower maintenance cost was RMB 41.37 billion.
As can be seen from Fig. 4.189, the absolute amount In 2015, the total hydropower installed capacity in the
of small hydropower stations in China is up to 97.2%. country was 319 million kW, and the hydropower main-
However, as shown in Fig. 4.190, the installed capacity of tenance cost was RMB 43.7 billion.
large hydropower stations in China accounts for 63.1%.
Fig. 4.191 Hydropower installed capacity of China from 2008 to 2014

4.6.3.2 Total Investment of Construction corrosion cost of the hydropower industry, save resources and
Corrosion Protection of Hydropower energy consumption, and better protect the environment.
Stations in China in 2013 and 2014
At present, the average investment per kilowatt of hydro-
power station is about RMB 10,000, of which the 4.6.4 Corrosion of Hydropower Facilities
anti-corrosion cost accounts for 3%, namely, RMB 300/kW. and Main Buildings in the Hydropower
As can be seen from Fig. 4.191, the increase of hydropower Industry
installed capacity in China was 31.12 million kW in 2013
and 21.81 million kW in 2014. Therefore, China invested 4.6.4.1 Corrosion Problem
RMB 9.336 billion in corrosion protection of hydropower in The investigation shows that the corrosion failure forms of
2013, and RMB 6.543 billion in 2014. metal structures in hydropower engineering can be divided
According to the results of the above investigation and into uniform corrosion and local corrosion.
statistics, the total cost of hydropower corrosion protection in
China was RMB 47.696 billion in 2013 and RMB 47.913 1. Uniform corrosion
billion in 2014, as shown in Table 4.54. Through the com-
parison of Fig. 4.192, it can be seen that in 2013, the initial The so-called uniform corrosion means that the corrosion is
anti-corrosion cost is also heavily invested due to the peak distributed over the surface of the entire metal structure,
installed capacity of hydropower industry. However, as the which may or may not be uniform. The result of uniform
total installed capacity of hydropower increases year by year, corrosion is that the thickness of the component is reduced.
the annual maintenance cost is also increasing. Therefore, The risk of uniform corrosion is relatively small, and a
further promotion and application of new materials and tech- certain corrosion allowance can be increased in the design
nologies for corrosion protection will help reduce the annual according to the corrosion rate of the metal and the required
service life of the structure.
Table 4.54 Corrosion maintenance cost of China’s hydropower In the atmospheric environment, the structure and
industry in 2013 and 2014 equipment of hydropower engineering mainly suffer from
Year Initial anti-corrosion Maintenance Total uniform corrosion, and the severity of corrosion is related to
cost/billion (RMB) cost/billion cost/billion the temperature of the climate zone and the relative humidity
(RMB) (RMB) in the environment. Wet areas in the tropics are corroded
2013 93.36 383.6 476.96 much faster than dry areas. On the whole, the corrosion of
2014 65.43 413.7 479.13 metal structures and equipment is very small due to the weak
atmospheric corrosion of the environment where the
Fig. 4.192 Corrosion maintenance cost of China’s hydropower industry in 2013 and 2014
490 J. Zhang
hydropower engineering is located and the coating or

spraying metal protection on the metal structures or equip-
ment at present.
2. Local corrosion
In addition to uniform corrosion of metal structure in

hydropower engineering, local corrosion of various forms
will occur, and local corrosion of structural components in
water is particularly serious. Local corrosion is mainly
concentrated in a certain area of the metal surface, and there
are many types of local corrosion, including galvanic cor-
rosion, crevice corrosion, bacterial corrosion and abrasion–
corrosion, oxygen concentration corrosion near the water-
line, and pitting corrosion caused by coating defects. Fig. 4.193 Local corrosion pit caused by galvanic corrosion on the
surface of access door slider
For different metals in the same medium, the galvanic cur-

rent flows and the dissolution rate of the metal with low
potential increases, resulting in local corrosion at the contact
part because the corrosion potential is not equal, and the
dissolution rate of the metal with high potential decreases.
This corrosion is known as galvanic corrosion, also known
as contact corrosion or bimetallic corrosion. In hydropower
engineering, different structural components are often com-
posed of two different metals, and galvanic corrosion
sometimes exists at the junction, resulting in serious corro-
sion of the components with negative potential, such as
corrosion pits on the surface of the access door slider
(Fig. 4.193). Galvanic corrosion, such as local galvanic
corrosion of gates of a power station, often occurs around the
weld joint because the electrode is different from the body
Fig. 4.194 Couple corrosion at the weld on the gate of a power station
metal material (Fig. 4.194). However, this form of corrosion
is not very common because the metal structures are coated
with coatings such as coatings or spraying metal coatings to
isolate direct contact between the structure and the dielectric
water. For example, only 0.54% of the 369 welding joints of
Zhongshan Gate 1#, 2#, and 3# are seriously corroded.
2) Crevice corrosion
For metal components in the medium, metal and metal or

metal and nonmetallic will form a particularly small gap so
that the medium in the gap is in a stagnant state, resulting in
the accelerated corrosion of the metal in the gap. Such local
corrosion is called crevice corrosion. When there is a gap in
the metal surface, the medium in the gap is in a stagnant
state, the substances participating in the corrosion reaction
are difficult to replenish inward, and the corrosion products
in the gap are difficult to diffuse out. In the gap, as corrosion
continues, the composition, concentration, and pH value of Fig. 4.195 Severe corrosion of ponding part of box iron
of the metal, such as oxygen concentration, salt concentra-

tion, and pH value to form local corrosion battery on the
metal surface; and ➃ destroying the coating on the metal
surface.
Detection results of bacteria in water samples taken from
different parts and depths near the trash racks of Dongjiang
Power station and Danjiangkou Water Control Project
(Table 4.55) show that in the neutral water where the
hydropower engineering is located, the common corrosive
bacteria include aerobic iron bacteria and anaerobic
sulfate-reducing bacteria, iron bacteria in shallow water, and
sulfate-reducing bacteria in deepwater. The investigation of
microbial corrosion in the underwater metal structure of
Danjiangkou Water Control Project also shows that the
amount of iron bacteria decreases slightly with the increase
of water depth, while the amount of sulfate-reducing bacteria
Fig. 4.196 Severe corrosion of ponding part of angle steel
increases obviously. In the high-temperature season of
August, the number of these two kinds of bacteria is higher,
the medium are more and more different from the whole and the number of them is lower in January–May.
medium, resulting in accelerated corrosion of the metal In the anoxic environment such as deepwater, the oxygen
surface in the gap and reducing the corrosion of the metal content is low, the cathodic reaction rate of oxygen depo-
surface outside the gap. As a result, corrosion pits or deep larization is slow, and the uniform corrosion rate of steel is
holes of varying depth appear in the gap. Many metal correspondingly low. However, the presence of sulfate-
components may have gaps due to unreasonable design or reducing bacteria will reduce sulfate to sulfide during
machining process, such as flange connection surface, nut activity. The corrosion of steel near bacteria is accelerated by
pressing surface, weld hole, and rust layer (as shown in the action of iron sulfide, or the cathode part of metal surface
Figs. 4.195 and 4.196). They form gaps in their contact is depolarized by consuming hydrogen, and the electro-
surface with the metal. Sediment, dirt, debris, and organisms chemical corrosion process of metal is accelerated, resulting
deposit on the metal surface and form gaps. Therefore, in serious local corrosion pits of steel structure in deepwater.
crevice corrosion is one of the causes of corrosion pits of In shallow water with sufficient oxygen supply,
metal components in hydropower engineering. sulfate-reducing bacteria and iron bacteria often act together.
Iron bacteria living in water oxidizes Fe2+ dissolved from
3) Bacterial corrosion corrosion on the structure to Fe3+ and form Fe(OH)3 pre-
cipitate. The precipitate adheres to the surface of the com-
All kinds of bacteria existing in water can affect the corro- ponent to form a hard shell-like rust lump, making the metal
sion process of the metal in their life activities through ➀ surface under the rust lump become an oxygen-poor anode
producing the metabolic products with corrosiveness, such region, and the rest of the metal layer outside the rust lump is
as sulfuric acid, organic acid, and sulfide that deteriorates the an oxygen-rich cathode region. This local oxygen concen-
corrosive environment of metal; ➁ influencing the kinetic tration effect accelerates the corrosion of the metal under the
process of electrode reaction; ➂ changing the environment lump, and the anoxic environment under the lump provides a
Table 4.55 Water sample microorganism detection result of Dongjiang Power Station
Type of bacteria Water sample of Dongjiang Power station Water sample near Danjiangkou trash Sterile
rack water
Surface Reservoir Deepwater Tailwater Upper Middle Lower
water water section section section
Iron bacteria + + – + + + + –
Sulfate-reducing – – + – – + + –
bacteria
Aerobic heterotrophic + + – + + + + –
bacteria
Note “+” means bacteria, “–” means no bacteria
492 J. Zhang
place for growth and reproduction of the anaerobic bacteria to survive and propagate, so the components with
sulfate-reducing bacteria. By the biochemical action of bio attachment also generally appear rust and corrosion pits
sulfate-reducing bacteria, the metal under the lump is sub- caused by corrosion by sulfate-reducing bacteria.
jected to accelerated corrosion. The combined action of the To sum up, bacterial corrosion is another corrosion form
two bacteria causes the surface of the metal structure to be of metal corrosion in hydropower engineering, which causes
covered with rust nodules of varying sizes, as shown in serious local corrosion pits of metal. In deepwater and dead
Fig. 4.197. The large diameter is up to u20 mm, the surface water, the bio-attached steel structure is usually acted by
layer of rust lump is generally yellow-brown hard shell with sulfate-reducing bacteria. In shallow water, corrosion is
thickness of 0.3–0.4 mm, dark brown under hard shell, and generally the result of the combined action of iron bacteria
the innermost layer is black soft substance. After the rusting and sulfate-reducing bacteria, the corrosion products of
lump is gouged, there are corrosion pits of different depths which are mainly Fe3O4, Fe(OH)3 and a small amount of FeS.
under it. The results of sample analysis of corrosion products
(Table 4.56) show that the corrosion products are mainly 4) Wear corrosion
Fe3O4 and Fe(OH)3, and a small amount of FeS (i.e., black
soft substance). The content of sulfate-reducing bacteria in The high moving speed of the medium or the high relative
the rust-coated corrosion products at the deep hole is as high movement speed between the medium and the metal com-
as 9.5 105/g, and 1 10/g in the reservoir water at the ponent makes the local surface of the component seriously
same height. There is no significant difference in iron bac- damaged by corrosion, which is called wear corrosion. It is
teria content between the two. The bio-attached site on the the result of a synergistic effect between electrochemical and
metal structure is also an ideal place for sulfate-reducing hydrodynamic factors. Most metal structures in hydropower
engineering run in flowing water, and the flow rate of trash
rack is generally 1–2 m/s. The flow rate near the inner wall of
the penstock is 5–6 m/s, and the flow rate of deep hole gate is
20–25 m/s. As for the flow rate of the reverse arc gate of the
ship lock, each ship lock is not the same and the flow rate is
generally high. The Gezhouba ship lock is 13 m/s. The flow
rate of flood discharge is also different for each hydropower
station, and each flood discharge is also different. The water
diversion chamber and blades of the turbine are high-speed
water flow. These components are subjected to severe wear
and corrosion under dynamic water conditions, but the forms
of corrosion are different in different flow rate ranges.
The simulation test of the effect of flow rate on corrosion
behavior shows that when the flow rate of water is low, the
supply of oxygen increases with the increase of flow rate,
Fig. 4.197 Gate full of rust lump which accelerates the cathodic depolarization reaction during
Table 4.56 Rust sample analysis result of Xijin Power station

No. Sample description Analysis Analysis of elemental composition of EDXA or XRDA mineral
method composition of XRDA
1 Side column of trash rack EDAX Mainly Fe, a minute amount of Cl, K, Ca, S, Si, Al
2 Grid bar of trash rack EDAX Mainly Fe, a minute amount of Cl, Si, S, K, Ca
3 Connecting plate of trash rack EDAX Mainly Fe, a small amount of Si, Ca, a minute amount of S, Cl, K
XRDA Mainly Fe3O4 and Fe(OH)3, a small amount of FeS, a-SiO2 (quartz),
CaCO3 (calcite)
4 Corrosion products of trash rack EDAX Mainly Fe, a small amount of Si, a minute amount of K, S, Ca
5 Warehouse trash rack EDAX Mainly Fe, a minute amount of Si, S, K, Cl, Ca,
6 Corrosion products of lower faceplate of EDAX Mainly Fe, a minute amount of Ca, Ti, Si, Cl, S, K
gate top beam XRDA Mainly Fe3O4 and Fe(OH)3, a small amount of FeS
Note EDAX X-ray photoelectron energy dispersive spectrum analysis, XRDA X-ray diffraction analysis
Fig. 4.198 Corrosion morphology of A3 steel in freshwater with a

flow rate of 4 m/s
steel corrosion, resulting in an increase in electrochemical Fig. 4.199 Cavitation corrosion of water turbine blades in Xijin
Power Station
corrosion rate. Hydromechanical factors begin to act, caus-
ing the total corrosion to accelerate. The flow rate increases
further, the hydrodynamic factor increases, and the corrosion generated on the back surface of the blades, so that the
caused by it increases slightly. However, when the supply of pressure of the water flow is lower than its vapor pressure.
oxygen is sufficient to make the steel show a tendency to The front of the blade is a high-pressure zone, and water flows
passivate, the electrochemical corrosion rate decreases, and from the high-pressure zone quickly into the low-pressure
the total corrosion slows down instead. In this flow rate zone. Then bubbles quickly burst under pressure. When the
range, corrosion of the metal often exhibits the pitting cor- bubbles burst, a shock wave is applied to the blade surface at a
rosion characteristics as shown in Fig. 4.198. pressure of up to 14 kg/mm2, which is sufficient to make the
When the water flow rate increases again, the hydrody- metal plastically deform. Thus, closely connected cavities are
namic factor becomes more obvious, and a significant shear often seen in local areas of the back of the water turbine blades
stress is exerted on the metal surface. The high shear stress and even cracks (when impact strength is high) are caused by
can peel off the formed corrosion products and the fluid will cavitation corrosion (Fig. 4.199) [83].
carry them away, causing erosion corrosion on the surface of According to the above field investigation and laboratory
the component. Moreover, the water of each hydropower tests and analysis results, it is found that the structure and
station contains different amounts of sand (Table 4.57). The equipment in the atmosphere are mainly subjected to uni-
presence of these solid particles enhances the moment of form corrosion. In addition to uniform corrosion of structural
shear stress, resulting in severe wear corrosion of the surface components in water, serious local corrosion occurs with the
[82]. The deep hole gate, the bottom of the flood discharge main local corrosion forms of crevice corrosion, bacterial
gate, and the reverse arc gate of the ship lock are all sub- corrosion, and wear corrosion. Forms of expression include
jected to severe erosion corrosion. The components sub- corrosion pits, deep valleys, grooves, corrugations, round
jected to erosion corrosion are characterized by deep valleys holes, and sponge-like cavities cut along the direction of
or horseshoe-shaped grooves cut in the direction of water water flow. Corrosion pits may be caused by crevice cor-
flow, as well as grooves, corrugations, round holes, etc. rosion, bacterial corrosion, and wear corrosion at low flow
Another form of abrasion—cavitation corrosion occurs on rate. Deep valleys, grooves, corrugations, and round holes
the water turbine blades. During the high-speed relative cut in the direction of water flow are usually caused by
motion between the water turbine blades and the water flow, a high-speed water and sand scouring, and sponge-like cavi-
pressure jump region is formed on the front and rear surface of ties occur in water turbine blades subjected to cavitation
the blades of the water turbine, and a negative pressure is corrosion.
Table 4.57 Sediment content in water of each hydropower station (unit: kg/m3)
Hydropower station Dongjiang Xijin Gezhouba Qingtongxia Danjiangkou
Average value 0.21 0.29 1.19 6.5 2.92
Maximum value 4.7 – 10.5 400 3.84
494 J. Zhang
Table 4.58 Corrosion rate in exposure corrosion test of bare steel (unit: mm/a)
Exposure station Wuhan City Huangshi City Yichang City Gezhouba
Steel 0.5a 1a 2a 0.5a 1a 2a 0.5a 1a 2a 0.5a 1a 2a
WSPA 0.0527 0.0328 0.0285 0.0970 0.0594 0.0421 0.131 0.0757 0.0567 0.0699 0.0477 0.0316
09CuTiRe 0.0485 0.0322 0.0290 0.0875 0.0564 0.0449 0.1231 0.0748 0.0569 0.0618 0.0452 0.0337
A3F 0.0510 0.0338 0.0316 0.0957 0.0747 0.0524 0.1110 0.0768 0.0591 0.0688 0.0495 0.0375
No. 15 0.0595 0.0428 0.0338 0.1174 0.0817 0.0647 0.1524 0.1086 0.0874 0.0757 0.0563 0.0523
4.6.4.2 Degree of Corrosion As can be seen from Table 4.58, the corrosion rates of
steel of different materials are different, and the corrosion
rates of steel of the same materials are also different in dif-
1. Average degree of corrosion ferent exposed places. The corrosion rate at the initial stage
of exposure is large, up to 0.1524 mm/a. The corrosion rate
The average corrosion amount is usually expressed by the of steel decreases gradually with the extension of exposure
average thickness reduction amount. The residual thickness of time, and the corrosion rate of bare steel in the atmosphere of
the structure after corrosion is measured with a special vernier middle and lower reaches of Yangtze River is in the range of
caliper or ultrasonic measuring instrument. The corrosion rate 0.0285–0.0874 mm/a in the second year of exposure.
is calculated according to the difference between the original Through the exposure test of steel under atmospheric envi-
thickness and the residual thickness and the service life. ronment, it is found that the following relationship exists
Atmospheric metal structure and equipment are generally between corrosion rate and time of bare steel:
subjected to uniform corrosion, and the degree of corrosion
is relatively light. Under the condition of coating protection D ¼ Atn
at present, the corrosion rate can’t be basically measured.
where D is the corrosion depth, lm; t is the exposure time, a;
The atmospheric exposure test results of several bare steels
A and n are constants. The A value of low-carbon steel is
in Gezhouba and the middle reaches of the Yangtze River
about 30 in dry less polluted environment and about 40 in
are shown in Table 4.58.
general hot flash environment. n value is greatly influenced
Table 4.59 Test result of average corrosion rate of penstock in Dongjiang Power Station
Structure Position Design Measured average Average corrosion Average corrosion rate/
thickness/mm value/mm amount/mm (mm/a)
4# First 36 35.55 0.45 0.045
penstock section
Table 4.60 Test result of average corrosion rate of some components in Xijin Power Station
Structure Position Original design Measured average Average corrosion Average corrosion
thickness/mm thickness/mm amount/mm rate/(mm/a)
Lower half of spillway Main girder 14 13.6 0.4 0.011
gate of 12 holes web
Panel 12 12.1 – –
Crossbeam 25 25.26 – –
Trash rack Grid plate 14 12.73 1.27 0.018
Connecting 6 5.03 0.97 0.014
flat iron
Top beam 10 8.73 1.27 0.018
Connecting u20 u19.53 0.47 0.007
bar
Table 4.61 Test result of average corrosion rate of Qingtongxia Power Station
Structure Position Original Measured average Average corrosion Average corrosion rate/
thickness/mm thickness/mm amount/mm (mm/a)
Flood discharge Panel 20 19.45 0.55 0.020
gate Web 20 19.2 0.80 0.029
plate
Wing 40 31.4 8.6 0.307
plate
Side 20 19.69 0.31 0.011
beam
Overflow gate Panel 12 7.7 4.3 0.154
Web 12 11.8 0.2 0.007
plate
Wing 24 21.8 2.2 0.078
plate
Side 20 16.0 4.0 0.143
beam
Table 4.62 Test result of average corrosion rate of some components corrosion data of steel under the existing corrosion protec-
of Fengman Hydropower Station tive measures.
Structure Position Average Average The investigation results in Tables 4.59, 4.60, 4.61, 4.62,
corrosion corrosion 4.63, 4.64, and 4.65 show that the corrosion degree of the
amount/mm rate/(mm/a)
metal structures of each hydropower station is different. The
Flat working Panel 1.72 0.040 metal structures of Gezhouba and Qingtongxia Hydropower
gate for spillway Main beam 0.75 0.017
dams
station are seriously corroded and the corrosion rate is rel-
Side beam 0.83 0.019 atively high. The corrosion rate is closely related to the
Clapboard 0.94 0.022 operating conditions of the structures. For different struc-
Secondary 0.95 0.022 tures of gate, trash rack, and water diversion steel pipe, the
beam average corrosion rate of the trash rack is 0.007–0.081 mm/a
and that of the water diversion steel pipe is 0.021–
0.045 mm/a. There are various types of gates, and the
operating conditions are different. Thus, the corrosion rate of
Table 4.63 Test result of average corrosion rate of penstock of
Meishan Hydropower Station various kinds of components is greatly different, and the
average corrosion rate range is large, ranging from 0.007 to
Structure Position Average corrosion Average corrosion
amount/mm rate/(mm/a)
0.307 mm/a. The difference between the minimum value and
the maximum value is nearly 50 times.
Penstock 2# 0.76 0.021
Due to the different operation conditions, environments,
3# 0.83 0.023
and protective measures of each structure, the corrosion rate
is quite different. In order to have an overall quantitative
concept for the corrosion degree of the metal structure of the
by the composition of the material and environmental fac- hydropower engineering, we summarize the corrosion data
tors, which is in the range of 0.21–1.97, but mostly in the of each power station. Figure 4.200 shows the average
range of 0.4–0.5. It is concluded that the average corrosion corrosion rate frequency distribution for all tested steel
rate after 10 years of exposure is about 0.01 mm/a. structures. As can be seen from Fig. 4.200, although the
Tables 4.59, 4.60, 4.61, 4.62, 4.63, 4.64, and 4.65 are statistical data of the graph is not in the same environment
field test results of average corrosion rate of underwater and the same structure, the dispersion is relatively large, but
metal structures of some hydropower stations. Since all the corrosion rate is mostly concentrated in the range of
metal structures of hydropower stations have been protected 0.01–0.04 mm/a. The frequency in this range is 69.45%. It
against corrosion, the corrosion data measured are the can be considered that the average corrosion rate of
496 J. Zhang
Table 4.64 Test result of average corrosion rate of steel structure of Danjiangkou Power Station
Structure Position Original Measured average Average corrosion Average corrosion Operating
thickness/mm thickness/mm amount/mm rate/(mm/a) life/a
Weir gate Panel 0.8 0.040 20
Deep hole Panel 1.5 0.075
gate
Trash rack 4# upper 10 9.18 0.82 0.014 29
part
4# middle 10 8.6 1.4 0.023
part
Table 4.65 Test results of average corrosion rate of Gezhouba Hydropower Station
Structure Type of Position Original Measured average Average corrosion Average corrosion
steel thickness/mm thickness/mm amount/mm rate/(mm/a)
Trash 16Mn Grid bar 12 10.68 1.32 0.047
rack A3 Cross bracing 10 8.98 1.02 0.037
16Mn Flange of large 12 10.23 1.77 0.063
crossbeam
16Mn Side column 12 9.725 2.275 0.082
flange
A3 Side column cross 10 8.88 1.12 0.040
bracing
Table 4.66 Detection of local pit depth of spillway gate of Gezhouba Hydropower Station
Structure Position Average pit Average pitting rate/ Maximum pit Maximum pitting rate/
depth/mm (mm/a) depth/mm (mm/a)
Upper section of 3.10 0.221 3.3 0.236
spillway gate
Lower section Side 3.33 0.238 4.2 0.300
column
Bottom 1.74 0.124 2.4 0.174
beam
underwater steel structures in hydropower engineering in corrosion rate. In addition, the local corrosion rate of each
China is generally 0.01–0.04 mm/a in the current protection component is greatly different according to the operating
state. condition. The average local corrosion of the structural
components under the condition of static water and low flow
2. Degree of local corrosion rate is generally less than 0.1 mm/a. At the location of gate
subjected to high-speed water flow, the maximum local
The degree of corrosion is usually expressed in terms of corrosion rate is up to a few hundred millimeters per year,
corrosion pit depth or local thickness reduction. Tables 4.66, and the localized corrosion of turbine blades subjected to
4.67, and 4.68 show the detection results of local corrosion cavitation corrosion is the most serious, reaching several
depth of some metal components in hydropower stations. millimeters per year, such as Gezhouba reaching about
The local corrosion depth is measured with a special vernier 3 mm/a. According to the corrosion degree of Gezhouba
caliper or a special micrometer. Hydropower Station, the average thickness reduction of the
According to Tables 4.58, 4.59, 4.60, 4.61, 4.62, 4.63, bottom panel is 6–8 mm and the maximum thickness
4.64, and 4.65 and compared with Tables 4.66, 4.67, and reduction of the sill is 13–14 mm after 10 years of scouring.
4.68, the average local corrosion rate of underwater metal For water turbine blade, after 6 years of erosion and cavi-
structures is several times to ten times of the uniform tation corrosion, the maximum thickness reduction is
Fig. 4.200 Distribution of corrosion rate of metal structure of hydropower engineering
Table 4.67 Local corrosion detection result of flood discharge gate, water turbine, and scouring of Gezhouba Hydropower Station
Structure Measuring position Original Measured Measured Average Average Maximum Maximum Operating
thickness/mm average average corrosion corrosion corrosion corrosion years/a
thickness/mm minimum amount resistance amount resistance
thickness/mm rate/ rate/
(mm/a) (mm/a)
Arc gate 26# Panel Over the 18 16 2 0.222 9
of Erjiang hole bottom
flood water
discharge stop
gate screw
hole
Screw 18 14 4 0.444
hole
Below the 18 10 8 0.889
screw
hole
Left 16 15.7 0.3 0.033
Bottom Middle 16 9.7 6.3 0.700
bank
Right 16 15.5 0.5 0.056
Lower 16 2–3 13–14 1.444
central
margin
2# Panela Upper 18 17.4 16.6 0.6 0.075 1.4 0.175 8
hole
Middle 18 16.36 15.8 1.64 0.205 2.2 0.275
Lower 18 15.24 14.1 2.76 0.345 3.9 0.488
a
8# Panel Upper 18 15.55 14.3 2.45 0.245 3.7 0.370 10
hole
Middle 18 13.7 12.7 4.3 0.430 5.3 0.530
Lower 18 11.5 9.0 6.5 0.65 9.0 0.900
10# Panela Upper 18 15.93 15.8 2.07 0.188 2.2 0.200 11
hole
Middle 18 13.93 13.3 4.07 0.370 4.7 0.427
Lower 18 11.23 10.1 6.77 7.9 0.728
Water turbine Leaf outlet 25 6 19 3.167 6
a
The measuring position is three points from top to bottom within 140 mm above the bottom edge of the panel
498 J. Zhang
Table 4.68 Detection result of local corrosion pit depth of Danjiangkou Power Station
Structure Component Average pit Average pitting Maximum pit Maximum Running
depth/mm rate/(mm/a) depth/mm pitting rate/ time/a
(mm/a)
Weir top, lower Upper side of the web of 1.0 0.090 2.0 0.140 20
section of flat door the main cross beam
Lower side of the web of 1.0 0.090
the main cross beam
Side web 1.0 0.090
Box iron beams 1.0 0.090 2.0 0.140
Deep hole door Imported lining steel plate 2.0 0.500 3.8 0.950 4
Back of arc door 1.45 0.363 1.8 0.450
Trash rack Upper section of No. 4 0.82 0.042 0.89 0.045 29
Middle section of No. 4 0.86 0.054 2.5 0.110
Lower section of No. 4 1.62 0.080 1.8 0.086
19 mm, the original blade is 25 mm, and the measured kilowatt was about RMB 1,000. Later, the development
thinnest part is only 6 mm, showing that local corrosion conditions of the hydropower station become difficult, the
degree is amazing. resettlement standards of the reservoir area have been
appropriately improved, the mechanization of construction
increases and price level rises, so the investment per kilowatt
4.6.5 Corrosion Cost and Fee of Hydropower was about RMB 1,500 in the 1960s, about RMB 2,000 in the
Equipment and Major Buildings [84] 1970s, and about RMB 3,000 in the 1980s. In the 1990s, the
construction of the Three Gorges Hydropower Project was
4.6.5.1 Cost of Investment and Operation started and the investment in the Three Gorges Hydropower
of Hydropower Station Project was approved to be RMB 135.266 billion in the
static investment estimate based on the price level at the end
of May 1993. Among them, RMB 50.09 billion was for hub
1. Investment in hydropower station project, RMB 32.274 billion was for the power transmission
and transformation project, and RMB 52.902 billion for the
It is generally composed of cost of permanent buildings resettlement fund. The construction period is long. Accord-
(such as dam, spillway, and water conveyance tunnel), ing to the audit result of the final financial accounts for the
purchase and installation of electromechanical equipment, completion of the Three Gorges Hydropower Project in
temporary works, and resettlement of reservoir area. 2013, the final investment for the completed project is RMB
According to the proportion of basic investment of hydro- 87.195 billion, the investment for power transmission and
power engineering, the cost of permanent buildings accounts transformation project is RMB 34.428 billion, and the total
for 32–45%; the purchase and installation cost of elec- investment for project construction is RMB 121.623 billion.
tromechanical equipment accounts for about 18–25%; the The investment for resettlement is RMB 85.653 billion, and
investment of temporary project accounts for about 15–20%, the total investment of the project is RMB 207.276 billion.
including the investment of building construction team and The installed capacity of the Three Gorges Hydropower
the purchase cost of construction machinery. The resettle- Station reaches 22.5 million kW, with an investment per
ment cost, compensation cost, and other expenses of reser- kilowatt of RMB 9,212. This is mainly due to the high
voir submerging loss account for 10–35%. The hydropower investment for resettlement in the Three Gorges.
station is generally far away from the load center area, so the Compared with the construction of Baihetan, Xiangjiaba,
investment of power transmission and transformation pro- and Xiluodu hydropower stations, the technical and eco-
jects may sometimes reach more than 30% of the investment nomic indexes are very superior mainly in the low total
of the hydropower station itself. investment of the project. The total investment of Baihetan
The investment per kilowatt of hydropower station is Hydropower Station is RMB 84 billion, the installed
closely related to the construction conditions of the hydro- capacity is 16 million kW, and the investment per kilowatt is
power station. In the 1950s, the average investment per RMB 5,250. The total investment of Xiluodu is RMB 79.2
billion, the total installed capacity is 12.6 million kW, and season, the water price for increasing power generation
the investment per kilowatt is RMB 6,286. The total of hydropower stations is lower.
investment of Xiangjiaba Hydropower Station is RMB 43.4 (6) Other expenses: including labor insurance fee, admin-
billion, the installed capacity is 6 million kW, and the istrative management fee, office fee, travel expenses,
investment per kilowatt is RMB 7,233. etc.
In hydropower projects, reservoir resettlement investment
is a major factor in controlling the total investment in the The above various expenses can be calculated according
project. The total power generation capacity of Xiluodu and to the relevant statistics data of the electric power industry
Xiangjiaba hydropower stations is slightly larger than that of and the specific conditions of the power station. In case of
Three Gorges. The total static investment is only over RMB lack of information, in order to facilitate preliminary esti-
120 billion, and the reservoir resettlement population is only mation, the percentage of the total investment is used. The
about 100,000, which is equivalent to 1/10 of the total annual operation cost of the hydropower station can be
resettlement of the Three Gorges. As the proportion of estimated by 1–2% of the investment or construction cost,
reservoir resettlement investment is small, the investment that is, the annual operation cost per unit kilowatt is RMB
and cost per kilowatt of the two power stations are superior 100–200. Large power stations take lower value and
to those of the large-scale hydropower projects under con- medium-sized power stations take higher value.
struction and to be constructed in the future. Under the
current normal construction conditions, the average invest- 3. Annual cost of hydropower station
ment per kilowatt of domestic hydropower stations is about
RMB 10,000, namely, RMB 10,000/kW. In order to comprehensively reflect the cost of the hydro-
power station (including one-off investment and recurrent
2. Annual operating cost for hydropower station annual operation cost), it is often expressed as annual cost.
The annual operation cost for maintaining the normal (1) When the static economic evaluation is carried out, the
operation of the hydropower station includes the following annual cost of the hydropower station is the sum of the
parts. basic depreciation cost and the annual operation cost.
Basic depreciation cost = original value of fixed
(1) Major repair charge: Major buildings and mechanical assets basic depreciation rate.
and electrical equipment are generally repaired once
every two or three years. Major repair charge is saved When the straight-line depreciation method is adopted
from the annual electric charge as a fund for major and the residual value is not taken into account, the basic
repairs by 1%. depreciation rate is: basic depreciation rate = 1/depreciation
Major repair charge = original value of fixed life; the depreciation life generally adopts the economic life.
assets major repair charge rate. Assuming that the economic life of the main buildings of the
(2) Maintenance cost: cost required for regular inspection hydropower station is 50 years, the basic depreciation rate is
and maintenance of buildings and electromechanical 2%; assuming that the economic life of the mechanical and
equipment. electrical equipment of the hydropower station is 25 years,
(3) Material cost: refers to the cost of stock materials and the basic depreciation rate is 4%, and so on.
processed materials. The generation cost of hydropower station includes basic
(4) Salary: including basic salary and additional salary, depreciation cost and annual operation cost, which is the
various allowances and bonuses, calculated according annual cost of hydropower station.
to the authorized strength of the staff.
(5) Water fee: the water fee calculated according to the (2) When dynamic economic evaluation is carried out, the
amount of water used for power generation and the annual cost NF水 of hydropower station is the sum of
water price for power generation shall be paid to the the annual amortization value (capital annual recovery
reservoir management office or the competent unit. The value) and the annual operation cost, namely, the
water price for power generation should be different annual cost NF水 = the present value of the construc-
from the water price for comprehensive utilization of tion cost of the hydropower station [A/P, i,
power generation and irrigation. During the flood n] + annual operation cost.
500 J. Zhang
In the national economic evaluation, both the present flow rate is 5 m/s, the corrosion rate is 4 g/(m h)], and the
value of the cost and the annual operation fee should be design service life is 50 years. The most corrosion-prone
calculated according to the shadow price, and i is the social area of the 0.3 million kW unit is 685 m2 of volute case and
discount rate. In financial evaluation, it is calculated 313 m2 of top cover, with a total corrosion area of 998 m2.
according to the current price, i is the industry benchmark
rate of return; n is the economic life of the hydropower (1) When the flow rate is 10 m/s:
station; [A/P, i, n] is the profit amortization factor (or capital Corrosion allowance: 7 998 24 365 50 =
recovery factor). 3059.9 (t);
Material price: RMB 17/kg 3,059,868 kg = RMB
4.6.5.2 Total Maintenance Cost in 2013 and 2014 52.018 million.
By the end of 2013, the total installed capacity of hydro- (2) When the flow rate is 5 m/s:
power in the country was 280 million kW, a year-on-year Corrosion allowance: 4 998 24 365 50 =
increase of 12.3%. By the end of 2014, the total installed 1748.5 t;
capacity of hydropower reached 302 million kW, accounting Material price: RMB 17/kg 1,748,496 kg = RMB
for 22.2% of the total power installed capacity of the 297.24400 million.
country, and the annual power generation of hydropower From the above calculation, it can be seen that even if
reached 1.06 trillion kW h. By the end of 2015, the total the water flow is at a speed of 10 m/s, the material cost
installed capacity of hydropower in China reached 319 of the volute case and top cover of 0.3 million kW unit
million kW, and the annual power generation is 1.11 trillion due to the increase of corrosion allowance is also as
kW h. There is no doubt that China has become the world’s high as RMB 52.018 million on the basis of the cost
largest hydropower country. increase of the remaining facilities regardless of the
The annual operation cost of hydropower station can be weight increase. It can be seen that the corrosion
estimated by 1–2% of its investment or cost. At present, the allowance alone is not the optimal method for corrosion
average investment per kilowatt of hydropower station is protection.
about RMB 10,000. It is known that the annual operation
cost per unit kilowatt is RMB 100–200, namely, RMB 100– 2. Price difference between concrete and
200/kW. Medium- and small-sized power stations take a high-performance concrete
higher value. The installed capacity of large hydropower
stations in China accounts for 63.1%, while that of small- Hydraulic concrete is the most important building material in
and medium-sized hydropower stations is only 36.9%. The large water conservancy and hydropower engineering.
calculation shows that the maintenance cost of hydropower Hydraulic concrete is commonly used on water, underwater,
stations in China is RMB 137/kW. The maintenance cost of and water level fluctuation areas, so hydraulic concrete is
hydropower stations in China was RMB 38.36 billion in often exposed to the atmosphere and water and will be
2013, RMB 41.37 billion in 2014, and RMB 43.7 billion in subjected to water erosion, corrosion of sunshine and rain,
2015. snow, wind, frost, water, freezing, dry–wet action, acid, and
alkali. In general, the design can be based on the type of
4.6.5.3 Price Difference Between Thickened Steel structure in the environment to put forward the corre-
Plate and Non-thickened Steel Plate sponding durability requirements. The environmental con-
(Corrosion Allowance), Price Difference ditions of hydraulic concrete structures are classified into
Between Concrete and High-Performance four categories. According to different environmental cate-
Concrete gories, the minimum strength grade, maximum water–ce-
ment ratio, and minimum cement dosage of concrete under
different environmental conditions are specified. These
1. Price difference of corrosion allowance of steel provisions are greatly related to the durability of concrete
structures structures.
In addition to meeting the general requirements of con-
When corrosion allowance is used as a means of corrosion crete, hydraulic concrete has different technical requirements
protection, there will inevitably be an increase in the amount due to its different uses. When it is often in contact with
of material and in the investment amount. Taking 0.3 million environmental water, it is generally required to have good
kW unit as an example, the material is martensitic stainless impermeability. In cold areas, especially in the water level
steel 0Cr13Ni5Mo with good wear resistance. When the fluctuation areas, it is required to have a high frost resistance.
flow rate is 10 m/s, the corrosion rate is 7 g/(m h) [when the When it comes into contact with aggressive water, it is
required to have good corrosion resistance. In order to pre- concrete. Price difference between hydraulic
vent the occurrence of temperature cracks, it is necessary to high-performance concrete and common concrete: (RMB
have low thermal property and low shrinkage property when 400–300)/m3 2.317 million m3 = RMB 23.17 million.
applied in large-volume structures. It is required to have It can be seen that the price difference between concrete
anti-scour, wear-resistant, and anti-cavitation corrosion materials of Baishan Power Station can be up to RMB 23.17
when used in the position washed by high-speed water flow. million.
Due to the different locations of hydraulic concrete, the
technical requirements are also different. Therefore, in the 4.6.5.4 Quantity and Total Cost of Coating
same building, it is often necessary to pour several different The construction of hydropower station generally includes
requirements of concrete, and sometimes in the same pour- the steel for generator set, the steel for construction structure,
ing block, it is also possible to pour two different kinds of and the steel for civil engineering. The steel for generator set
concrete at the same time. In many cases, the main problem mainly includes silicon steel, magnetic yoke steel plate, and
of hydraulic concrete is not the compressive strength magnetic pole steel plate. The penstock generally adopts
required by the design but other properties. As long as other single pipe for water diversion, and the penstock requires
properties meet the requirements, the compressive strength high strength, and most of them adopt low-alloy steel plates.
required by the design is generally easy to meet. Most steel structure surfaces all need to use coating to carry
For example, large-volume dam requires low thermal out the corrosion protection, and many parts even need to
properties, but the external parts also require frost resistance. use the heavy corrosion protection coating.
In this case, the low thermal concrete is poured internally, The commonly used heavy-duty coatings include
and the low thermal concrete with frost resistance is poured zinc-rich primer, epoxy resin coating, polyurethane resin
externally. However, for the convenience of construction, coating, acrylic resin coating, chlorinated rubber coating,
the concrete types of the same building should not be divi- glass flake coating, epoxy resin powder coating, fluorocar-
ded too much and too fine, but the concrete with different bon coating, polysiloxane coating, polyurea, etc. Among
requirements should be unified as far as possible so as to them, epoxy resin coating is often used together with
reduce the types of concrete in the same building. Long-term zinc-rich primer, which is suitable for seriously corrosive
practice has proved that additives of water reducing, environment in industrial production. Every year, more than
retarding, and increasing durability, such as lignosulfonate 40% of the world’s epoxy resins are used to make epoxy
water reducer, molasses plasticizer, and rosin soap coatings, most of which are used in the field of corrosion
air-entraining agent, must be incorporated into hydraulic protection. Epoxy anti-corrosion coating is one of the most
concrete (in areas or parts with frost resistance require- widely used and important heavy-duty anti-corrosion coat-
ments), as well as the right amount of high-quality admix- ings in the world at present. In the structure of heavy-duty
ture, such as fly ash, have obvious results on improving the coatings in China, epoxy is also the first, accounting for 33–
workability of concrete mixture and durability. 39%; the proportion of polyurethanes is 22–27%; Zinc-rich
Baishan Power Station is mainly composed of concrete primer accounts for 11–17%; the proportion of acrylic and
gravity arch dam, flood discharge structure, underground chlorinated rubbers was 11–16%, respectively; fluorocar-
powerhouse on the right bank of Phase I and ground pow- bons account for 3.3–6.6%; polysiloxane account for 1.1–
erhouse on the left bank of Phase II. The concrete gravity 2.2%; other classes (such as polyurea) account for 1.1–2.2%.
arch dam has a crest elevation of 423.5 m, a maximum dam The heavy-duty anti-corrosion coatings can be made into
height of 149.5 m and a crest arc length of 676.5 m, which is various supporting systems, and the engineering protection
a single-track three-center arch dam with a small radius of can also be divided into three coating systems: single layer,
320 m in the middle and a large radius of 770 m for both bottom double layer and bottom middle layer. Different
wings. The width of dam crest is 9–12 m, the width of dam coating supporting systems and coating systems have great
bottom is 63.7 m, and the aspect ratio is 0.425. The flood difference in protective property.
discharge structure is composed of four 12 m 13 m The design operation head of Jinping II Hydropower
(width height) weir top overflow holes, and three outlet Station is 288 m, the maximum head is 318.8 m, and the
control sections which are 6 m 7 m deep discharge holes. total installed capacity is 8 600 MW. It is a high-head and
Total amount of concrete: 2.317 million m3, steel con- large-capacity diversion power station with the largest
sumption: 73,800 tons, cement consumption: 671,000 tons. installed capacity in the cascade development of the Yalong
Take concrete consumption as reference: 2.317 million River, as well as an important part of China’s West-to-East
m3, the price of common concrete is C20: RMB 280/m3, Power Transmission Project. The high-pressure pipeline of
C25: RMB 300/m3; The price of concrete required for the power station adopts single-unit single-pipe arrangement.
impermeability and frost resistance is RMB 350–400/m3, There are eight high-pressure pipelines in the form of full
which is RMB 50–100/m3 higher than that of ordinary steel plate lining structure. The design inner diameter of the
502 J. Zhang
penstock is 6.5 m, the length of single pipe is 540–584 m, and RMB 4.372 billion, respectively, calculated by the price
the maximum flow rate of single pipe is 232.5 m3/s, the of RMB 18 of coating per kilogram.
maximum flow rate in the pipe is about 7.0 m/s, and the
contract quantity is about 25,000 t. Its production and 4.6.5.5 Use of Additives
installation of single penstock and anti-corrosion projects are The types of additives commonly used in hydraulic concrete
currently the first of the same kind of hydropower stations in mainly include water reducer, retarding agent, air-entraining
China. Thick-paste-type solvent-free super-wear-resistant agent, and various compound additives, such as retarding
epoxy heavy-duty anti-corrosion coating (two-component water reducer or set retarding superplasticizer, early strength
spray type) is used for the inner wall of the penstock. The water reducer, and air-entraining water reducer. According
anti-corrosion coating technology requires that primer and to special needs, other kinds of additives, such as pumping
topcoat should be solvent-free and super-wear-resistant agent, waterproof agent, anti-freezing agent, and so on, can
epoxy coating. Primer film thickness (dry) is 400 lm, be selected according to different needs of concrete.
topcoat film thickness (dry) is 400 lm, total dry film The water reducer used in hydraulic concrete in the past is
thickness (primer + topcoat) is not less than 800 lm, and generally ordinary water reducer such as pulp waste liquid,
corrosion protection area is about 92,000 m2. The outer wall wood calcium, and molasses, and the water reducing rate is
is made of inorganic modified cement mortar with coating not high, which is generally 5–10%. With the improvement
thickness of 500 lm and anti-corrosion area of about of the quality requirement of hydraulic concrete, the quality
140,000 m2 [85]. requirement of water reducer is higher and higher. Naph-
The coating area per kilogram of the epoxy heavy cor- thalene superplasticizer is widely used in large hydropower
rosion protection coating is about 4–5 m3, and the coating projects such as Ertan and Three Gorges. The water reducing
thickness of 800 lm is about RMB 25 per square meter. The rate is as high as 20–30%. It is mainly used to prepare
total cost of anti-corrosion coating only for penstock inner high-strength and high-flow concrete or concrete that needs
wall of Jinping II Hydropower Station reaches 9.2 25 = to greatly reduce water consumption.
RMB 2.3 million. At present, the compound admixtures with more than two
The dam concrete of the Three Gorges Hydropower main functions in water conservancy and hydropower
Station is cast with 16 million m3 of concrete and 28 million engineering are more widely used. For example, retarding
m3 of auxiliary facilities, with a total of 323,000 tons of steel water reducer has functions of retarding and reducing water,
(excluding permanent steel structure). Longtan Hydropower and air-entraining water reducer has functions of air
Station has a total installed capacity of 6.3 million m3, dam entraining and water reducing at the same time. In many
concrete pouring of 800 m3, steel structure installation, and hydropower projects, especially Three Gorges, the com-
common steel of 200,000 tons. According to the analysis of pound use of two kinds of additives, such as set retarding
equipment steel consumption of Three Gorges Hydropower superplasticizer and air-entraining agent that simultaneously
Station and Longtan Hydropower Station, the installed steel have the effect of reducing water, air entraining, and
consumption per kilowatt hydropower station is about 320 retarding, has achieved good result. It not only meets the
tons (including water turbine unit, generator set, permanent requirement of retarding of concrete pouring in large ware-
steel structure such as ship lock, gate, water diversion pipe, house but also achieves the purpose of reducing water and
but not including dam, plant, and auxiliary civil engineering improving durability [87].
facilities), that is, the amount of steel consumption is
32 kg/kW. 4.6.5.6 Total Cost of Cathodic Protection
The increment of installed hydropower capacity in China The application of cathodic protection technology is limited
in 2013 was 31.12 million kW, and that in 2014 was 21.81 by the environmental condition of hydropower engineering,
million kW. The amount of steel consumption for hydro- so cathodic protection technology is seldom used in hydro-
power was 996,000 tons in 2013, and 698,000 tons in 2014. power engineering, and its cost is negligible.
In the national unified quota, the area of steel per ton is
converted to 58 m2/t, and it is known that the area of steel to 4.6.5.7 Cost for Corrosion Monitoring, Design,
be coated for hydropower stations in China was 57.76 mil- Materials, and Management
lion m2 in 2013 and 40.48 million m2 in 2014 [86]. The hydroelectric generating set is the key equipment of a
Calculated according to the commonly used epoxy aux- hydropower station. The operation state of the set directly
iliary coating, the consumption per square meter is 0.6 kg, affects the safe operation of the hydropower station. In recent
and the amount of newly added steel structure coating for years, with the rapid development of hydropower engi-
hydropower project could reach 35,000 tons in 2013 and neering construction in China, the design of hydroelectric
24,000 tons in 2014. The total costs of coatings for hydro- generating set is developing toward high head, high speed,
power projects in 2013 and 2014 were RMB 6.238 billion high efficiency, and large capacity. In the design practice, the
material strength is higher, the component is more flexible, shortens the overhaul period of the set, increases the over-
and the size of the set is increased and relative stiffness is haul workload, and brings expensive maintenance cost and
reduced, which will inevitably bring more stability prob- huge power generation loss. Therefore, it is of great aca-
lems, and the set will inevitably appear unstable operation or demic value and economic benefit to study water turbine
even failure. In order to ensure the operation safety of cavitation monitoring method and create the corresponding
hydroelectric generating set, the maintenance system of system. The mechanism of cavitation has been extensively
“planned overhaul” has been used in China, and good results and deeply studied in the world, and the conditions and
have been obtained to some extent. However, the “planned results of cavitation have been clearly understood. However,
overhaul” is not pertinently targeted and blind. Besides, it is how to monitor the occurrence of cavitation and judge the
not able to prevent equipment failures in advance and its degree of cavitation in engineering practice is still under
malady is becoming more and more prominent. With the exploration.
rapid development of computer technology, electronic The commonly used measurement methods of water
technology, modern testing technology, signal processing turbine cavitation are energy method, high-speed photogra-
technology, and related science and technology, a specific phy method, flicker observation method, acoustic method,
maintenance mode of equipment, advanced monitoring and vibration method. At present, vibration test method and
technology, and reliable diagnostic means is taken as the acoustic method (including noise method and ultrasonic
premise. On the basis of routine monitoring and regular method) are suitable for continuous monitoring of water
inspection analysis, it correctly understands and grasps the turbine cavitation.
operation state of the equipment, reduces the equipment In recent years, cavitation corrosion monitoring technol-
maintenance cost, prolongs the service life of the equipment, ogy has been studied tentatively by ultrasonic wave and
and achieves twice the result with half the effort. According acceleration sensor, and some data have been accumulated,
to data from European and American countries, predictive but the technology is still immature and the monitoring data
maintenance based on condition monitoring and fault diag- can only be used as reference and isn’t yet available for
nosis technology can reduce annual maintenance cost by 25– providing basis for cavitation corrosion diagnosis and set
50% and fault downtime by 75%. maintenance. Due to the problems of water turbine structure,
It is of great practical significance to carry out the the installation and fixation of cavitation corrosion moni-
research on the operation state monitoring and fault diag- toring equipment are very difficult. At present, there are few
nosis technology of hydroelectric generating set, judge the research results of cavitation monitoring at home and
deterioration degree of the whole and components of the set abroad, and no mature products can be directly utilized. It is
through statistical analysis and data processing according to necessary to study and perfect the cavitation corrosion
the information provided by the state monitoring and failure monitoring from selection and arrangement of monitoring
diagnosis system, and pertinently maintain before the failure methods and sensors.
occurs for obviously improving the reliability of the opera-
tion of set, prolonging the maintenance period of the set,
reducing the maintenance cost of the, ensuring the safety and Table 4.69 Base price of preliminary work investigation of water
economic operation of the set, improving the economic conservancy and hydroelectric engineering (unit: RMB 10,000)
benefit of the power generation enterprise, and enhancing the No. Estimated Charge No. Estimated Charge
competitiveness of enterprises. value of base value of base price
investment price investment
At present, the state monitoring technology for hydro- (charge (charge
electric generating set at home and abroad includes online amount) amount)
monitoring technology for set vibration stability, online 1 500 12.00 10 80,000 1,008.25
monitoring technology for water turbine efficiency, water
2 1,000 22.20 11 100,000 1,215.10
turbine cavitation monitoring technology, generator insula-
3 3,000 59.50 12 200,000 2,207.50
tion local discharge monitoring technology, etc. Cavitation
corrosion is one of the main characteristics of water turbine, 4 5,000 92.70 13 400,000 4,002.60
which directly affects the energy characteristics of water 5 8,000 139.10 14 600,000 5,626.50
turbine and reduces its efficiency and output. It can also 6 10,000 168.07 15 800,000 7,145.80
cause vibration of the set and increase of water pressure 7 20,000 307.32 16 1,000,000 8,591.20
pulsation. In particular, under the combined action of sedi- 8 40,000 560.80 17 2,000,000 15,506.20
ment abrasion, the damage is more intense, which seriously 9 60,000 791.50
threatens the stable operation of the set. It also greatly
504 J. Zhang
4.6.5.8 Design Cost and Personnel Cost specifications and quotas, and are usually directly included
for Corrosion Protection in subprojects of civil engineering or metal structure pro-
The preliminary work engineering investigation charge of cessing as affiliate projects. This is not conducive to the
water conservancy and hydropower engineering is calculated application and popularization of corrosion protection tech-
according to the following formula: nology, and the design cost and personnel cost of corrosion
The base price of engineering investigation charge in the protection cannot be counted and analyzed.
corresponding stage of the preliminary work of water con-
servancy and hydropower engineering = base price of 4.6.5.9 Input of Professional Anti-corrosion
engineering investigation in the initial stage of water and Personnel
hydropower engineering proportion of engineering The anti-corrosion management of hydropower station is a
investigation workload in each corresponding stage ad- systematic project. It is necessary to provide the staff with
justment coefficient of engineering type adjustment the knowledge of anti-corrosion and the basic knowledge of
coefficient of engineering investigation complexity anti-corrosion for specific posts. However, China’s hydro-
degree additional scheme and other adjustment power industry is short of specialized anti-corrosion pro-
coefficients. fessionals. Most are hydraulic structure personnel, and even
If the estimated investment value lies in two numerical civil engineering professionals take a part-time job of man-
ranges, the base price for engineering investigation is agement and maintenance. Such engineering technicians
determined by interpolation method. The base prices are often lack the basic knowledge of corrosion and protection
shown in Table 4.69, and the adjustment coefficients are and don’t receive corresponding corrosion training and are
shown in Table 4.70. If the estimated investment value is short of anti-corrosion experience. There is a serious short-
more than RMB 20 million, the increase of the charge base age of anti-corrosion engineering technicians.
price shall be calculated by 0.77% of the excess of the At the same time, many design and supervision personnel
estimated investment value. The engineering investigation in in the construction of hydropower stations in China don’t
the corresponding stage of the early project occupies the have corresponding anti-corrosion expertise, and the existing
proportion of the engineering investigation workload of the design standards obviously lag behind the rapid develop-
early stage, in which the investigation workload proportion ment of new technologies. Therefore, the corrosion and
in the pre-feasibility study stage of the hydropower engi- protection work of the enterprise shall be specially assigned,
neering is calculated as 28%. and a special team shall be responsible for the work,
The design cost and personnel cost for corrosion pro- including corrosion engineers with professional knowledge,
tection of water conservancy and hydropower engineering design, supervision and construction personnel with relevant
are not specifically directed and specified in terms of corrosion and protection knowledge, so as to improve the
anti-corrosion awareness.
Table 4.70 Adjustment coefficients of engineering type 4.6.5.10 R&D Expenses and Research Project
No. Engineering type Adjustment Input in Corrosion Protection
coefficient In recent years, various industries in China have gradually
1 Hydropower engineering 1.4 realized the harmfulness and seriousness of corrosion, and
have paid more attention to the scientific and technological
2 Tidal power generation engineering 1.7
research and development of corrosion protection. Most
3 Reservoir project 1.2
state-owned enterprises and private enterprises with a certain
4 Soil and water conservation engineering 0.61 scale have their own independent R&D institutions or
5 Water diversion project, Buildings 1.08 departments. According to the needs of the enterprise, they
irrigation area backbone Channel 0.80
project and river regulation
carry out R&D, and the invested R&D funds can reach 5–
pipelines, 10% of the annual turnover.
project river dykes
For example, for hydropower industry, with the
6 Flood control project Buildings 1.15
improvement of scientific research level, some regions begin
Estuary regulation project Other 0.82 to build regional wear-resistant material testing platforms,
projects
and gradually pay attention to the construction of
7 Reclamation project Buildings 1.03 wear-resistant material standardization system under the
Other 0.75 drive of enterprises and the guidance of the government.
projects
Besides, they increase the investment to the wear-resistant
material engineering research center and the key laboratory, For example, in order to avoid the influence of sediment
which has provided a broader platform and the technical on the cavitation corrosion of overflow components, San-
support for the enterprise science and technology research menxia Hydropower Station has changed its annual power
and development. Although domestic wear-resistant mate- generation operation to non-flood season power generation
rials and casting enterprises develop well as a whole, there and adopted phase-modulation operation mode during flood
are many problems. As far as the enterprise scale is con- season since 1980. That units are not operated in flood
cerned, there are still few large wear-resistant parts enter- season avoids the influence of high sediment flow on the
prises at home. Most are private small- and medium-sized overflow components of the units, reduces the damage of the
enterprises which are still in the accumulation and devel- overflow components caused by cavitation corrosion and
opment stage, so it is difficult to for them to develop into wear, reduces the maintenance work, and reduces the
large-scale enterprises with a certain scale. In the aspect of material and manual consumption. However, due to no
R&D ability, enterprises also lack professional and technical power generation in flood season, the annual power loss is
personnel and sufficient capital input. As for production about 300 million-500 million kW h. It can be seen that the
equipment, the degree of automation and mechanization of cavitation corrosion and wear problems of the unit bring
the equipment is relatively low, and the equipment and great loss to the power station.
inspection equipment are scarce or old. For example, in the inspection of Ankang Hydropower
Station in Shaanxi Province, maintainer found that a large
4.6.5.11 Effects of Days of Downtime Due amount of water was sprayed on the outside of the inner
to Corrosion Protection Maintenance lining near the inlet door of the water turbine draft pipe and
and Output Value the concrete. After checking, it was found that the inner
The electric power industry is an important part of the lining of the draft pipe was torn off in three places, the
energy industry. The production and supply of electric 12-mm-thick steel plate of draft pipe inner lining was
power are completed at the same time, and electric power is damaged in more than 10 places by cavitation penetration,
a kind of commodity that can’t be stored, so it is required and the welding seam was cracked in more than 20 places,
that electric power production must be “safety first.” Outage which was more than 10 m in total. The damage process of
caused by equipment failure will cause serious and even cavitation corrosion on the overflow surface of water turbine
disastrous loss to users, and corrosion of equipment and will shorten the maintenance cycle, increase the complexity
structure is one of the important causes of failure. If a of maintenance, consume a lot of manpower and material
300 MW unit is not scheduled to be stopped once due to resources, and reduce the power generation. In accordance
corrosion failure, the power loss and other consumption will with relevant data, the repair of the draft pipe by cavitation
amount to about RMB 3 million. The power loss due to corrosion damage of the cavity will last for more than 580 h,
temporary maintenance of fault in China reaches 30 billion about 25 days, the repair cost is RMB 350,000, but the
kW h a year. power loss is RMB 13 million. The economic loss is as high
In order to meet the needs of large-scale hydropower as RMB 520,000 per day.
generation in flood season, it is necessary to arrange the It can be seen that the annual shutdown and maintenance
overhaul of power transmission and transformation equip- of generator units caused by corrosion and protection in
ment of units in non-flood season or dry season. After China’s hydropower industry not only consume high repair
forming a new pattern of joint dispatching of Longyangxia costs but also waste a tremendous amount of electricity,
and Liujiaxia reservoirs in the upper reaches of the Yellow resulting in even greater economic losses.
River, the maintenance period of the units is shortened and
the construction period is longer because the unit operation
time of Liujiaxia and other hydropower stations is relatively 4.6.6 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases
long, and machines are aging seriously for sand wear. These
problems are more prominent in Liujiaxia Hydropower Weijiabao Hydropower Station is located in the middle and
Station. In addition, the small number of units, large lower reaches of Weihe River, and the flowing sediment
single-unit capacity, and small machine-passing flow have mainly comes from the loess hilly and mountainous areas of
been a bottleneck problem affecting the northwest grid and the branches such as Hulu River and Sandu River on the
hydropower in recent years. According to statistics, during north bank of the upper reaches of Weihe River. According
the 5 years of joint dispatching of Longyangxia and Liuji- to the measured data of the dam site, the annual average
axia reservoirs, the overhaul of equipment such as Liuchang sediment discharge of the river course is 96.8 million tons,
unit alone has reduced power generation by 375 million and the annual average sediment content is 47.30 kg/m3.
kW h with an average annual average of 75 million kW h. The sediment transport in flood season is 85.9 million tons,
506 J. Zhang
accounting for 88.7% of annual sediment transport. The extended to 40 mm at the same time. The modified
average sediment concentration in flood season is runner effectively controls the pulsating pressure of the
73.60 kg/m3. The suspended load accounts for more than draft pipe and reduces the occurrence probability of
98%, and the suspended sediment particle diameter is small. cavitation corrosion in the draft pipe cavity.
The change law of water and sediment is large sand in large (3) Protective measures, such as anti-abrasion surface
water flow and small sand in small water flow. materials of water turbine, are taken. After many tests
The erosion degree of the water turbine of Weijiabao and comparative analysis of material properties, the
Hydropower Station is analyzed in two stages. The first stage base material of water turbine is changed from ZG25
is the operation stage of muddy water (1998–2005) before material to ZG06Crl6Ni5Mo material. The top cover
the gate- and dam-adding project, and the wear of the unit is and bottom ring of the water turbine are made of
mainly abrasion. The second stage is the freshwater opera- ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene wear-resistant
tion stage (2005–2015) after the gate is added to the canal plate. High velocity of flame (HVOF) spraying SXH70
head and the dam is added, and cavitation erosion is the material is used on the blade and guide vane surfaces of
main wear of the unit. the turbine runner.
In the operation stage of muddy water, the sediment
content of the water flow is high and the unit is seriously Weijiabu Hydropower Station has adopted a series of
worn. After being put into operation for 2,453 h of opera- improvement measures, such as gate-adding, dam-adding,
tion, the unit appears large overload, serious unbalance of structural optimization of the unit, surface protection of
dynamic balance, aggravated vibration, and seriously abra- water turbine, capacity increase and transformation, and
ded overflow components. Statistics of abrasion of further improvement of the operation condition of the unit.
No. 3 turbine after disassembly: the diameter of runner is After the transformation, the output of the unit is basically
reduced by 11–20 mm, the depth of pit on blade surface is stable at about 6,400 kW, and the efficiency of the unit is
5–10 mm, and individual blades are worn through. stable at about 92%. The operating conditions of the unit
In order to solve the abrasion problem of water turbine, passing through the machine are also relaxed from 5 to 8%,
Weijiabao Hydropower Station has adopted a series of and the efficiency of the unit is increased by 11.69%. The
measures [88, 89]: annual utilization hour is increased from 2,700 to 9,700 h.
The overhaul cycle is extended from 1 year to 3 years, the
(1) The water diversion sediment content is reduced by annual power generation is increased from 25.46 million
adding gate and dam in the canal head. The canal head kW h to 90.16 million kW h, and the annual income of
hinge has changed from the original nonregulation to power generation has increased from more than RMB 8
the regulation mode, and the content of diversion sed- million to over RMB 27 million, with considerable eco-
iment has been reduced obviously. In addition, 80% of nomic benefits. By making up the technical defects in the
that grain size sediment is deposited in the pressure past, the cavity and anti-abrasion performance of guide vane
front pool by utilizing the sand reduction and sediment and runner are improved, and the anti-wear plate of top
settlement action of the pressure front pool and the cover and bottom ring is replaced with stainless steel
channel sedimentation pool of the power station. The anti-wear plate, which can save RMB 61,370 per year.
coarse sand content is reduced from 0.380 to
0.076 kg/m3 when the particle diameter d 0.25 mm.
(2) Optimizing and reforming the structure of the unit. The 4.6.7 Existing Problems and Suggestions
relative speed of the turbine is reduced from 33 to on Corrosion Protection Strategies
27 m/s by adjusting the shape of guide vane and runner,
and the impact loss of water inlet is reduced. The 4.6.7.1 Problems in the Field of Corrosion
diameter of the decompression hole of the upper crown and Protection
of the runner is expanded from 40 to 50 mm, and the In recent years, the hydropower industry in China has
outlet angle of the decompression hole is adjusted so developed rapidly. By the end of 2015, the installed capacity
that the water flow is close to the negative pressure area of hydropower in China was 319 million kW. Through the
as much as possible. The high-pressure sediment water investigation on corrosion and protection of hydropower
flow at the top cover gap should be drained as soon as industry and key enterprises, it is found that technology
possible. Through the above improvement, the wear of related to corrosion protection in hydropower industry has
sand on the upper seal ring is reduced. Besides, the achieved remarkable results in the past 30 years under the
axial water thrust is reduced, and the occurrence of impetus of national construction and national production
thrust shoe accident is reduced. The runner drain cone is development. However, through the investigation, it is clear
that there are still some problems such as low control level, If the project leader is short-sighted and only hopes that there
insufficient anti-corrosion technology innovation, weak are not serious problems when he is in power, he will not
anti-corrosion awareness, lack of anti-corrosion engineering pay attention to this problem. And a lot of people also don’t
technicians, and backward construction of laws and regula- know very well to this technology, and the country also
tions and management. These problems seriously affect the lacks corresponding technical standard.”
safe and efficient operation of electric power production.
3. Insufficient anti-corrosion technology innovation
1. Low level of corrosion and protection
With the popularization of modern high-parameter generator
The degree of corrosion and protection is also low due to set and the increasing pollution of water quality, it is more
problems in corrosion protection technology and manage- difficult to control the corrosion of hydropower equipment,
ment. If the corrosion protection work is well done, 25–40% and it is urgent to renew the anti-corrosion technology. At
of the economic loss can be avoided. The direct economic present, in the anti-corrosion technology of hydropower
loss caused by corrosion in Japan is less than 2% of the total buildings and main equipment, the measures taken mainly
national economic output value due to the relatively effective include coating protection, metal thermal spraying, and
corrosion protective measures. cathodic protection. For steel structure for special parts, there
Academician Xu Kuangdi, honorary chairman of the is also thickened steel plate, corrosion-resistant metal,
presidium of the Chinese Academy of Engineering and the coating technology, and so on. There are several problems in
former president of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, practical application of anti-corrosion technology: ➀ The
bluntly stated that in China, construction or industrial anti-corrosion technology and protective material used are
equipment “hardly has maintenance cost and pays attention relatively single; ➁ More attention is paid to the renewal of
to maintenance.” Focus is often put on short-term investment anti-corrosion materials, but the innovation ability of
instead of long-term costs. “Corrosion protection is con- anti-corrosion technology is insufficient; ➂ In the design of
ducted year after year, but is different in size.” More fund are corrosion protection scheme, there is lack of comprehensive
invested in one-off construction, and quality of material consideration of materials, structural design, and corrosion
selection and construction is high, while the anti-corrosion environment; ➃ The technical level of corrosion and pro-
cost is less, and low-cost anti-corrosion material and tech- tection of engineers and technicians is relatively low, and
nology are often selected during maintenance. Thus, “repair” there are some mistakes in practical application, which leads
is often needed in the later stage, which will affect the to low degree of protection and poor long-term protection.
normal production and increase the investment in Taking the most widely used coating protection in
maintenance. hydraulic metal structure as an example, international
attention has been paid to the protection of environment and
2. Weak anti-corrosion awareness human health in recent years, and environmental protection
legislation has been strengthened, so higher requirements
Corrosion is a kind of destruction which is carried out qui- have been put forward on the development of new coatings
etly and has great harmfulness, but the destruction caused by and corrosion inhibitors. The development of the modern
corrosion often takes a certain time to appear, so people theory and test technology of the adjacent subject has pro-
often neglect the prevention of corrosion. At the same time, vided the possibility for developing new type coatings, and
hydropower enterprises don’t know enough about the the innovation results appear unceasingly. However, China
harmfulness of corrosion problems, lack protection con- is still in the disordered state in the coating research and
sciousness, don’t understand the relationship between pro- development, and is in the very disadvantageous position in
tection investment and economic benefit improvement, and the international competition.
believe that “material corrosion is inevitable, just repair or In contact with the industry insiders of some enterprises
replace.” This has caused huge economic losses and even and the investigation of these enterprises, we find that in the
disastrous accidents, and also affected the development of practical application of anti-corrosion coating, there are the
corrosion and protection technology. The lack of publicity following several mistakes.
and popularization of corrosion control technology by cor-
rosion scientists and technicians in the hydropower industry 1) Paying attention to anti-corrosion materials instead of
is also one of the reasons for this phenomenon. Academician surface treatment
Hou Baorong believes that compared with the anti-corrosion
technology, it is more important to improve the active Before the anti-corrosion coating of metal materials, the
anti-corrosion consciousness. “Corrosion is a slow process. surface of the substrate must be pretreated. It is a very
508 J. Zhang
important link to the anti-corrosion coating. If the surface is corrosion engineers and the ability of cross-disciplines are
not treated properly, the adhesive force of the coating to the not enough. If this situation continues in the long run, it will
substrate, coating quality, protective properties of the sub- be difficult to win in international competition. “Talent
strate, coating service life, and coating appearance will be resources are the first resources.” The position of corrosion
directly affected. The results show that the main factor engineers in enterprises is not high, so it is not easy to
making the anti-corrosion coating not reach the designed absorb, condense, and stabilize talents. In addition, many
anti-corrosion period is that the surface treatment does not experienced old engineers are retiring in batches, so the
meet the requirements, which accounts for 50% of the major problem of talents is even more urgent. Under the drive of
factors such as material selection, matching, and environ- large-scale economic construction and market interests,
mental conditions. However, engineering and technical staff anti-corrosion is forming an emerging industry. At present,
of the enterprise are only concerned about the quality of the the proportion of China’s labor resources in the field of
anti-corrosion coating, the application effect and the corrosion is very large, even the whole county lives by the
achievement in the industry, but ignore the surface treatment corrosion industry. However, qualified engineers and senior
requirements, and are unwilling to spend money and energy management personnel are in serious shortage, and the
on the surface treatment, thus greatly shortening the service quality improvement of the anti-corrosion engineering team
life of the anti-corrosion protection. is a big problem.
In addition, the engineering technicians and
2) Paying attention to material selection instead of anti-corrosion constructors in enterprises often lack the basic
anti-corrosion supporting system knowledge of corrosion and protection. In foreign countries,
clear requirements are that technicians and anti-corrosion
The properties of anti-corrosion coatings are different. Dif- constructors must graduate from a technical school, and can
ferent choices should be made for different environment work with a certificate after post-technical training and
media, characteristics of coated substance, construction passing the examination. However, in China, most are
condition, and anti-corrosion design life. Thus, “good” and temporary workers and peasant workers who undertake the
“bad” anti-corrosion coating can’t be simply evaluated. It anti-corrosion construction. Common-sense mistakes are
should be regarded as a system to choose anti-corrosion common, and the project quality is not easy to be guaran-
coating, namely, supporting property. In actual business, teed, leaving many hidden dangers. At the same time, many
there are many circumstances that don’t pay attention to the design and supervision personnel in the construction of
supporting property of the anti-corrosion system. Some hydropower station don’t have corresponding anti-corrosion
projects select good anti-corrosion coatings and design expertise, and the existing design standards obviously lag
according to the long-term anti-corrosion period, and adopt behind the rapid development of new technologies.
epoxy zinc-rich primer/epoxy medium paint/polyurethane Therefore, the corrosion and protection work of the
topcoat. However, the surface treatment only reaches the enterprise shall be specially assigned, and a special team
requirement of ST2/ST3 by power grinding, and even only shall be responsible for the work, including corrosion
uses electric steel/copper brush to clean the surface, which engineers with professional knowledge, design, supervision,
can’t meet the long-term anti-corrosion requirement of more and construction personnel with relevant corrosion and
than 8 years. Some surface treatment uses sandblasting and protection knowledge.
achieves Sa2.5, while the primer actually chooses the red
lead. In particular, for maintenance engineering, re-coating is 5. Backward construction of laws and regulations and
applied to the old coating without considering the adapt- management
ability between the new coating and the old coating, resulting
in the failure of coating due to undercut and blistering. The corrosion and protection of materials (products) is a
Technological innovation is the basis of promoting the common science and technology across industries and
development of corrosion and protection, and it is of great departments, which are closely related to the national eco-
significance in improving anti-corrosion effect, saving cost, nomic construction and national defense construction.
and protecting environment. However, there has never been a specialized agency to
manage and guide this work. Although the establishment of
4. Shortage of anti-corrosion engineering technicians the Chinese Society for Corrosion and Protection and the
China Chemical Industry Anti-corrosion Technology Asso-
There are not many core technologies with independent ciation can play a great role in organizing academic
intellectual property rights in anti-corrosion field in China. exchanges, holding training courses on corrosion and pro-
The basic reason is that the professional basic knowledge of tection, and popularizing scientific and technological
knowledge of corrosion and protection as mass organiza- In the aspect of protection material for hydraulic metal
tions in academic circles. However, there is no specialized structure, international efforts are devoted to developing
agency of the government department to be responsible for high-efficiency, functional, and environment-friendly coat-
formulating strategic planning, formulating standards for ings, such as solvent-free coatings, energy-saving and
corrosion and protection, standardizing, and promoting low-pollution water-based coating, powder coating,
advanced corrosion and protection science and technology, high-solid component coating and radiation curing coating,
and the authority is not sufficient in. It has certain influence and other “green coatings.” In addition, anti-fouling and
on national construction and the development of corrosion bactericidal coatings against biological adhesion and corro-
and protection science and technology. At present, the cor- sion of freshwater and weathering coatings resistant to
rosion and protection of various industries, including atmospheric aging and acid rain corrosion are developed and
hydropower industry, are lack of corresponding regulation applied widely in developed countries and regions such as
construction and corresponding management. the United States, Japan, and Western Europe. At present,
the research and development of weather-resistant coatings
1) Backward construction of corrosion standards and regu- have been focused on the modification of organic silicone
lations for materials and products resins, organic fluororesin coatings, and waterborne poly-
urethane coatings with good weatherability.
The corrosion standards and regulations for materials and The requirements for coatings in hydropower industry are
products in hydropower industry are quite backward. higher. The future research and development of
Although many standards for protection design, construc- anti-corrosion coatings should focus on the following aspects:
tion, test methods, and corrosion resistance evaluation have ➀ improving and systematizing existing anti-corrosion coat-
been formulated in chemical, petroleum, and construction ings. At present, the domestic anti-corrosion paint varieties
industries, they lag behind compared with the developed are basically complete. The emphasis should be put on sta-
countries, and can’t meet the needs of national construction bilizing quality, reducing cost, and improving cost perfor-
and international competition. ISO, ANSI, NACE, The mance. According to the use and requirements, special
Chinese Society for Metals, American Society for Testing products shall be produced to meet the needs of the site, to
and Materials (ASTM), have developed thousands of cor- overcome the phenomenon of “multiuse of one product”. ➁
rosion and protection standards and specifications. The work Attaching importance to the development of environmental
needs to be strengthened urgently. protection anti-corrosion coatings. Solvent-based coatings
with high VOC content are increasingly being replaced by
2) Lack of long-term planning and corrosion protection high-solid–low-solvent coatings, water-based coatings, and
support for the industry powder coatings. Water-based zinc-rich coatings,
water-based epoxy coatings, water-based polyurethane coat-
Basic work such as basic research on corrosion and pro- ings, and water-based fluororesin coatings are the focus of
tection and accumulation of environmental corrosion data of development. ➂ Application of nanotechnology and nano-
materials is lack of stable supporting funding channels. For material in anti-corrosion coatings. A new type of coating
the construction of corrosion and protection test and research with more excellent performance can be prepared by using
base, necessary financial support and unstable personnel are inorganic nanomaterials and organic polymer resin compos-
insufficient. The level of further improvement is limited. ite, and by finely controlling the uniform dispersion of inor-
Data resources accumulated for many years are difficult to be ganic nanoparticles in the polymer matrix. ➃ Research and
shared due to institutional and technical reasons, and there is development of low surface treatment coating. In general, the
a lot of low-level repetitive work. surface treatment requirement of coating is very high. How-
ever, due to the different levels of construction personnel, it is
4.6.7.2 Recommendations for Anti-corrosion difficult to achieve the expected quality, thus reducing the life
Strategies of the coating. Thus, the development of low surface treat-
In view of the main existing problems, the following ment coatings is a hotspot to be studied urgently. ➄ Study of
countermeasures are suggested. underwater curable coatings. For the protection and mainte-
nance of structures in the water level fluctuation areas of water
1. Aspect of corrosion control technology conservancy and port engineering, it is required that the
coatings can be cured on wet surface and underwater and have
1) Development of environment-friendly “green coating” excellent performance.
and coating process
510 J. Zhang
2) Development and application of new cathodic protection prevention and control technology of hydraulic steel struc-
technology ture and traditional anti-corrosion technology are possible
ways to effectively improve the anti-corrosion effect.
Making full use of the technology of cathodic protection
green and pollution-free has become the development trend 5) Establishing a scientific corrosion protection system
of research while developing new materials. We should
develop electrode materials that protect uniform current To establish a scientific anti-corrosion system is to carry out
distribution, develop long-term and reliable reference elec- comprehensive anti-corrosion from the aspects of material,
trodes, and develop intelligent (zone control, remote control, structural design, and creation of non-corrosive environment.
automatic early warning processing) impressed current ➀ Rational selection of materials. The anti-corrosion per-
control devices and new power supply devices (such as solar formance of the new material is better, but the economic
power supply devices). What’s more, we should develop a problem is brought about by the high-performance material.
new type of point anode for repair with independent intel- ➁ Rational planning of the structure. An engineering struc-
lectual property rights, and develop a new active cementi- ture involves a number of corrosion factors. Which part is
tious material with low resistivity, capability of susceptible to corrosion and which part is less susceptible to
automatically adjusting emission current according to a corrosion should be considered. The part easily susceptible to
corrosive environment and good electrochemical compati- corrosion may be made of special materials and components
bility with a sacrificial anode, develop new and convenient or the part may be allowed to corrode to a certain extent, and
surface-coated water-retaining materials and electrochemical the replacement of new materials and new components is
migration corrosion inhibitors, and so on. The development conducted. Reasonable scientific design of this structure is
of these new materials will become the research hotspot of carried out to form a special combination of structure for a
anti-corrosion technology in hydropower industry. special anti-corrosion strategy. The key is to establish the
3) Development of abrasion-resistant thermal spraying anti-corrosion concept. ➂ Creation of a non-corrosive envi-
materials and portable thermal spraying equipment ronment. Because of the high cost of comprehensively
improving the anti-corrosion performance of the product and
Each metal structure of hydropower station is corroded. For complicated technology, product can be protected by a pro-
example, water turbine is mainly suffered from abrasion, so tective structure with low-cost and simple technology. For
the wear-resistant material is often coated on the metal example, making it a hood or building a warehouse is also a
surface by thermal spraying to achieve the purpose of strategy that allows it to function better at less cost.
abrasion resistance. The metal structure in the high-speed
water flow area is protected by epoxy emery coating which 2. Management
has excellent anti-abrasion and anti-corrosion effect, and the
anti-corrosion cost is moderate. The protective effect of The anti-corrosion management of hydropower station is a
thermal spraying tungsten carbide layer is very good. It can systematic project. It is necessary to correctly understand
be used for surface protection of turbine blade and can also and properly solve various problems encountered in corro-
be used in some metal structures such as high-speed water sion and protection work with the concept of scientific
flow area and flat track steel plate of gate which is not easy development and the harmonious coexistence of man and
to be replaced and repaired. nature. The following five aspects are discussed and
Therefore, the development of abrasion-resistant and expounded: improving anti-corrosion consciousness, per-
low-cost thermal spraying materials to meet the requirements fecting management system, regular inspection, scientific
of corrosion resistance, and the development of portable operation, and building anti-corrosion engineer team.
thermal spray equipment to reduce the process complexity of 1) Improving anti-corrosion consciousness
corrosion prevention are the focus of corrosion protection
technology research in hydropower industry. The hydropower industry shall regularly provide the enter-
prise staff with anti-corrosion education and the basic
4) Application of composite anti-corrosion technology knowledge of anti-corrosion for specific posts. For example,
they should participate in the mass science popularization
The synergistic effect of different anti-corrosion technologies activities of “world corrosion day once a year” jointly
is used to develop composite anti-corrosion technology. For organized by the Chinese Society for Corrosion and Pro-
example, the combined application of traditional thermal tection and the society of other three countries in the world;
spraying technology and coating technology, the combined regularly invite anti-corrosion experts for lectures and hold
application of coating technology and cathodic protection face-to-face exchanges between scientists and technicians;
technology, and the combination of cold-wound corrosion set up a platform for sharing information on corrosion and
protection of science popularization resources, and introduce protection of materials and products in China’s hydropower
corrosion and protection science popularization publications, industry by cooperating with professional institutions, and
popular science radio and television programs, and science organize implementation so that the implementation and
and technology popularization activities to employees. In the quality inspection of corrosion detection and corrosion pro-
industry, they should create a comprehensive atmosphere of tection projects are carried out with basis and scientifically.
corrosion and protection and improve staff’s awareness on
the importance of corrosion and protection so as to improve 5) Constructing an anti-corrosion engineer team
anti-corrosion awareness.
The related enterprises in hydropower industry must build an
2) Perfecting management system anti-corrosion engineer team by means of “external guid-
ance” and “internal training.” First, the professional stan-
In the middle and late 1980s, the relevant government dards and professional qualification certification of corrosion
department of China formulated a series of laws and regu- protection engineers in hydropower industry shall be for-
lations to bring the management of hydropower station mulated, and the personnel to be introduced shall be
centering on dam safety into the scope of rule of law. examined for their professional qualifications. Second, spe-
However, there are no corresponding laws and regulations cialized corrosion and protection professionals should be
on anti-corrosion engineering and management, and the recruited for corrosion detection and corrosion protection
management system is not sound. Therefore, it is necessary engineering supervision and quality inspection. Their level
to establish and improve various rules and regulations such of professional engineering should be improved through
as corrosion monitoring, corrosion protection design and regular communication and learning. Finally, through the
construction, corrosion protection quality, operation and science popularization education and specialized lecture, the
maintenance management, and clearly implementation of corrosion and protection basic knowledge and the
responsibilities, so that the corrosion protection management anti-corrosion construction attention education should be
work of hydropower stations will gradually embark on the provided to the enterprise anti-corrosion construction per-
track of normalization, standardization, and sonnel so as to build a comprehensive anti-corrosion engi-
institutionalization. neer team of high level.
3) Performing regular inspection
The corrosion process is a continuous and slow process. If 4.6.8 Standards and Specifications on Corrosion
the corrosion state and safety condition of the key compo- Prevention of Hydroelectric Power
nents are not evaluated scientifically to grasp the hidden Equipment and Main Buildings
danger in a regular way, it may cause large economic loss
and casualties. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out regular Table 4.71 shows anti-corrosion standards and specifications
inspection and form a system for the key parts of the for hydropower equipment and major buildings.
hydropower station. For example, comprehensive inspection
should be carried out once a year and nonscheduled sam-
pling inspection shall be conducted. The corrosion inspec- Table 4.71 Anti-corrosion standards and specifications for hydro-
tion shall be incorporated into the regular inspection system power equipment and major buildings
of the hydropower station, and the corresponding inspection No. Name of standard
standards shall be formulated. Besides, the corrosion status 1 Classification and Design Safety Standard for Hydropower
shall be understood in time, and the corresponding repair and Engineering (DL 5180-2003)
anti-corrosion treatment shall be carried out in time, so as to 2 Technical Regulations for Installation Safety of Metal
ensure the operation safety of the hydropower station and Structures and Electromechanical Equipment of Water
Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (DL/T
reduce the cost of corrosion and protection. 5372-2007)
3 Water Flow Cavitation Model Test Regulations for Water
4) Establishing standards to operate scientifically Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (DL/T
5359-2006)
Corrosion and protection work shall be performed in an 4 Technical Specifications for Anti-corrosion of Metal Structure
orderly manner according to the working flow of corrosion Equipment for Water Conservancy and Hydropower
and protection in the hydropower industry and the corre- Engineering (DL/T 5358-2006)
sponding systems. In addition, according to relevant corro- 5 Code for Model Test of Air-entrainment Corrosion Reduction
sion and protection standards at home and abroad, we should of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (DL/T
5245-2010)
study and formulate a series of standards for corrosion and
(continued)
512 J. Zhang
Table 4.71 (continued) and the proportion of thermal power installed capacity is
No. Name of standard decreasing, but it is still the main form of power generation
6 Code for Construction of Concrete Cut-off Wall of Water in China.
Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (DL/T In 2015, the total capacity of installed power generation
5199-2004) in China reached 1.508 billion kW and the power generation
7 Code for Design of Steel Gates for Water Conservancy and reached 5.6 trillion kW h, ranking first in the world. At the
Hydropower Engineering (DL/T 5039-1995) same time, since 2014, China’s per capita installed power
8 Code for Manufacture, Installation and Acceptance of Water generation capacity has reached 1 kW, and the per capita
Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering (DL/T annual power consumption has exceeded 4,000 kW h,
5019-1994)
reaching the world average level. China’s electricity supply
9 Code for Manufacture, Installation and Acceptance of Steel has shifted from a tight shortage a decade ago to a balanced
Gates of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering
(DL/T 5018-2015) supply and demand, or even a loose surplus. The national
utilization rate of power generation equipment has declined,
10 Code for Manufacture, Installation and Acceptance of
Penstock of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering with the average utilization hour falling to 4,286 h, the
(DL/T 5017-2007) lowest level since 1978.
11 Ultrasonic Testing of Metal Structure and Equipment Welded
Joint of Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering by 2. Status quo of thermal power generation
Diffraction Time Difference Method (DL/T 330-2010)
12 Guidelines for Maintenance and Management of Equipment of At present, thermal power is the main form of power gen-
Hydropower Station (DL/T 1066-2007)
eration in China, and its power generation ratio is about 28
13 Code for Design of Computer Monitoring System for percentage points higher than the world average level. Most
Hydropower Stations (DL/T 5065-2009)
of China’s thermal power is coal power, accounting for more
14 Code for Design of Hydraulic Concrete Structures (DL/T than 90%. Table 4.72 shows the data of power generation in
5057-2009)
China from 2005 to 2015, showing the annual increase trend
15 Technical Specifications for Safety Inspection of Penstock
of power generation in China from 2005 to 2014. In 2014, the
(DL/T 709-1999)
total power generation in China was 5,649.583 billion kW h,
a year-on-year increase of 4.01% r. Among it, the amount of
thermal power generation was 4,233.73 billion kW h,
4.7 Report on Corrosion Investigation accounting for 74.9%, a year-on-year decline of 0.31%. The
in the Thermal Power Industry hydropower generation capacity was 1,064.34 billion kW h,
accounting for 18.8%, an increase of 15.65% over 2013. In
2015, the power generation capacity of China dropped for the
first time, with the total power generation of 5604.5 billion
4.7.1.1 Development Status of Thermal Power
Industry in China
Table 4.72 Power generation output in China from 2005 to 2015
Year Generation Thermal power Hydropower
capacity/ generation capacity/ generation
1. Development of electric power industry in China (billion (billion kW h) capacity/(billion
kW h) kW h)
Electric power industry is an important basic industry for 2005 25,003 20,474 3970
national economy and social development. It is not only the
2006 28,657 23,696 4358
means of production to promote the development of national
2007 32,815 27,229 4853
economy but also an indispensable means of living in peo-
ple’s life. 2008 34,958 27,072 6370
At present, the main power generation modes in China 2009 37,146 29,828 6156
are thermal power and hydropower. As of December 31, 2010 42,072 33,319 7222
2014, the installed capacity of full-caliber thermal power in 2011 47,130 38,337 6989
China was 911.33 million kW, accounting for 67.0% of the 2012 49,876 38,928 8721
total installed capacity. The installed capacity of hydropower 2013 54,316 42,470 9203
was 302.1 million kW, accounting for 22.2% of the total
2014 56,496 42,337 10,643
installed capacity. In recent years, the green energy such as
2015 56,045 40,972 11,143
hydropower and wind power has been developed rapidly,
kW h, which was 0.8% lower than that in 2014. The amount auxiliary equipment. Figure 4.201 shows the power gener-
of thermal power generation was 4,097.2 billion kW h, ation system flow and equipment of the coal-fired con-
accounting for 73.1%, a year-on-year decrease of 3.2%. The densing power plant.
hydropower generation capacity was 1,114.3 billion kW h, The thermal power system mainly includes combustion
accounting for 19.9%, an increase of 4.7% over 2014. system, steam–water system, electrical system, and control
For many years, this kind of coal-fired thermal power system.
generation in China has brought great pollution to the The combustion system consists of fuel system and air
atmospheric environment, and a large number of small- and supply system. First, the pretreated coal is sent to the raw
medium-parameter generator units have problems of low coal bunker of the boiler through the coal conveying device,
power generation efficiency and high coal consumption. In sent to the coal mill by the coal feeder to be pulverized into
order to meet the demand for power consumption and energy pulverized coal, and then sent to the combustion chamber
saving of social development, most of the newly built through the air transport through the burner. At the same
thermal power generation units in these years are time, the cold air is fed into the air preheater by the fan and
large-capacity and high-parameter units. In addition, with heated into hot air, part of which serves as desiccant in the
the increasing social attention to environmental protection, pulverized coal preparation system and conveys the pul-
power generation enterprises have invested a lot in flue gas verized coal into the furnace and part of which directly goes
cleaning and wastewater treatment. into the burner. When pulverized coal and air are thoroughly
The rapid development of electric power industry brings mixed and burned in the furnace, a large amount of
new problems to the application of electric power materials. high-temperature flue gas is emitted. The high-temperature
For example, the popularization and application of flue gas is in strong heat exchange with the water wall
ultra-supercritical units and supercritical units in recent years arranged in the four walls of the furnace and the superheater
improves the operation efficiency of units but the oxidation above the furnace. Large particles of fly ash formed after
scale of the superheater grows too fast and will fall off pulverized coal combustion are discharged from the bottom
during the start–stop process due to the large increase of the of the furnace, and small particles of fly ash enter the flue
operating temperature and pressure, leading to pipe clogging with the flow of flue gas. The flue gas flows through the
and many safety accidents. Due to the need for environ- superheater, reheater, economizer, and air preheater,
mental protection, desulfuration and denitration equipment is respectively, for heat convection. The heat-exchanged flue
applied in thermal power plant, but the material protection gas removes most of the fly ash through the dust remover,
technology lags behind, resulting in serious corrosion of passes through the flue gas cleaning device (desulfurization
desulfuration system (GGH, chimney, and other and denitration), and then is sent to the chimney to be dis-
low-temperature parts). The increasing air pollution and the charged to the atmosphere through the leading air.
appearance of extreme climate bring new corrosion prob- The steam–water system is composed of boiler, steam
lems of power transmission and transformation equipment turbine, deaerator, condenser, high- and low-pressure heater,
and lines. condensate pump, and feed pump, including makeup water
system, water supply system, and circulating water system.
4.7.1.2 Types, Structures, Forms of Power The raw water enters the desalting water tank (makeup
Generation Equipment and Major water) after being desalted strictly by the chemical water
Buildings treatment system, and enters the water supply system after
The forms of thermal power generation are various, which being deoxygenated by the deaerator. The boiler feedwater is
can be divided into coal-fired power generation, oil-fired sent to the economizer of the rear smoke channel after being
power generation, gas-fired power generation, waste heat pressurized by the feed pump. After being heated to near
power generation, etc. China’s coal reserves are relatively saturation in the economizer, the feedwater is introduced into
rich and are the main fuels used in thermal power plants. the steam drum arranged at the top of the furnace through a
The production process of thermal power generation can pipe. The water in the steam drum goes down the down-
be briefly summarized as chemical energy of fuel (such as comer outside the furnace wall to the water wall lower
coal, oil, natural gas) is converted into thermal energy of header through which it is distributed to the parallel water
water vapor by combustion in a boiler. The thermal energy wall pipes. In the water wall, the saturated water is subjected
of water vapor is then converted into rotating mechanical to radiation heat exchange outside the pipe and flows upward
energy in the steam turbine to drive the generator, and finally as a steam–water mixture, and is introduced into the steam
the rotating mechanical energy is converted into electrical drum through a pipe. The steam–water mixture entering the
energy by the action of the generator and output to the steam drum is separated by a steam–water separator. The
outside. The thermal power system is composed of main separated water and the water from the economizer pass
equipment such as boiler, steam turbine, generator, and other through the downcomer and the lower header again and
514 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.201 Schematic diagram of coal-fired condensing power plant production flow
Fig. 201 (continued)
enter the water wall pipe for heating, completing the next shall have high corrosion resistance, good plasticity, good
cycle. The separated saturated steam is introduced into the weldability, and high mechanical strength. For the equip-
superheating system. After being superheated to a prescribed ment with temperature higher than 400–450 °C, it should
temperature therein, it is sent to the high-pressure cylinder of have anti-creep property. General low-pressure boiler steel
the steam turbine through the main steam pipe for expansion pipes (steam temperature <450 °C) mainly choose 10# and
work, and its exhaust steam is led back to the boiler 20# high-quality carbon steel, medium- and high-pressure
reheating system and heated to a certain temperature and boiler (steam temperature >450 °C) water wall pipes and gas
returned to the medium- and low-pressure cylinder of the pipes choose 20# steel. High-quality carbon steel 20G,
steam turbine to continue to expand and perform work. 20MnG, and 25MnG are selected for the subcritical and
The electrical system consists of generator, excitation higher pressure boilers with higher steam temperature, water
device, station service system, and boosting substation. The wall pipes, and economizer pipes. Other pipes mostly use
terminal voltage and current of the generator vary according alloy steel. Low-alloy pearlitic heat-resistant steel, marten-
to the capacity. The rated voltage is generally 10–24 kV, and sitic heat-resistant steel, and austenitic heat-resistant steel are
the rated current can reach more than 20 kA. Among the used for boiler pipes, among which low-alloy pearlite
electric energy generated by the generator, a small part of the heat-resistant steel is the most widely used.
electric energy is reduced by the service transformer, and For superheater pipes with wall temperature 500 °C,
then supplied to station service electric equipment such as 20# steel is generally used. The superheater pipes with wall
blower, coal mill, and feed pump through the service power temperature of 500–550 °C use 15CrMo. The superheater
distribution device. The other large part is boosted by the pipes with wall temperature of 550–580 °C use 12CrlMoV
main transformer, and sent into the grid through and 12MoVWBSiRe. The superheater pipes with wall tem-
high-voltage distribution devices and transmission lines. perature of 600–620 °C use 12Cr2MoWVTiB and
The control system is composed of various control 12Cr3MoVSiTiB. In foreign countries, the superheater pipes
equipment for ensuring safe, reasonable, and economical with superheater wall temperature exceeding 600 °C are
operation between the systems. made of Cr12% martensitic heat-resistant steel and Cr–Ni
austenitic stainless steel such as 1Cr18Ni9Ti. The steam
4.7.1.3 Summary of the Main Materials Used parameters of supercritical and ultra-supercritical units
for Power Generation Equipment exceed 600 °C, so the material and process requirements of
and Major Buildings (Concrete, Ordinary superheater pipes are higher.
Steel, Weathering Steel, Stainless Steel, High-quality carbon steel 20G and 22G are generally
Titanium Alloy, Etc.) used for steam drums of low- and medium-pressure boilers,
The metal materials used for thermal equipment in thermal and ordinary low-alloy steels such as 14MnMoVg and
power plants mainly include carbon steel, alloy steel, copper 18MnMoNbg are used for high-pressure or ultrahigh-
and copper alloy, titanium, etc. Metal materials for boilers pressure boiler drums.
516 J. Zhang
The turbine blade material should have sufficient higher heat loads, such as the fire-facing side of the
mechanical properties at room temperature and high tem- furnace pipes.
perature, good shock resistance, high structure stability, (2) The operation condition of the unit has great influence
good corrosion resistance, and cold and hot working process on the corrosion of thermal equipment. For example,
properties. The steel for blade is mainly chromium stainless changes in raw water quality and operating conditions of
steel 1Cr3, 2Cr13 and strengthened stainless steel water treatment equipment outside the furnace, changes
1Cr11MoV, 1Cr12WMoV, 2Cr12WMoVNbB, etc. in operating conditions of thermal equipment, changes
The materials of the main shaft and impeller of the steam in water treatment modes will cause changes in quality
turbine require good comprehensive mechanical properties of water and steam, and eventually lead to correspond-
and have certain steam corrosion resistance. For the impeller ing changes in the type and degree of corrosion.
and main shaft operating at high temperature, it is also (3) The corrosion rate of thermal equipment increases with
required to have sufficiently high creep limit, endurance the increase of unit parameters. The increase of unit
strength, endurance plasticity and structural stability, and parameters means the increase of temperature and
good hardenability and weldability. The main materials of pressure of water vapor system, and the speed of metal
the main shaft and impeller are medium carbon steel and corrosion reaction will be accelerated. Therefore, under
medium carbon alloy steel, such as steel 35, 34CrMo, the same water quality condition, the corrosion of
35CrMoV, and 20CrWMoV. high-temperature and high-pressure unit is more serious
Due to different temperatures and pressures in cylinders than that of medium temperature and medium pressure
and separators, gray cast iron, high-strength heat-resistant units, and the corrosion of ultrahigh-pressure unit is
cast iron, cast steel, or low-alloy heat-resistant steel can be more serious than that of high-pressure unit. Improve-
selected. ment of the unit parameters will also result in changes
The pipes used for heaters and condensers are required to in the material of the equipment. At the same time, a
have good heat transfer performance, and have certain higher purity of the makeup water is required, which in
strength and good corrosion resistance. Copper alloy pipes, turn will result in a change in the corrosion form of the
stainless steel pipes, and titanium pipes are commonly used. metal.
Copper alloy pipes include brass H68A, HSn70-1A, (4) The operation corrosion degree of thermal equipment is
HAl77-2A, cuprous B10 and B30, and stainless steel pipes related to the corrosion during shutdown. If no effective
include TP304, TP316, and TP317. High-pressure heaters protective measures are taken during the shutdown of
use steel pipes. the thermal equipment, the entry of large amount of air
and higher relative humidity will lead to more serious
corrosion of the equipment metal. When the unit is
4.7.2 Corrosion and Protection started up again, the corrosion pits during shutdown
will develop further, aggravating the degree of corro-
4.7.2.1 Major Corrosion Problems Faced sion in operation. For example, corrosion pits will
by Power Generation Equipment become the fatigue source of corrosion fatigue to make
and Major Buildings the equipment more susceptible to corrosion damage.
2. Factors affecting corrosion of thermal equipment

1. Corrosion characteristics of thermal equipment
The corrosion of thermal equipment is directly related to the
Because of the particularity of thermal equipment in thermal quality of water vapor.
power plant, it has some different characteristics besides the
general characteristics of metal corrosion. 1) Impurities in water
(1) Thermal load plays an important role in the corrosion of Although boiler feedwater is usually subjected to strict water
thermal equipment. Most thermal equipment is under purification treatment, a small amount of impurities may be
the condition of high temperature and high pressure for mixed into the water vapor circulation system during the
a long time, and the corrosion of the thermal equipment operation of the thermal equipment. For a drum boiler, the
is closely related to the thermal load. For example, concentration ratio of furnace water is very high due to a
corrosion of economizer pipes, water wall pipes, and large amount of evaporation. For example, in a unit of
superheater pipes is mostly concentrated in areas with 300 MW or more, the concentration ratio of furnace water is
generally several tens to several hundred times. Under the concentration of oxygen in each part of the metal in contact
condition of high temperature and high pressure, it is easy to with water is substantially the same, general corrosion is
cause corrosion. Impurities in water are limited not only by a liable to occur.
single index (such as iron, copper, silicon, sodium) but also
by a conductivity index to limit the total salt content or by 6) Corrosion of equipment during shutdown
hydrogen conductivity to characterize the content of anions
other than hydroxyl. Corrosion of thermal equipment during shutdown tends to be
more prone to occur. When the thermal equipment is shut-
2) Dissolved gas in water down, the steam inside the water vapor system condenses,
the temperature and pressure drop gradually, and even form
It mainly refers to the dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide negative pressure. Thus, the air enters the inside of the water
in the water, which caused by the makeup water or the vapor system from the place where the equipment is poorly
leakage of the condenser vacuum system, and the decom- sealed or the overhaul place so that the oxygen in the air
position of trace impurities in the furnace. Dissolved oxygen dissolves into the water. In addition, when the water dis-
is the most common oxidizing substance that causes corro- charge is stopped, each part may not be guaranteed to be
sion of metals. When the carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in empty, and water is still accumulated in some places. On the
the water, the pH value of the water is lowered, or the one hand, part of the metal is immersed in the water. On the
driving force for the metal to corrode the galvanic cell is other hand, the evaporation of the accumulated water makes
increased. The change of these factors will promote the the humidity inside the water vapor system so high that the
corrosion of the metal. oxygen corrosion battery forms and the metal quickly is
corroded.
3) Effect of pH value
3. Classification method for corrosion of thermal
The corrosion of metal in water is closely related to pH equipment
value. Carbon steel is more resistant to corrosion in water
with pH value of 9.6–11.0, and copper alloy is more resistant The corrosion of thermal equipment may be classified by
to corrosion in water with pH value of 8.8–9.1. In a system system or equipment. That is, according to the state and
where both metals are present, a compromise method is characteristics of media, the whole water vapor system is
usually adopted. For example, when the water supply system divided into different equipment or subsystems, and the
contains copper alloy, the pH value control range is set to be corrosion of thermal equipment is classified accordingly,
8.8–9.3. Under high temperature and high pressure, water such as corrosion of water treatment system outside the
conductivity, dissolved oxygen content, and pH value are the furnace, corrosion of condensate and water supply system,
key factors affecting metal corrosion. corrosion of water wall, corrosion of superheater and
reheater, corrosion of steam turbine, corrosion of condenser,
4) Temperature, pressure, and stress and corrosion of drainage system. The advantage of this
classification method is that it can fully grasp all kinds of
Too high temperature will cause creep of the metal. If the corrosion that may occur in some certain equipment and take
pressure is too high, the weak part of metal will burst. Metals effective protective measures. However, this method is not
are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking under the action convenient to classify and discuss the corrosion mechanism
of tensile stress in a characteristic corrosive environment, of and protection methods of metals.
which alloy steel and stainless steel are particularly sensitive. It can also be classified according to the corrosion mech-
anism. The classification method is helpful to analyze and
5) Effect of water flow rate discuss the formation mechanism of various corrosion forms,
so as to understand the change rules and characteristics.
When water is in a reducing atmosphere, increasing the flow The corrosion of thermal equipment in thermal power
rate tends to cause accelerated corrosion of the metal flow, plants can be classified as follows according to the corrosion
which is most obvious in the drainage system of the mechanism.
high-pressure heater. When water is in an oxidizing atmo-
sphere, the flow rate has little effect on corrosion. In the 1) Oxygen corrosion
static water, it is easy to produce the concentration difference
cell corrosion effect of oxygen because the local oxygen Oxygen corrosion is an electrochemical corrosion caused by
supply is not uniform. In flowing water, since the dissolved oxygen in a medium. It is a common form of
518 J. Zhang
corrosion in thermal equipment. When the thermal equip- 3) Alkali corrosion

ment is in operation and shutdown, oxygen corrosion may
occur. The oxygen corrosion in operation mainly occurs in This corrosion is common in boiler water wall pipes. When
the water supply system with high water temperature, the loose deposits are present on the fire-facing side of the water
water drainage system with high dissolved oxygen content, wall pipes and free NaOH is present in the furnace water, the
and the internal cold water system of the generator. Oxygen furnace water permeates into the sediment and pipe wall
corrosion usually occurs when the equipment is in shutdown interfaces and concentration occurs at the interface to form a
due to a large amount of air entering the system under high concentration of alkali solution (pH > 13). The wall
normal temperature and high humidity. If proper shutdown metal reacts with concentrated alkali as follows:
protection is not carried out, serious oxygen corrosion may
occur in all parts of the water vapor system of the whole unit.
Fe3 O4 þ 4NaOH ! 2NaFeO2 þ Na2 FeO2 þ 2H2 O ð4:20Þ
2) Acid corrosion As a result, the surface protective film of the water wall
pipe (boiler steel) is damaged, and the following electrode
Acid corrosion is a kind of corrosion form caused by reactions continue to occur:
hydrogen ion in the medium, namely, hydrogen evolution
corrosion. The possible acid corrosion of thermal equipment Anodic reaction : 3Fe ¼ 3Fe2 þ þ 6e ð4:21Þ
mainly includes acid corrosion of water treatment system
outside the furnace, free CO2 corrosion of condensate sys- Cathodic reaction : 6H2 O þ 6e ¼ 6OH þ 6H ð4:22Þ
tem and drainage system, and acid corrosion of initial con-
densate of low-pressure cylinder of steam turbine. The acid
corrosion mechanism is shown in Fig. 4.202.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.202 Acidic corrosion (a) and alkaline corrosion (b)

Fe2 þ further reacts with OH : 3Fe2 þ þ 6OH metal surface. This eventually accelerates the rate of corro-
¼ Fe3 O4 þ 2H2 O þ H2 " sion of the localized surface, resulting in ulcers that are often
covered by Fe3O4.
ð4:23Þ
The reaction product Fe3O4 is loose and has little pro- 5) Stress corrosion
tective effect on the base metal, and the corrosion reaction
The corrosion form of metal materials under the combined
will continue. The anodic reaction proceeds at the interface
action of corrosion medium and mechanical stress is called
between the metal and the metal oxide, and Fe2+ diffuses
stress corrosion. Corrosion crack or even fracture occurs in
through the oxide layer and reacts with OH− at the interface
the process of corrosion, which is a kind of extremely
between the oxide and the furnace water to form Fe3O4.
dangerous local corrosion. According to the stress of metal
Electrons also penetrate the peroxide layer and react with
in the process of stress corrosion, stress corrosion can be
water at that interface between the oxide and the furnace
divided into stress corrosion cracking and corrosion fatigue.
water to form hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen atoms are formed
Stress corrosion exists widely in the steam system of thermal
at the interface between the oxide and the furnace water, so
equipment, such as water wall pipe, high-pressure deaerator,
the hydrogen atoms are combined into hydrogen in steam–
superheater, reheater, main water supply pipe, steam pipe,
water mixture to be taken away quickly, so that the hydrogen
impeller and turbine blade, and condenser pipe. Stress cor-
atoms don’t diffuse into the metal. That is to say, hydrogen
rosion cracking or corrosion fatigue may occur under dif-
atoms don’t cause hydrogen embrittlement of the furnace
ferent conditions.
pipe.
Stress corrosion cracking is a kind of stress corrosion of
metal under the combined action of specific corrosive
4) Steam–water corrosion
medium and tensile stress. Tensile stress results from
residual stress generated during fabrication and installation
When the temperature of the superheated steam exceeds
of the metal components, internal stress caused by corrosion
450 °C and the pipe wall temperature of the superheated
products, operating stress generated during operation of
steam pipe exceeds 500 °C, the steam and iron in the carbon
equipment, and thermal stress resulting from temperature
steel can directly chemically react at 450–570 °C to form
changes. The specific media for stress corrosion cracking of
Fe3O4.
carbon steel are NaOH solution and boiling HNO3 solution.
3Fe þ 4H2 O ¼ Fe3 O4 þ 4H2 " ð4:24Þ The stress corrosion cracking of carbon steel in NaOH
solution is also referred to as alkali embrittlement or caustic
When the temperature is above 570 °C, the reaction embrittlement. Such corrosion used to occur in small boilers
product is Fe2O3, namely, with demineralized water as makeup water or in boiler
systems where free base is present in the furnace water. The
Fe þ H2 O ¼ FeO þ H2 " ð4:25Þ
specific media that cause stress corrosion cracking of aus-
2FeO þ H2 O ¼ Fe2 O3 þ H2 " ð4:26Þ tenitic stainless steel is usually chloride solution. So long as
there is a small amount of chloride ion in the solution, under
When such corrosion occurs, the pipe wall will be uni- the action of internal stress, there is a risk of corrosion
formly thinned and the corrosion products will be scaly or cracking of austenitic stainless steel. The specific media that
powdery, most of which is Fe3O4, and this chemical corro- cause stress corrosion cracking of the copper alloy is
sion is called steam–water corrosion. Steam–water corrosion ammonia vapor or amine species.
generally occurs in superheater or reheater pipes, which can Corrosion fatigue does not require a specific corrosive
be either uniform corrosion or local corrosion. Uniform medium. Under the action of alternating stress, corrosion
corrosion usually occurs at locations where the metal tem- fatigue may occur in most metals. Under the action of
perature exceeds the allowable temperature and forms a alternating stress and corrosive medium, the protective film
dense scale of iron in the area where the metal is super- of metal surface is destroyed by stress of different directions
heated. Local corrosion occurs in the form of ulcer, furrow and different sizes, forming corrosion primary cell and
mark, and crack. Ulcer-like steam–water corrosion often causing local corrosion. The corrosion cracks are mainly
occurs at locations where the metal alternately contacts transgranular cracks, and there are fatigue source, fatigue
steam and water, where the change in metal temperature crack propagation region, and final fracture region, among
often reaches or exceeds 70 °C, thus accelerating the local which the fatigue crack propagation region is in the shape of
rupture of the protective film and allowing the steam to scallop or beach ripple. The parts of the thermal equipment
repeatedly come into contact with the exposed localized prone to corrosion fatigue include the joint between the
520 J. Zhang
steam drum and the feed pipe, the joint between the steam hydrogen embrittlement may occur in carbon steel furnace
drum and the pipe with phosphate solution, and the joint pipes when boiler pickling or boiler acid corrosion occurs.
between the periodic blowdown pipe and the lower header.
When the boiler starts frequently, the local metal equipment 7) Intergranular corrosion
suffers from the hot–cold alternating action, the dry and
wet alternate, and there is steam–water mixture in the The corrosion is concentrated on the grain boundary, and the
pipeline, corrosion fatigue can also occur. In addition, if other areas are not corroded or the corrosion is very slight.
corrosion occurs when the equipment is shutdown, local Such corrosion is called intergranular corrosion. The main
corrosion pits will be the fatigue source under the action of reason for intergranular corrosion is that the grain boundary
alternating stress, so that corrosion fatigue may occur more potential is lower than the grain potential because of the
easily. Corrosion fatigue may also occur easily when the different chemical compositions between grain and grain
state in the evaporation heating surface of the once-through boundary. In the corrosion primary cell, the grain boundary
boiler fluctuates, or when the steam–water stratification acts as an anode and is first corroded. For example, the
occurs in the horizontal boiling pipe. intergranular corrosion of stainless steel is mainly due to the
fact that the stainless steel remains in the sensitizing tem-
6) Hydrogen damage perature range (450–850 °C) for a long time, and the grain
boundary is short of chromium due to precipitation of (Fe,
Hydrogen damage refers to the mechanical damage caused Cr)23C6, so that the corrosion resistance of grain boundary is
by the internal hydrogen atom or reaction with hydrogen, greatly reduced. Intergranular corrosion often occurs in alloy
including hydrogen bubbling, hydrogen embrittlement, and materials such as stainless steel, nickel-based alloy, alu-
hydrogen corrosion. Hydrogen atoms are mainly derived minum alloy, and magnesium alloy.
from high temperature and humid atmosphere, and the
cathodic process of corrosion or electrolysis, such as acid 8) Pitting corrosion
corrosion or acid pickling of metals, which may lead to
reduction reaction of hydrogen ions on the surface. Hydro- Pitting corrosion, also known as hole corrosion, is a typical
gen atoms generated in the reaction process are adsorbed on local corrosion. Its characteristic is that the corrosion mainly
the metal surface. Since the hydrogen atom has a small concentrates in the local area of the metal surface (active
radius, it can diffuse into the inside of the metal. However, point) and develops to the inside depth of the metal. The
once the hydrogen atom recombines into hydrogen gas pitting depth is much larger than its hole diameter and can
inside the metal or reacts with other substances to form a make the equipment perforate when serious. Stainless steel
gaseous substance, it can’t continue to diffuse in the metal. often exhibits this form of failure in solution containing a
Hydrogen bubbling refers to when a metal is used, certain concentration of chloride ions. Pitting corrosion of
hydrogen atoms diffuse into inside of steel or other metals thermal equipment mainly occurs on stainless steel parts, for
and gradually recombine into high-pressure hydrogen in the example, when the waterside pipe wall of condenser stain-
cavity inside the metal, so that the material is broken. The less steel pipe contact with cooling water containing chloride
hydrogen pressure in the cavity can be as high as 1.0 103 ions, which may lead to pitting corrosion of stainless steel
MPa. Hydrogen embrittlement is caused by the diffusion of pipe under certain conditions. Improper protection during
atomic hydrogen into the metal, which makes the metal turbine shutdown may lead to pitting corrosion of stainless
brittle. Under the action of tensile stress, the metal undergoes steel blades, which in turn may induce corrosion fatigue of
brittle fracture or rupture. Hydrogen attack is caused by the the blades during operation.
interaction of diffused hydrogen atoms with the second
phase in the metal (occluded foreign substance, alloy addi- 9) Crevice corrosion
tive) to generate high-pressure gas, causing brittle fracture of
the metal. For example, hydrogen atoms in steel can react The corrosion failure at the gap of a metal structure is called
with Fe3C in steel to form methane gas [Fe3C + 4H ! 3 crevice corrosion, which usually occurs in a gap with a width
Fe + CH4 (gas state)] at high temperature, which results in of 0.025–0.1 mm. The gap sources of metal surface mainly
decarburization of steel and destruction of metallographic include structural gaps, such as flange connection surface and
structure. The generated methane gas is thermally expanded, nut pressing surface; gaps formed by solid deposits (sedi-
so that a large stress is generated inside the metal, which can ment, corrosion products); and gaps formed between a pro-
reach 1.8 103 MPa, and the metal becomes brittle and tective film (such as enamel, varnish, phosphide, metal
even bursts without being thinned. For thermal equipment, coating) on a metal surface and a metal substrate.
In the thermal equipment, a gap may be formed between a on the surface of suspended parts in the boiler furnace,
condenser cool pipe and a tube plate, and a gap may be including high-temperature oxidation caused by flue gas and
formed in corrosion product, inorganic scale layer, sediment, fused salt corrosion caused by boiler fuel combustion
biological slime that deposits or attaches to the surface of products. The latter is more severe. Among them, the fused
metals such as a condenser stainless steel pipe or a copper salt of water wall furnace pipe is mainly sulfide or sulfate.
alloy pipe. Severe crevice corrosion may occur in corrosive The fused salt of superheater and reheater pipes is mainly
media containing chloride ions. double salt such as Na3Fe (SO4)3 and K3Fe (SO4)3.
10) Wear corrosion 13) Low-temperature corrosion of boiler tail heating surface
Wear corrosion is a kind of local corrosion caused by the SO3 in the flue gas and the moisture in the flue gas react to
electrochemical corrosion and mechanical wear of the form H2SO4, so that the smoke side surface of the air pre-
medium when the relative motion occurs between the cor- heater in the rear smoke channel of the boiler is corroded.
rosive medium and the metal surface. For example, the In a large thermal power generation set, the subcritical set
erosion corrosion on the waterside of the condenser pipe, using drum boiler or once-through boiler and the charac-
especially the inlet end, caused by the turbulent flow of teristics of the parameters decide that only the supercritical
cooling water or the scouring action of the suspended sub- and ultra-supercritical thermal power unit of once-through
stance in the water is a kind of typical wear corrosion. The boiler can be used. The abovementioned types of corrosion
corrosion site often has the obvious fluid scouring marks. exist in the thermal equipment, among which oxygen cor-
Under the condition of deoxidized alkaline all rosion and acid corrosion are the most prominent, common,
volatile-treated water, the accelerated corrosion of the water and serious. It is the main cause of corrosion of condensate
supply system, especially the turbulent zone in the econo- water and water supply system. Corrosion of condensate
mizer pipeline (such as channel bend, tee joint, reducing water and water supply system not only directly causes
elbow), is often caused by the impact of turbulence, which is corrosion damage of thermal equipment but also may pro-
called flow accelerated corrosion. In addition, steam bubbles duce a large amount of corrosion products that will be taken
are continuously formed and broken in the liquid on the into boiler by feedwater and deposited in water wall furnace
surface of the feed pump impeller rotating at a high speed. pipes, which may cause local overheating, corrosion, and
The shock wave generated when the bubbles burst will even pipe explosion. Therefore, the safe and economic
destroy the protective film on the metal surface, thus operation of the power plant is seriously endangered.
accelerating the corrosion of the metal, which is called
cavitation erosion. 4.7.2.2 Common Anti-corrosion Methods
in Thermal Power Plant

1. Anti-corrosion methods of boiler
When two kinds of metals with different corrosion potentials
come into contact with each other in corrosive medium, local (1) Change the operating conditions to ensure the furnace
accelerated corrosion will occur in the vicinity of metal with box temperature. Raising the furnace box temperature
negative corrosion potential, which is called galvanic cor- can not only prevent the wall temperature of the heated
rosion. For example, in the joint part between the carbon surface from falling to the dew point temperature of flue
steel tube plate of the condenser and the stainless steel (or gas but also effectively prevent the formation of sulfur
titanium, cuprous) pipe, the electrode potential of the carbon trioxide. Therefore, the number of boiler’s start and stop
steel is relatively negative in the corrosive medium, so that should be minimized to keep the boiler in continuous
galvanic corrosion occurs. operation. It is suggested that operation should be
continued as long as possible in order to ensure the safe
and stable operation of the boiler under economic
12) High-temperature corrosion of boiler flue gas side conditions in the event that the high-pressure heater is
allowed to operate.
High-temperature corrosion of boiler flue gas side mainly (2) Strengthen the control of the fuel. The method of sulfur
refers to a type of corrosion occurring on the outer surface of removal before and during combustion can be adopted
boiler water wall pipe, superheater pipe, reheater pipe, and to reduce the sulfur content of the fuel. At the same
522 J. Zhang
time, the proper fineness of the pulverized coal is For example, to prevent blade corrosion, the unit needs to
controlled, and the pulverized coal concentration prevent salt and deposit on the blade during operation. The
between the burners shall be uniformly distributed as unit shall prevent water film on the metal surface and prevent
much as possible. The quality of coal used shall be oxygen from entering the thermal system during start–stop
tested and analyzed, and fuel with high sulfur content or standby. In addition, surface protection is used to slow
shall be avoided as much as possible. If necessary, down the corrosion rate of the blade. Surface protective
chemical additives for preventing sulfur trioxide from measures can be divided into two categories: local coating,
being generated in flue gas, such as dolomite powder namely, covering a new layer of alloy at the local position of
and lime powder, can be added to effectively prevent or the steam inlet, such as inlaying satellite alloy, spark
reduce the formation of sulfur trioxide. strengthening, laser cladding, and spraying; surface hard-
(3) Strengthen the control of water supply quality. In the ening, the main technical means are flame hardening,
high-temperature corrosion area, the water flow speed high-frequency induction hardening, laser surface hardening,
in the water wall pipe is appropriately increased, the and so on. A common surface treatment method is as
pipe wall temperature is reduced, and the water supply follows.
quality is strictly controlled to avoid that heat transfer is
affected by the fouling of the water wall pipe to increase (1) Inlaying satellite alloy. Stellite has high hardness and
the temperature of the water wall pipe wall. Excessive good toughness, small deformation when water drops
mixing of fuel with water shall be avoided. Water impact, good resistance to water erosion and abrasion,
leakage should be eradicated in the furnace wall, and high tissue stability. Although water erosion occurs
especially the use of large amount of tap water to wash beyond a certain range, it has good resistance to frac-
the furnace roof, so as to keep the furnace wall dry. ture. Even if serious water erosion occurs, cracks are
(4) Improving the corrosion resistance of the metal can not easy to occur. At the same time, the alloy of dif-
adopt the metal (nickel, aluminum) thermal spraying ferent shapes can be selected according to the operation
process outside the pipe to protect the surface and condition. When the water corrosion is serious, the new
reduce the corrosion rate. alloy piece can be replaced, which is very suitable for
(5) The combustion adjustment is strengthened, and the air the working condition of the blade.
distribution is reasonable so as to make reducing (2) Spark hardening. Spark hardening is to directly use high
atmosphere near the water wall pipe decrease and pre- density energy of spark discharge as the electrode
vent the flue gas from directly scouring the water wall. material of the anode to melt, coat, and melt into the
(6) Preventive measures for wear of water wall pipes. surface layer of the metal parts to form an alloy surface
Through operation adjustment, moderate surplus air is strengthened layer, so that the physical, chemical, and
maintained, the residence time of coal particles in the mechanical properties of the surface of the parts are
furnace is prolonged, the erosion of water wall pipes is improved. The spark surface strengthening process has
reduced, and the carbon content of fly ash is also the following characteristics: simple operation, no
reduced. Strengthening the management of incoming annealing or thermal deformation of the parts, no
coal can control the content of gangue. Perform thermal environmental pollution, and local strengthening of the
spraying on water wall pipes or add anti-wear belt. surface of the parts. The general research shows that a
(7) Strengthen blowdown management, and strictly check hardened layer of a certain thickness is formed on the
and ensure that the quality of boiler feedwater meets surface of the material by using cemented carbide as a
standard. It is recommended to conduct an aerodynamic strengthened electrode for spark strengthening. The
field test every year. higher the hardness of the hardened layer is, the
stronger the abrasion resistance and water scouring
2. Corrosion prevention of steam turbine resistance are. However, the hardened layer can’t be too
thick; otherwise, surface cracks are likely to occur,
To prevent the corrosion of all parts of the steam turbine, the thereby affecting the anti-erosion effect.
key is to reduce the impurity content in the steam and reduce (3) Thermal spraying. Thermal spraying is a surface pro-
the aggressiveness of the initial condensate water. In addi- cessing method in which the spraying material in a
tion, from the material point of view, it is necessary to fur- molten state is atomized by a high-speed airflow and
ther improve the corrosion resistance of the metal material, sprayed onto parts to form a sprayed layer. It can be
such as obtaining a more corrosion-resistant alloy material divided into flame spraying, supersonic flame spraying,
by smelting, or reducing the corrosion rate of the metal by plasma spraying, arc spraying, and high-speed arc
surface treatment. spraying. Since this year, with the rapid development of
supersonic arc spraying technology, the hardness and surface, heat is rapidly transferred from the surface to
bonding strength of the coating has been higher. The the core, causing the surface to rapidly cool, thereby
coating has lower porosity and lower oxide content, so causing rapid hardening of the metal surface layer to
that a better protective effect can be obtained for the cause phase change hardening. Due to the high cooling
blade. rate, high density dislocation strengthening occurs.
(4) Laser cladding. In the laser cladding, alloy powder with After laser surface hardening, the hardness of the same
certain characteristics (wear resistance, heat resistance, material is 20% higher than that of induction hardening,
corrosion resistance) is coated on the surface of a metal, and the deformation is very small and the crystal grains
or sprayed on a laser treatment area simultaneously with are much finer.
laser treatment to melt, expand, and solidify under the
action of the laser, and metallurgically bonded to the 3. Corrosion control of condenser
substrate to form a surface coating with excellent
properties. This technology is suitable for water erosion 1) Proper selection of stainless steel pipes
protection of various material blades of large and
medium power units. The selection of stainless steel pipes must be based on the
(5) Flame hardening. Flame hardening is to heat quench quality of cooling water in accordance with the Guidelines
with high-temperature flame of acetylene–oxygen or for Selection of Condenser and Auxiliary Cooler Pipes of
gas–oxygen burned at the inlet edge of the blade to Thermal Power Plants (DL/T 712-2010). Dissolved solids,
obtain a high-hardness martensite structure and a chloride ions, and sulfate ions in the cooling water can
hardened layer. The process is simple, but the temper- seriously affect the corrosion resistance of condenser pipes.
ature is difficult to control, and the problems of defor-
mation, cracking, and uneven hardness are easy to 2) Acceptance and assembly of stainless steel pipes
occur.
(6) High-frequency hardening strengthening. After the stainless steel pipes arrives at the site, it is neces-
High-frequency hardening strengthening uses electro- sary to conduct simple visual inspection of the appearance to
magnetic induction method to generate high-frequency ensure that the stainless steel pipe is free of visible flattening
induced current on the workpiece surface. Then the and deformation, and then sample for chemical composition
workpiece surface is rapidly heated to the hardening analysis and checking of the external dimensions. After that,
temperature, while the internal temperature is still close eddy current flaw detection experiments are carried out.
to room temperature by virtue of the current and the According to incomplete statistics, the disqualification rate
resistance of the workpiece itself, and immediately of condenser stainless steel pipes after eddy current flaw
cooled to harden the surface of the workpiece. The detection sometimes exceeds 5‱.
blade is formed by three-dimensional space twist and
the profile is complicated, so the hardening part is not 3) Operating maintenance and management
easy to be heated uniformly when heated by
high-frequency hardening. High-frequency induction (1) Keep the inside of condenser pipes clean. The deposit
hardening of that blade is affected by many factors, on the surface of stainless steel pipe is one of the factors
such as temperature control sensitivity of causing corrosion of stainless steel, and pitting corro-
high-frequency equipment, deviation of blade clamping sion of stainless steel under the deposit is more likely to
position and deviation of blade shape, adaptability of occur because anoxic environment is easily formed
induction coil, selection of temperature thermodetector under the deposit. On the one hand, the oxygen con-
and temperature measuring point, clearance between centration cell under the deposit is formed. On the other
blade and induction coil, and the coating width of the hand, in the anoxic environment, the stability of the
induction coil. It must be determined by test according passivation film on the stainless steel surface decreases,
to the actual conditions of the blade. and the passivation film is more easily damaged.
(7) Local laser surface hardening. When the laser beam Therefore, more attention should be paid to stainless
scans through the blackened metal surface coated with steel pipe condenser for preventing scaling, and glue-
the energy absorbing material, the laser beam energy is ball and other cleaning devices should be in normal
absorbed into the surface layer of the metal material so operation.
that the temperature reaches above the phase transfor- (2) Use proper pickling agent. For acid pickling of stainless
mation point. As the laser beam rapidly leaves the metal steel condenser, proper pickling agent must be selected,
524 J. Zhang
such as citric acid and formaldehyde that shall be the stainless steel pipe suffers from pitting corrosion
strictly used under supervision. Under no circum- because no effective protective measures are taken
stances, the stainless steel pipe shall be pickled with when the condenser is stopped for a long period of time
hydrochloric acid. The TP 304 and TP 316 stainless in overheating during operation.
steel pipes with condensers abroad can also be operated (6) Galvanic corrosion of tube plate can’t be neglected. The
without corrosion for a long time when the concentra- metal material of condenser tube plate generally has
tion of Cl− is as high as 2,000 mg/L. worse corrosion resistance than that of cooling pipes, so
(3) Attach importance to sterilization and algae removal of the tube plate will suffer from galvanic corrosion when
stainless steel pipe condenser. The growth of microor- the tube plate and pipes of different materials are placed
ganisms in cooling water, especially the adhesion of together. Coating protection and cathodic protection are
microbial films on the surface of cooling pipes, seri- common methods to solve this problem, but proper
ously affects heat transfer and causes corrosion of design, construction, and maintenance are required.
stainless steel under microbial films. A condenser of a (7) Eliminating the vibration of the condenser shall be
subcritical unit adopts stainless steel pipe and strict considered. When the stainless steel pipe is used to
guarantee measures are adopted in the installation pro- replace the copper pipe in the in-service condenser, the
cess. During the first minor repair period after com- inherent frequency of the pipe bundle will decrease, that
missioning, the chlorination sterilization system of is, vibration may occur because the pipe wall is thinned
circulating water operates normally. The inside of and the density of stainless steel is smaller than that of
stainless steel pipe is clean, and there is little corrosion copper. Therefore, the clapboard may be added to the
on the tube plate. In that second minor repair period, in-service condenser through the vibration check
due to the failure of the chlorine char machine and the calculation.
lack of maintenance accessories, the condenser is not (8) Control of SCC. To prevent the SCC of austenitic
only malodorous but also has slime deposit in the pipe, stainless steel, the existence of tensile stress such as
and the tube plate and water chamber wall are locally residual stress should first be avoided. Second, corro-
corroded. In some places, the corrosion area is more sion inhibitor may be used for protection, such as an
than 1 cm2. adsorption-type corrosion inhibitor. The main compo-
(4) Increase the flow rate of cooling water. Stainless steel nents of this type of corrosion inhibitor are organic
pipe condensers are suitable for operation at a high amine-based derivatives and organic heterocyclic
cooling water flow rate. On the one hand, the increase compounds. Due to adsorption, a dense adsorption film
of the flow rate can prevent the deposition of various is formed on the metal surface to inhibit the occurrence
deposits on the surface of the cooling pipe, prevent the of metal corrosion. It can also be protected by cathodic
corrosion under the deposits, and improve the heat protection.
transfer efficiency. On the other hand, it is propitious to
transport dissolved oxygen to stainless steel surface and 4.7.2.3 Status of Corrosion Control in Thermal
improve corrosion resistance of stainless steel pipe. Power Industry in Recent Years
Therefore, stainless steel pipe condensers should be In recent years, the effect of corrosion control in electric
operated at as high a flow rate as possible. In case of power industry has been good, but the importance of cor-
shutdown, protective measures shall be taken. rosion prevention is still low. In the electric power industry,
(5) Shutdown protection. Shutdown protection of stainless corrosion control mainly exists in the power production and
steel pipe condensers is more important than copper transmission links, among which the corrosion control
pipe condensers because stainless steel surface that is problems existing in the power production links are partic-
passivated at a high flow rate may appear pitting cor- ularly important. At present, the economic loss caused by the
rosion during shutdown. Pay special attention to chlo- corrosion of the electric power industry in China is still in
ride enrichment when the stainless steel pipe condenser the controllable stage, mainly because the overall commis-
is shutdown, because when the condenser is stopped, sioning time of the electric power production enterprises in
the residual circulating water in the stainless steel pipe China is relatively short, and the equipment corrosion
will be evaporated and concentrated, so that the chlo- problem has not yet occurred concentratedly. Although
ride ion concentration in some areas exceeds the occasional accidents caused by corrosion occur from time to
allowable concentration of the stainless steel pipe, time, the economic losses caused by corrosion still account
causing rapid corrosion. It is reported that the chloride for a relatively low proportion in electric power production.
ion concentration in circulating water of a condenser To this end, the equipment corrosion protection in the pro-
with TP 304 stainless steel pipe is not high. However, duction line has received a certain attention but has not
reached its due attention. At present, with the progress and It can be seen that the relevant personnel of the
development of corrosion control technology, the investment power industry, especially the thermal power plant,
of corrosion protection personnel in electric power produc- think that the corrosion problem of the equipment in
tion enterprises is gradually reduced, and the research and the enterprise is not serious.
development of corrosion control technology is still less. For (2) It is considered that the equipment or structure with
example, only one of the nearly 50 investigated thermal severe corrosion is mainly unit equipment (62%)
power plants has invested in the research on and underground pipe network (58%). The corro-
corrosion-related technologies in the past 3 years, but the sion of hydraulic structures (wharf, water intake,
total investment amount accounts for less than 7‱ of its and gate) (24%), reinforced concrete structure (9%),
annual output value. When encountered corrosion-related and other (22%) is light, while power transmission
problems in production, power production enterprises are and transformation (6%) suffer from less corrosion.
more inclined to pass on problems to corrosion control In thermal power plant, the corrosion of unit
professional companies of the downstream services to solve. equipment and underground pipe network is very
serious, which has been paid more attention to.
(3) The order of the main parts of corrosion is as fol-
4.7.3 Investigation Data and Results lows: structures in water (62%) > high temperature
on Corrosion in the Thermal Power and pressure (46%) > other (34%) > structures in
Industry soil (22%) * high flow rate (22%).
The location and environment where corrosion
From December 2015 to March 2016, the research group occurs is mainly related to water and more severe
conducted a questionnaire survey on the production units of technical conditions such as high temperature and
the power industry. A total of 63 questionnaires were col- high pressure.
lected, involving 60 power plants, 2 substations, and 1 (4) Anti-corrosion or remedial measures are mainly
UHV DC transmission line. In the following, the question- adopted: coating (80.6%) > corrosion-resistant
naires collected from the power plants are sorted and material (64%) > cathodic protection (42%) >
analyzed. thermal spraying metal (26%) * corrosion allow-
In the feedback questionnaire, there are 50 power plants, ance (26%) > other (such as ensuring water quality,
including 49 coal-fired power plants, 9 natural gas power adding ammonia and oxygen reasonably)
plants, and 2 failing to answer the fuel type. (10%) > steel bar corrosion inhibitor (8%). No
There are 30 plants using freshwater for cooling, 15 using measure is taken (2%).
seawater for cooling, 6 using air for cooling for 6, and 1 It is considered that the longer term corrosion pro-
using urban recycled water. Among them, 35 plants use tective measures are as follows: cathodic protection
circulation cooling and 9 plants use DC cooling. Others (14%) > cladding anti-corrosion (10%)-
don’t answer. corrosion-resistant material (10%) > thermal
For the makeup water, 33 plants use natural surface spraying metal (8%). In addition, it is also consid-
water, 8 plants use seawater, 8 plants use groundwater, and ered that the steel bar corrosion inhibitor, coating,
11 plants use urban recycled water. There are 6 plants using and corrosion allowance are long-term
both natural surface water and urban recycled water, 3 plants anti-corrosion measures.
using both groundwater and urban recycled water, 3 plants At present, corrosion protective measures adopt
using natural surface water, groundwater and urban recycled good coating protection, corrosion-resistant mate-
water, and 1 plant using mine drainage water. rial, and electrochemical protection methods,
There are 31 plants mainly for power generation has, 26 account for a large proportion.
for combined heat and power generation, and others are (5) The working conditions of enterprises are as fol-
unknown. lows: humidity (82%) > high temperature (64%) >
Unit grade: 11 units above 1,000 MW, 18 units above acidity (36%) > high pressure (42%) > freshwater
600 MW, 25 units above 300 MW, and 14 units below (40%) > alkaline (36%), high load (32%) > indus-
300 MW, 7 have two different classes of units. trial sewage–seawater (28%) > low temperature
(20%) > dry (10%).
1. Policy questionnaire feedback of corrosion control Environmental conditions related to corrosion are
(1) There are 19 believing that the corrosion is light mainly humid environments and high temperature.
(38.0%), 25 generally believing that the corrosion is (6) It is considered that the corrosion problem in the
general (50.0%), and 6 believing that the corrosion industry is general (52%) > light (26%) > relatively
is serious (12.0%). (20%) > serious (2%).
526 J. Zhang
Related answer personnel think the corrosion of corrosion control question, and the enterprise’s
electric power industry is not very serious, showing systematization level of production management is
that the understanding to corrosion problem is not high.
deep apparently. Answer personnel specializing in (14) What is the main stage of the loss due to corrosion?
chemistry holds that the corrosion control problem (Multiple choices)
still can’t attract enough attention from related Operation/maintenance stage
professional personnel in the power plants. (90%) > manufacturing/construction stage
(7) Whether the enterprise has the standard require- (22%) > incomplete design scheme (34%)
ments for corrosion protection: yes, but not com- Corrosion mainly occurs in the
plete (60%) > yes, very complete (30%) > operation/maintenance stage, which requires man-
unknown (6%) > no (4%). agement personnel and technical personnel to have
At present, the standard requirements for corrosion strong awareness of the corresponding equipment
control of enterprises are not complete and need to corrosion control, and corresponding high technical
be further promoted and improved. level.
(8) Implementation intensity of corrosion protection of (15) At the beginning of the construction, when the
the local enterprise: strong (62%) > general (38%). enterprise formulates the overall design plan, does
At present, the implementation of corrosion control the problem of corrosion protection be taken into
in the production of enterprises is still relatively account?
strong, which also shows that managers have a Yes (90%) > no (10%).
certain understanding of the impact of corrosion Corrosion problems are everywhere, especially in
control on the production operation of enterprises. the production. At the beginning of the construc-
(9) Can the anti-corrosion measures of the enterprise tion, how to minimize the problem?
minimize the corrosion loss? (16) Have the corrosion problems aroused the attention
Yes, our anti-corrosion measures are perfect of relevant leaders?
(64%) > no, we only carry out corrosion mainte- Yes (98%) > no (2%).
nance after corrosion (20%) > unknown (16%). The management level attaches great importance to
It is considered that the anti-corrosion countermea- corrosion control.
sures of enterprises can minimize the corrosion loss (17) When choosing anti-corrosion countermeasures,
on the basis of standardized management and higher what is the priority factor of your enterprise?
technical level, which also indicates that the level of Advanced and long-term anti-corrosion perfor-
corrosion control technology in China is relatively mance of anti-corrosion technology (78%) > cost
high. and price of anti-corrosion technology (18%) > di-
(10) Do the key staff involved in corrosion protection rect decision-making by top leaders (2%)
have qualified certification? High-efficiency corrosion control technology is
No (60%) > yes (36%). urgently needed by enterprises.
(11) Is professional training in corrosion protection (18) In the work of enterprise’s corrosion protection, the
technology provided within the enterprise? main standards implemented are as follows: (mul-
No (66%) > yes (32%). tiple choices)
Some systems and management of enterprises need National standard (82%) > industrial standard
to be further improved and improved. (80%) > enterprise standard (46%) > international
(12) How does the enterprise monitor the occurrence of standard (4%)
corrosion? Corrosion control-related technologies have various
The enterprise has special corrosion monitoring standards that can be referred to and implemented,
personnel and equipment (50%) > entrust a third of which national standards and industrial standards
party to carry out regular monitoring (36%) > no are the most often referred to.
monitoring (12%). (19) Does the enterprise need to carry out theoretical
(13) Has the information been documented and used to training on anti-corrosion for employees?
guide other work in the enterprise related to corro- It is very necessary for the scholars and experts of
sion protection after corrosion problems have universities and scientific research institutes to train
occurred? enterprise’s employees in anti-corrosion theory
Yes (66%) > no (30%). (82%) > little demand, and relevant training activ-
The enterprise pays certain attention to the ities have been carried out within the enterprise
(12%) > unnecessary (4%).
At present, the enterprise has a relatively large and urgent demand for improving the level of
demand for its own corrosion control technology corrosion control technology.
talents, and the technical training of employees can (21) In your opinion, the main factors affecting the life of
partially solve this problem. the enterprise equipment or production line include
(20) The importance of the following technologies or () (the following three factors have 10 choices).
measures to improve the overall anti-corrosion level Please fill in by the order of importance, such as
of your enterprise. HBE.
➀ For the persons in charge of relevant depart- ➀ Human factors:
ments, carry out the education on corrosion C. Maintenance (74%) > B. Management level
protection and materials: (60%) > A. Operation error (24%) > D. Other
Important (82%) > general (18%) human factors (14%)
➁ Establish the database of material corrosion and The proportion of losses of enterprises due to
damage and material selection: human factors ( )% 40%.
Important (80%) > general (18%) > unimpor- ➁ Material factors:
tant (2%) E. Quality of parts (68%) > F. Lubricating oil
➂ Establish and use life cycle cost/life cycle (24%) > G. Other factors (18%) (e.g., medium
assessment (LCC/LCA) properties).
Important (70%) > general (22%) > unimpor- ➂ Environmental factors:
tant (6%) I. Corrosion (76%) > H. Wear (62%) > J. Other
➃ Use or improve the anti-corrosion detection and environmental factors (16%).
maintenance management method (RCM and
RBI): Ranking: B is considered as the first (38.8%); C is con-
Important (88%) > general (8%) > unimportant sidered as the first (33.3%); H is considered to be the first
(2%) (11.1%); I is considered to be the first (5.6%); A is con-
➄ Evaluation technology for residual life of cor- sidered to be the first (2.8%); G is considered to be the first
rosion: (2.8%).
Important (86%) > general (12%) > unimpor- The relevant technical personnel of the enterprise think
tant (2%) that the maintenance of equipment and the management
➅ Corrosion monitoring technology: level of the enterprise will directly affect the service life
Important (80%) > general (16%) > unimpor- of the equipment or production lines of the enterprise.
tant (0) Among them, corrosion has great influence on the ser-
➆ Use new materials (such as new alloys, organic vice life of equipment. In addition, equipment material is
materials, inorganic materials, also an aspect that has a significant impact on corrosion
corrosion-resistant materials, and control.
high-temperature materials):
Important (84%) > general (16%) > unimpor- (22) According to the characteristics of your enterprise,
tant (0) please estimate the proportion of the losses caused by
➇ New anti-corrosion repair technology (such as corrosion that may increase if existing anti-corrosion
special coating, cladding anti-corrosion tech- measures are not taken:
nology that can be used in maintenance): B. 10–30% (50%) > C. 30–50%( 22%) > A. <10%
Important (88%) > general (10%) > unimpor- (18%) > Other (6%).
tant (2%) The relevant technical personnel of the enterprise
➈ The corrosion prediction is realized by estab- believe that without the existing anti-corrosion mea-
lishing a corrosion behavior model and carrying sures, the loss caused by corrosion may be increased in
out multiple corrosion simulation: a large proportion. Corrosion control is an area of
Important (64%) > general (28%) > unimpor- concern.
tant (6%) (23) Does your enterprise use special corrosion-resistant
Corrosion control has great influence on the materials such as titanium alloy?
benefit of enterprises. Enterprises have a great Yes (52%) > No (48%).
528 J. Zhang
At present, many enterprises are still unable or which is helpful to improving the enthusiasm and
unwilling to replace the new corrosion-resistant mate- support of enterprises in the R&D support of corrosion
rials of higher price. control technology.
(24) What are the following requirements of your enterprise (29) Are enterprises interested in the results of “Research on
for corrosion protection-related problems? (multiple Corrosion Status and Control Strategy in China”
choices) (multiple choices)?
Demand for corrosion protection solutions Yes, only interested in the industry corrosion cost
(88%) > demand for professional technical personnel (84%) > yes, interested in the total national corrosion
of corrosion protection (66%) > demand for nontradi- cost (16%) > not interested (4%)
tional corrosion protection technology (36%). China’s corrosion problems have not been able to cause
At present, the R&D power of the enterprise itself is a large enough attention, and only get concern in the
still relatively weak, and the demand for corrosion small industry scope at present.
protection solutions is relatively large. (30) Do you think it is necessary to establish laws and
(25) What do you think is the biggest difficulty in carrying regulations related to corrosion protection?
out corrosion protection work in your enterprise? Yes (88%) > no (10%)
No suitable anti-corrosion technology (58%) > capital The establishment of relevant laws and regulations on
problem (56%) > lack of relevant talents (56%) > in- corrosion protection will certainly help to carry out
sufficient attention (26%) > other (4%) > management relevant research, improve the level of corrosion con-
adjustment leads to that it cannot be implemented for a trol in China, and promote the rapid development of
long time (2%). China’s national economy.
At present, the R&D power of the enterprise itself is
still relatively weak, and the demand for corrosion 2. Anti-corrosion investment in the construction of
protection solutions is also reflected in the stage of thermal power plant
requiring ready-made technology. In addition, enter-
prises can’t solve the lack of excellent professional and In order to minimize the corrosion in the operation process
technical personnel and lack of capital input and other of thermal power plant, it is necessary to fully consider the
problems. corrosive environment that may occur during the operation
(26) What kind of protective measures shall be adopted for the of the equipment and protective measures during the design
key parts (bolts and nuts, flanges, joints, and irregular and construction of the power plant. For example, reason-
parts) of the equipment or facilities of your enterprise? able chemical water treatment is used to purify the water
Coating (68%) > rust preventive oil (64%) > no quality and slow down the corrosion of metals in the water
anti-corrosion measures are taken, and only these key vapor system. The surface of the equipment exposed in the
parts are replaced regularly (10%). atmosphere shall be coated and protected. The desulfuration
At present, the anti-rust measures of enterprises are and denitration system is protected by rubber lining, glass
mainly coating and rust preventive oil coating, and the flake resin, and titanium alloy lining. For the corrosion-prone
treatment method is relatively simple. parts, more corrosion-resistant metal materials are adopted.
(27) Is your enterprise willing to adopt new corrosion pro- Table 4.73 shows the investment of anti-corrosion facili-
tection technologies with relatively large initial ties and anti-corrosion technology in the design and con-
investment but longer protection years? struction of nine thermal power enterprises, including the
Decision after understanding (54%) > willing (40%) > construction of chemical water treatment workshop,
unwilling (4%) anti-corrosion coating and lining corrosion-resistant materi-
At present, the investment in R&D of corrosion control als (material upgrade costs for corrosion protection purposes)
technology is more prudent and more willing to adopt for the main purpose of anti-corrosion, and electrochemical
the existing mature technologies. protection. Some of this anti-corrosion input is one-off and
(28) Is it necessary to establish an “economic model of some require maintenance after a number of years, most of
investment return on corrosion protection”? which are not reflected in operating maintenance costs during
Yes (68%) > very necessary (16%) > no (14%). plant operation. From Table 4.73, it can be seen that this part
The establishment of “economic model of investment of the cost accounts for 1.97–4.33% of the total construction
return on corrosion protection” is a win-win mode, cost of the thermal power plant, with an average of 3.06%. In
Table 4.73 Anti-corrosion input during design and manufacture of thermal power plant
No. of project 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Type of fuel (coal, oil, Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Coal Natural Natural gas Coal
steam, biomass) gas
Cooling type Freshwater seawater Seawater Reclaimed Freshwater Freshwater Seawater Freshwater Freshwater
(seawater, freshwater, cooling water cooling cooling cooling cooling
air cooling, etc.) cooling
Itensity power plant Cogeneration Electricity Electricity Electricity Electricity Cogeneration Electricity Electricity Electricity
use (Electricity generation generation generation generation generation generation generation
generation, heating,
cogeneration)
Installed capacity/MW 2 350 2 660 2 1000 2 660 2 1000 2 300 4 413 2 220 350
Number of units 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 2
Operating from 2016 2017 December, December, November, January, March, December, 2016
2015 2015 2015 2016 2013 2011
Design service life 0 50 20 20 20 20 20 20 30
Annual Electricity 2 1.75 106 9.504 106 10,000 6600 10,000 3000 3304 2200 –
generation/MW
Total cost of project 330,000 550,000 837,000 551,000 741,000 310,000 548,000 129,000 300,000
construction/RMB
10,000
Main corrosive Flue gas, Flue gas, Flue gas, Flue gas, Flue gas, Flue gas, Chemical Chemical –
medium (flue gas, chemical water chemical chemical chemical chemical chemical water water
chemical water, etc.) water, water water water water
underground
water
Construction cost of 2328 4120 2964 2700 2761 3206 1678 2528 1800
water treatment
workshop/RMB
10,000
Cost of anti-corrosion 300 664 5010 3390 1300 1031 1552 799 1100
coating/RMB 10,000
Cost of all kinds of 1600 3770 4140 2133 5000 1037 2800 1350 200
rubber lining➀/RMB
10,000
Cost of cathodic 0 0 126 50 243 54 105 –
protection/RMB
10,000
Investment in 0 0 –
corrosion-resistant
materials➁/RMB
10,000
Investment in 1557 3040 120 120 180 120 100 60 400
chemical
instrumentation/RMB
10,000
Investment in other 5299 7210
anti-corrosion
equipment/RMB
10,000
Note: other No No
anti-corrosion
equipment
Investment in other No No 750
anti-corrosion
measures/RMB
10,000
(continued)
530 J. Zhang

No. of project 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Note: other No No Protection
anti-corrosion of
measures chimney
with
composite
titanium
plate
Total investment in 11,084 18,804 12,360 8393 9484 5448 6235 4737 4250
corrosion
protection/RMB
10,000
Proportion of total 4.33 4.16 2.05 2.29 1.93 2.76 1.97 5.92 2.12
investment/%
Note ➀ Costs such as rubber lining of desulfurization system and chimney composite titanium plate protection
➁ Cost of material upgrade for corrosion protection purposes
Table 4.74 Annual anti-corrosion cost and corrosion loss of thermal power plant in last 3 years
No. of Year Annual Anti-corrosion Labor cost for Annual input of Annual Annual
power depreciation cost expenses in anti-corrosion/RMB corrosion output anti-corrosion
plant of anti-corrosion maintenance 10,000 protection/RMB value/RMB cost/annual
equipment/RMB and 10,000 10,000 output value
10,000 transportation (%)
expenses/RMB
10,000
1 2013 1700 1425 152 3277 228,693 1.43
2014 1700 1410 167 3277 201,109 1.63
2015 1700 1432 189 3321 174,063 1.91
2 2013 1675 820 200 2695 264,099 1.02
2014 1675 920 210 2805 238,073 1.18
2015 1675 1080 220 2975 199,529 1.49
3 2013 796 450 210 1456 145,000 1.00
2014 796 403 210 1409 135,000 1.04
2015 796 537 210 1543 109,000 1.42
4 2013 712 145 430 1287 139,522 0.92
2014 712 230 450 1392 124,973 1.11
2015 712 220 400 1332 116,853 1.14
5 2013 1813 680 117 2610 255,033 1.02
2014 1813 680 111 2604 231,231 1.13
2015 1813 680 123 2617 195,684 1.34
6 2013 859 1605 441 2905 292,215 0.99
2014 859 1627 469 2955 205,464 1.44
2015 859 1420 498 2777 181,309 1.53
7 2013 1625 370 363 2359 165,071 1.43
2014 1625 370 365 2361 165,071 1.43
2015 1625 370 417 2412 165,071 1.46
(continued)

expenses/RMB
10,000
8 2013 533 200 417 1150 50,000 2.30
2014 533 200 481 1214 50,000 2.43
2015 533 200 501 1234 50,000 2.47
9 2013 1266 450 803 2519 103,681 2.43
2014 1266 430 772 2468 97,027 2.54
2015 1266 460 491 2217 85,964 2.58
10 2013 455 230 439 1124 111,453 1.01
2014 455 130 563 1148 102,562 1.12
2015 455 130 625 1211 104,757 1.16
11 2013 2072 1350 1195 4617 460,094 1.00
2014 2072 1430 1205 4707 442,898 1.06
2015 2072 1450 1200 4722 407,738 1.16
12 2013 784 150 431 1366 66,543 2.05
2014 784 180 529 1493 65,640 2.27
2015 784 75 563 1522 64,435 2.36
13 2013 1677 50 15 1742 91,000 1.91
2014 1677 80 16 1773 89,000 1.99
2015 1677 100 14 1791 90,000 1.99
14 2013 1644 1776 315 3734 230,900 1.62
2014 1644 1741 306 3691 237,400 1.55
2015 1644 1960 328 3931 230,100 1.71
15 2013 1727 1210 320 3257 240,319 1.36
2014 1727 1293 300 3320 202,300 1.64
2015 1727 1140 450 3317 176,905 1.88
16 2013 1362 464 453 2279 164,655 1.38
2014 1362 586 475 2423 183,150 1.32
2015 1362 575 476 2413 161,153 1.50
17 2013 1559 1183 82 2824 194,512 1.45
2014 1559 1269 87 2916 198,430 1.47
2015 1559 1228 89 2876 186,893 1.54
18 2013 2786 980 1620 5386 412,770 1.30
2014 2786 960 1600 5346 321,807 1.66
2015 2786 880 1650 5316 255,737 2.08
19 2013 1552 540 130 2222 166,200 1.34
2014 1552 560 140 2252 190,282 1.18
2015 1552 590 135 2277 208,272 1.09
20 2013 1295 580 655 2530 177,877 1.42
2014 1295 990 702 2987 205,042 1.46
2015 1295 941 721 2957 187,538 1.58
(continued)
532 J. Zhang

expenses/RMB
10,000
21 2013 6042 2005 1995 10,042 542,579 1.85
2014 6042 2360 1943 10,345 513,199 2.02
2015 6042 2593 2213 10,849 544,480 1.99
22 2013 15,800 2757 405 18,962 810,000 2.34
2014 15,800 2987 396 19,183 750,000 2.56
2015 15,800 2761 390 18,951 630,000 3.01
23 2015 1169 4000 200 5369 392,400 1.37
24 2013 1386 990 340 2716 247,422 1.10
2014 1386 910 350 2646 240,491 1.10
2015 1386 945 360 2691 216,818 1.24
25 2013 1209 1060 390 2659 316,746 0.84
2014 1209 1004 380 2593 247,013 1.05
2015 1209 926 330 2465 206,296 1.19
26 2014 2346 1600 230 4176 420,000 0.99
2015 2346 1610 220 4176 378,000 1.10
27 2013 228 110 105 443 11,380 3.89
2014 228 130 95 453 11,380 3.98
2015 228 105 45 378 11,380 3.32
28 2015 143 45 30 218 9143 2.39
29 2013 2839 1200 390 4429 526,000 0.84
2014 2839 1150 380 4369 405,000 1.08
2015 2839 1210 400 4449 365,000 1.22
30 2015 182 30 20 232 10,393 2.23
31 2013 700 434 150 1284 111,073 1.16
2014 700 496 150 1346 118,340 1.14
2015 700 480 150 1330 125,000 1.06
32 2015 330 42 30 402 16,992 2.36
2014 956 636 95 1687 195,000 0.87
2015 956 470 85 1511 135,000 1.12
Average 1.61
this corrosion investigation, this part of the cost will be accounts for 1.61% of the annual output value. The pro-
included in the annual corrosion loss in the form of annual portion of anti-corrosion cost to the annual output value of
depreciation cost of corrosion-resistant equipment. the thermal power plant is increasing with the increase of the
service life of the power plant. On the one hand, the cor-
3. Corrosion inputs related to corrosion control in the rosion aging of the equipment gradually increases with the
operation of thermal power plant service life, and the input needed to maintain its normal
operation is larger. On the other hand, in the case of little
Table 4.74 shows the data collected from 33 thermal power change in the input amount of corrosion prevention expenses
plants. It can be seen that the annual cost of corrosion pro- due to the decrease of annual output value, the proportion of
tection of 33 thermal power plants in the last 3 years the input of corrosion protection expenses to the annual
4
Table 4.75 Investment in corrosion protection of thermal power plant
No. of Year Fuel Cooling Cooling way Source of feedwater Type of Grade of Total Annual investment in Annual output Annual anti-corrosion
power type medium power plant unit/MW installed corrosion protection/RMB value/RMB expense/annual output
plant capacity/MW 10,000 10,000 value (%)
1 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Mine drain water Electricity 600 1320 3277 228,693 1.43
coal generation
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Mine drain water Electricity 600 1320 3277 201,109 1.63
coal generation
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Mine drain water Electricity 600 1320 3321 174,063 1.91
coal generation
2 2013 Fire Freshwater Once-through water Natural surface water 600 1260 2695 264,099 1.02
coal
2014 Fire Freshwater Once-through water Natural surface water 600 1260 2805 238,073 1.18
coal
2015 Fire Freshwater Once-through water Natural surface water 600 1260 2975 199,529 1.49
coal
3 2013 Fire Freshwater, Natural surface water Cogeneration 300 700 1456 145,000 1.00
coal air
2014 Fire Freshwater, Natural surface water Cogeneration 300 700 1409 135,000 1.04
coal air
2015 Fire Freshwater, Natural surface water Cogeneration 300 700 1543 109,000 1.42
coal air
4 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Cogeneration 300 675 1287 139,522 0.92
coal
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Cogeneration 300 675 1392 124,973 1.11
coal
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Cogeneration 300 675 1332 116,853 1.14
coal
5 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 600 1200 2610 255,033 1.02
coal generation
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 600 1200 2604 231,231 1.13
coal generation
coal generation
6 2013 Fire Freshwater Once-through water Natural surface water Electricity 300 1300 2905 292,215 0.99
coal generation
2014 Fire Freshwater Once-through water Natural surface water Electricity 300 1300 2955 205,464 1.44
coal generation
2015 Fire Freshwater Once-through water Natural surface water Electricity 300 1300 2777 181,309 1.53
coal generation
(continued)
533
534
7 2013 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Surface water, urban Cogeneration 600 1200 2359 165,071 1.43
coal air reclaimed water
2014 Fire Fresh water, Cycle Surface water, urban Cogeneration 600 1200 2361 165,071 1.43
2015 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Surface water, urban Cogeneration 600 1200 2412 165,071 1.46
8 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Urban reclaimed water Cogeneration Below 270 1150 50,000 2.30
coal 300
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Urban reclaimed water Cogeneration Below 270 1214 50,000 2.43
coal 300
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Urban reclaimed water Cogeneration Below 270 1234 50,000 2.47
coal 300
9 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, urban Cogeneration 300 600 2519 103,681 2.43
coal reclaimed water
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, urban Cogeneration 300 600 2468 97,027 2.54
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, urban Cogeneration 300 600 2217 85,964 2.58
10 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Cogeneration 300 600 1124 111,453 1.01
coal
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Cogeneration 300 600 1148 102,562 1.12
coal
coal
11 2013 Fire Air Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 600 2520 4617 460,094
coal generation
2014 Fire Air Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 600 2520 4707 442,898 1.06
coal generation
2015 Fire Air Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 600 2520 4722 407,738 1.16
coal generation
12 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Cogeneration Below 400 1366 66,543 2.05
coal 300
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Cogeneration Below 400 1493 65,640 2.27
coal 300
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Cogeneration Below 400 1522 64,435 2.36
coal 300
(continued)
J. Zhang
4
13 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 600 1400 1742 91,000 1.91
coal generation
coal generation
coal generation
14 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Cogeneration 300 1200 3734 230,900 1.62
coal
coal
coal
15 2013 Fire Seawater Once-through water Underground water Cogeneration Below 880 3257 240,319 1.36
coal 300
2014 Fire Seawater Once-through water Underground water Cogeneration Below 880 3320 202,300 1.64
coal 300
2015 Fire Seawater Once-through water Underground water Cogeneration Below 880 3317 176,905 1.88
coal 300
16 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Electricity 300 800 2279 164,655 1.38
coal generation
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Electricity 300 800 2423 183,150 1.32
coal generation
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Underground water Electricity 300 800 2413 161,153 1.50
coal generation
17 2013 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Natural surface water, Cogeneration 300 1000 2824 194,512 1.45
coal air urban reclaimed water
2014 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Natural surface water, Cogeneration 300 1000 2916 198,430 1.47
2015 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Natural surface water, Cogeneration 300 1000 2876 186,893 1.54
18 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle 2000 5386 412,770 1.30
coal
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle 2000 5346 321,807 1.66
coal
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle 2000 5316 255,737 2.08
coal
(continued)
535
536
19 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, Cogeneration 300 960 2222 166,200 1.34
coal underground water, urban
reclaimed water
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, Cogeneration 300 960 2252 190,282 1.18
reclaimed water
reclaimed water
20 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, Cogeneration 300 950 2530 177,877 1.42
reclaimed water
reclaimed water
reclaimed water
21 2013 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, Electricity 1000 4610 10,042 542,579 1.85
coal underground water, urban generation
reclaimed water
2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, Electricity 1000 4610 10,345 513,199 2.02
reclaimed water
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Surface water, Electricity 1000 4610 10,849 544,480 1.99
reclaimed water
22 2013 Fire Seawater Cycle/once-through Natural surface water, Electricity 1000/600 4400 18,962 810,000 2.34
coal water seawater generation
2014 Fire Seawater Cycle/once-through Natural surface water, Electricity 1000/600 4400 19,183 750,000 2.56
2015 Fire Seawater Cycle/once-through Natural surface water, Electricity 1000/600 4400 18,951 630,000 3.01
23 2015 Fire Seawater, Cycle/once-through Seawater Electricity 1000 2000 5369 392,400 1.37
coal freshwater water generation
25 2013 Fire Seawater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 300 1260 2716 247,422 1.10
coal generation
2014 Fire Seawater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 300 1260 2646 240,491 1.10
coal generation
2015 Fire Seawater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity 300 1260 2691 216,818 1.24
coal generation
(continued)
J. Zhang
4
26 2014 Fire Seawater Natural surface water Electricity 1000 2000 2659 316,746 0.84
coal generation
2015 Fire Seawater Natural surface water Electricity 1000 2000 2593 247,013 1.05
coal generation
29 2013 Fire Seawater Once-through water Seawater Electricity 600 1260 2465 206,296 1.19
coal generation
2014 Fire Seawater Once-through water Seawater Electricity 600 1260 4176 420,000 0.99
coal generation
2015 Fire Seawater Once-through water Seawater Electricity 600 1260 4176 378,000 1.10
coal generation
31 2013 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Natural surface water, Electricity 300 910 443 11,380 3.89
coal seawater seawater generation
2014 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Natural surface water, Electricity 300 910 453 11,380 3.98
2015 Fire Freshwater, Cycle Natural surface water, Electricity 300 910 378 11,380 3.32
33 2014 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water, Cogeneration 300 1200 218 9143 2.39
coal urban reclaimed water
2015 Fire Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water, Cogeneration 300 1200 4429 526,000 0.84
coal urban reclaimed water
24 2013 Gas Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity Below 1226 4369 405,000 1.08
generation 300
2014 Gas Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity Below 1226 4449 365,000 1.22
generation 300
2015 Gas Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Electricity Below 1226 232 10,393 2.32
generation 300
27 2013 Gas Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Cogeneration Below 460 1284 111,073 1.16
300
2014 Gas Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Cogeneration Below 460 1346 118,340 1.14
300
2015 Gas Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Cogeneration Below 460 1330 125,000 1.06
300
28 2015 Gas Freshwater Cycle Natural surface water Cogeneration Below 240 402 16,992 2.36
300
30 2015 Gas Freshwater, Cycle Natural surface water Electricity Below 643 1687 195,000 0.87
air generation 300
32 2015 Gas Air Natural surface water Cogeneration Below 405 1511 135,000 1.12
300
Average value of 1.63 Average value of gas 1.31 General average 1.61
coal-fired power plant power plant
537
538 J. Zhang
output value is increased. One of the reasons for the decrease important to select suitable materials for thermal equipment
in annual output value is the increase of the time required for in thermal power plants.
shutdown maintenance caused by the corrosion of the power In addition to improving the corrosion resistance of the
generation equipment, which shortens the actual operation equipment in terms of material selection, it is also possible to
time of the equipment and the decrease of the annual power take measures to carry out corrosion protection separately
generation capacity. according to the specific conditions during the operation of
The unit grade also affects the proportion of the input of the the equipment.
anti-corrosion cost of the thermal power plant to its annual
output value, as shown in Table 4.75. It can be seen that the 1. Water treatment systems and makeup water pipelines
proportion of the input of anti-corrosion cost of a coal-fired
power plants (with an average value of 1.63) is larger than that The treatment system is mainly exposed to raw water and
of a gas-fired power plants (an average of 1.31), which may be desalted water, and ion exchange equipment is also exposed
that coal-fired power plant is more corrosive to metals. In to other chemicals such as acid, alkali, and salt. The water
addition, the corrosion loss of the high-parameter units is quality contacted by the equipment and pipelines of the
relatively smaller than that of the low-parameter units, which water treatment system generally contains high concentra-
may be due to the later construction of the power plant using tion of dissolved oxygen, and the salt content of the water is
the larger grade units and the higher technical level and relatively large, so the oxygen corrosion of the system is
management level as a whole than that of the power plants relatively common.
using the smaller grade units. It can be seen that improving the Figure 4.203 shows the corrosion morphology of some
technical level and management level can effectively reduce pipeline inner wall, preprocessor, makeup water tank, acid–
the input in corrosion protection and enhance economic ben- base pipeline, sweet-water water tank, and other parts of a
efits of the power plant. water treatment system of a plant. Severe corrosion of some
However, the influence of cooling medium, cooling pipelines and equipment can be found, as shown in
mode, and the source of makeup water on the proportion of Fig. 4.203a, d. In addition to the water side, the corrosion of
the input of corrosion protection to the annual output value the external walls of pipelines and equipment in the atmo-
of the thermal power plant is still uncertain. spheric environment is also common. This is mainly related
In a word, the understanding and attention of corrosion to the humid environment of the water treatment system and
problems affect the level of corrosion protection technology the harsh local corrosion conditions. The corrosion can be
and the level of corrosion control management, thus affecting reduced by replacing the pipeline material, lining the inner
the proportion of the input of anti-corrosion cost to the annual wall of the pipeline, and brushing the equipment or the
output value. It has an important influence on the production outside of the pipeline with anti-corrosion coating.
efficiency and economic benefits of the power plant. The oxygen corrosion of condensate fine treatment sys-
tem is also serious. Figure 4.204 shows the corrosion mor-
phology of the inner wall of the fine treatment regeneration
4.7.4 Corrosion Status and Common Protective resin trapper and the fine treatment anode regeneration tower
Measures of Equipment in Thermal Power in a certain plant. As a result of the low pH value of con-
Plants densate water, CO2 corrosion exists in addition to oxygen
corrosion.
In the questionnaire survey, most technical personnel think
that “select suitable corrosion-resistant material to solve the 2. Corrosion protection of boilers and water prepara-
corrosion protection problem.” Most thermal equipment in tion systems
thermal power plants is made of carbon steel and alloy steel.
The pipes of heaters and condensers are mainly made of In the boil system of the power plant, the water wall, the
copper alloy and stainless steel. The cooling pipes of con- boiler pipe, the economizer, the furnace pipe, the superheat
densers in coastal power plant are mostly made of titanium reheater, the steam drum and other parts can all be corroded
alloy pipes with excellent corrosion resistance. However, by oxygen corrosion and high-temperature corrosion. After
much equipment in thermal power plants consumes a large the corrosion products are formed on the surface,
amount of metal materials. If all the equipment uses under-deposit corrosion is easy to occur, aggravating the
corrosion-resistant materials, the cost will be excessively corrosion damage of the metal. Figure 4.205 shows the
high, resulting in unnecessary waste. Therefore, it is very corrosion morphology of the water wall of a power plant.
Fig. 4.203 Corrosion of water treatment system a inner wall of the water pipeline; b outer wall of the water pipeline; c preprocessor and pool
bottom; d makeup water tank; e water tank of the water treatment ion exchanger; f acid–base pipelines and containers; g sweet-water tank
Figure 4.206 shows the corrosion of boiler and boiler water dissolved oxygen and conductivity of water; high-
system in a certain plant. temperature corrosion-resistant and wear-proof coating is
Oxygen corrosion occurs in the pipelines of water system, sprayed on water wall and other components; the corrosion
deaerator, inner wall of furnace pipe, inlet inner wall of loss of economizer, low-pressure superheater, and low-
economizer, resin trapper, and resin regeneration tower of pressure reheater can be reduced by installing anti-wear tile.
water preparation system in a certain plant. For the corrosion
of boiler system, the following measures can be taken to 3. Corrosion protection of steam turbines and electric
control or reduce the corrosion, such as shutdown protection generators
of boiler; in the operation of the boil, protective agents such
as ammonia and hydrazine are added to the water to control Steam turbine corrosion is prone to occur in low-pressure
the pH value and the dissolved oxygen content; strictly cylinder blade sections (Fig. 4.207). This is because after the
detect the quality of water vapor and control the pH value, high-temperature and high-pressure steam work, the
540 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.204 Corrosion of fine equipment a fine treatment regeneration resin trapper; b fine treatment anode regeneration tower
Fig. 4.205 Corrosion of boiler water wall of a power plant a high-temperature corrosion of water wall; b electrochemical corrosion inside the
water wall of the front wall; c high-temperature corrosion of water wall after low nitrogen combustion in reduction wind area
temperature and pressure drop and condensate in the be controlled by inner cold water treatment, such as con-
low-pressure cylinder. The initial condensate water contains trolling the pH value of the inner cold water to be weakly
more impurities and can lead to acid corrosion and corro- alkaline, adding a certain amount of copper corrosion inhi-
sion of salt deposition. The blade salt deposition can be bitor, and controlling the conductivity of the inner cold
removed by shot blowing, and ventilation and drying water.
protection shall be carried out for the unit during
shutdown. 4. Corrosion and protection of condenser
The corrosion of electric generator in power plant is easy
to occur on the cooling copper wire of hydrogen cooler and Condenser is a kind of equipment easy to be corroded in
generator stator. The common corrosion products block power plant. Corrosion tends to occur at cooling pipe wall of
the hollow wire and make the inner cold water impossible the condenser (Fig. 4.208), water chamber (Fig. 4.209),
to circulate, which causes the coil to burn down. This can condenser tube plate, and hot well (Fig. 4.210). These parts
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e)
Fig. 4.206 Corrosion of boiler and boiler water system a inner wall of the boiler pipe; b inner wall of inlet pipe of economizer; c economizer;
d inside of the deaerator; e inner surface of economizer
Fig. 4.207 Steam turbine blade corrosion
are mainly in contact with circulating water, and corrosion cooling pipes and tube plate can be controlled by adding
and scaling are easy to occur. In addition, if the coastal scale inhibitor, spraying anti-corrosion coating on tube plate,
power plant uses highly corrosive seawater as cooling water, cathodic protection, and more corrosion-resistant materials.
steel pipelines are more prone to corrosion.
In another power plant, the circulating water system is 5. Corrosion protection of desulfurization system
also corroded and damaged in the water chamber wall of the
closed cooler, condenser inlet tube plate, and pipeline Acid corrosion, oxygen corrosion, and erosion corrosion
(Fig. 4.211). The corrosion is mostly oxygen corrosion and occur in spraying layer area, fan blade, flue, slurry circu-
water flow erosion corrosion. The corrosion of condenser lating pump, tower wall, steel frame, and fence ladder in the
542 J. Zhang
burning quality (using low-sulfur coal), controlling com-

bustion environment, brushing anti-corrosion coating on
equipment surface, using glass flake coating, and protecting
chimney inner wall with titanium composite material.
7. Corrosion protection at other locations
Additionally, steel beam, column, platform (Fig. 4.214), and

cable bridge (Fig. 4.215) of the boiler body are also cor-
roded for exposure to a humid atmosphere. The corrosion of
the steel beam, column, platform, and cable bridge of the
boiler body can be protected by coating, and replacement of
corrosion-damaged parts in time, and more corrosion-
resistant materials.
The common corrosion conditions of equipment and
Fig. 4.208 Corrosion perforation of stainless steel pipes in condenser facilities in some thermal power plants, as well as the main
anti-corrosion measures, and the annual anti-corrosion
inner wall of desulfurization tower of a plant (Fig. 4.212). cost of some equipment and facilities are listed in
The corrosion control of desulfurization equipment and Table 4.76.
pipelines is usually protected by lining and glass flake
coating. These equipment and pipelines need to check the
integrity of the coating frequently during operation and 4.7.5 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases
repair the damage of the coating in time.
6. Corrosion protection of combustion system and flue 1. Corrosion failure of boiler water wall
Corrosion of combustion system and flue is easy to occur in The explosion leakage accidents of boiler superheater,
superheater and reheater outer wall, furnace pipe outer wall, reheater, water wall, and economizer (for short, “four pipes”)
flue gas heat exchanger, electrostatic precipitator, chimney have always been the focus of thermal power plants and are
inner wall, air preheater, frame rail, bin pump, and ash the main factors leading to unplanned shutdown.
removal pipeline (Fig. 4.213). The corrosion is mainly acid Water wall materials of three high-pressure boilers in a
corrosion, erosion, and corrosion of airflow dust. Such cor- plant are all made of 20G steel. Since 2013, the boilers have
rosion can be controlled from such aspects as improving coal been shutdown for 6 times due to water wall pipe explosion
Fig. 4.209 Corrosion of condenser water chamber

Fig. 4.210 Condenser pipes plate and hot well a tube plate; b hot well
Fig. 4.211 Corrosion of circulating water system a water chamber wall of the closed cooler; b inlet tube plate of the condenser; c cement column;
d metal parts and pipelines in contact with water; e circulating water outlet pipeline
leakage, resulting in great loss. No decarburization is shape is a typical shell shape. The crack is a cross-sectional
detected in the corrosion area of the boiler water wall, so it is crack with a wide and blunt muzzle (Fig. 4.216).
considered that the corrosion type is mainly alkali corrosion. The water wall is the high risk area of boiler corrosion
The main causes of corrosion are that the cooling water accident. The water entering the boiler is partially vaporized
enters the water vapor system due to the condenser leakage, in the water wall pipe, and the chemical substance is con-
the sodium hydroxide is produced by the hydrolysis of centrated more than 100 times. Water wall corrosion mainly
carbonate in the water, or the NaOH is present in the makeup occurs on the fire-facing side, which is related to the furnace
water due to incomplete treatment of the boiler water. The box temperature distribution. The higher the temperature is,
boiler pipe explosion caused by corrosion is characterized by the more obvious the corrosion is. Meanwhile, the deposits
spots or pitting corrosion on the pipe wall, and the corrosion and corrosion pits in the water wall pipes will accelerate
corrosion of pipeline (Fig. 4.217).
544 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.212 Corrosion of desulfurizing tower a spraying layer girder and support lining glue; b the spraying layer area of the desulfurizing tower;
c tower wall and steel frame; d inside of the desulfurizing absorption tower
Fig. 4.213 Corrosion of combustion system and flue a internal removal pipeline; c side walkways and railings for electric dust
supporting pipe of the inlet flue of the denitration reaction zone; removal; d frame and railing of secondary slag conveying belt; e flue
b electric dust removal system, frame railing, bin pump and ash
Fig. 4.214 Corrosion of steel beam, column, and platform of the boiler body
propagate under the action of high-temperature corrosive

environment on the steam side of the heat exchange pipe, and
even break. The distribution of hoop corrosion fatigue cracks
near the tube plate and near the area of the first divider plate is
most severe (Figs. 4.219 and 4.220).
According to the analysis of this case, in order to prevent
leakage of high-pressure heater, the residual stress can be
eliminated as far as possible, the operation level of the unit
can be improved, the frequent start–stop is avoided, the
leakage of the condenser is prevented, and attention should
be paid to the shutdown protection.
3. Corrosion and control of steam turbine
Fig. 4.215 Aging corrosion of cable bridge During the start-up, shutdown, and high-speed rotation of the
steam turbine, the moving blades will be subjected to high
2. Corrosion failure of heat exchange pipe of static stress and alternating stress. In addition, the pressure
high-pressure heater action of steam flow in the cylinder will also produce bending
stress and torsion moment, and the blades will produce forced
The leakage of high-pressure heater will affect the water vapor vibration under the action of exciting force. The fracture
quality of the unit and will affect the safe operation of the unit. surface of the fatigue failure is usually a small defect at the
After the 660 MW supercritical unit of a power plant is put initial stage, and eventually fails due to overload after a long
into operation, the condenser leaks, and the shutdown main- period of crack propagation (Fig. 4.221). A defective blade is
tenance is carried out immediately, but a large amount of usually accompanied by aggravated vibration of the blades or
seawater still enters the boiler water supply system. After a sudden change in the phase angle causing the vibration of
2 months of operation of the unit after the overhaul, leakage the bearing before the blades break.
occurs successively in three sets of the unit. This unit is made Fatigue break and droplet erosion (water erosion) are the
of TP304 austenitic stainless steel. In addition, radial cracks main causes of blade failure. The steam humidity of
exist in that nozzle position of the high-pressure heat exchange low-pressure cylinder of steam turbine is relatively high. The
pipe, and a lot of circumferential cracks exist in the pipe sec- working medium is saturated steam. The water droplet
tion near the tube plate and the clapboard, and some circum- flowing out with the airflow causes local plastic deformation
ferential cracks run through the pipe wall from the outside to and surface hardening. Under the repeated action of water
the inside, causing leakage of the heat exchange pipe. droplet impact, the blade surface will gradually generate pits
The interaction of the residual stress and the harsh cor- and depression, material defects will spread, and then fatigue
rosive environment causes many fine radial cracks at the ends cracks will occur and finally develop to form metal particles.
of the heat exchanger pipes (Fig. 4.218). Due to high-speed A large amount of metal particles will fall off, resulting in
impact of high-temperature steam and pipe vibration, stress erosion marks and honeycombed pits on the blade surface
fatigue occurs at the corrosion pits on the outer surface of the (Fig. 4.222). The occurrence of water erosion is a process of
heat exchange pipe, and corrosion fatigue cracks rapidly slow accumulation of damage and gradual expansion of
546 J. Zhang
Table 4.76 Corrosion of power generation-related equipment of some thermal power plants and common protective measures
No. Name Corrosion site Main corrosion causes Main anti-corrosion measures
1 Water Internal pipeline equipment Acid and alkali corrosion Pipeline lining during installation
treatment
Resin regeneration system Acid and alkali corrosion Using corrosion-resistant material
system
Condensation and water supply tank The polyurea corrosion protection layer of the Re-coating protection with a reliable coating
water tank is peeled off, so that the metal body
of the water tank is directly contacted with the
desalted water
Water treatment ion exchangers and Humid environment Rust removal and anti-corrosion coating
water tanks
Acid–base pipelines and containers Damaged rubber plate, acid corrosion Replacement of lined pipes
Pipeline and outer wall of container Anti-corrosive paint falling off, influence of Polish and brush with anti-corrosion coating
acid–alkali environment
Outer wall of desalination tank In coastal areas, there is plenty of rain, humid Surface treatment (old paint removal, rust
air, and plenty of salt and chloride in the air removal, grinding, decontamination, dust
removal, etc.), coating protection
Fine treatment anode Regeneration Damaged rubber plate, acid corrosion The rubber lining of the anode tower is bulged,
Tower and the damaged parts are repaired, and the
electric spark inspection is qualified
2 Boiler Inner wall of economizer Oxygen corrosion Do well in furnace shutdown protection and
routine water vapor quality supervision, control
and control the water-soluble oxygen content
of oxygen removal in water vapor index
Boiler pipeline Boiler water oxygen corrosion and scaling Protective measures for boiler shutdown of the
unit; The pan water is treated with trisodium
phosphate and ammonia water, and oxygen
removal is done well
Economizer, furnace pipe, overheat Metal corrosion, oxygen corrosion, scaling In operation, trisodium phosphate and
reheater, steam drum ammonia water are added for treatment;
Protection of Octadecylamine in Furnace
Shutdown during Maintenance and Shutdown
Inside of front wall water wall Electrochemical corrosion Do well in furnace shutdown protection and
daily steam quality supervision
Outside of water wall High-temperature corrosion Thermal spraying treatment; Spraying
anti-corrosion and wear-proof coating
Outside of water wall in reduction High-temperature corrosion after low oxygen Anti-corrosion arc spraying for
wind area combustion high-temperature corroded parts
Outer wall of economizer, Presence of anti-wear tile steering and low Installation of anti-wear tile
low-pressure superheater and re-pipe card wear break
low-pressure reheater
Cable bridge Aging corrosion Replacement or surface anti-corrosion
Corrosion of steel beam, column and In coastal areas, there is plenty of rain, humid Surface treatment (old paint removal, rust
platform of the boiler body air, and plenty of salt and chloride in the air removal, grinding, decontamination, dust
removal, etc.), painting paint (two layers of
primer, a medium layer, and a layer of topcoat)
3 Steam turbine Low-pressure cylinder blades, High water vapor humidity, high impurity Improve pH value of steam by adding
clapboard content of initial condensed water, incomplete ammonia water, ventilating, drying and
protective measures when shutdown protecting when stop, grinding and cleaning
when disassembling
High- and medium-pressure rotor Salt deposition caused by deterioration of Controlling water vapor quality
blade water vapor quality
Open pump impeller Water corrosion Replacement of impeller
Front steam side of low-pressure rotor Steam is not exhausted after unit shutdown Enhance steam extraction
causes water vapor condensation corrosion
External parts of steam turbine body Oxygen corrosion Thoroughly clean the old anti-corrosion layer,
and its subsidiary pipeline make new anti-corrosion layer and paint on the
surface of equipment and pipeline
(continued)

No. Name Corrosion site Main corrosion causes Main anti-corrosion measures
4 Electric Hydrogen cooler Corrosion of internal cooling water Adding medication to internal cooling water
generator
Generator stator cooling copper Internal cold water containing O2 and CO2 Control internal cold water pH > 7 or perform
conductor that causes oxygen corrosion, acid corrosion internal cold water treatment
5 Condenser Waterside of cooling pipe High oxygen content, high alkalinity Add scale and corrosion inhibitor and
hardness, easy scale, and poor water quality of bactericide in circulating water; Rubber ball
that cooling water cleaning; Acid cleaning, passivation and
corrosion protection during shutdown
Condenser stainless steel pipeline Plugging of stainless steel pipes, slow, or 1. Good results are obtained after sealing the
non-flow of cooling water, resulting in edge gap of the rotating filter screen of the
perforation corrosion circulating water front tank
2. Perform necessary inspection and cleaning
for each shutdown
3. Seal off the leaking pipeline
Titanium pipe Inlet end corrosion Install protective cover
5 Condenser Water chamber Pitting corrosion under scale After polishing, paint is applied to prevent
corrosion
Circulating water outlet pipeline Damage of sacrificial anode block, peeling of Replace the failed anode block and
corrosion prevention layer anti-corrosion coating in circulating water
pipeline
Condenser hot well Normal temperature corrosion in shutdown
Tube plate and water chamber Oxygen corrosion Anti-corrosive paint spraying and cathodic
protection
Rotating strainer, rubber lining valves Seawater corrosion Brush the anti-corrosion coating, replace the
and accessories of the system, inner valve and accessories made of stainless steel,
wall of circulating water pipeline, flow replace the sacrificial anode block
passage ram
Cement column Erosion corrosion Protection with an epoxy coating
6 Desulfurizing Inner wall of desulfurizing tower, fan Acid, alkali corrosion, slurry erosion Control sulfur content; protection of rubber
system blade corrosion liners and glass flake coatings
Spraying layer girder and support Peeling Anti-corrosion by rubber lining and scale
lining glue
Wet flue gas contact area Erosion, wear, and flue gas corrosion Repair or reprocess
Absorption tower, flue, slurry Sulfur oxide corrosion Regular inspection and repair
circulating pump,
Spraying layer area of desulfurizing Erosion and wear After regrinding, FRP strengthens the corrosion
tower resistance
Tower wall, steel frame, fence ladder Abrasion of absorber tower wall, coating Scale anti-corrosion repair for tower wall, paint
aging, and corrosion of outdoor steel frame anti-corrosion for outdoor carbon steel surface
and climbing ladder fence
7 Combustion Outer wall of overheat reheater, outer Sulfur oxide corrosion Use of low-sulfur coal to control oxidative
system and wall of furnace pipe, flue gas heat combustion environments
flue exchanger, electrostatic precipitator,
inner wall of chimney
Outside of water wall High-temperature corrosion in a reducing flue Protection of anti-corrosion coatings
gas environment
Air preheater Low-temperature corrosion of cold end Replacement of enamel regenerator
Internal supporting pipe of inlet flue in Windward wear Replace the badly worn support pipe, add the
denitration reaction zone angle steel, and make the tortoiseshell net to
prevent abrasion
Electric dust removal system, frame Serious corrosion due to environmental Rust removal by grinding and anti-corrosion
railing, and ash removal pipeline impact coating protection
Second-stage slag conveying belt Serious corrosion due to environmental Rust removal by grinding and anti-corrosion
frame and railing impact coating protection
Flue Flue gas corrosion Glass flake coating
8 Other Pipeline valve Oxygen corrosion Do a good job of anti-corrosion treatment
buildings
Industrial pool Chemical etching Medicine adding treatment
(structures)
Integrated pipe frame and pipeline In coastal areas, there is plenty of rain, humid Surface treatment, anti-corrosion coating
air, and plenty of salt and chloride in the air protection
548 J. Zhang
layered dezincification corrosion, pitting corrosion, erosion

corrosion, ammonia corrosion, stress corrosion, pipe end
corrosion, crevice corrosion, sulfide corrosion, wear corro-
sion, and microbial corrosion. Stainless steel pipe mainly
suffer from pitting corrosion (Fig. 4.223), crevice corrosion,
intergranular corrosion, and stress corrosion. The corrosion
control methods of condenser cooling pipe mainly include
reasonable material selection, using suitable water quality
stabilizer, keeping cooling pipe surface clean (glueball
cleaning), coating, and cathodic protection (tube plate).
The corrosion protection of condenser pipes made of
copper alloy, stainless steel, or titanium pipe is mainly
started from three aspects. The first is to change the corro-
Fig. 4.216 Water wall pipe explosion appearance
sive environment and reduce the corrosiveness of the envi-
ronment, such as strengthening supervision on the quality of
defects, which generally does not have obvious sign when condensate water and feedwater, improving the water quality
the unit is in operation. In order to prevent the damage treatment process. The second is to change the corrosion
caused by the water erosion of the last stage blade of the resistance of pipes, such as the use of anti-corrosion coating
turbine, it is one. on tube plate, protection casing on pipe end, cathodic pro-
of the effective methods to add the protective layer on the tection, and so on. The third is rational selection of materials,
blade surface. At present, commonly used methods are rational design of equipment structure, standardization of
brazing stellite alloy sheet, surface hardening, multilayer installation, strengthening supervision and management, and
nanocomposite coating, and so on. During the operation of regular chemical and mechanical cleaning.
the turbine, it is necessary to strengthen the monitoring and
pay attention to the necessary maintenance of the unit. In the
overhaul period of the unit, the phase array ultrasonic 4.7.6 Existing Problems and Corrosion
inspection technology can be adopted to inspect the metal of Prevention Strategies
the turbine blades to find the hidden problems.
In addition, the water quality control of ultra-supercritical 4.7.6.1 Problems in Corrosion and Protection
steam turbine is very important. It is necessary to remove the At present, corrosion protection is still at the stage of dis-
corrosive substances such as chloride ions in the water as far covering and solving the concrete problems of corrosion
as possible. At the same time, we should do a good job in damage, and can’t solve the corrosion prediction problem
boiler shutdown protection. well. This is an important issue that needs to be solved
urgently. In addition, the research on new corrosion-resistant
4. Corrosion and control of condenser cooling pipe materials and corrosion control technology needs to be fur-
ther discussed.
The condenser is composed of cooling water pipe, tube In production practice, the overall scientific literacy and
plate, shell, front water chamber, rear water chamber, and technical level of corrosion protection operators are rela-
exhaust inlet and outlet. The common pipes of condenser are tively low, and regular and strict training is needed.
brass pipe, stainless steel pipe, and titanium pipe. The cor- Standards and specifications on corrosion prevention of
rosion forms of brass pipe in condenser include uniform power generation equipment and main building
Fig. 4.217 Appearance of outer

surface (a) and inner surface
(b) of corrosion bulge of water
wall pipeline
4.7.6.2 Anti-corrosion Strategies

and Suggestions
The protection and control of corrosion should promote the
corrosion problem to the strategic level of national economic
development. We should pay attention to the research on the
methods and technologies of protection and control aca-
demically, increase the investment in scientific research, and
strengthen the cultivation of talents related to corrosion
control. At the same time, we should strengthen the
anti-corrosion awareness in daily production and life,
actively publicize, and learn the knowledge related to cor-
rosion control. The country and industry associations should
actively guide and support the establishment of complete
relevant standards and norms of the system and work reg-
ulations. The scientific and technical training for the specific
operators should be carried out continuously, and the train-
Fig. 4.218 A number of fine radial cracks at the nozzle of the heat ing process should be more strict and standardized.
exchanger pipe
4.7.7 Standards and Specifications on Corrosion

Protection of Power Generation
Equipment and Main Building
There are many standards and specifications for corrosion

protection of main buildings of power generation equipment
and power production enterprises, as described below.
Specifications for Anti-corrosion Design of Industrial
Buildings (GB 50046-2008)
Specifications for Design of Small Thermal Power Plants
(GB 50049-2011)
Specifications for Construction and Acceptance of
Grounding Device of Electrical Installation Engineering
(GB 50169-2006)
Corrosion Grade and De-rusting Grade of Steel Surface
before Coating (GB 8923-88)
Fig. 4.219 Hoop crack at the tube plate of high-pressure heater
Technical Conditions for Coating Application (GB
765-86)
Fig. 4.220 Fatigue corrosion crack at the tube plate of high-pressure heater
550 J. Zhang
Fig. 4.221 Blade fatigue break morphology
Fig. 4.222 Water erosion phenomenon of last stage blade
Fig. 4.223 Pitting perforation of

TP304 stainless steel condenser
pipe
Design Regulations for Gas-Steam Combined Cycle gas storage and transportation industry status and development
Power Plant (DLT 5174-2003) trend analysis). China Storage Transp 11:117–118
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Strategies in Water Environment Field 5
in China
Baorong Hou
treated and discharged out of the city to reduce the

pollution and impact on the city. It consists of a drai-
of Urban Water Supply and Drainage
nage system (or channel), a wastewater treatment plant,
and a final treatment facility. This investigation does not
include plant sewage treatment and corrosion problems
caused by reclaimed water.
Water is the source of human life and the most important
supporting factor for the survival and development of a city.
5.1.1.1 Current Situation
To some extent, it defines and determines the nature, scale,
industrial structure, layout, and development direction of the
1. Water supply pipe network
city. Urban development is highly dependent on water [1].
City water supply and drainage project involve water
Since the founding of New China, urban water supply has
resources, civil engineering, pipeline engineering, geology,
developed rapidly in China. By the end of 2010, the water
meteorology, hydrology, and other aspects, the planning is
supply capacity (including public water supply and self-built
more complex, and the project is also more cumbersome.
facility water supply) of cities and towns (including cities,
Along with the continuous development of urban construc-
counties, and towns) totaled 387 million m3/d, with a water
tion, the urban water supply and drainage project in each city
consumption population of 630 million people, the pipe
is no longer an independent part, but is developing toward a
network length of 1.0355 million km, and the annual total
unified system, so it is more necessary to strengthen the
water supply of 71.4 billion m3. Among them, the water
technical support and guarantee of various aspects.
supply capacity for cities is 276 million m3/d, the water
In order to further clarify the scope of the investigation,
consumption population is 381 million, the pipe network is
the following limits are made for the water supply and
539,800 km long, and the annual water supply amount is
drainage system:
50.8 billion m3. The water supply capacity for counties is 47
million m3/d, the water consumption population is 118
(1) The water supply project supplies domestic and pro-
million, the pipe network is 159,900 km long, and the
duction water as well as fire control water and road
annual water supply amount is 9.3 billion m3. The water
greening water to residents and factories, mines and
supply capacity for towns is 64 million m3/d, the water
transport enterprises, and is composed of water supply
consumption population is 131 million, the pipe network is
water source, water intake structure, raw water pipeline,
335,800 km long, and the annual water supply amount is
water supply treatment plant, and water supply network,
11.3 billion m3. Compared with 2,000, the water supply
with the function of collecting and transporting raw
capacity of cities and counties in the whole country
water and improving water quality.
increased by 68 million m3/d, an increase of 26.67%; there
(2) The drainage system is mainly composed of drainage
were 230 million new water users, an increase of 85.50%.
pipe network and sewage treatment system. The sew-
With the acceleration of urbanization, urban water supply
age, rainwater, and domestic wastewater in the city are
plays a more and more important role in urban development.
B. Hou (&)
According to incomplete statistics, classified by time, the
The Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, pipeline used before 1953 (the service life is more than
Qingdao, Shandong Province, China 50 years) is 5,193 km, accounting for 6.2%; the pipeline

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9354-0_5
556 B. Hou
from 1954 to 1965 (the service life is 40–50 years) is Table 5.1 Construction of urban drainage pipe network in China from
6,822 km, accounting for 8.1%; that from 1966 to 1978 (the 1990 to 2010
service life is 27–40 years) is 11,110 km, accounting for Indicator Year
13.2%; that from 1979 to 1995 (the service life is 10– 1990 1995 2000 2009 2010
26 years) is 31,641 km (37.5%); and the pipeline with ser- Length of urban 5.8 11.0 14.2 34.4 37.0
vice life of 10 years after 1996 is 29,583 km, accounting for drainage pipe/
35.1%. (10,000 km)
At present, the main pipelines used in water supply net- Density of urban 4.5 5.7 6.3 9.0 9.0
work are gray cast iron pipe, ductile iron pipe, and cement drainage pipe/
(km/km2)
pipe. The gray cast iron pipe is 43,362 km, accounting for
50.8% of the total length of the pipe network; cement pipe is
11,133 km, accounting for 13.0%; low-quality pipes such as
Table 5.2 The proportion of China’s drainage pipes in different years
galvanized iron pipe account for 6.0%. The pipe with better in the total construction of drainage pipes
quality has smaller proportion: ductile iron pipe is
Year Length of pipe (km) Ratio (%)
14,135 km, accounting for 16.8%; steel pipe is 6,977 km,
accounting for 8.2%; PVC pipe is 4,467 km, accounting for 1970s and before 21,860 5.91
5.2%. 1980s 35,927 9.71
1990s 83,971 22.69
2. Present situation of drainage pipe network 2001–2010 228,242 61.69
The planning and construction of urban drainage system in

foreign developed countries are relatively early, and has standard requirement of 80% drainage pipe network cover-
already developed mature. For example, in Germany, Japan, age rate [3]. Table 5.1 shows the construction of urban
the United States, and other developed countries, the con- drainage pipe network in China from 1990 to 2010 [4]. From
struction of urban drainage pipe network is now relatively the national perspective, the total length of urban drainage
perfect, with good results. According to statistics, in 2002, pipeline in China has increased year by year in the past
the average pipeline rate of urban sewage in Germany 20 years. In particular, in the past 10 years, China has
reached 93.2%, the total length of urban drainage pipeline speeded up the construction and development of the drai-
reached 446,000 km, the average per capita length was nage pipe network. From 2001 to 2010, 228,000 km of
5.44 m, and the average density of urban drainage network drainage pipes were added. Over 60% of the drainage pipes
was above 10 km/km2 [2]. In 2004, the length of urban have been built in recent years. See Table 5.2 for details [4].
drainage pipe network in Japan reached 350,000 km, the The density of urban drainage pipes shows the similar
density of drainage pipe is generally 20–30 km/km2, and the increasing trend. By the end of 2010, the total length of
area with high pipeline density can reach 50 km/km2. In urban drainage pipes in China has reached 370,000 km, and
2002, the length of urban drainage pipe network in the the density of urban drainage pipes is 9.0 km/km2.
United States was about 1.5 million km, the per capita length According to the urbanization rate of 46.6% in 2010, the per
was over 4 m, and the average density of urban drainage capita length of urban drainage pipe is only 0.57 m. Com-
pipe network was above 15 km/km2. Generally, the higher pared with developed countries, China’s urban drainage
the density of urban drainage pipe network (the density of network is left behind with wide gap in terms of the total
distribution of drainage pipes in urban areas is the ratio of length, per capita occupancy, or network density.
the total length of urban drainage pipes to the area of the Table 5.3 shows the statistics of the length of urban
built-up areas), the higher the penetration rate of drainage drainage pipes in various regions of China in 2010 [4]. From
pipe network in a city is and the larger the service area is. Table 5.3, it can be seen that in recent years, the construction
This shows that in Germany, Japan, the United States, and of urban drainage pipe network in Jiangsu, Shandong,
other developed countries, urban construction has a com- Zhejiang, Guangzhou, and other eastern coastal provinces
plete drainage pipeline system. Compared with the devel- has achieved rapid development, with the length of urban
oped countries and regions in Europe, America, and Japan, drainage pipe network being the best among all provinces in
there is a big gap in the construction of urban drainage pipe China, and the drainage pipe network construction in the
network in China. In 2008, the penetration rate of urban western regions such as Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai, and other
drainage pipe network in China was about 60%, among cities is seriously insufficient. Overall, China’s urban drai-
which the penetration rate of drainage pipe network in small nage pipe network infrastructure is lack of investment for a
towns was lower, about 40–60%, far lower than the national long term, with too much debt, and the pipe network
Table 5.3 Construction of urban drainage pipe network in different and more prominent. First, the population is increasing
regions of China in 2010 constantly, and the urban population of China is
Region Length of Region Length of increasing at the rate of 0.2% every year, which makes
urban drainage urban drainage the urban water consumption to increase rapidly. Sec-
pipe (km) pipe (km)
ond, the water consumption per unit of population is
National 369,553 Henan 14,733 increasing. As a result of the development of economy
Beijing 10,172 Hubei 16,577 and the improvement of living standard, the daily water
Tianjin 15,140 Hunan 8882 consumption of every urban resident in China has
Hebei 14,576 Guangdong 42,507 increased nearly twice compared with the past. Third,
Shanxi 5459 Guangxi 6417 the industrial water consumption is increasing.
Inner 8514 Hainan 2946 (2) There is a contradiction between urgency of water
Mongolia pollution treatment and imperfect drainage facilities. At
Liaoning 14,070 Chongqing 7073 present, the problem of water pollution is common in
Jilin 7738 Sichuan 14,498
Chinese cities, which leads to the serious damage of
urban water environment, the continuous expansion of
Heilongjiang 7504 Guizhou 3327
water shortage areas, and the imbalance between the
Shanghai 11,483 Yunnan 4419
supply and demand of water resources. This problem
Jiangsu 46,867 Shaanxi 5666 has constituted a hazard to urban residents’ life, health,
Zhejiang 26,367 Gansu 3092 and the process of urban modernization.
Anhui 13,136 Qinghai 1014 (3) With the acceleration of people’s life rhythm and life-
Fujian 9686 Ningxia 1384 style changes, the demand for direct drinking water is
Jiangxi 7340 Xinjiang 4372 increasing. The increasingly serious water pollution,
Shandong 34,301 Tibet 293
coupled with the old water purification process facili-
ties, has caused the relative decline in the water quality
of tap water. Therefore, the safety of water supply
construction obviously lags behind the urbanization process. quality has become the focus of attention.
Taking Shanghai as an example, the survey shows that the (4) The plan is unreasonable. The concept of seeking truth
coverage rate of the urban drainage pipe network in 2008 from facts and scientific and effective planning methods
was about 60%, including 98% inside the inner ring, 61% fails to study the actual conditions of the city in depth,
between the inner and outer rings, and only 36% outside the and the lack of deep-level demonstration on the tech-
outer ring. Other cities were less optimistic. In recent years, nical economy of the planning scheme of water supply
the backwardness of pipe network construction has led to the and drainage projects in cities, resulting in blindness of
frequent occurrence of waterlogging. In 2010, the Ministry construction objectives. It is difficult to provide tech-
of Housing and Urban and Rural Development carried out a nical support for the rational development of the city.
special survey on urban waterlogging drainage capacity in
351 cities. The results showed that from 2008 to 2010, 62% 5.1.1.3 Countermeasures for Common Problems
of the cities had experienced waterlogging in different in Urban Water Supply and Drainage
degrees, and 137 of them had more than three waterlogging Projects
disasters. In the cities where waterlogging occurred, 74.6%
of the cities had the maximum water accumulation depth of (1) Lay stress on scientific research and provide reasonable
more than 50 cm, and the maximum water accumulation technical support for water supply and drainage engi-
time of 57 cities exceeded 12 h. neering construction with modern science and tech-
nology. We should increase scientific research in the
5.1.1.2 Problems in Urban Water Supply construction of urban water supply and drainage pro-
and Drainage Engineering jects, make full use of internationally mature advanced
scientific achievements and successful experiences, in
(1) The contradiction between urban water supply and particular, the latest modern science and technology,
demand is prominent. With the constant acceleration of provide powerful technical support for the construction
China’s economic construction, the contradiction of water supply and drainage projects in urban con-
between urban water supply and demand becomes more struction of China, and ensure high starting point and
558 B. Hou
high standard for the construction of water supply and 5.1.2 Main Materials Used for Water Supply
drainage projects. We should increase the input of sci- and Drainage Systems
entific research force and funds, transfer the results to
the actual work in time, and provide reliable technical 5.1.2.1 Standard for Selecting Water Supply
guarantee for the construction of water supply and and Drainage Pipes
drainage projects.
(2) Strengthen water pollution control, clarify the scope and (1) Prefer the products that follow the national standards.
responsibilities of urban water pollution control areas, Consumers should pay attention to observe whether the
implement total amount of control over the designated pipes are marked with the implementation of the
water environment functional areas, formulate corre- national standards in the purchase of pipes, if the
sponding water environment function areas and corre- enterprise standards are implemented, special notice
sponding water pollution prevention and control plans, should be given.
define water environment quality standards, especially (2) Pay attention to the appearance of the pipes. The pipes
protect the water source of urban waterworks, speed up shall be smooth, flat, and free of bubbles, discoloration,
the planning and construction of urban sewage treat- and other defects, with uniform color, non-impurities,
ment projects, and strictly control the discharge of and uniform wall thickness.
urban industrial sewage, domestic sewage, solid wastes, (3) Pay attention to the pressure rating of the water supply
and toxic and harmful substances. pipes and select the pressure rating that meets the actual
(3) Promote urban water conservation and urban sewage use requirements. In general, the hot water pipes should
recycle, formulate industrial policies, facilitate the be series with S of 2.5 or less, that is, the wall thickness
development of the tertiary industry with low water of the pipes with an outer diameter of 20 should be
consumption, increase the proportion of industries with more than 3.4 mm, and that with the outer diameter of
low water consumption technologies in the secondary 25 is preferably 4.2 mm or more.
industry, and restrict the development of high (4) The pipes shall be sufficiently rigid, especially the
water-consuming enterprises, so as to greatly reduce the drainage pipes, and shall not be deformed when the
water consumption per unit of output value and strive to pipes are pressed by hand.
create a water-saving city. At the same time, we should
pay attention to the adjustment of agricultural product 5.1.2.2 Common Pipes
structure, provide sprinkler and drip irrigation tech-
nologies, reduce agricultural water consumption, and 1. Plastic pipes
improve the utilization rate of freshwater resources in
China. Plastic pipes are made of synthetic resin and additives by
(4) Explore and widen investment channels, and provide melt molding. Additives include plasticizers, stabilizers,
effective sources of funds for the construction of water fillers, lubricants, colorants, UV absorbers, modifiers, and
supply and drainage projects based on the laws of the like. The common plastic pipes are rigid polyvinyl
market economy. We should change “closed operation” chloride pipe (PVC-U), high-density polyethylene pipe
to “government-led and market operation.” While (HDPE), cross-linked polyethylene pipe (PE-X), random
ensuring the strength of government investment and the copolymer polypropylene pipe (PP-R), polybutene pipe
source of financial funds, we should establish a good (PB), engineering plastics acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene
investment policy environment, raise funds from all copolymer (ABS), etc.
sides through various channels, break the industrial Main advantages of plastic pipes: ① Good chemical
monopoly, and, in accordance with the principle of stability, which prevents them from being affected by envi-
“those who invest get benefits and bear risks,” deter- ronmental factors and medium components inside the pipes,
mine the investment in benefit-driving mechanism and and good corrosion resistance. ② Small heat conduction
risk restraint mechanism to ensure the long-term coefficient, low heat conductivity, good heat insulation and
development of the financing system and promote the heat preservation, and sound energy-saving effect. ③ Good
overall development of urban water supply and hydraulic performance, smooth inner wall of the pipes, small
drainage. resistance coefficient, not easy to deposit scale, no changes
with time in the flow area of the pipes, and small pipeline pipes has been generally recognized in the world.
blocking probability. ④ Compared with the metal pipes, Compared with the traditional socket cast iron drainage
small density, light mass, convenient, flexible and simple pipe, this kind of pipes has many advantages and is an
transportation and installation, and easy maintenance. ⑤ updated product, but because of the relatively high price
Easy bending or good cold bending performance. The coil of this kind of pipes and fittings, it has not been pop-
can be used for supply, so as to reduce the number of union ularized in China.
joints.
Main disadvantages of plastic pipes: ① Poor mechanical 3. Composite pipes
properties, impact resistance, rigidity, and straightness, so
pipe clamps and hangers are provided with high density. ② Composite pipes include lead-lined pipes, rubber-lined
Poor flame retardancy, and most plastic products are flam- pipes, and glass-reinforced plastic pipes. The composite
mable, and when burned, they decompose and release toxic pipe is mostly composed of working layer (required to be
gas and smoke. ③ High coefficient of thermal expansion, resistant to water), supporting layer, and protective layer
and so the expansion and contraction compensation must be (required to be resistant to corrosion).
emphasized. Composite pipes are generally supported with metal,
mainly with epoxy resin and cement as the lining. It is
2. Metal pipes characterized by lightweight, smooth inner wall, small
resistance, and good corrosion resistance. There are also
(1) Galvanized steel pipes. According to the Some Opin- high-strength soft metal support on the inner and outer sides
ions on Promoting the Modernization of Housing of nonmetal pipes, such as aluminum–plastic composite
Industry and Improving Housing Quality released by pipes, whose characteristics indicate that they are not cor-
the General Office of the State Council GBF [1999] rosive inside which in turn ensures water quality. There is
No. 72 and forwarded by the Ministry of Housing and also an occasion where the metal tube is inside and the
Urban-Rural Construction of the People’s Republic of nonmetal tube is outside, such as a plastic-coated copper
China and other departments, from June 1, 2000, in pipe, which utilizes the poor thermal conductivity of the
urban newly built houses, it is forbidden to use plastic for thermal insulation and protection. According to
cold-galvanized steel pipes for indoor water supply the material of metals, the composite pipes can be divided
pipes, and gradually restrict and forbid the into: ① steel–plastic composite pipe, ② stainless steel–
hot-galvanized steel pipes according to local actual plastic composite pipe, plastic-coated stainless steel pipe,
conditions. New-type pipes such as aluminum–plastic (3) plastic-coated copper pipe, ④ aluminum–plastic com-
composite pipes, PE-X pipes, and PP-R pipes should be posite pipe, cross-linked aluminum–plastic composite pipe,
popularized and applied and copper pipes should also and ⑤ plastic-lined aluminum alloy pipe.
be promoted where conditions are available. However, It should be said that composite pipe is the most ideal
hot-galvanized steel pipes are widely used in firefight- pipe for water supply and drainage pipe with pipe diameter
ing, electric power, and high-speed highways. 300 mm and has the advantages of high strength, good
(2) Copper pipes. The copper pipes are the most advanta- rigidity, and corrosion resistance of nonmetal pipe. But it is
geous among metal pipes. Copper pipes have been used now a slowly developed pipe. This is because
for a long time and have many advantages such as
complete pipe materials and fittings and various joints, (1) The combination of two pipes is more expensive than a
and thus are widely used in hot water pipes. At present, single pipe.
the main problem is that the precipitation amount of (2) The difference of thermal expansion coefficient between
copper easily exceeds the standard. the two materials is relatively large, such as weak
(3) Cast iron pipes. Compared with steel pipes, the cast iron adhesion and drastic change in ambient temperature and
pipes for water supply have the advantages of good medium temperature, which make it easy to detach and
corrosion resistance, lower cost and better durability, lead to lower quality.
and are suitable for buried laying. The disadvantages (3) The connection of the composite pipe should adopt the
are brittle quality, heavyweight, small length, etc. The cold processing mode, and the hot processing mode can
connection mode generally adopts socket connection. easily cause the expansion and contraction, deforma-
The clamp-type cast iron drainage pipe is a new type of tion, and even melting of the lining plastic. There are
drainage pipe for construction. It has been introduced thread, clamp sleeve, and other connection means.
into the international market in the 1960s. After several
decades of popularization and application, this kind of
560 B. Hou
Table 5.4 Characteristics of urban drainage pipes

Pipe materials Advantages Disadvantages
Concrete pipe and Low cost Poor impermeability and easy to be
reinforced concrete corroded by acid–alkali wastewater
pipe
Clay pipe Good corrosion resistance Low strength and fragile nature
RCP Good corrosion resistance and sealing of interface Slightly higher price
HDPE Good corrosion resistance, flexibility, and lightweight Slightly higher price
PVC-U Cheap price, good corrosion resistance, good flexibility, lightweight, Low pipe strength, brittle nature, poor
easy processing and connection, low requirements for pipeline resistance to external pressure and
foundation, and simple construction impact
Table 5.5 Variety of materials for drainage pipes in German cities

Material of pipe Concrete/reinforced Clay Brick Chemical Fiber Cast Other
concrete pipe pipe pipe material cement iron/steel pipes
pipe pipe pipe
Proportion (overall situation) (%) 46.1 44.2 3.2 2.3 2.0 0.8 1.5
Proportion (%) 44.5 48.7 0.8 2.4 1.7 1.0 0.9
Proportion ( DN 800) (%) 80.5 0.9 15.6 0.3 0.7 0.4 1.6
5.1.2.3 Application Status of Urban Drainage plastic pipe has been widely used in developed countries
Pipes at Home and Abroad because of its superior characteristics.
In the construction of urban drainage pipe network, the
investment in pipes accounts for a large proportion in the 2. Application status of urban drainage pipes in China
total investment in urban pipe network, and pipe cost
accounts for about 50% of the cost of pipe projects. The At present, the drainage pipes made of concrete are used in
drainage pipes are divided into metal pipes, plastic pipes, most cities in China, but the serious leakage of traditional
and concrete pipes according to materials. Table 5.4 shows concrete pipes, reinforced concrete pipes and cast iron pipes
the common urban drainage pipes. Different pipes have and the influence of other municipal works on the pipe
different characteristics. Therefore, it is very important to foundation seriously damage the concrete pipes and their
select suitable pipes according to the specific conditions [5]. joints, and cause the sewage seeps into the ground, which
seriously affects the underground water quality of the city.
1. Application status of urban drainage pipes in devel- These problems have been fully revealed in the pipe network
oped countries of the old urban areas.
Thanks to the advantages of good corrosion resistance,
At present, concrete pipes, reinforced concrete pipes, and good flexibility, and lightweight, plastic pipes are mainly
clay pipes are still used in most of the old urban areas used in the newly built urban drainage pipe network in
abroad. According to the survey of the urban drainage pipes China at present. In particular, large-diameter buried plastic
of 77,236 km in Germany in 2001, the German drainage pipes occupy a considerable position in urban municipal
pipes were mainly concrete pipes, reinforced concrete pipes, pipe projects [6, 7]. According to the US agencies, the stock
and clay pipes, but clay pipes were mainly used for drainage of large-diameter pipes in the United States in 2002 was
pipes below DN800, see Table 5.5. However, with the 163.3 million feet, or about half a million kilometers. Due to
transformation of urban drainage pipe network, many tra- the highest demand for large-diameter pipes in the drainage
ditional drainage pipes are gradually replaced by other pipes, it is estimated that about the drainage pipes with a
material pipes. For example, the UK has officially produced diameter of over 500 mm accounted for 60%, i.e., about
the glass fiber concrete pipe, which is superior in strength to 300,000 km of the large-diameter buried drainage pipes in
the ordinary reinforced concrete pipe. In the 1970s, the the United States in 2002. According to the experience data,
United States began using polymer concrete for prefabri- the proportion of large caliber in China is about 20%, the
cated manholes and plastic pipes for sewers. As a new pipe, total amount is 370,000 km in 2010, and the large-diameter
pipe is about 74,000 km [8]. As the United States and China iron pipes and concrete pipes are mostly used for water pipe
are similar in the territory area, regardless of all other factors, network of tap water. But this kind of pipes has only
China needs another 226,000 km large-diameter buried 50 years of service life, and most of them are at the critical
drainage pipes. Therefore, the demand of plastic pipe in the point of life. At present, the urban water supply pipe network
future drainage pipe construction in every city of China will in China is more than 390,000 km, the proportion of gray
be increasing. cast iron pipe accounts for a large proportion [9], the pipe
network of some old urban areas in some cities has been
running beyond the limit for a long period, and those with
5.1.3 Characteristics and Mechanism more than 50 years account for about 6% of the total water
of Corrosion of Water Supply supply pipe network in China. According to the data, some
and Drainage System tap water pipes with poorer quality have the service life of
less than 5 years, and those buried in the underground have
5.1.3.1 Existing Corrosion Problems in Water bad consequences. If the construction quality is not up to the
Supply System standard, it is undoubtedly even worse. Corrosion and
The water from the plant to the user terminal goes through a scaling of pipe network and iron release caused by the
long pipe network and water storage measures, which takes change in chemical stability are several important reasons for
often several hours, even days. The pipe network is in fact a the deterioration of pipe network water quality. At present,
large reactor, continuing the uncompleted reaction of the there are cast iron pipe, steel pipe, ductile iron pipe, water
water from the plant and the reaction of the water with the supply plastic pipe (PVC-U pipe and PE pipe), pressure
materials in the wall of pipes. These reactions are biological, cement pipe, glass fiber reinforced plastic pipe, aluminum–
physical, and chemical. In addition to the water quality plastic composite pipe, lined steel pipe (PVC lining and PE
impact of water from the plant, the water quality has a powder resin lining) for water transmission and distribution
certain relationship with the material, service life, construc- pipes. Although the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural
tion, and other factors of water transmission and distribution Construction has banned the use of cast iron pipes, but in the
pipes. According to the Report of the State Council on domestic urban underground pipes laid, the cast iron pipe
Safeguarding the Safety of Drinking Water published on the still accounts for a considerable proportion. When the tap
website of the National People’s Congress (NPC) of the water is corrosive or the service life of the pipe is too long,
People’s Republic of China in 2012, during the 11th the inner wall of the cast iron pipe will corrode with the scale
Five-Year Plan period, the public water supply capacity of deposit, and the corrosion product contains a large amount of
cities and counties throughout the country increased by 33 iron, lead, zinc, and various bacteria and algae. In the event
million m3 per day and the pipe network length is increased of abrupt change in water flow rate, direction, or water
by 222,100 km. By the end of 2010, China’s urban water pressure in the pipe, the index values of iron, manganese,
supply population reached 630 million, and the water supply chroma, turbidity, and bacteria increased greatly. There are
penetration rate reached 90.3%. The standard-reaching rate similar problems with galvanized steel pipes, which are also
of water samples from urban public water supply plants used as main water supply pipes (as early as in 1980, Japan,
throughout the country is 83.0%, and that of tap water for Singapore, and other countries have already banned the use
public water supply in cities and counties is 79.6%, down by of galvanized steel pipes, and the zinc-plated steel pipes
less than 5%. In fact, however, when tap water flows from a have been eliminated in Shanghai since 1999).
water plant to a faucet in most cities and towns in China, the Some studies have shown that when the service life is
water quality qualification rate drops by about 10%. Gen- beyond 5–10 years, the scale deposit has reached the degree
erally speaking, the quality of the treated tap water can meet of deteriorating water quality for metal pipes that have not
the national drinking water quality standard, but after the been treated with anticorrosion, and corrosion phenomena
long-distance transmission and distribution or the long-term begin to occur in 3–5 years for metal pipelines with low
stay of water through water supply pipe network, there are corrosion treatment. The longer the pipe has been in service,
various problems when they reach the users, such as the the more serious the corrosion is and the worse the water
decrease in water quality, the increase in water quality quality is. In 2002 and 2003, the Ministry of Housing and
indicators such as turbidity, chroma, and iron, and even Urban-Rural Development investigated the water supply pipe
yellow water, black water, and other phenomena if serious, network in hundreds of cities. It was found that the quality of
which seriously affect the daily life of residents and endan- the pipe network was generally inferior, and 50.80% of gray
ger the health of residents. At the beginning of the founding cast iron pipes, 13% of ordinary cement pipes, and 6% of
of New China, due to the limitation of economic develop- galvanized pipes were not in accordance with the national
ment conditions, only relatively low-priced materials can be standards. These three types of low-quality pipe networks
selected for urban infrastructure construction, and gray cast were mainly used between the 1970s and 2000. According to
562 B. Hou
Fig. 5.1 Inside of galvanized

steel pipes with different service
life. a DN20 galvanized steel pipe
with 8-year service life; b DN20
galvanized steel pipe with 5-year
service life
the statistics in 2002, there were 132 km of pipes, 378 km of For example, the water supply pipe network in Huangshi,
unlined pipes, and 800 km of pipes of explosive and easy Hubei has undergone the development process from scratch to
leakage with the service life of more than 50 years in the small and then to large pipe network. With the completion and
central urban area of Shanghai. For this reason, the Shanghai production of Huahu Water Plant, the water supply range of
Water Authority plans to replace the 800–1,000 km urban Huangshi City rises from Huhu Lake in Ezhou to Daye City,
pipes, and gradually bring the neighborhood pipe network covers westwards Tieshan and extends eastwards to Zhon-
into the jurisdiction of the water companies. Generally gyao. The length of water supply pipe network is 435 km.
speaking, when the service life of cast iron pipe without However, most of these pipes have been in operation for more
anticorrosion processing is more than 5 years, the corrosion than 50 years and have tended to age as a whole.
and dirt will be serious. Figure 5.1 shows the inside of gal- Especially in the old urban areas such as Huangshi
vanized steel pipes with different service life. Avenue, Wuhu Road, and Wuhan Road, which are covered
According to the data from the China Institute of Water with the main pipes from Wangjia Water Plant, the corrosion
Resources and Hydropower Research, most of the urban inside the pipes is serious, and pipe burst accidents often
water supply pipe network in China is at the critical point of occur. The water supply pipes in Huangshi District have
life, and the pipe network in some old urban areas runs served for a longer period, with a variety of pipe materials
beyond the limit of the service life for a long period of time. such as asbestos-cement pipe, prestressed reinforced con-
The pipes with the service life of more than 50 years account crete pipe, and gray cast iron pipe, which account for more
for about 6% of China’s total water supply pipe network. On than 70%. The gray cast iron pipe was widely used in the
the one hand, it is corroded by chlorine in the pipe, causing 1960s and 1970s and vulnerable to burst and break because
chemical reaction and thinning of pipe wall; on the other of its inherent defects in its production technology, such as
hand, the external wall of the pipe is eroded by the under- loose structure, high brittleness, nonimpact resistance, and
ground sewage and odor, and the external wall of the pipe low bending and tensile strength. Aging of the pipe network
falls off at the beginning of installation of the water supply will lead to leakage, and the water leakage rate has been
pipes due to the low anticorrosion quality. In addition, the around 20% in Beijing and higher in other places. More
abovementioned pipe materials have serious defects. Affec- seriously, pipe network aging leads to the frequent occur-
ted by tensile stress, the cast iron pipes are easy to break in rence of secondary pollution events. For example, under the
the circumferential direction and the longitudinal direction, actual pressure of extreme lack of water resources, Beijing
causing water leakage accidents. Galvanized steel pipes has to allocate water resources from many places. According
mainly suffer from corrosion, serious aging, fracture of joint to information released by Beijing Waterworks Group, there
pipe hoop, stripping of corroded pipe body, thinning of pipe are up to 22 water sources in Beijing.
wall, and occurrence of water leakage. The reinforced con- Taking the municipal pipe network (not including the
crete pipes mainly suffer from the aging of interface rubber pipe network for residential areas and users) of Shenzhen
ring, which is washed out when the water pressure is too Water Group as an example, the total length of municipal
high, the damage to reinforcement tensile strength, and the pipe network within the service area of Shenzhen Water
water leakage of the pipe body caused by the circumferential Group is about 821.5 km, of which the reinforced concrete
crack and others. pipe is 174.6 km, steel pipe is 216.8 km, cast iron pipe is
210.8 km, ductile iron pipe is 35.9 km, and prestressed Since December 23, 1995, the Hong Kong authorities have
copper cylinder concrete pipe (PCCP) is 10.8 km. Among banned the use of unlined galvanized steel pipes, requiring the
the 172.5 km pipes with unknown pipe properties due to use of copper pipes, stainless steel pipes, and polyethylene
incomplete data, steel pipes, cast iron pipes, and nodular cast pipes to prevent corrosion of drinking water. However, in the
iron pipes account for 27%, 21%, and 4%, respectively, and mainland China, there is no uniform standard for the materials
the metal pipe in the municipal pipe network accounts for and use of water supply pipes. In terms of supervision, it is in
more than 50%. The water supply pipe network in Shenzhen the intersection between urban construction department and
Special Zone was not established for a long period, but health department. As more than 95% of the national public
according to the user questionnaire survey, the user com- water supply plants were built before the promulgation of the
plaints about water include impurity, sediment, rust, old Hygienic Standard for Drinking Water (GB 5749-2006), the
water pipe, corrosion, and rust, and the water leakage leakage rate of water supply pipe networks in more than half
problem accounts for more than 80% of the user complaints. of the cities in China now exceeds the standard, with the
It can be seen that the corrosion of urban metal pipe network annual leakage water volume of 6 billion m3 as well as the
for water supply in China and the problems of pipe network decline in the water quality during the transportation process.
maintenance and water quality deterioration are very serious. According to the incomplete statistics of the China Urban
Shandong Yantai Development Zone has been built for Water Association, the average leakage rate of urban water
19 years which has 36 km2 water supply pipe network, with supply pipe networks nationwide increased from 7.89 to
150 km water supply pipes, which met the region’s water 17.92% from 1992 to 2003. In 2002, the Ministry of Con-
needs. However, due to various reasons in design, construc- struction investigated 408 cities across the country, which
tion, and pipe material in the past, the water supply system in showed that the leakage rate of pipe network for the urban
the 2 km2 start-up area of the Development Zone has some public water supply system averaged 21.5%. In 2003, in 29
problems to be solved urgently. The original laid unlined provinces and regions with statistical results, the average
pipes have been basically corroded, and the inner wall of the leakage rate of public water supply pipe networks in 10 pro-
pipes has serious scale deposits. When the water pressure and vinces and cities such as Heilongjiang, Hainan, Hubei, and
amount fluctuate, it is easy to form “red water” (rust water), Henan were higher than 30%, and some of these cities were
which seriously affects the production and life of enterprises, even as high as 50%. However, for the tap water entering the
institutions, and residents in this area (Fig. 5.2). According to pipe network, the unguaranteed chemical and biological sta-
the factors such as different service life, different pipe mate- bility may cause the potential change in the data in the factory
rials, and different pipe diameters, the corrosion of inner wall inspection due to the increase of microbial bacterial seeds
of pipes was sampled for investigation. From the analysis of formed after the corrosion and fouling of the old water pipes.
the investigation, all pipes without lining were corroded for Rust scale produced by rust, scale formed by calcium and
over 5 years of service. Especially the ordinary cast iron pipes magnesium ions, and mud scale formed by suspended
are more obvious with corrosion, forming 5 cm high rust. The impurity precipitation in water make the thickness of pipe
rust block taken from the pipes is about 6 cm, which shows scale layer continuously increase with time, forming a good
the severity of the corrosion of the pipes. place for breeding bacteria. Microorganisms attach and grow
to form “biofilms”. Such “secondary pollution” resulted in a
total of 4,232 pollution incidents in the water supply pipe
network of 184 large- and medium-sized cities in China from
2000 to 2003.
5.1.3.2 Corrosion Types and Mechanism of Water

Supply Pipes
1. Chemical corrosion
Corrosion caused by direct chemical reaction of a metal with

a contact substance (e.g., O2, Cl2, SO2, etc.) is called
chemical corrosion. Such reaction is relatively simple and is
only an oxidation–reduction reaction between a metal and an
oxidizing agent. In practice, there are few examples of pure
chemical corrosion, which are always carried out alternately
with electrochemical corrosion.
Fig. 5.2 Cross section of the run-down tap water supply pipe
564 B. Hou
2. Electrochemical corrosion [10, 11] corrosion caused by iron bacteria is characterized by

increased turbidity and chroma of the effluent, accompanied
The internal corrosion of metal pipes is first of all an by reddish-brown precipitate, and possibly with odor due to
electrochemical corrosion process and is controlled by a the influence of sulfate-reducing bacteria, which may cause
cathodic process. In the case of steel pipes, iron enters the pipe blockage and corrosion of the pipe wall. The corrosion
water as ions while leaving electrons in the metal during the caused by iron bacteria is quite serious from the surface
anodic process; H+ and oxygen-absorbing electrons in the phenomenon of deterioration of water quality in most water
water are reduced to produce oxygen uptake or hydrogen distribution systems. The experiments have proven that the
evolution corrosion. Fe(OH)2 is formed in the pipe wall, iron content in the water before entering the water distri-
which is further oxidized to be Fe(OH)3, which adheres to bution pipe network is 0.30 mg/L while the iron content of
the wall surface. The main reaction formula is as follows: the water from the user tap is 4.35 mg/L, so it can be
inferred that a large amount of iron content in the water
Anode Fe 2e ¼ Fe2 þ ð5:1Þ comes from the pipe, that is, corrosion caused by iron bac-
teria [12, 13]. Therefore, enough attention should be paid to
Fe2 þ þ 2OH ¼ FeðOHÞ2 ð5:2Þ the corrosion caused by iron bacteria in the study of the
stability of water distribution system. Iron bacteria generally
4FeðOHÞ2 þ O2 þ 2H2 O ¼ 4FeðOHÞ3 ð5:3Þ
live in water containing less oxygen but more iron (divalent
Cathode O2 þ 2H2 O þ 4e ¼ 4OH ð5:4Þ iron ions) and carbon dioxide, and play a catalytic role in the
formation of iron compounds from ferrous oxide, oxidize
2H þ þ 2e ¼ H2 ðacid solutionÞ ð5:5Þ divalent iron ions to ferric irons, secrete a large amount of
iron hydroxide, and get the energy from it to meet the needs
O2 þ 4H þ þ 4e ¼ 2H2 O ðacid solutionÞ ð5:6Þ of life. The reaction equation is as follows:
Electrochemical corrosion has various manifestations, 4FeCO3 þ O2 þ 6H2 O ¼ 4FeðOHÞ3 # þ 4CO2 " þ 167:5 J
such as galvanic corrosion occurring when a metal (alloy) ð5:7Þ
composed of two different metals or different components is
brought into contact with the same water body, and due to The common iron bacteria involved in the corrosion of
the concentration corrosion caused by the difference in the metals are Grenathrix polyspora, Crenothrix, Chlamy-
concentration of metal ions and dissolved oxygen concen- dothrix, Sphaerotilus, and Siderocapsa. The characteristics
tration. The water supply metal pipes are in contact with the of iron bacteria of different genera are different, and the
soil while the soil at one place or at a long distance along the suitable growth conditions and influencing factors are dif-
metal pipe is chemically nonuniform or different in the ferent. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out research on the
nature, as if two different metals were placed in the same properties of different pipes and propose the corrosion
electrolyte, and the potential difference occurs between two control strategies correspondingly.
metal pipes in structure to form a cell to corrode the water The common sulfate oxidation (reduction) bacteria in soil
supply pipe. For the inner wall of the pipe, it comes into is a highly corrosive anaerobic bacteria. It often exists on the
contact with the water transported from the city. The water inner wall of the pipe. In the absence of oxygen, it mainly
itself is electrolyte, and the two parts with different physical acts as a polarizing agent in the cathode during the elec-
or chemical properties on the metal surface of the water trochemical process of metal pipes and reduces the sulfate to
supply pipe will form electrodes in the water causing sulfide, thus accelerating the corrosion and fouling rate of
corrosion. the pipe. The corrosion caused by sulfate-reducing bacteria
generally has the following characteristics: the corrosion pit,
1. Microbial corrosion i.e., the pitting corrosion area is filled with black corrosion
products and treated with hydrochloric acid to release
The iron bacteria is a kind of special nutrition fungus. It hydrogen sulfide, the metal surface beneath the corrosion
relies on the oxidation of iron salt, and survives with the products tends to be shiny, and the surface of the pitting area
energy that the bacterium itself produces in clean water with consists of a number of concentric circles with a tapered
very little organic matter content. Since iron bacteria can cross section. Its product hydrogen sulfide (H2S) corrodes
discharge Fe(OH)3, which is more than 499 times its own the metal seriously, and the product FeS blocks the pipeline.
volume during survival, water pipes may be severely In addition, due to the mass propagation of other aerobic
blocked sometimes. In addition, iron bacteria often attach to bacteria, slime will be formed in the pipeline and dirt will be
and grow on the inner wall of the pipes to form nodules and formed in the pipe wall. Sulfate-reducing bacteria will
local corrosion with oxygen concentration difference. The propagate and grow under the dirt, which will cause more
serious under-deposit corrosion of the pipe network and The presence of a water-carbonate system in the water
even pipe perforation [14–16]. One explanation for the determines whether the water is corrosive or scaling. When
corrosion mechanism of sulfate-reducing bacteria is the the calcium carbonate content in the water exceeds the
theory that sulfate-reducing bacteria participates in cathodic maximum value that can be dissolved, precipitation will be
depolarization. Sulfate-reducing bacteria uses hydrogen to generated to adhere to the inner wall of the pipeline and the
reduce sulfate in anaerobic environment, continuously con- water has scaling property. When the calcium carbonate
sume free electrons on the metal surface, and accelerate the content in the water is lower than its saturation value, the
depolarization of the anode, thereby releasing the metal ions scaling substances can be dissolved in the water, which is
and promoting the electrochemical corrosion of the metal. called corrosive water [23]. The corrosion and release of iron
The reaction equation is as follows: are two different processes. The corrosion is caused by the
long-term electrochemical reaction between metal pipe and
SO2 þ
4 þ 10H þ 8e ! H2 S " þ 4H2 O ð5:8Þ water, in which Fe2+, OH−, and other substances are pro-
duced. After a series of chemical reactions, the pipe scale is
H2 S þ Fe2 þ ! FeS # þ 2H þ ð5:9Þ formed on the inner wall of the pipe, and a passivation layer
In addition, the bacteria can convert some organic sub- is formed on the surface of the pipe scale, which blocks
stances in the soil into salts or acids that can corrode with further corrosion and enters a relatively stable state. How-
metals, enhance the corrosiveness of the environment, ever, when the hydraulic condition changes, the passivation
change the oxygen concentration in the surroundings of the layer is scoured and destroyed. At the same time, the pipe
pipeline, form local corrosion cells such as oxygen con- scale releases iron into the water, so that the iron ion content
centration difference, and even destroy the anticorrosion in the water is increased, and the corrosion of the pipe is
coating. It is reported that [17] the corrosion rate will be greatly accelerated. Through the spot check statistics of the
increased by 300–500 times in the presence of iron and water quality of the finished water and the pipe network
sulfur bacteria. Grume heterotrophic bacteria mainly form water in Liuzhou railway area from 2009 to 2010, and the
into slime or pipe dirt through the metabolism of the bacteria comparison of some changes of indexes, it is found that the
group to provide anaerobic environment for sulfate-reducing turbidity and iron content increase slightly, but residual
bacteria while reducing water quality or causing pipe chlorine content decreases slightly in pipe network water
blockage. compared with the finished water when surface water or
groundwater is used as the water source. The turbidity of the
5.1.3.3 Influence Factors of Water Supply pipe network water is generally 3.3–15% higher than that of
Pipeline Corrosion the finished water, the iron content of the pipe network water
is generally 15.3–22.5% higher than that of the finished
1. Chemical stability of water quality water, but the residual chlorine of the pipe network water is
generally 37.5–64% lower than that of the finished water.
Corrosion and scaling of pipe network and iron release When the raw water is the underground water supply pipe
caused by chemical stability change are important causes of network, its turbidity and the iron content increase is rela-
deterioration of water quality of pipe network [18–20]. Due tively bigger [24].
to aging of pipe network and imperfect operation manage-
ment, corrosion and scaling are common in most urban water 2. Effect of pH value and dissolved matter [25–27]
supply networks, but the basic reason is the stability of water
quality. The chemical stability of water quality mainly refers When the pH value is neutral, the corrosion rate is not
to that the pipelines are neither corroded nor scaled during affected by the pH value. When the pH value is acidic, the
the transportation of drinking water. According to the sta- hydrogen evolution reaction occurs and the corrosion rate
tistical data, in 34 major cities of China, 50% of the treated increases. When the pH value is alkaline, the corrosion rate
raw water is groundwater and the water quality of finished decreases with the increase of pH value. When the pH value
water is relatively stable. 20% has the tendency of scaling is changed, Fe(eOH)3 is partially dehydrated to form rust
and 30% has the tendency of corrosion. For the water quality (Fe2O3 H2O) deposited on the wall of the pipe. Fe2O3 is
of finished water when the raw water is from surface water, loose, so a dense protective layer is not formed on the wall
only 21% of the water quality is relatively stable, 50% is of the pipe.
corrosive, and 29% is slightly scaled [21, 22]. Therefore, the When dissolved solids in water increase, the electrical
chemical stability of water quality is a common problem in conductivity increases, local current also increases, and
the whole water supply industry, among which the corrosion corrosion products leave the metal surface, accelerating
problem and the iron release problem are more serious. corrosion rate. The dissolved ions in the water also affect the
566 B. Hou
corrosion of the pipeline, and when the dissolved cations in network water quality. The surface temperature of metals
the water oxidized heavy metal ions such as Cu2+ and Fe3+, increases with the increase of water temperature. According
they are harmful to the cathodic polarization process. to the law of chemical kinetics, the diffusion speed of oxygen
However, Ca2+, Zn2+, and Fe2+ can resist corrosion. If the to metal surface is accelerated, the diffusion speed of ferrous
water contains more Ca2+, Mg2+ salts, the heavy calcium iron in water solution is accelerated, and the resistance of the
carbonate in the water forms a calcium carbonate film on the electrolyte is reduced, thus accelerating the corrosion rate. At
steel surface and prevents the diffusion of dissolved oxygen, the same time, with the increase of water temperature, the
so that the corrosion is small. The halogen element such as activity of microbe in pipe network also increases, which
Cl− is one of the causes of pitting corrosion and stress cor- accelerates the process of microbial corrosion. The water
rosion. SO42− or NO3− has less influence than Cl−, and PO43 temperature of pipe network is a non-man-controlled factor in
−
, SiO32− have corrosion inhibition effect. In addition, the engineering practice, and is related to the area where the
consumption of dissolved oxygen in the water also accel- waterworks are located, the water source selection (ground-
erates the corrosion rate of the pipeline. water or surface water) and the seasonal variation.
3. Effect of flow rate [28] 5.1.3.4 Corrosion Behavior and Mechanism

in the Drainage System
The corrosion rate starts to increase with the increase of flow
rate because the increase of dissolved oxygen on the surface 1. Corrosion of steel equipment by sewage
of the tube wall accelerates the oxygen absorption rate of the
cathode. When the flow rate increases to a certain extent, the Most of the equipment in the sewage treatment plant is in the
rate at which oxygen reaches the surface of the tube estab- sewage environment. The content of salt, chloride, and
lishes oxidation conditions, passivating the steel and drasti- microorganisms in the sewage is relatively high, and the
cally reducing the corrosion rate. When the flow rate corrosion rate is fast. The precipitated sludge is covered on
increases to a higher level and mechanical damage to the equipment immersed in sewage, forming under-deposit
surface protective layer occurs, the corrosion rate increases corrosion, and more likely to form pitting corrosion or
again. even perforation due to the presence of microorganisms such
When the flow rate of the pipe network increases, the as sulfate-reducing bacteria. For the equipment, such as grid,
laminar flow layer on the inner surface of the pipe is thinned, which is in the alternation of dry and wet environment, the
and the diffusion replenishment rate of oxygen through the salt concentration and oxygen content in the alternate dry
water layer increases to promote corrosion. When the flow and wet parts are saturated and the oxygen concentration
rate increases again, the oxygen supply increases, and the difference cell is easy to be formed. Besides, the conduc-
excess oxygen on the surface of the iron pipe is beneficial to tivity of sewage is good, so the electrochemical corrosion is
passivation, but the corrosion decreases. If the flow rate accelerated. Under the combined action of electrochemical
continues to increase, cavitation corrosion will occur due to corrosion and microbial corrosion, the corrosion of iron and
turbulence and crevice corrosion will occur on the surface of steel is serious mainly in the form of pitting corrosion.
the iron pipe due to mechanical action. The influence of Microbial corrosion is divided into aerobic corrosion and
laminar layer and turbulent laminar flow on metal corrosion anaerobic corrosion. According to the environment of sew-
is related to Reynolds number, flow rate, pipe diameter and age treatment, it can be judged that the steel is mainly caused
length, and surface condition of pipe. For the study of pipe by anaerobic corrosion in the sewage. The theoretical basis
network flow rate, it is especially necessary to pay attention for anaerobic corrosion of microorganisms is the participa-
to the unfavorable conditions such as low flow rate and tion of bacteria in cathodic hydrogen depolarization [30]:
stagnant area of water flow, and the corrosion rate at low
flow rate is complicated and has no obvious regularity. Cathodic process: 4Fe ¼ 4Fe2 þ þ 8e ð5:10Þ
4. Effect of temperature [29] Water ionization: 8H2 O ¼ 8H þ þ 8OH ð5:11Þ
Anodic process: 8H þ þ 8e ! 8H ð5:12Þ

The result shows that the corrosion rate increases with the
increase of temperature before the temperature reaches 80 °C Participation of bacteria in cathodic depolarization reaction:
and then decreases in the open system. However, in a closed
SO2
4 þ 8H
þ
! S2 þ 4H2 O
system, the corrosion rate increases with increase of tem-
perature. Water temperature is an important index of pipe ð5:13Þ
Corrosion product: Fe2 þ þ S2 ¼ FeS ð5:14Þ bottom of the pipe. Hydrogen sulfide rises to that surface of
the sewage or overflows to the air layer, meets the dissolved
Corrosion product : 3Fe2 þ þ 6OH ¼ 3FeðOHÞ2 ð5:15Þ oxygen on the sewage surface, and is oxidized into sulfuric
acid by sulfide bacteria or sulfur bacteria. Then sulfuric acid
Overall reaction: 4Fe þ SO2
4 þ 4H2 O
combines with the condensated water at the top of the
¼ 3FeðOHÞ2 þ FeS þ 2OH ð5:16Þ pipeline, so that the pipeline is corroded. It is the same with
the sewage lift pump stations and sewage treatment plants.
The corrosion of the equipment in the sewage treatment Hydrogen sulfide corrosion mechanism can be divided
plant is nonuniform corrosion. The maximum pitting depth into the following two cases:
is 0.4–2.8 mm, and some even are perforated. The corrosion
products contain a large number of sulfate-reducing bacteria. (1) Sulfuric acid corrosion.
After the corrosion products are removed, they have the
appearance of concentric rings and exhibit typical corrosion Under anaerobic conditions, anaerobic microorganisms
appearance of sulfate-reducing bacteria. reduce sulfates in wastewater to sulfide that combines with
hydrogen ions in the water to produce hydrogen sulfide.
2. The corrosion form and mechanism of sewage to con- The hydrogen sulfide gas escapes from the sewage and
crete pipeline dissolves in the condensated water on the inner surface
above the water level of the sewage pipe. Under the
Although the corrosive effect of organic and inorganic salts action of microorganism, hydrogen sulfide is oxidized to
contained in municipal sewage on concrete can be almost produce sulfuric acid, which produces strong corrosion
ignored in a short period of time, the corrosive effect cannot effect on sewage pipeline materials (concrete, cement, and
be neglected during the use of sewage pipelines for decades metal).
or even hundreds of years. According to different kinds of The relevant chemical reactions are as follows:
corrosion in sewage, it can be divided into inorganic cor-
rosion, organic corrosion, and microbial corrosion, among Anaerobic microorganisms 2
SO2
4 þ organics ! S þ H2 O þ CO2
which inorganic corrosion mainly includes the corrosion of
ð5:17Þ
sulfate, hydrogen sulfide, magnesium salt, and ammonium
salt to concrete. Their corrosion mechanisms are as follows:
S2 þ 2H þ ! H2 S ð5:18Þ
(1) Sulfate corrosion in the soil Aerobic microorganisms
H2 S þ 2O2 ! H2 SO4 ð5:19Þ
The mechanism of sulfate corrosion is complex, and it is
generally considered that SO42− in water enters into the
pores of concrete and chemically reacts with some part of
(2) Direct corrosion of hydrogen sulfide
cement stone to form some insoluble salts. These products
cause volume expansion due to absorption of a large amount
The hydrogen sulfide gas escaping from the sewage directly
of water molecules, forming an expansion internal stress.
reacts with the metal pipeline, causing corrosion to the
When the expansion internal stress exceeds the tensile
pipeline. Generally, sulfuric acid corrosion is the main cause
strength of the concrete, cracking of the concrete is caused.
of pipeline corrosion, while the direct corrosion effect of
hydrogen sulfide is much smaller. Figure 5.3 shows hydro-
(2) Corrosion of hydrogen sulfide in sewage
gen sulfide corrosion process of pipeline.
The hydrogen sulfide acid corrosion reaction is as
There are different degrees of sulfate in urban sewage. The
follows:
sulfate content of domestic sewage is usually in the range of
20–100 mg/L, and the sulfate level in urban sewage is H2 SðgasÞ ¼ H þ þ HS ¼ 2H þ þ S2 ð5:20Þ
increased by the connection of industrial wastewater. In
addition, the infiltration of saline groundwater in some areas 2CaCO3 þ H2 S ¼ CaðHCO3 Þ2 þ CaS ð5:21Þ
will also increase the concentration of sulfate. Urban sewage
also contains certain organic sulfur compounds, generally 1– CaðOHÞ2 þ H2 S ¼ 2CaS þ 2H2 O ð5:22Þ
3 mg/L, and most organic sulfur comes from oil and wool
industrial wastewater. CaS þ H2 S ¼ CaðHSÞ2 ð5:23Þ
In a drainage pipeline, if sulfate is present, it is often
reduced to hydrogen sulfide due to lack of oxygen at that
568 B. Hou
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Anaerobic sludge layer (usually about 1 mm thick)

Sewage
H2S is oxidized
Surface of corroded pipeline
Backfill (gravel layer)
Pipeline damage
Sedimentary sludge
Fig. 5.3 Hydrogen sulfide corrosion process of pipeline. a SO42− is reduced to S2−, b H2S escapes from the sewage, c corrosion of pipeline by
H2SO4, d corrosion of the pipeline top, e the structure of the pipeline is destroyed, f soil outside of pipeline ingresses, road surface collapses
(3) Corrosion of magnesium salt and ammonium salt ammonium ion with the concrete is the same as that of the
magnesium ion, and the reaction is as follows:
The magnesium salt reacts with Ca(OH)2 to form magne-
sium hydroxide without gelation as follows: NH4þ þ OH ¼ NH4 OH ¼ NH3 þ H2 O ð5:25Þ
The reaction produces ammonia water which is difficult

Mg2 þ þ CaðOHÞ2 ¼ Ca2 þ þ MgðOHÞ2 ð5:24Þ
to ionize, and ammonia gas is released as the concentration
When the magnesium ion concentration is very low, the of the ammonia water increases, so that the reaction can
reaction amount of the solution is very small, and the proceed sufficiently. Under the action of NH4+ corrosion, the
reaction with Ca(OH)2 only occurs on the concrete surface. free lime in the solid phase is continuously dissolved, the
At this time, magnesium hydroxide from decomposition capillary pores become coarsened, the pores increase, the
forms a thin film on the surface of the concrete to protect the permeability coefficient of concrete increases, and the ion
concrete from continued damage. When the concentration of migration speed increases at any time. Therefore, although
magnesium chloride is high, the reaction amount of the the erosion properties of ammonium ions and magnesium
solution is large, the quantity of Ca(OH)2 is not enough to ions are the same, the erosion rate of ammonium ions is
neutralize, the solution will diffuse into the concrete, and the obviously faster than that of magnesium ions.
reaction will take place further. The chemical action of the
Aerobic microorganisms
Condensated water
Anaerobic microorganisms
H2S and aerobic microorganisms (Thiobacillus)
SO42-and anaerobic microorganisms (desulfurized
vibrio)
Fig. 5.4 H2S corrosion of sewage pipeline
(4) Organic corrosion hydrogen sulfide or septic tank sewage is discharged into the
concrete pipelines, resulting in microbial corrosion, as
Various organic acids such as fatty acid, citric acid, and shown in Fig. 5.4.
lactic acid contained in domestic sewage and industrial After H2S is released into the air in the pipeline, the
wastewater corrode concrete. Although they are weak acids, second step in the corrosion process is its transfer to the top
their corrosion mechanism is similar to that of strong acids, of the pipeline. The pipeline top is humid due to adsorption
that is, they react with Ca(OH)2 to form soluble salts which of condensated water, H2S in the air of the pipeline is
are gradually dissolved and carried away by water. adsorbed immediately upon contacting with these humid
According to the literature [31], organic acids, which are surfaces. The H2S trapped in this layer of humid conden-
metabolites of aerobic bacteria in sewage and carbonic acid sated water is then converted to H2SO4 by aerobic bacteria
discharged from respiration, are also the main causes of of Thiobacillus.
concrete corrosion. In addition, organic substances become
the nutrient source of microorganisms in sewage, which Aerobic microorganisms
H2 S þ 2O2 ! H2 SO4 ð5:26Þ
creates favorable conditions for microbial corrosion.
It has been reported that Thiobacillus such as T. Con-
(5) Microbial corrosion [31] certorus, which lives in sewage, contains up to 7% of
H2SO4, but this reaction must be carried out in the presence
The microbial corrosion of concrete sewage pipeline is more of humidity and O2.
studied recently, and has got more and more attention. H2SO4 will react with the cement in the concrete pipeline.
Parker first demonstrated that biological corrosion of con- Similar reaction can occur with steel tubes. If the formation
crete is a biochemical process caused by microorganisms. of H2SO4 is slow enough, almost all of the generated H2SO4
The corrosion process is part of the natural sulfur cycle, and will react with the cement, creating slurry that is loosely
the result of this chemical response is known as biological attached to the pipeline. When the pipeline is full, part of the
sulfuric acid corrosion. Parker discovered the bacteria that slurry is sheared off or peeled off from the pipeline wall. The
corrodes concrete. He called the bacteria that survives in pipeline continues to corrode and this process will repeat. In
sulfuric acid and grow well at a pH of about 1.0 as corrosive general, corrosion is most severe on both sides of the tube
bacteria of concrete, including T-Thiooxidans, Thiobacil- top and near the liquid surface.
lus X (or T-Naples), and phagocytosis bacteria. The other is the microbial corrosion caused by sludge
It is generally considered that the microbial corrosion of deposited on the bottom of the pipeline under anaerobic
concrete pipelines is mainly divided into two categories. One condition. Thistlethwayte from Australia has proposed a
is that the plant wastewater containing a large amount of widely accepted corrosion mechanism, as shown in Fig. 5.5.
570 B. Hou
Corrosion surface
Carbon source
Nutrient substance
Fig. 5.5 Corrosion mechanism of concrete pipeline
The main process of this microbial corrosion is that the carried out from the surface contacting with the sewage
organic and inorganic suspended substances in sewage and to the inside of the concrete, and the corrosion increases
wastewater are gradually deposited on the bottom of the as the acidity of the water increases. As a result, the
pipeline with the flow of water to become sludge, and sulfate cement surface is corroded into a loose or honeycomb
ions in the sludge are reduced by sulfur-reducing bacteria to shape and the loose matter is washed into the water by
form hydrogen sulfide. The released hydrogen sulfide gas the flushing of water. The acidic water further corrodes
enters the upper space unfilled with water in the pipeline and the inside of the concrete and destroys the structure and
comes into contact with the pipe wall. On the pipe wall, strength of the concrete.
hydrogen sulfide is oxidized to produce sulfuric acid due to (2) Corrosion of steel bars inside concrete. The concrete
biochemical action. Under the continuous action of sulfuric structure often has the defect of exposed reinforcing
acid, the pipe wall concrete is corroded. bars in the pouring process, and the tie bars for the fixed
To sum up, the concrete structure is faced with the mold are cut off to remain in the concrete, and the
damage of leaching corrosion, exchange corrosion, and exposed reinforcing bars are corroded after contacting
crystallization corrosion due to the existence of sewage with the sewage. In addition, the sewage passes through
corrosion conditions, the composition, and microporous concrete cracks, pores, honeycomb surface, and other
structure of concrete itself, as well as the defects such as defects into the inside to corrode steel bars. In general,
mold expansion, uneven pouring, and tamping in the con- the concrete is alkaline with a pH value of 12.5–13.5 in
struction process. This will eventually lead to concrete the liquid phase, and steel bars can form a passivation
cracking, expansion, and corrosion of steel bars. According film in this environment, which can not only prevent
to the structure of the concrete, the corrosion forms include oxygen from contacting with steel bars but also prevent
the following: corrosion current from forming in the steel bars, hence
playing a protective effect on steel bars. However,
(1) Acid corrosion of concrete surface. Acid corrosion of under acidic conditions or when chloride ions exist and
concrete surface refers to the corrosion of acid water to reach certain concentration, the protective film of steel
concrete surface and the inside of Portland cement bars will be damaged and become active, causing
through cracks and pores of concrete. This corrosion is electrochemical corrosion of steel bars [1].
The corrosion products produced after corrosion of steel yellow water is mainly caused by the corrosion of the pipe
bars expand in concrete. The volume of rust expansion network, and the key to control the corrosion of the pipe
generally increases by 2.5–5.0 times, and even reaches network is to improve the chemical stability of the finished
7 times under the condition of sufficient moisture. As a water. Remineralization process is proposed, which refers to
result, the concrete protective layer of steel bars is the addition of chemicals to increase the alkalinity or cal-
cracked (i.e., crack of steel bars), causing micro-cracks cium hardness of water [29]. Some scholars have analyzed
in the concrete, permeation of sewage, and corrosion of the effect of adding lime alone and combined with CO2/lime
the internal steel bars. This causes a vicious circle, to control the corrosion of pipe network. The results show
reducing or destroying the binding force between the that when lime is added alone to increase the pH value of
steel bars and concrete. This corrosion is the most water sample, the corrosiveness of water has not changed
destructive to concrete structures. obviously, but the corrosion control effect of CO2/lime
(3) Salt crystallization corrosion. The salt in the sewage remineralization process is obvious. When the alkalinity of
penetrates into the concrete structure along the concrete the remineralized water is increased to 80 mg/L (in terms of
micropores, cracks, and the hemp surface with the CaCO3) as compared to the unmineralized finished water,
moisture, and the crystal material absorbs water and the corrosion rates of A3 steel, galvanized steel, gray cast
expands to generate the expansion stress, thus iron, and ductile iron decreases by 73.3%, 70.0%, 59.7%,
destroying the strength of the concrete structure. For and 67.9%, respectively, and the content of calcium car-
example, in the presence of sulfate salts, there are two bonate in the corrosion products exceeds 60%. Calcium
forms of corrosion, namely, E-salt damage and G-salt carbonate protective film can be well formed to inhibit pipe
damage. E-salt damage is the expansion failure of corrosion [29].
ettringite. The volume of the product is more than 1.5 When the content of corrosive CO2 in water is high, it is
times larger than that of the reactant. It is needle-like advisable to raise the pH value by aeration method, or adopt
crystal which causes great internal stress, and its failure the process of first removing CO2 by aeration and then
is characterized by several coarse cracks on the surface adding alkali to adjust the pH value. Huang Wen et al. [32]
of concrete. When the mass concentration of SO42− in investigated the control of facility corrosion by aeration
the medium reaches 1,000 mg/L, the SO42− reacts with method in two water supply areas in California. The raw
Ca(OH)2 to form gypsum crystals, namely, CaSO4 water quality in this area has low pH value, high content of
2H2O, the volume of which increases by 1.24 times, CO2, and dissolved inorganic carbon of about 18 mg/L,
leading to the destruction of concrete due to internal leading to corrosion of pipe network system and detection of
stress. It is characterized by the collapse of the concrete lead and/or copper exceeding the standard in water. By using
surface although there are no large cracks. The crys- aeration to remove CO2 in the water, the pH value of the
tallization corrosion mainly occurs near the liquid level, finished water is significantly increased, and the effect of
or in the dry and wet alternating parts, and increases corrosion control was achieved. Xie [33] studied the removal
with the increase of salt content in the water. of Fe and Mn in the water of pipe network by aeration-lime
alkalization method to raise the pH value of groundwater in
Hetang Water Plant, Beihai City, Guangxi. The pH value of
the groundwater is as low as 4.5, the content of free CO2 is
5.1.4 Brief Introduction of Corrosion Protection 12–15 mg/L, and the total hardness is 5 mg CaCO3/L. Fe
Method of Water Supply and Drainage and Mn in the water of pipe network exceed the standard,
System reaching 1.5 mg/L and 0.75 mg/L, respectively. The pH of
the water can be raised from 4.5 to 6.2 by spraying natural
5.1.4.1 Corrosion Protection of Steel Tube aeration. The pH value and alkalinity are further improved
by adding lime after aeration. The result shows that the pH
1. Improvement of environmental factors value of finished water can be increased to 7.5 by
aeration-lime alkalization method, and all the indexes meet
It is an important means to reduce the corrosion of steel tube the requirements of water quality standard.
by controlling the corrosive environment and improving the Mizilong et al. [34] have found that water source
water quality. For example, the water quality of the lower switching will lead to abrupt change of chemical compo-
reaches of the Pearl River is characterized by low hardness nents of raw water quality, making it easy to cause excessive
and low alkalinity, which may lead to yellow water problem release of corrosion products of water supply pipe network,
in the pipe network. Yellow water is caused by oxidation of and “yellow water” problem. In order to ensure the water
iron and manganese in water and corrosion of water distri- quality stability of the water supply network after the water
bution pipelines. Taking Shenzhen City as an example, source is switched, the method of mixing different water
572 B. Hou
sources, raising the pH value of the pipe network water and suppressing the growth of the pipe wall biological film.
adding the hexametaphosphate can reduce the iron release However, plastic materials may dissolve in water, and some
amount of the pipe network. Therefore, the countermeasures pipes may release pollutants into water. For example, lead
to control the iron release in the pipe network after the salt, a heat stabilizer added in PVC tubes, and monomers
switching of the high sulfate water source are determined. remaining during polymerization of PVC may be transferred
The sulfate concentration of the pipe network water is to water, causing water pollution. Therefore, PVC is no
controlled to be less than 75 mg/L; the pH value of network longer used as a water supply pipeline in some areas, and
water is adjusted from 7.8 to 8.3, or to 8.8 when necessary; other more stable plastic tubes such as PE and the like are
0.3–0.5 mg/L (calculated as P) of hexaphosphate corrosion adopted. Prestressed or self-stressed reinforced concrete
inhibitor is added. tubes, PVC tubes, derivative rigid polyvinyl chloride
Hydrogen sulfide corrosion is an important cause of the (PVC-U) tubes, GFRP/PVC composite pipes, and
aging of drainage pipelines. A study by the Houston Drai- GFRP/polypropylene (PP) composite pipe have the advan-
nage Service in 1989 found [2] that it would cost $4.7 million tages of lightweight, corrosion resistance, smooth pipe wall,
to repair damaged sewage pipelines in the city, 70% of which low water flow resistance, anti-scaling, and so on. Recently,
were caused by hydrogen sulfide corrosion. The water medium- and high-density polyethylene plastic tubes have
industry has been trying to reduce corrosion in pipelines by also been widely used abroad. It is better than general PVC
removing it after hydrogen sulfide has formed. However, tube in strength, corrosion resistance and scaling resistance,
they have been ignoring the source of sewage corrosion— and is lower in cost than steel tubes. This tube construction
sulfates in sewage. Australian researchers have found that uses welding, so that they can be connected in a large length
10% of the sulfates in Queensland sewers come from source and some are connected to 3 km long before they are applied
water, 52% from flocculants, and 38% from wastes. If the in the ditch.
sulfate-free flocculants are used instead of the
sulfate-containing flocculants in the tap water treatment 3. Anticorrosion coating for pipeline
process, the corrosion of the sewage concrete can be greatly
reduced. The change of coagulant has little influence on the The outer anticorrosion coating material of metal pipeline
treatment cost of tap water, but it can greatly reduce the cost has experienced the development process of petroleum pitch
of corrosion prevention and replacement of sewage pipelines. anticorrosion coating, coal tar pitch anticorrosion coating,
coal tar enamel, polyethylene adhesive tape, polyethylene
2. Use of nonmetallic tubes [35, 36] anticorrosion coating, fusion-bonded epoxy powder
(FBE) anticorrosion coating, and three-layer polyethylene
At present, the tubes commonly used in the water supply (3PE). The polyethylene anticorrosion layer is composed of
industry mainly include metal tubes, cement tubes, rein- the adhesive of the bottom layer and the polyethylene of the
forced concrete tubes, and plastic tubes. According to surface layer. If the adhesive property of the hot melt
statistics, more than 80% of water supply pipelines in China adhesive is not strong, the polyethylene and the steel tube
are gray cast iron pipelines. The gray cast iron pipeline is are peeled off and the cathodic protection is shielded. In
brittle in texture, not resistant to vibration and bending, and order to improve the anticorrosion performance of the
easy to produce rust nodules. When drinking water passes polyethylene layer, the epoxy powder coating of the bottom
through the cast iron pipelines, it is easy to cause secondary layer is introduced, and a 3PE anticorrosion layer is formed.
pollution of water quality and affects the chemical stability As the requirements for pipeline corrosion protection
of water quality. Therefore, anticorrosion treatment of metal become more and more strict, and more attention is paid to
tubes or selection of nonmetallic corrosion-resistant tubes environmental protection, the dosage of traditional anticor-
can effectively reduce and avoid pipe network corrosion. rosion materials such as petroleum pitch, coal tar enamel,
From the point of view of preventing pipeline corrosion, polyethylene adhesive tape, and epoxy coal tar pitch is
nonmetallic tubes have certain advantages. PVC-U, PE, and decreasing. However, the dosage of FBE and 2PE and 3PE
other plastic tubes will not have metal corrosion, and the use developed in recent years increases greatly. Double-layer
of plastic lining cast iron pipe can also better prevent iron FBE coating and 3PE coating have become the mainstream
corrosion. In addition, the roughness coefficient of the inner of external corrosion protection technology in the world
wall of the plastic tubes is very low, and the smooth inner [37].
wall can remarkably improve the water conveying capacity In the aspect of internal corrosion protection, the coating
of the pipeline and reduce the water conveying energy method is widely used in China, among which the cement
consumption. What is more, microorganisms in the pipe mortar lining method is widely used at home and abroad
network are not easy to adhere to the pipe wall, effectively because it is pollution free, nontoxic, easy in construction,
and low in cost. The cement mortar lining is to spray mortar For some pipes with slight corrosion and scaling, the
on the inside of the pipeline, and the structure is reliable due pipes shall be washed, disinfected, and lined regularly after
to the combination of the mortar itself and the support of the washing so as to slow down the corrosion rate. For newly
pipe wall. Its roughness coefficient is smaller than the metal laid pipelines, the service life can be greatly prolonged after
and can play the physical property guarantee to the pipe one-time treatment.
wall. At the same time, it can also play the anticorrosion
chemical performance. Contact of the cement with the wall 4. Cathodic protection
of the metal tube will result in a very low pH value. With the
improvement of cement mortar technology, the technology Cathodic protection is an advanced anticorrosion application
will be more and more widely used in the field of corrosion technology, with good anticorrosion effect, long and pre-
protection. The main water supply pipe (DN1200, 6.8 km) dictable service life. The operation and corrosion status of
of Tianma Water Plant in Jimei North District, Xiamen, the pipeline can be monitored. However, it must be used
which was constructed in 1996, has been changed from the with anticorrosion coating. Industrial water pipelines and
original designed organic coating to the cement mortar long-distance pipeline areas are widely used, and the effect is
protective layer, and the construction period is more than good.
3 months ahead of schedule. However, this process saves Cathodic protection is a method of protecting the outer
nearly 75% of investment over the pre-change plan. In recent wall of a water pipeline from soil erosion. In accordance
years, water supply pipelines in Beijing, Wuhan, Xiamen, with the principle of corrosion cell, only the anode metal of
and other cities in China have adopted a large number of the two electrodes is corroded, so the principle of cathodic
cement mortar protective layer. According to incomplete protection is to make the metal become a cathode to prevent
statistics, there are more than 650 km of DN 800–1800 mm corrosion. Through consumption anode material method,
pipelines with mud mortar lining protection layer in China such as using Al, Mg, and Zn, wires are connected to the
[38]. pipeline (cathode) at a certain distance to form an electric
At the same time, epoxy resin, lining hose, and other circuit in the soil. As a result of anodic corrosion, the
technologies have also developed rapidly, creating a great pipeline is protected, as shown in Fig. 5.6. The anode of
possibility for the internal anticorrosion process of the waste iron and DC power supply near the pipeline is con-
pipeline. The reaction-type resin after the epoxy resin and nected by DC method and the cathode of the power supply is
the hardener are mixed can form a fast, strong, and durable connected to the pipeline, so that corrosion can be prevented,
coating film which has abrasion resistance, softness, and which is suitable when the soil resistivity is high (about 2500
tightness. Spraying 0.5–1 mm can meet the anticorrosion 2500 W cm) or the metal tube is exposed, as shown in
requirements, and the coating can be put into cleaning and Fig. 5.7.
drainage after 2 h of curing. The anticorrosion method of old
pipeline is solved by lining hose method, such as sliding 5. Adding corrosion inhibitor
lining method, reverse lining method, and “sock method”.
These methods can form the anticorrosion form of “pipe in A thin film is mainly formed on the metal surface to cover
the pipe” with good anticorrosion effect and are particularly the metal surface, thereby isolating the metal from the cor-
suitable in the case of no branch pipe in a long distance. rosive medium and preventing the metal from being
Current
Pipeline
Anode material
Waste iron
Anode
Fig. 5.6 Cathodic protection without impressed current [39]

574 B. Hou
Current
Pipeline
Anode material
Waste iron
Anode
Fig. 5.7 Cathodic protection with impressed current [39]
corroded. The film formed by the corrosion inhibitor has through the water pipe to reach the nozzle and then convert
three types: oxidation film, precipitation film, and adsorption the high-pressure and low-flow water into a low-pressure
film. Oxide-type corrosion inhibitors, ionic-type corrosion high-flow jet flow. With its high impact kinetic energy, it
inhibitors in water, and metal ion precipitation film type continuously acts on the surface to be cleaned, so that the
corrosion inhibitors have been used. dirt falls off, the pipeline water capacity is restored, and the
Phosphate is the most commonly used corrosion inhibitor occurrence of corrosion is inhibited, achieving
at present. Anhydrous sodium phosphate has long been used high-efficiency and energy-saving cleaning effect.
for corrosion control in industrial circulating water systems,
and zinc phosphate has also been used as a corrosion inhi- 5.1.4.2 Protection for Steel Equipment
bitor in water supply. Zinc phosphate forms a readily dis- For the equipment in sewage, the protective coating shall
persible colloid in water and deposits on the wall of the tube have excellent water resistance and saltwater resistance, the
to form a thin protective film that prevents corrosion from primer shall have good anti-rust performance, and the top-
occurring. Common orthophosphate corrosion inhibitors coat shall have microbial resistance. In addition to the above
also include Na3PO4, Na2HPO4, and NaH2PO4. The corro- requirements, the anticorrosion coating of equipment in the
sion rate of pipeline can be significantly reduced by dry–wet alternating area shall have sufficient wear resistance
adjusting pH value of finished water to about 7.0 and adding and aging resistance. Epoxy topcoat has poor weatherability
0.5 mg/L of zinc phosphate in some foreign water plants. In and cannot be used in direct sunlight outdoors. For the above
addition to orthophosphates, the practical phosphorus cor- characteristics and by referring to the standard, the corre-
rosion inhibitors are polyphosphates [40]. The composition sponding protection scheme is designed in Table 5.6.
of polyphosphates is complex and may include pyrophos-
phates, metaphosphates, and tripolyphosphates. The corro- 5.1.4.3 Corrosion Control of Concrete Drainage
sion inhibition mechanism of the polyphosphate is to form Pipe
an insoluble protective layer on the inner wall of the pipeline Hydrogen sulfide corrosion can be controlled by reducing
to prevent the corrosion water from coming into direct the concentration of soluble sulfides in the wastewater.
contact with the metal. However, under the condition of Common control technologies include oxidation, precipita-
stagnant water flow (stagnant water area), the corrosion tion, and pH methods.
inhibition effect of polyphosphate is poor, but the corrosion
inhibition effect is improved under flowing condition. At the 1. Oxidation method
same time, in order to obtain better corrosion inhibition
effect, the dosage of polyphosphate is larger. The oxidation method can control the soluble sulfide in
sewage and prevent the generation of hydrogen sulfide. The
6. High-pressure water jet cleaning [41] simplest and most effective method is to increase the DO
value in the sewage, because when DO 1.0 mg/L, no
High-pressure water jet is often used to periodically clean sulfide is produced. Oxidation processes often include the
the pipe network, and the principle of the high-pressure following:
water jet cleaning is to discharge high-pressure water
Table 5.6 Protection system of sewage-soaked steel structure equipment

No. of scheme Use environment Surface treatment Coating system Average Total
grade dry film thickness (m)
thickness (m)
A Sewage-soaked Sandblasting Sa2.5 881-X epoxy zinc-rich primer 80 250
steel structure grade, roughness 881-Z01 epoxy mica intermediate paint 100
50–85 m
881-H01modified epoxy topcoat 70
B Equipment in the Sandblasting Sa2.5 881-X epoxy zinc-rich primer 80 260
dry–wet alternating grade, roughness 881-Z01 epoxy mica intermediate paint 100
area 50–85 m
881-Y01 acrylic polyurethane topcoat 70
(1) Ventilation oxygen supply 3. Raising pH value
Ventilation oxygen supply is an economical and practical The production of hydrogen sulfide can be prevented by
method (generally air injection). Through oxygen supply, increasing the pH value in the sewage. The method is to
the DO value in sewage is increased to prevent the genera- continuously add NaOH, but this is costly and may interfere
tion of hydrogen sulfide. The advantages of this method are with the normal operation of the downstream sewage treat-
simple equipment and convenient operation and the disad- ment plant. A more economical and simple method is to
vantage is that a turbulence phenomenon occurs. introduce some alkaline wastewater into the sewage pipeline
to increase the pH value.
(2) Adding hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
5.1.4.4 Protection of Concrete Structure
H2O2 is a strong oxidant that oxidizes sulfur compounds in According to the characteristics and corrosion forms of
wastewater. In general, the dosage of the oxidant is 1–5 kg concrete structure in sewage treatment process, the general
of H2O2/kg H2S. The H2O2 dosing equipment is relatively protective measures are “closed hole” and “isolation”,
simple and consists mainly of storage vessel and metering namely, to close the pores of the concrete surface or to
pump. isolate the concrete surface from the corrosive medium. In
the process of sewage treatment, the area of concrete struc-
(3) Adding potassium permanganate (KMnO4) ture is relatively large, so it is very important to choose
economical and reasonable anticorrosion materials or anti-
KMnO4 is also a strong oxidant, and its mechanism of action corrosion methods. The common method is to apply anti-
is similar to that of H2O2. Generally, KMnO4 powder is sold corrosion coating and use the lining GFRP. The cost of
on the market. When it is added to sewage, 6% solution must lining GFRP is relatively high, so it is generally used only
be prepared. However, the cost of preparing and adding for parts with severe wear or corrosion. Anticorrosion
equipment is very high, so the method of adding KMnO4 is coating is the most economical protective material [4], which
less used. not only has the good antiseptic effect but also the simple
construction and low cost. When selecting, the anticorrosion
(4) Adding chlorine coating should have strong adhesive force on the concrete
base surface, and have good weather resistance,
Chlorine oxidizes sulfide in wastewater to sulfate or ele- anti-seepage, and long durability. The common anticorrosion
mental sulfur, depending on the pH of the wastewater. In coatings include epoxy coal tar pitch, epoxy pitch, chloro-
general, the dosage of the agent is 10–15 kg of Cl2/kg H2S. sulfonated polyethylene, highly chlorinated polyethylene,
and Jotamatic 87 epoxy coating. Table 5.7 shows common
2. Precipitation method anticorrosion coatings for sewage treatment concrete struc-
tures and construction requirements.
Precipitation method is to add metal salt solution so that According to the characteristics of porous concrete base
metal ions react with and S2− in sewage chemically, gener- surface that is easy to damp, the composite coating
ating insoluble metal sulfide. Iron salts (FeCl2 and FeSO4) structure with waterproof coating and anticorrosion coating
are usually added and the dosage of the agent is generally 4– has better application effect [5]. In the concrete water
15 kg of FeCl2/kg H2S. treatment pond such as oxidation ditch and secondary
576 B. Hou
Table 5.7 Common anticorrosion coatings for concrete structures and winding construction can be divided into push type and
construction requirements self-walking type.
No. Coating structure Number Coating
of layers thickness (1) Push-type spiral winding method (operators do not need
(m)
to enter the pipeline)
1 Epoxy tar pitch coating 2–3 100–150
2 Epoxy coal tar coating 2–3 100–150 The spiral winding machine is placed in the existing well
3 Chlorosulfonated polyethylene 3–4 90–120 room, and the PVC profiles are input into the spiral winding
4 Highly chlorinated 3–4 90–120 machine from the ground material wheel. After the profiles
polyethylene enter the spiral winding machine, the locking locks on both
5 Jotamatic 87 epoxy coatings 2 200 sides of the profile are engaged by the winding roller to form
6 Spraying polyurea coating 1 500 a new pipeline in the original pipeline.
7 Permeable crystalline 2/2 150
waterproof coating/epoxy coal (2) Self-walking-type spiral winding method (operators
pitch composite coating need to enter the pipeline)
The winding machine is fixed in the existing well room or

sedimentation tank of sewage treatment plant in Hefei inside the original pipeline. The profiles enter the rear end of
Economic and Technological Development Zone, the the winding machine through the ground special conveying
composite coating anticorrosion structure of capillary profile equipment, and the winding machine rotates into the
crystalline waterproof primer (closed hole) and epoxy coal original pipeline. Both sides of the profile are engaged to
pitch anticorrosion paint overlay is adopted, and the effect form a new pipeline in the original pipeline. The new
is very good. In the structure design, the permeation pipeline is superior to the original pipeline because of its
closing function of the capillary crystalline waterproof own molecular structure and performance, thus achieving
coating on the cement base surface and the characteristic the purpose of repairing the pipeline.
of the construction on the wet cement surface are fully
utilized as the transition layer of the anticorrosion layer. 3. Insertion method (short pipeline lining method)
Together with epoxy coal tar pitch anticorrosion coating,
it achieves a good complement of the structure, reducing Trenchless casing construction is a new type of trenchless
the total cost of corrosion protection. pipe repair and reinforcement technology. In the process
(casing technology), the pipeline to be repaired and rein-
5.1.4.5 Repair Method of Pipeline forced is taken as a carrier, and the polyethylene (PE) short
pipes of the specially cut pipe mouth are hydraulically
1. Broken (cracking) pipeline method (expansion pipeline connected one by one, and are simultaneously pulled into the
replacement process) pipeline to be repaired in order to realize the construction
technology of repairing and reinforcing the pipeline.
This process takes high-density polyethylene pipe as
replacement pipe. The pipe has good toughness, low 4. Inner lining method for PR board
coarseness coefficient and good drainage fluidity, corrosion
resistance, long service life, and nontoxic, which meets the Anticorrosion and antifriction composite plate is added inside
requirements of environmental protection; each pipe has a the box drain pipeline. One side of the composite plate is an
length of 6 m, few joints, and strong integrity. In addition, impervious membrane structure and the other side is a “V” or
the construction is convenient and daily maintenance and “T” plastic inlay hook, also known as an inlay nail. PR board
repair frequency of the pipeline are effectively reduced. is welded and assembled in a box drain, a special plastic
expansion pipe is adopted to fix the PR board on the inner
2. Tube-making by spiral winding wall of the box drain. After the PR board is fixed, a natural
curing strong resin is injected, and the PR board and the
In the process, PVC profiles are spirally wound into a new plastic expansion pipe are cast into a whole. After curing, the
pipeline in the original pipeline, and the profiles are fixed resin is tightly combined with the original box drain by the
together by a locking buckle, and the annular space between tensile force of the expansion pipe and the adhesive force of
the pipelines is treated by grouting to form an inner jacket the resin, thus forming a new box drain with high
composite pipeline. According to the site conditions, spiral anti-seepage performance, good integrity, and reliable safety.
5. Polyurea spraying method determine transformation process. According to the process

selection of Phase-I project and Phase-II project, the process
Polyurea is sprayed on the inner wall of a pipe duct through of Phase-III project is determined as follows:
special spraying equipment to form an elastomer material so The pipeline transformation follows the following
as to play an anti-seepage function. The spraying process principles:
construction technology is a new technology which combi- For D300–D600 mm pipeline, excavation replacement or
nes new materials, new equipment, and new process toge- pipe crushing (cracking) method shall be adopted for ultra-
ther. It has the characteristics of instantaneous solidification, severe corrosion, insertion method shall be adopted for
rapid reaction, and one-step molding to achieve seamless severe corrosion, and pull-in in situ solidification method is
integration. for medium and mild corrosion.
The polyurea elastomer coating has excellent waterproof For D700–D1200 mm pipeline, excavation replacement
and corrosion resistance characteristics, and has excellent is used for severe corrosion, and pull-in in situ solidification
mechanical properties, so it is superior to other polymer method is used for medium and mild corrosion.
coatings in versatility, strength, and service life. From the For the pipeline with D1200 mm or more, excavation
point of view of construction, the advantage of polyurea replacement is used for severe corrosion, and EECM mortar
elastomer is more obvious. Because of the whole spraying repair is used for medium and slight corrosion.
technology of special equipment, the waterproof structure of Prefabricated “U” grooves shall be used for small box
polyurea elastomer has good integrity and no joint, which drain with sectional dimension less than 1200 1200 mm.
avoids the possible leakage caused by the joint of coil, and the For the box drain whose sectional dimension is larger
construction efficiency is obviously improved. In addition, than 1200 1200 mm, excavation replacement is adopted
this technology does not use solvents in the production, con- for serious corrosion, and EECM mortar repair technology is
struction, and use process without releasing toxic and harmful used for medium and mild corrosion. Reconstruction is for
substances, which is beneficial to environmental protection. structural failure and EECM mortar repair technology shall
be adopted for structural corrosion.
6. EECM mortar and concrete repair
EECM mortar and concrete repairing agent is a new kind of 5.1.5 Effectiveness and Attention of Corrosion
mortar and concrete repairing material made of Control in Water Supply and Drainage
water-dispersed epoxy emulsion, cement, sand, and admix- Industry in Recent Years
ture, in which the emulsion includes epoxy emulsion and
corresponding curing agent. The bonding strength of poly- According to the statistical results of the questionnaire of
mer cement mortar and concrete base layer prepared by this project, at present, the water supply and drainage
epoxy emulsion is 5–10 times higher than that of ordinary industry have certain anticorrosion consciousness for its
cement mortar, and 2–3 times higher than that of gouging facilities and pipelines, and has carried out anticorrosion
treatment. It can avoid the defect such as the peeling of the design before construction. Relevant enterprises have stan-
face material and the hollow of the plastering mortar. In dard requirements for corrosion protection. Corrosion con-
addition, it has excellent waterproof, reinforcement, corro- trol is good, but not all units are equipped with relevant
sion resistance, heat and heat resistance and freeze–thaw personnel for subsequent corrosion protection after the
resistance, and its performance is far superior to that of equipment is put into use. Even if they are equipped with
polymer cement mortar made of acrylic emulsion. special corrosion monitoring personnel and equipment, there
is no certification qualification for relevant corrosion pro-
7. Principles of process selection tection technology. It affects the continuous and effective
corrosion control of the water supply and drainage system in
For aging and corroded pipe network, in the selection of the process of use.
transformation process, it is also necessary to consider the In addition, the investigation also finds that most of the
corrosion degree of the modified pipe network itself, as well corrosion problems of the water supply and drainage system
as the social traffic influence caused by the location char- occur in the operation and maintenance stage, and the rele-
acteristics of the project in addition to taking into account the vant enterprises lack sufficient understanding and solutions
characteristics and limitations of the abovementioned tech- to the corrosion problems occurred during this period, and
nology. In other words, under the premise of meeting the some enterprises even do not have the record system.
transformation target, traffic, construction period, and eco- Among the reasons that cause corrosion problems and affect
nomic factors should be considered comprehensively to the service life of equipment, human factors such as
578 B. Hou
misoperation and management level often account for the According to the statistical results (Figs. 5.8 and 5.9),
main proportion, which corresponds to the lack of relevant 87.5% of enterprises think that the industry corrosion
professional guidance. problem is relatively light, and they do not realize the eco-
The above existing problems may be further related to the nomic losses brought by corrosion; only 12.5% of the
scientific research input for the corrosion problem of the enterprises have complete corrosion protection specifica-
enterprises. The water supply and drainage industry enter- tions, and 75% of the enterprises have no requirements for
prises are satisfied with the current corrosion protection corrosion protection. As for the cultivation of anticorrosion
schemes, and no professional training related to corrosion workers, almost all enterprises fail to meet the standards.
protection technology is provided within the relevant The relevant staff does not have the certification qualifica-
enterprises. In addition, they pay little attention to the tions related to anticorrosion. Only 12.5% of enterprises
application of new technology due to funds and other rea- provide professional training on corrosion protection tech-
sons or little investment in scientific research. nology. This also should arouse the attention of the enter-
prises. Only when the personnel technology has reached the
standard can the corrosion problem is controlled in time so
5.1.6 Summary of Investigation Data as to reduce the losses caused by corrosion.
and Results of the Water Supply According to the collected questionnaires, almost all the
and Drainage Industry corrosion losses in the water supply and drainage industry
occur in the operation stage, and most enterprises have taken
According to the collected questionnaire, the corrosion the corrosion into account when formulating the overall
problems of the enterprise are mainly the corrosion of the design scheme. In fact, if there is a complete design and
water supply process pipelines and the corrosion of the outer corrosion protection system at the beginning, it is very
surface of the pipelines. For the corrosion of water pipe beneficial to the later operation and the service life of the
network, the pipelines with protective coating are selected pipeline, which also indirectly reduces the economic loss
for corrosion protection when new construction is made. In caused by corrosion. At present, the biggest difficulty of
addition, some use corrosion allowance and metal coating carrying out corrosion protection work is still that the
method to prevent pipeline corrosion. enterprise’s management is not in place. Sufficient capital
No professional anti-corrosion technical training is

provided
Professional anti-corrosion technical training is
provided
Lack of attention
Lack of relevant talents
Funds
Others
Fig. 5.8 Whether enterprises have anticorrosion technical training or not

No professional anti-corrosion technical training is

provided
Professional anti-corrosion technical training is
provided
Lack of attention
Funds
Others
Fig. 5.9 The biggest difficulty for enterprises to carry out corrosion protection work
supply, advanced anticorrosion technology, and strict 54:67 billion m3 RMB 5=m3 ¼ RMB 273:35 billion
supervision will be the effective measures to prevent corro-
sion loss. Companies are also looking forward to learning in In 2014, the national total sewage discharge was 68.39
exchange to reduce the economic losses caused by corrosion. billion tons, of which the total urban sewage discharge was
40.22 billion tons and the urban sewage treatment capacity
accounted for about 58.8%. The unit price of sewage treat-
5.1.7 Evaluation on Corrosion Loss of Urban ment is calculated as RMB 1.36, and then the annual output
Water Supply and Drainage Industry value of the national urban drainage industry in 2014 was
RMB 54.69 billion.
5.1.7.1 Annual Output Value Estimation of Water To sum up, the annual output value of China’s urban
Supply and Drainage Industry in China water supply and drainage industry in 2014 was RMB
In order to find out the corrosion status in China and obtain 328.04 billion.
corrosion cost and corrosion protection strategy data in var-
ious fields, this project conducts corrosion investigation for
typical enterprises in various industries. The survey ques- 5.1.7.2 Annual Corrosion Loss Estimation
tionnaires are distributed to the urban water supply and for Water Supply and Drainage Industry
drainage field, and the collected questionnaire is used for data For the urban water supply and drainage industry, the
statistics, and the statistical result is used for explanation. facilities affected by corrosion are the water supply and
According to the Forecast Report on the Operation Sit- drainage pipelines, and aging problems will occur in the
uation and Future Prospects of China’s Water Supply pipelines over time, resulting in the failure of water supply
Industry from 2014 to 2019, the urban water supply in 2014 and drainage. This investigation estimates the corrosion loss
was 54.67 billion m3. As the water price varies among cities of urban water supply and drainage industry from the fol-
in China, and the water supply uses are different, and the lowing four aspects: ① the cost of corrosion protection of
water price is different, so we calculate the median value of newly built pipelines, ② corrosion loss in the plant area, ③
RMB 5/m3, and the annual output value of the national anticorrosion cost of drainage pipeline, and ④ indirect
urban water supply industry in 2014 was as follows: corrosion loss caused by water leakage.
580 B. Hou
Table 5.8 Corrosion investigation data of a typical water plant

Unit Water Group Co., Ltd. Amount
Item Year
2013 2014
Annual total output value RMB 4.32 million RMB 3.78 million
Direct loss Cost of renewal, modification and maintenance of old anticorrosion equipment RMB 20,000 RMB 15,000
Cost of painting and coating RMB 50,000 RMB 35,000
Input of anticorrosion engineering RMB 50,000 RMB 35,000
Input of anticorrosion personnel RMB 20,000 RMB 20,000
Indirect loss Water leakage in plant area RMB 5,000 RMB 3,000
Total RMB 145,000 RMB 108,000
1. Anticorrosion cost of newly built pipelines personnel, coating cost, etc. As each enterprise has different
operation conditions and different anticorrosion costs inves-
According to the investigation, the annual anticorrosion cost ted in various aspects, each enterprise has different ratios of
of new pipelines in urban water supply and drainage industry corrosion loss to output value. Thus, we can only evaluate the
has been calculated in the cost of materials. In order to corrosion loss of the industry in as many sample data as
obtain accurate corrosion loss related data, we visit munic- possible in order to infer the corrosion loss of the industry
ipal design sector. The pipeline types are complex and through the total corrosion loss of enterprises in question-
anticorrosion methods are different, so the anticorrosion cost naires so that the industrial corrosion loss is acceptable.
of pipelines with different nominal diameters varies from According to the collected questionnaires, the corrosion loss
RMB 95/m to RMB 1520/m. Therefore, the trade-off esti- in the plant area is RMB 1.3454 million, and the annual
mation method is adopted in statistics. The most commonly output value of these enterprises is RMB 549 million, and
used anticorrosion method is used as the estimation basis, then the corrosion loss of these enterprises accounts for about
that is, cement mortar is used for internal corrosion pre- 0.25% of the total output value. Based on the results of the
vention and “six-oil and two-cloth” method is used for questionnaire survey (Table 5.8), it is considered that the
external corrosion prevention. The pipelines with diameter ratio of “corrosion loss/annual total output value is consistent
below 600 mm account for 70% of the total amount, and the with that of the whole country. From this, it can be concluded
corresponding anticorrosion cost is RMB 380/m. The anti- that the corrosion loss involved in the water supply and
corrosion cost of DN1000 mm pipeline is RMB 1,050/m, drainage plant in 2014 was RMB 328.04 bil-
accounting for 30% of the total amount. The design service lion 0.25% = RMB 820 million, accounting for about
life of the pipeline is 50 years. In this way, according to the 0.25% of the annual output value of the industry.
newly added water supply pipeline length of 31,000 km in
2014, the anticorrosion cost of the newly added pipelines in 3. Corrosion loss of drainage pipelines
2014 can be calculated. The specific steps are as follows:
In the investigation, it is found that 107.9 km of aged and
RMB 380=m 70% þ RMB 1; 050=m 30%=50 years corroded drainage pipelines were reformed in 2014, the
¼ RMB 11:6=ðm yearÞ: design service life is 50 years and the cost is RMB 622.976
million. The annual corrosion loss per km of drainage
The anticorrosion cost of new pipelines in 2014 shall be pipelines is
RMB 11.6/m 31,000 km = RMB 360 million, accounting
RMB 622:976 million=ð107:9 km 50 yearsÞ
for about 0.11% of the annual output value of the industry.
¼ RMB 115;000=ðkm/yearÞ:
2. Corrosion loss in the plant area According to statistics, the total length of drainage
pipelines in this city is 5,230 km, and the transformed
According to the collected questionnaires, the anticorrosion pipelines account for 2.06% of the total length due to aging
expenses used in the plant mainly include the renewal, corrosion. The length of the national urban drainage pipeli-
transformation, maintenance of anticorrosion equipment, nes in 2014 was about 500,000 km. It is estimated that the
input of anticorrosion engineering, input of anticorrosion annual corrosion loss of the national drainage pipelines
reformed due to aging and corrosion in 2014 was RMB Large quantities of sewage and accumulated wastes and
500,000 km 2.06% RMB 115,000/km = RMB 1.18 rubbish cause serious pollution to soil and rivers. The pH
billion, accounting for 0.36% of the annual output value of value of surface water and river water is 5.5–6.0, which is
the industry. weakly acidic. The corrosion of pipeline is accelerated due
to the increase of acidity. Black cinnamon soil and silt in the
4. Indirect corrosion loss due to water leakage ground promote microbial activity and aggravate bacterial
corrosion. The measured soil resistivity is in the range of 4–
According to the data of Ministry of Housing and 10 W m, which indicates that the soil contains much water
Urban-Rural Development in 2005, the leakage rate of urban with high salinity and good conductivity, and belongs to
water supply network in developed countries accounts for 5– strong or extra strong corrosion grade. The discharge of stray
6% of the water supply, and that in China is 20%. According current in urban areas accelerates pipeline corrosion.
to the percentage of Japanese water supply lines removed In the 14 km of pipeline inspection, it is found that there
due to corrosion is 27.2%, we calculate the leakage caused are 26 obvious breakage points and most of the insulation
by corrosion by 30%. Indirect loss of urban water supply and resistance values are in 1–2 kW m2, which belongs to poor
drainage in 2014 is 54.67 billion m3 20% 30% grade. The “three-oil and two-cloth” petroleum asphalt glass
RMB 5/m3 = RMB 16.41 billion, accounting for about 5% cloth with average thickness of 4 mm is of ordinary grade,
of the annual output value of the industry. and the thickness of the coating at the filling port is uneven,
To sum up, in 2014, the corrosion loss of urban water and the phenomenon of being cracked is more prominent.
supply and drainage industry was RMB 18.77 billion, and From the inspection of appearance and bonding force, the
the annual output value of the industry was RMB 328.04 pipeline near the ground direction is better than the middle
billion, accounting for 5.72% of the annual output value of and lower parts, the pipe top coating still retains the bonding
the industry. It should be noted that actual corrosion loss force and the aging degree is relatively light. However, the
may be greater due to possible omissions during the asphalt in the middle and lower parts of the pipeline is tar-
investigation. nished, cracked, and brittle with poor adhesive force with the
pipe body. Asphalt will fall off when brushed with steel
brush, showing that aging degree is very serious and there is
5.1.8 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases no protective effect. In particular, the pipeline facilities in
each valve well are immersed in the water for a long time, so
5.1.8.1 Case of Corrosion of Water Supply the anticorrosion layer is very poor and there is no adhesive
System force. All the valves, discharge pipes, and flanges are
exposed.
1. Investigation and evaluation of corrosion of the main In the damage part of the coating, there is a black loose
pipe of water source from Luanhe River to Tianjin [42] rust layer. The average thickness of the pipe wall is reduced
by 0.5 mm, but a large corrosion pit with a diameter of
In 1983, two water source pipelines of Water Diversion 15 mm and a depth of 7 mm is found near the weld seam in
Project from Luanhe River to Tianjin City were constructed. the middle of the pipe. If calculated according to the annual
One is from Yixingbu Water Source Plant to Hongqiao corrosion depth, the corrosion rate is 0.4 mm/a, and the
Water Plant, with a diameter of 2,500 mm, a wall thickness erosion depth is close to 1/2 of the wall thickness, causing
of 20 mm and a length of 10.67 km. The other is to Xin- great hidden danger to the safe operation of the pipeline.
kaihe Water Plant, 1,800 mm in diameter, 18 mm in wall According to the electrochemical corrosion theory analysis,
thickness, and 2.7 km in length. In practice, only “three-oil the perforation rate will be faster and faster, which may
and two-cloth” petroleum asphalt is used for anticorrosion. cause a large area of multiple explosive corrosion leakage
The geographical environment where the pipeline is located accidents whose consequences are unimaginable. A large
and deteriorated day by day, the water level along the river is number of investigations show that the uniform corrosion of
relatively high, and part of the pipelines passing through the buried pipelines can be neglected, but local corrosion such as
urban area is accompanied by a plurality of other pipelines, pitting corrosion, pit corrosion, and cracking must be paid
resulting in a lot of pressure occupation and stray current special attention, especially for large-diameter pipelines
disturbance along the pipeline. In addition, the pipeline whose upper part is oxygen-rich and lower part is
diameter is super large, making it difficult to maintain. These oxygen-poor so that an oxygen concentration cell is formed.
factors lead to serious aging of pipeline anticorrosion The lower part is anode to be corroded and the upper part is
coating. cathode to be protected. The aging degree of the coating and
582 B. Hou
the corrosion condition of the pipe body indicate that the an investment of more than RMB 100 million can be built
upper part of the pipeline is lightly corroded, while the lower without construction, and the economic and social benefits
part is seriously corroded. 80–90% of the corrosion pits and are very significant.
perforations are concentrated in the lower part or bottom of
the pipeline. Due to the expansion of the rust layer in this 2. Investigation and analysis on corrosion of underground
part, the anticorrosion layer is separated from the pipe body pipe network in Yizheng Chemical Fiber Plant
and the isolation effect of the anticorrosion layer is lost. In
addition, the damage rate of the lower part is the largest in The construction of Yizheng chemical fiber underground pipe
hoisting and dragging and the on-site construction is diffi- network is divided into two phases. Since the first phase
cult, so the quality is difficult to be guaranteed when the project was put into use in March 1984, the corrosion problem
welding seam is filled. These human factors and the envi- has become more and more serious, and the leakage points
ronment corrosion of the lower part are serious, thus have increased year by year. At the end of 2000, the production
aggravating the corrosion of the pipe body and causing great water, domestic water, low silicon water, and fire water in the
threat and hidden danger to water supply. underground water transmission network of 1–5 pipelines
For the above corrosion problems, it would take hundreds through the central trunk were investigated, tested, and ana-
of millions of investments to rebuild a compound line. If the lyzed in terms of corrosion status and corrosiveness of soil.
anticorrosion layer is repaired, because the pipe diameter is The abundant precipitation, humid climate, and high
too large and some buried depth is 4–5 m, and some pipelines groundwater level in the plant result in a low soil resistivity
are occupied, it is too difficult to repair. The investment of so that the corrosion rate of metal pipe body is much higher
additional cathodic protection is hundredth of the recon- than that in dry area, and the underground pipe network is
struction of the compound line, which is an economical and basically in medium-strong corrosive soil environment. Stray
effective solution. On the basis of maintaining the status quo, current interference exists in the plant area, and it is greatly
the pipeline and exposed facilities in the valve well can be affected by the transmission line parallel to the pipeline. The
well coated so as to reduce the current consumption. results show that the ground potential of pipe network in the
Technical idea of cathodic protection: According to the plant area is between −444 and −709 mV. Compared with
trend, geology and working conditions of the two pipelines, the natural potential of pipeline (−650 mV), the ground
the new patented cathodic protection technology, and engi- potential of most pipelines is positively shifted, of which
neering experience are used to design, formulate the tech- −650 to −550 mV is 50%, and more than −550 mV is 47%
nical scheme, and put forward the design indexes. It is in a data area vulnerable to corrosion. There are more leakage
recommended to set up four medium-deep wells of 60 m, points in the pipeline of production water and domestic water
two deep wells of 100 m, and three cathodic protection system, accounting for more than 35% of the detected pipe
stations based on impressed current cathodic protection of section. The pipeline of fire water system has leakage point
deep well anodes. 7 rectifiers, 15 test piles, multiple voltage locally, and the coating quality of pipeline of low silicon
equalizing lines, and jumper lines are installed. water system is good, and no leakage point is found. The
Technical scheme: Cathodic protection is composed of pipeline has been put into use for 17 years. The corrosion
DC power supply, deep well anode and pipeline. The posi- condition and leakage statistics indicate that the coating starts
tive electrode is connected to the deep well anode through to enter the aging period and is in the accident-prone stage,
the anode cable, and the negative electrode is connected to and a few coatings have lost their protection ability.
the protected underground pipe through the cathode cable.
The current generated by the impressed current method 5.1.8.2 Corrosion Case of Drainage System
flows into the pipeline through the soil so that its cathode is
polarized and potential is negatively shifted to the protection 1. Anticorrosion of pipeline
value. The current flows from deep to the surface and no
other pipeline will be encountered on the way, so it will not The designed sewage treatment capacity of Yakela sewage
cause interference and shielding, which is suitable for the treatment station is 500 m3/d, and the incoming water mainly
protection of urban and industrial network. In addition, due includes the sewage of Yakela station, the single-well process
to small area, the well site can be set in the plant of the pump sewage of YK12 well, and the sewage of Dalaoba station and
station so as to facilitate management and prevent man-made the treated effluent water reaches the A3 standard. Since the
damage. This project is valid for 20 years. During this per- sewage station was put into operation in 2008, the sewage
iod, corrosion control is strictly implemented to ensure that treatment pipeline and storage tank body have been perfo-
no perforation and leakage accidents will occur due to cor- rated 40 times, mainly concentrated on the inlet pipeline of
rosion. If cathodic protection is added, a spare pipeline with lift pump, the inlet pipeline, and elbow of receiving tank.
Frequent replacement of the metal pipeline and pipe fittings

has made the cost of corrosion treatment reach RMB
272,000. Factors affecting corrosion include pH value of
sewage, salinity, concentration of dissolved oxygen, inter-
mittent high flow rate flushing of fluid, pipeline material,
filling agent, etc. After analyzing the corrosion factors, it is
suggested to replace the low-pressure metal pipelines of
sewage station with nonmetal pipelines. The GFRP pipelines,
the GFRP pipeline, and the valve are connected by socket and
spigot joint. The inlet elbow of the receiving tank is replaced
with a retrofitted elbow resistant to erosion. The oxygen
scavenger filling process is added to reduce the concentration
of dissolved oxygen. The filling agent is modified to slow
down the corrosion of the sewage pipeline. When the settling
tank is opened for inspection and treatment, the central
cylinder of the settling tank shall be replaced with a Fig. 5.10 Corrosion of drainage pipelines in a street
corrosion-resistant material or a coated central cylinder.
2. Transformation of sewage pipelines in a street been established, and there is no specific anticorrosion
standard for water supply and drainage industry. The stan-
It is found that D300–D400 mm (L = 219 m) is used in dardization system and technical regulations are still
sewage pipelines in a street. D300 mm, L = 219 m; imperfect.
D400 mm, L = 394 m. The average buried depth is about
2 m, which is concrete pipeline. After investigation, the (2) A large number of problems still exist in anticorrosion
existing sewage pipelines suffer from ultraserious corrosion, construction
and the pipeline has no pipe wall, as shown in Fig. 5.10. The
whole length of the pipeline is about 613 m, and the pipeline The construction unit has poor anticorrosion consciousness.
is upgraded by excavation replacement. About 21 wells need In order to save cost, the thickness of the anticorrosion layer
to be rebuilt. The direct corrosion loss is more than RMB 1.5 is not strictly controlled according to the design drawings
million. Table 5.9 shows details. and specifications. During construction, the coating brand is
replaced, and the anticorrosion measures for the inner pipe
wall are not in place. Besides, there are many problems in
5.1.9 Existing Problems and Suggestions anti-rust treatment of open pipelines.
on Corrosion Protection Strategies
(3) Optimal operation of pipe network requires scientific
5.1.9.1 Problems Existing in Corrosion layout of pipe network
and Protection
In China, due to the rapid economic development, the rapid
(1) The anticorrosion technical system is not perfect development of urbanization and the rapid development of
the water supply and drainage pipe network, and other
The corrosion of metal pipelines is very serious in China. At municipal pipe network, the overall layout and planning are
present, the effective corrosion protection system for water not scientific, so that the underground power supply pipe
transmission and distribution pipelines in many cities has not network, the gas supply pipe network, and the water supply
Table 5.9 Economic loss caused by excavation replacement of drainage pipelines in a street due to corrosion problem
Name of item Unit Cost
Quantity Unit price/RMB Estimated budget Note: technology
amount/RMB 10,000
Sewage treatment project in a small street m 613 156.56
Reinforced concrete pipe D300 mm m 219 1,950 42.71 Excavation replacement
Reinforced concrete pipe D400 mm m 394 2,250 88.65 Excavation replacement
Rebuilt inspection wells – 21 12,000 25.20
584 B. Hou
and drainage pipe network are influencing each other, In the pipe, manufacturers of good product quality should be
bringing about hidden danger of corrosion. Therefore, the the first choice. The pipeline should have a better inner wall,
layout of the pipe network should be gradually improved to which can have corrosion resistance and do not release
realize the optimal operation of the pipe network. harmful substances. Corrosion-resistant pipes, such as PVC,
UPVC, and GFRP pipes are used. It is recommended that
5.1.9.2 Suggestions on Corrosion Protection PE, PPR, UPVC, and other pipes with good corrosion
Strategies resistance are adopted in the water conveyance branch pipes
and ends to improve the corrosion resistance. Water supply
(1) Improving the quality of finished water plastic pipes, lined steel pipes, aluminum–plastic composite
pipes, and thin-walled stainless steel pipes can be used
Improving the quality of finished water is the basic way to below 100 mm to gradually reduce the use of galvanized
control the corrosion of water supply pipelines. Each type of steel pipes. Accessories such as valves on pipelines shall use
water is corrosive, and its strength is related to the physical epoxy resin sprayed castings and stainless steel fittings. In
and chemical characteristics of water and the surface prop- addition, a metal tube with a protective layer is used to coat
erties of the materials in contact. Generally, the corrosion the inner surface of the metal tube to prevent the metal from
related to deterioration of water quality is mainly regulated being exposed to water. When lining metal pipes, acrylic
by biological process, and the disinfection process and type resin dispersant (3% dry weight of nitrocellulose) or steam
can be adjusted. Chlorine is still the main disinfectant in curing can be added to enhance the ability of acid-resistant
China. When chlorine is used for disinfection, two wrong water and corrosion resistance. In addition, the quality of
tendencies should be noticed. Some water plants do not pressure lining is better than that of spray-pressing lining,
disinfect finished water, so even if the quality of finished and the sand loss is small.
water is good, it is very difficult to ensure the water quality
of the pipe network. In some water plants, the more chlorine (4) Pay attention to pipe network cleaning
is added, the better the disinfection effect is, but the greater
the side effect is. Thus, it should be avoided. Maintaining the economic flow rate of the water in the pipe can
effectively control the occurrence of corrosion. In the evalu-
(2) Strengthening the water quality monitoring of the pipe ation of the whole water distribution system, efforts should be
network made to transform the areas prone to water quality problems
such as the slow flow area so as to supply water evenly within
The establishment of pipe network corrosion monitoring the whole range. In areas with severe corrosion, flushing shall
system is conducive to the early detection and forecast of be carried out regularly. Periodic cleaning of pipe network is
water quality deterioration, so that water plants and users can of great significance for improving the water quality of pipe
take countermeasures. To collect and accumulate the basic network, recovering the water transmission capacity of pipe,
operation data of water quality provides theoretical basis for suppressing corrosion, and maintaining the normal operation
the operation and management of water plants, and provides of pipe network. The cleaning methods commonly used at
experimental data for the study of corrosion control in water present are mainly one-way flushing and scrubbing.
system. Relevant data show [43] that the corrosiveness
indexes that affect water usually include pH value, alkalinity, (5) Strengthening the corrosion control consciousness of
hardness, and solubility solid. These parameters are used to enterprise managers in water supply and drainage
calculate corrosiveness indexes (for example, LI, CI, and AI) industry
and analyze the corrosiveness of water. Therefore, water
quality analysis items can be determined according to raw For most water supply and drainage enterprises, corrosion
water quality and pipe selection. For example, Fe, Mg, problem is not the focus of economic loss, so it has not been
chromaticity, conductivity, pH, alkalinity, and hardness are paid attention to by managers for a long time. However, with
measured for cast iron pipes and ductile iron pipes and steel the aging of a large number of pipelines and unreasonable
tubes. Conductivity, pH, alkalinity, and Ca hardness are laying of municipal pipelines, the severity of corrosion
measured for clay tubes and asbestos-cement tubes, and problems will gradually emerge, which will cause serious
asbestos fiber is measured for asbestos-cement tubes. dangerous accidents. Therefore, it is necessary to put for-
ward compulsory technical requirements for relevant enter-
(3) Improving the corrosion resistance of water supply and prises from the administrative management level so as to
drainage pipelines strengthen the management’s corrosion control awareness.
5.1.10 Suggestions for Corrosion Investigation Technical Standard for Petroleum Asphalt Anti-corrosion
Coating of Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 0420-1997)
(1) Suggestions on this investigation Test Method for Cathodic Protection Parameters of Buried
Steel Pipeline (SY/T 0023-1997)
This investigation is more from the scientific and academic Technical Standard for Melted Epoxy Powder Inner Coating
point of view to find the problems existing in current water for Steel Pipeline (SY/T 0442-1997)
supply and drainage industry and summarizes the solutions. Technical Standard for External Anti-corrosion Coating of
From the technical level, it is relatively professional, but the Coal Tar Enamel for Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T
strength, coverage, and sampling data volume are still 0379-1998)
insufficient. Therefore, the investigation should be carried Code for Design of Compulsory Current Cathodic Protec-
out from the national management level and with the help of tion for Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 0036-2000)
relevant functional departments in order to obtain enough Engineering Inspection on Corrosion Protection of Buried
support and attention from lower level enterprises and Steel Pipeline (GB/T 19285-2003)
institutions. Technical Specifications for Organic Anti-corrosion Coating
on External Wall of Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 0061-2004)
(2) Other suggestions Technical Specifications for Repairing External Anticorro-
sion Coating of Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 5918-2004)
For the corrosion and protection of the water supply and Technical Specifications for Water Supply Steel Mesh
drainage industry, as mentioned above, the relevant technical Framework Plastic (Polyethylene) Composite Pipe Engi-
standards are not detailed enough and the technical level of neering (CECS 181-2005)
the design department and the construction enterprise is Polypropylene (PP) Pipe for Buried Water Supply (QB/T
quite different. That design reaches the standard does not 1929-2006)
mean that the construction also reaches the standard. This Buried Steel-Plastic Compound Wound Drainage Pipe
requires the relevant supervision department to play a role, (QB/T 2783-2006)
strengthen the design department’s role of supervision in the Technical Specifications for Water Supply Liner Stainless
construction, and strictly review technical qualification of Steel Composite Pipe Engineering (CECS 205-2006)
construction units. In addition, from the perspective of Technical Management Regulations for Cathodic Protection
policies and regulations, the construction and operation of Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 5919-2009)
enterprises must be equipped with corrosion engineering Code for Construction and Acceptance of Water Supply and
technicians, and carry out regular technical training and Drainage Pipeline (GB 50268-2008)
qualification assessment. In view of this, the reserve of Code for Design of Water Supply and Drainage of Buildings
corrosion engineers and technicians should be raised to the (GB50015-2010)
level of higher education. At present, there is a lack of Technical Standard for Anti-corrosion of Pipeline and
specialized corrosion professional education in the domestic Equipment (QC-1999-S5).
higher education, especially in the “211” colleges and uni-
versities, which have a certain impact on the education
quality of the corrosion engineers. Therefore, it is necessary
to further strengthen the position of corrosion specialty in 5.2 Investigation Report on Corrosion
higher education. of Steel Structure and Pipeline
of Offshore Oil Platform
5.1.11 Standards and Specifications 5.2.1 Basic Situation

on Corrosion Prevention of Water Supply
and Drainage System 5.2.1.1 Offshore Platform Development Status
Technical Management Regulations for Main Line Electrical 1. Development Status

Protection of Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 5919-1994)
Technical Standard for Epoxy Coal Asphalt Anti-corrosion (1) Foreign Oil and Gas Exploration and Development
Coating for Buried Steel Pipeline (SY/T 0447-1996) Status
Technical Standard for Anti-corrosion and Insulation Layer
of Rigid Polyurethane Foam Plastic for Buried Steel Pipe- The foreign deepwater oil and gas exploration was initiated
line (SY/T 0415-1996) in the late 1970s. With nearly 30 years of exploration, a
586 B. Hou
great number of large-scale oil and gas fields have been national laboratories of marine engineering, etc. have been
explored successively in the sea areas, including the South established in China. Effective research work has been
America, the West African Atlantic Coast, Mexico, the achieved over these years in terms of marine environment
North Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, Southeast Asia, and load, platform structure response analysis, pipeline
and the Northwest Continental Shelf of Australia, etc., the analysis, stress and fatigue of joints, steel used for offshore
exploration field of which has been expanded to the deep-sea platforms, and the nondestructive testing of offshore struc-
area with the water depth of 3,000 m. Having become the tures. Along with the deepening of the research, the fol-
hotspots for the world’s oil and gas exploration, the sea areas lowing characteristics have been presented: the research
of the Gulf of Mexico, the Brazil, and West Africa on both from the platform components to the overall platform anal-
sides of the South Atlantic are called the golden triangle of ysis, the analysis from the idealization to the component
the deepwater oil and gas exploration. The interest of the defects, from the analysis of the current shallow sea platform
petroleum industry in the development of the deep-sea pet- to the deep-sea platform. Generally speaking, the marine
roleum production is increasing due to the continuous dis- engineering industry of China has learned a lot about the
covery of the deep-sea oil fields. In addition, some offshore FPSO and semisubmersible platforms, with the relatively
petroleum production and processing equipment suitable for mature technology as well. However, the knowledge of the
the deep-sea development has been innovated. Most of these Spar platform is relatively little without any design, con-
offshore petroleum production and processing equipment are struction, and use experience.
floating offshore petroleum production system. People have
made great efforts continuously to reduce the investment and 5.2.1.2 Technology Types of Offshore Platform
decrease the stress on the offshore structure because of the As is shown in Fig. 5.11, according to the functions, the
relatively bad environmental conditions in the deep sea and offshore platforms are classified into drilling platforms,
the intensification of investment costs. At present, the global production platforms, living platforms, oil storage platforms,
deepwater oil and gas business is mainly concentrated in the offshore platforms, etc., and according to the type of
petroleum companies located in the USA, UK, France, movement, the offshore platforms are classified into fixed
Brazil, etc., although the deepwater oil and gas exploration and mobile types.
has been widely implemented and has become the hotspots Here is the introduction of the four commonly used off-
for the exploration of the petroleum companies. shore platforms, namely, tension leg platform (TLP),
semisubmersibles (Semis), floating production storage and
(2) Domestic Oil and Gas Exploration and Development offloading system (FPSO), and single-column platform
Status (spar).
China is not rich in the petroleum resources. The per capita 1. Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
oil recoverable resources in the world are 68t and the per
capital oil recoverable resources in China is 12t, which is In 1954, RO Marsh from the USA put forward the program
one-fifth of the world’s average level. The world’s per capita to fix the offshore platform with the tilted mooring group for
level of the natural gas on average is 70,000 m3, and the per the first time, which was recognized as the originator of the
capita level of the natural gas in China is only 10,000 m3. tension leg platform. Great progress has been achieved with
However, on the other hand, China is relatively rich in the the theoretical research and experimental exploration of the
coastal and deep-sea oil and gas resources. China has the scholars from all the countries on the tension leg platform.
oceans with the area of 10 million square kilometers with The first tension leg platform was installed at the Hutton oil
abundant deep-sea oil and gas resources. In particular, the field with the depth of 157 m of the North Sea in 1984 by
sea area of the South Sea of China has rich oil and gas Conoco. Due to the scientific and technological development
resources and natural gas hydrate resources. The offshore and the progress of engineering exploration, the tension leg
petroleum geological reserve is around 23 billion to 30 bil- platform has been used successfully by ConocoPhillips in
lion tons, taking up one-third of the total oil and gas the 1425-m deep sea, which is the platform with the maxi-
resources in China. mum water depth for the current work of tension leg
platform.
2. China’s Platform Technology Research Status
2. Semisubmersible Platform
In terms of the scientific research forces of the marine
engineering, the special marine engineering design compa- As a common type of the floating offshore platforms, the
nies, research institutes, universities and colleges, and semisubmersible platform is called a vertical column definite
Offshore form
Fixed type
Pile type (Duct type)
Gravity type
Mobile type
Floating type
Boat type
Semi-submersible type
Seat bottom type
Compliant type
Bottom-supported
Self-lifting type
Guyed-tower type
Tension-leg type
Fig. 5.11 Classifications of offshore platforms according to the movement methods
platform. In general, it is made up of the platform body, a gas–water processing, oil storage and loading and unloading,
vertical column and lower body or a pontoon. In addition, realize in one tanker comprehensively. The oil–gas–water
there are some support and diagonal bracing connection processing system, the power supply equipment, and living
between the lower bodies, the vertical columns, and between facilities are installed on the reequipped or specially created
the vertical column and the platform. There are drilling ship deck. The pontoons are positioned by the turret mooring
machinery devices, equipment, and living compartments, etc. system and the rotating extension joints and the oil delivery
on the platform, which are for the use of drilling work. The risers are interconnected on the boat.
body of the platform is located at a certain height above the So far, the FPSO has been commonly applied, and nearly
water surface so that the impact of waves can be avoided; the one hundred FPSOs are running and operated worldwide.
buoyancy of the lower body is provided by the floating box, The world’s FPSOs nowadays have been able to work in the
which is submerged under the water so that the disturbing area with the water depth from more than 10 m to several
force of the waves can be reduced; the vertical column kilometers. Due to the strong wind and wave resistance
connected between the platform body and the lower body has capability, the FPSO has been widely applied in the sea areas
the small waterline vertical face. The vertical columns are with relatively harsh environmental conditions. It is appli-
separated from each other with a proper distance, so that the cable for the sea areas with serious ice conditions, such as
stability of the platform can be ensured. Therefore, it is also the sea areas of Canada and the East Sea of China; it is
called the vertical column definite platform. applicable for the sea areas with frequent typhoons, such as
the South Sea of China; it is applicable for the North Sea
3. Floating Production Storage and Offloading System with harsh environment. In addition, it can be applied to
various different oil fields, including the offshore oil fields as
The Floating Production Storage and Offloading System well as the remote oil fields hundreds of kilometers away
(FPSO) makes the four functions, namely, oil collection, oil– from the coast.
588 B. Hou
4. Single-Column Platform (1) Relatively mature construction technology; the offshore

oil drilling platforms are the basis of the drilling
With the rapid development of the marine development equipment on the sea. Since 1970, 53 mobile drilling
cause, people have gradually expanded the scope of oil platforms have been built, 7 platforms have been
exploration from the shallow sea, offshore to the deep-sea retired, and 46 platforms are in service in domestic
areas. The traditional offshore oil production platform has China. China has achieved relatively mature technology
not satisfied the demands for deep-sea oil production any in the offshore oil equipment construction so far.
longer. The Spar Platform, a new offshore oil production (2) Stable performance in some supporting equipment;
platform, has been generated now, which shows the great though the design and manufacturing technology of the
vitality. supporting equipment on the offshore drilling platforms
At present, according to the sequence of the development are similar to the onshore drilling equipment, the
date, the Spar Platforms in service and under construction requirements for the configuration, reliability, and
worldwide are divided into three generations, including the automation degree are more demanding than the
ClassicSpar, TrussSpar, and CellSpar. onshore drilling equipment.
(3) A new stage in the research and manufacturing of
(1) First-Generation Spar—ClassicSpar (CaissonSpar) deep-sea oil and gas development equipment; currently,
China has mainly concentrated on the development of
The classic Spar (ClassicSpar) is the Spar deep-sea oil pro- offshore oil and gas resources on the offshore sea areas
duction platform that was generated the earliest. This type of within the seawater depth of 200 m. However, the
Spar Platform has the most dominant characteristics, that is, capability for the operation in the 500-m deep-sea areas
the main body is a closed single-column cylinder structure is not provided.
and the size is relatively huge. In general, the main body is
215 m in length and the diameter is over 23 m. The major gaps in the advanced offshore oil drilling
platforms between China and the world are mainly shown in
(2) Second-Generation Spar-TrussSpar the aspects as follows:
The framed Spar is the second-generation Spar oil produc- (1) Single drilling platform type and low technical content;
tion platform. The biggest difference between it and the the jacket type, seat bottom type and self-lifting drilling
first-generation Spar Platform is that its main body is divided and mining equipment are mainly adopted in China at
into three parts. Just like the ClassicSpar, the upper part is a present, which is simple in structure and single in
closed cylinder. The middle part is an open frame structure function. There are still no designs and construction
and the lower part is the bottom ballast tank. technologies in the new tension leg platform (TLP),
single-column platform (Spar), compliant platform, and
(3) Third-Generation Spar-CellSpar other multifunctional integrated platforms.
(2) The existing drilling platforms are unsuitable for the
Constituted by several hollow circular cylinders, the plat- deepwater demand. At present, most of the oil extrac-
form body of the CellSpar makes the construction of the tion equipment of China can only be operated in the sea
platform simpler. The improvement of the structure makes areas within the depth of 300 m. The equipment are in
the CellSpar Platform lighter in weight and smaller in vol- urgent need, including the deep-sea mobile drilling
ume. Compared with the first two platforms, the carrying platforms (ships), subsea base baskets, underwater
capacity of the platform has been elevated. In conclusion, the parallel ports and underwater oil extraction and main-
Spar Platform is suitable for the deep-sea operation, which is tenance equipment, the safety inspection and mainte-
economical with good flexibility. It is the second largest nance equipment of submarine pipelines (underwater
main platform type at present. robots), natural gas hydrate exploration and recovery
technology, etc.
5.2.1.3 Technology Level of China’s Offshore
Platform 5.2.1.4 Future Development Trend of Offshore
Great results have been achieved in the offshore oil drilling Platforms
equipment industry of China and great progress has been Since all the countries worldwide have rapidly intensified the
achieved in the introduction, digestion, absorption, understanding of the importance of oil at present, and the
re-innovation, and localization of the oil and gas develop- rapid development of the modern high technology, the
ment equipment technology.
offshore drilling platforms are expected to be developed in (4) The development of the offshore drilling platforms in
the aspects as follows: the deepwater field will be inevitably the new devel-
opment trend.
(1) The situation where the offshore drilling platforms are
under the monopoly of a few countries for a long time Research and manufacturing of the large-scale marine oil
will be broken gradually. and gas development equipment have been initiated in the
main marine equipment manufacturing powers worldwide.
Due to the early initiation, the western developed countries, The operation water depth has been developed from the
including the USA and Norway, have accumulated some previous 10–25 m to the current over 3,000 m. The offshore
experience in the development of offshore drilling platform oil and gas development equipment can reach the maximum
technology. In particular, they have always been in the drilling depth of 12,000 m. Currently, the fifth-generation
leading and monopoly position in the offshore deepwater and the sixth-generation ultradeepwater semisubmersible
technology development. However, in the recent years, quite platforms have become the development trend. According to
a few countries worldwide have been involved in the marine the statistical analysis of the authoritative institutions in the
exploration and development field, especially the rise of USA, a total of 434 marine oil and gas development projects
China, Brazil, South Korea, etc. A multichannel, have been invested worldwide in 2007, 48% of which are the
multi-national, and various blossoming development situa- deepwater projects with the water depth of more than 500 m
tion will be presented in the offshore equipment technology and 22% are ultradeep water projects with the water depth of
in the future. over 1,200 m. Various oil companies have increased the
investment in the deep-sea areas gradually and the offshore
(2) The offshore drilling platforms will develop with high drilling platforms are gradually developed in the deepwater
reliability and automation. fields.
Due to the various complicated offshore operation environ- 5.2.1.5 Brief Introduction to CNPC Offshore
ment, including the wind, wave, current, etc., and the Platform Project
requirements for marine safety and technical specifications,
the high reliability of the oil equipment is the prerequisite for 1. Fixed Jacket Platform
guaranteeing the successful development of marine oil and
gas. In addition, the automation and intelligent control (1) Dagang Oilfield-Zhaodong Platform
technologies of the marine equipment have been better
applied so that the platform operation efficiency is elevated, Zhaodong Oilfield is the block for oil and gas develop-
the labor intensify is reduced, and the error rate of the ment of Dagang Oilfield Co., Ltd. by using the offshore
manual operation is minimized. steel platform at present. Located in the extremely shallow
sea area of the Bohai Sea, Zhaodong Oilfield has the
(3) The multifunctional development trend of the marine average charted depth of 2.4 m. There are two fixed
drilling platforms is gradually obvious. drilling platforms (ODA and ODB platforms) and two
fixed production platforms (OPA and OPB platforms), and
The new multifunctional offshore platforms have not only other supporting platform facilities, external pipelines, and
the drilling function but also the well work over, oil pro- submarine cables (see Fig. 5.12) on Zhaodong Platform.
duction, life, dynamic positioning, and other functions. For The crude oil production volume is designed to be
example, the FPSO with the dynamic positioning device is 107 104 t/a, and the natural gas production volume is
fully equipped with the functions above, but also can realize 3,430 104 m3/a.
the goal of developing an offshore large-scale oil field with As the phase-I projects of Zhaodong Oilfield, the ODA
one ship as a shuttle tanker. The multifunctional semisub- Platform and OPA Platform were, respectively, completed
mersible drilling platforms can be used not only as a drilling and installed in October 2002 and May 2003. As the
platform but also a production platform, a lifting platform, a expansion projects of Zhaodong Platform, the ODB Platform
pipe-laying platform, a living platform, and an offshore and OPB Platform were, respectively, completed and
scientific research base, even as well as a missile launching installed in October 2007 and May 2008. The comprehen-
platform, etc. The applicable scope is wider and wider. sive installation methods were adopted on Zhaodong
590 B. Hou
(2) Jidong Oilfield
Nanpu Oilfield is the main block for offshore oil and gas
production of Jidong Oilfield at present. The currently run-
ning offshore steel platforms include the NP1-29 well group
platform and the NP1-5 well group platform, which were
built and installed in 2009.
(1) NP1-29 Platform
Located in the shallow sea areas of Nanpu Area in the west

Bohai Sea, the NP1-29 platform (see Fig. 5.14) has the
average water depth of about 6.4 m. There is one production
platform (PRP) and three wellhead platforms (WHPA,
Fig. 5.12 Zhaodong platform
WHPB, and WHPC) in this project. The platforms are
connected by the trestles, external pipelines, water injection
Platform, that is, the installation in place with the floating pipelines, and submarine cables. The crude oil is designed
method and the self-lifting elevation. with the scale of 10.46 104 t/a and the natural gas of
The ODA Platform has the upper module with the max- 3,136.7 104 m3/a. The service life is designed to be
imum deck area of 64 m 49 m. With a total of five floors, 15 years.
the height from the bottom deck to the top deck is 19 m, the As a four-legged jacket steel platform, the PRP Platform
charted height of the bottom deck is 13.6 m, and the total has the upper module of three decks in total. The maximum
weight is 6,200 tons; the ODA Platform is supported by deck area is 22.15 m 20.225 m, the elevation of the
eight-pile legs, with the total length of 96 m. The penetration bottom deck is +19 m and the elevation of the bottom deck
into the mud is 80.62 m and the diameter of the pile legs is is +9 m. The diameter of the jacket leg is U1,346 mm, the
1,832 mm. The ODB Platform has the upper module with pile diameter is U1,219 mm, and the penetration depth in the
the maximum deck area of 51 m 43 m. With a total of mud is 66 m. Divided into three horizontal layers, the jacket
five floors, the height from the bottom deck to the top deck is has the elevations, respectively, EL (−) 6.40 m, EL (−)
17 m, the charted height of the bottom deck is 13.6 m, and 2.50 m, and EL (+) 3.50 m. The lowermost deck is equipped
the total weight is 3,964 tons; the ODB Platform is sup- with the anti-sinking plate in order to ensure the stability of
ported by eight-pile legs as well, with the diameter of the jacket installation and the elevation requirements.
2,032 mm. As a three-pile steel platform, the WHPA Platform has
Multiple functions are integrated on the OPA Platform, two oil wells, including two decks, namely, the production
including the oil and gas collection, processing, oil storage, deck and the upper deck. The upper deck is modified and
sewage, water injection processing, power generation, etc. added afterward. The sizes of the deck are, respectively,
With the length of 56.4 m, the width of 43.53 m, and the net 8.2 m 6.675 m and 8.25 m 3.2 m, and the elevations
deck height of 22.94 m, the OPA Platform is divided into are, respectively, +6.14 m and +9 m. As a four-legged jacket
four frame structures from the bottom up, namely, the bot- steel platform, the WHPB Platform has nine oil wells with
tom deck, tank top deck, production deck, and top deck. the single deck, that is, the production deck with the size of
Among them, an oil storage tank with the total volume of 13.05 8.3 m and the elevation of +9 m. The diameter of
12,000 m3 is on the bottom deck; the total weight of the the jacket legs is U1,090 mm, the pile diameter is
whole platform (including the trestle and box-shaped row of U1,000 mm, and the penetration in the mud is 47 m. A total
ships) is 5,386 ton; the OPA Platform is supported by of three horizontal layers are equipped on the jacket,
eight-pile legs, with the diameter of the main pile of respectively, at the EL (−) 6.4 m, EL (−) 2.5 m, and EL (+)
1,832 mm. The OPB Platform (see Fig. 5.13) is newly built 3.5 m. The lowermost deck is equipped with the anti-sinking
production and processing platform under the circumstances plate in order to ensure the stability of the jacket installation
when the liquid production capacity and the water content of and the elevation requirements.
Zhaodong Oilfield is continuously improved and the original As a four-legged jacket steel platform, the WHPC Plat-
OPA production platform facilities have failed to meet the form has six injection wells with the single deck, that is, the
needs. It is 2,300 ton in weight, which is supported by four production deck with the size of 13.9 11.15 m and the
pile legs with the diameter of 1,524 mm. elevation of +9 m. The diameter of the jacket legs is
Fig. 5.13 OPB platform of Zhaodong Oilfield
Fig. 5.14 NP1-29 project
U1,090 mm, the pile diameter is U1,000 mm, and the pen- scale of 11.76 104 t/a and the natural gas of
etration in the mud is 47 m. A total of three horizontal layers 2,900 104 m3/a. The service life is designed to be
are equipped on the jacket, respectively, at the EL (−) 6.4 m, 15 years.
EL (−) 2.5 m, and EL (+) 3.5 m. The lowermost deck is As a four-legged jacket steel platform, the PRPA has two
equipped with the anti-sinking plate in order to ensure the decks with the deck area of 14.3 m 13.6 m. The elevation
stability of the jacket installation and the elevation of the upper deck is +13 m and the elevation of the lower
requirements. deck is +8.4 m. The diameter of the jacket legs is
U1,090 mm, the diameter of the piles is U1,000 mm, and the
(2) NP1-5 Platform penetration depth in the mud is 35 m. The jacket is divided
into three horizontal layers, with the elevations, respectively,
Located in the shallow waters of the Nanpu Sea Area in west −6.10 m, −3.00 m, and +3.50 m. The anti-sinking plates are
Bohai Sea, the NP1-5 Platform (see Fig. 5.15) has the equipped on the lowermost deck.
average water depth of about 6.1 m. There are three pro- As a three-legged jacket steel platform, the PRPB has a
duction platforms (PRPA, PRPB, and PRPC) and two single deck with the area of 19.7 m 16.2 m and the ele-
wellhead platforms (WHPA and WHPB) in this project. The vation of +13 m. The diameter of the jacket legs is
platforms are connected by the trestle, external pipelines, U1,004 mm, the diameter of the piles is U914 mm, and the
and submarine cables. The crude oil is constructed with the penetration depth in the mud is 32 m. The jacket is divided
592 B. Hou
Fig. 5.15 NP1-5 project
As a six-pile steel platform, the WHPB has two wells,

four reserved well slots, and single deck. The deck area is
10.5 m 6 m with the elevation of +9.3 m. The diameter
of the pile legs is U850 mm. The minimum penetration in
the mud is 52.5 m and the maximum is 65.2 m.
(3) Liaohe Oilfield
(1) Hainan 24 Platform
As the first jacket platform on Liaohe Oilfield, Hainan 24

Platform includes one four-legged jacket single-deck produc-
tion platform, one four-legged jacket storage tank platform,
two single-well wellhead platforms, and a single-pile torch
Fig. 5.16 Hainan 24 platform platform. The layout equipment on the production platform
includes a metering separator, a degreaser, a power distribution
into three horizontal layers, with the elevations, respectively, room, an operating room, and a CO2. One 500-m3 storage tank
−6.10 m, −2.50 m, and +3.50 m. The anti-sinking plates are is provided on the tank storage platform (Fig. 5.16).
equipped on the lowermost deck. This project was designed by Liaohe Petroleum Engi-
As a three-legged jacket steel platform, the PRPC has the neering Co., Ltd. and constructed by Liaohe Business
single deck with the area of 20.3 m 15.96 m and the Department of CNPC Marine Engineering Co., Ltd. After
elevation of +13 m. The diameter of the jacket legs is working for more than 60 days since the commencement on
U1,004 mm, the diameter of the piles is U914 mm, and the April 12, 2006, the construction and installation of the
penetration depth in the mud is 32 m. The jacket is divided platform were completed with quality and quantity.
into three horizontal layers, with the elevations, respectively,
−6.10 m, −2.50 m, and +3.50 m. The anti-sinking plates are (2) Kuidong 101 Platform
equipped on the lowermost deck.
As an eight-pile steel platform, the WHPA has eight oil As the second offshore pipe rack platform after the Hainan
wells with one single deck. The deck area is 14.323 m 24 Jacket Platform of Liaohe Oilfield, the Kuidong 101
9.833 m with the elevation of +8.4 m. The diameter of the Platform (see Fig. 5.17) was put into use in 2007. It includes
six-pile legs is U850 mm and the penetration in the mud is one four-legged jacket single-deck production platform, one
about 65 m. The diameter of one wellhead protection pile is three-pillar supportive wellhead platform, and one
U1,200 mm and the penetration in the mud is 36 m. The single-pile torch platform. The platforms are connected by
diameter of the other wellhead protection pile is U914 mm the trestles. The production platform has the ship fenders.
and the penetration in the mud is 34 m. The equipment includes separators and degreasers, power
2. Mobile Platforms
The mobile platforms of CNPC are primarily centered in

CNPC Ocean Engineering Co., Ltd., which is an offshore
petroleum engineering technology service company estab-
lished by CNPC on November 2004. The business scope of
the company includes the offshore oil drilling and comple-
tion, borehole operations, oil testing, mining projects, marine
transportation, base terminal support services, marine engi-
neering design, construction, installation, maintenance, the
business research and design in relation to the offshore
petroleum, etc. There are 11 drilling platforms and 5
operation-testing platforms at present.
1. Drilling Platform
Fig. 5.17 Kuidong 101 platform
(1) CPOE 16 Jack-up Drilling Platform (see Fig. 5.18)
distribution room, operating room, and CO2 room. Located Basic parameters: ① maximum working water depth: 122 m
in Kuidong, the Kuidong 101 Well has the No. II structure (400 ft), ② maximum drilling depth: 10,668 m (35,000 ft),
with the designed depth of 2,600 m. Dongying Group is the ③ maximum longitudinal extension of the cantilever beam:
primary target layer. Started on June 13, 2006 and completed 22.86 m (75 ft), ④ the movement laterally from left to right
on June 26, with the completed well depth of 2,080 m, the (from the centerline): 4.57 m (15 ft), ⑤ variable load of
layer is located at Mesozoic group. drilling state: 3,766 t, ⑥ seating capacity: 140 persons, and
⑦ self-sustaining force: 20 days.
(3) Wellhead Protection Device of Haiyue No. 1 Well
(2) CPOE 9/10 Jack-up Drilling Platform (see Fig. 5.19)
Located at a water depth of 4 m, the Wellhead Protection
Device of Haiyue No. 1 Well has a three-pile steel structure Basic parameters: ① maximum working water depth:
with the deck size of 7.2 m 7.96 m and the deck elevation 91.4 m (300 ft), ② maximum drilling depth: 7,000 m
of +10 m. The wellhead protection pile is embedded into the (22.965 ft), ③ maximum longitudinal extension of the
wellhead riser and the external diameter of U1,200 mm of cantilever beam: 12.2 m (40 ft), ④ the movement laterally
the pile is protected by using the pile hammer to penetrate from left to right (from the centerline): 3.66 m (12 ft), ⑤
into 40 m below the mud surface. The piles are connected variable load of drilling state: 2,265 t, ⑥ seating capacity:
with the tie bars at the EL (+) 7.0 m and EL (+) 9.2 m after 100 persons, and ⑦ self-sustaining force: 20 days.
three protection piles are penetrated in, so that the ice
resistance of the whole structure can be ensured. The service (3) CPOE 5/6/7/8 Jack-up Drilling Platform (see Fig. 5.20)
life is designed to be 15 years.
Basic parameters: ① maximum working water depth: 40 m,
(4) Wellhead Protection Device of Longwang No. 3 Well ② maximum drilling depth: 7,000 m (4½ drilling pipe), ③
maximum longitudinal extension of the cantilever beam:
Located at a water depth of 5.6 m, the Wellhead Protection 12 m, ④ the movement laterally from left to right (from the
Device of Longwang No. 3 Well has a three-pile steel centerline): 3.5 m, ⑤ variable load of drilling state: 1,666 t,
structure with the deck size of 7.2 m 7.96 m and the deck ⑥ seating capacity: 100 persons (seating capacity of CPOE
elevation of +10 m. The wellhead protection pile is is 90 persons), and ⑦ self-sustaining force: 20 days.
embedded into the wellhead riser and the external diameter
of U1,200 mm of the pile is protected by using the pile (4) CPOE 3/33 Bottom Drilling Platform (see Fig. 5.21)
hammer to penetrate into 42 m below the mud surface. The
piles are connected with the tie bars at the EL (+) 6.5 m and Basic parameters: ① maximum working water depth: 10 m,
EL (+) 9.0 m after three protection piles are penetrated in, so ② maximum drilling depth: 7,000 m (4½ drilling pipe), ③
that the ice resistance of the whole structure can be ensured. maximum longitudinal extension of the cantilever beam:
The service life is designed to be 15 years. 8.4 m, ④ the movement laterally from left to right (from the
594 B. Hou
Fig. 5.21 CPOE 3/33 bottom drilling platform

Fig. 5.18 CPOE 16 jack-up drilling platform
Fig. 5.22 CPOE 61 jack-up working platform

Fig. 5.19 CPOE 9/10 jack-up drilling platform
centerline): 3 m; ⑤ variable load of drilling state: 1,800 t,

⑥ seating capacity: 100 persons, and ⑦ self-sustaining
force: 20 days.
2. Testing Operation Platform
(1) CPOE 61 Jack-up Working Platform (see Fig. 5.22)

② maximum drilling depth: 6,000 m (3½ drilling pipe), ③
maximum hook load: 1,700 kN, ④ maximum longitudinal
extension of the cantilever beam: 8 m, ⑤ the movement
laterally from left to right (from the centerline): 3.5 m, ⑥
maximum allowable variable load of working state: 1,106 t,
⑦ seating capacity: 45 persons, and ⑧ self-sustaining force:
20 days.
Fig. 5.20 CPOE 5/6/7/8 jack-up drilling platform
Fig. 5.23 CPOE 62 jack-up working platform Fig. 5.25 CPOE 81 bottom test mining platform
③ maximum hook load: 1,700 kN, ④ maximum longitu-

dinal extension of the cantilever beam: 8 m, ⑤ the move-
ment laterally from left to right (from the centerline): 3 m,
⑥ processing capacity of oil and gas equipment: liquid
1,000 m3/d, natural gas 100 104 m3/d, pressure 9.8 MPa,
⑦ seating capacity: 45 persons, and ⑧ self-sustaining force:
20 days.
(4) CPOE 81 Bottom Test Mining Platform (see Fig. 5.25)

② processing capacity of oil and gas equipment: liquid
300 m3/d, natural gas 6 104 m3/d, ③ oil storage capacity:
1,100 m3, ④ seating capacity: 45 persons, and ⑤
self-sustaining force: 20 days.
(5) CPOE 82 Bottom Test Mining Platform (see Fig. 5.26)

Fig. 5.24 CPOE 63 jack-up working platform
Basic parameters: ① maximum working water depth:
(2) CPOE 62 Jack-up Working Platform (see Fig. 5.23) 8.95 m, ② processing capacity of oil and gas equipment:
liquid 300 m3/d and natural gas 5 10 m3/d, ③ oil storage
Basic parameters: ① maximum working water depth: 40 m, capacity: 1,131 m3, ④ seating capacity: 20 persons, and ⑤
② maximum drilling depth: 5,500 m (3½ drilling pipe), ③ self-sustaining force: 20 days.
maximum hook load: 1,580 kN, ④ maximum longitudinal
extension of the cantilever beam: 9.5 m, ⑤ the movement
laterally from left to right (from the centerline): 3.5 m, ⑥ 5.2.2 Corrosion of Offshore Platforms
maximum allowable variable load of working state: 1,100 t,
⑦ seating capacity: 65 persons, and ⑧ self-sustaining force: 5.2.2.1 Seawater Corrosivity
20 days. As the most abundant natural electrolyte solution, seawater
generally has the salt content of 3.2–3.75% (Due to the
(3) CPOE 63 Jack-up Working Platform (see Fig. 5.24) dilution with freshwater, the seawater in the port may be
reduced to 1.0%). The pH value in the seawater is 8–8.2.
Basic parameters: ① maximum working water depth: 20 m, Three categories of factors affect the metal corrosion in
② maximum drilling depth: 6,000 m (3½ drilling pipe), seawater, namely, the chemical factors, physical factors, and
596 B. Hou
up the local corrosion of steel. These comprehensive factors

have caused the faster corrosion rate of the offshore oil
platforms, and therefore it has the higher requirement for the
anticorrosion system.
The corrosion conducts and characteristics are quite dif-
ferent for the offshore oil platforms in different areas.
Therefore, it is required to make the definition to the cor-
rosive areas of the offshore oil platforms in the marine
environment so that the effective protection measures can be
proposed. According to the marine environmental condi-
tions, corrosion characteristics, and average corrosion rate,
the offshore oil platforms are divided into three corrosion
areas in the marine environment, namely, the atmospheric
zone, the splash zone, and the full immersion zone. Please
refer to Fig. 5.27 for the division of the corrosion zones on
the offshore oil platforms.
Fig. 5.26 CPOE 82 bottom test mining platform The atmospheric zone refers to the part of the platform
above the splash zone exposed to salt, fog, moisture, sun-
biological factors. As is shown in Table 5.10, these factors light, wind, and rain, which mainly includes the auxiliary
are related to each other and affect one another. structures, such as the blocks, deck structure, the top part of
the jacket and the living module, and the torch arm.
5.2.2.2 Corrosive Environment and Regularity The splash zone refers to the alternating wet and dry parts
of Offshore Oil Platforms of the platform due to the influence of tides, winds, and
The offshore oil platforms are used in the extremely waves, which excludes the areas that are only wetted during
demanding environment, such as the sufficient sunshine, sea heavy storms. According to the conventions of offshore
breeze, complicated seawater systems, day and night and platform design, in general, the upper boundary of the splash
seasonal temperature changes, and marine organism erosion. zone is located at the position of 2/3 average wave height
The seawater is a strong electrolyte solution. The seawater above the designed high tide level, while the lower boundary
within 200 m from the sea level is saturated with oxygen in is located at the position of 1/3 average wave height of the
the air due to the good aeration. The seawater shows great designed low tide level. It primarily includes the jackets,
oxygen depolarization corrosion for almost all the metal cable guards, water conduits, pump casings, and landing
materials. In addition, the chloridion in seawater can speed stairs within the area.
Table 5.10 Factors affecting Chemical factors Physical factors Biological factors
corrosion in seawater
Dissolved gas Flow speed Fouling organism
Algae
Oxygen Barnacles and other attached
animals
Carbon dioxide Bubble Life of plants in the sea
Chemical equilibrium Suspended solids in Oxygen production
seawater
Salt content Impact and scratch Carbon dioxide
consumption
Temperature Life of animals in the sea
(Chloride, bromide and iodide, sulfate, Pressure Oxygen consumption
magnesium ion, etc.)
pH value Wind power Carbon dioxide generated
Carbonate dissolution status Life of microbes in the sea
Hydrogen sulfide generated
Organic acids generated
Marine atmospheric zone

The average high tide line in the splash zone
Tidal range zone
Average low tide line in the seawater full
immersion zone
Submarine soil area
Corrosion rate
Regional division
The platform structure is above the splash zone
of the sea surface
The area of alternative dry and wet on the
platform above the high tide.
The alternative dry and wet area in the rising
tide and the falling tide, the area from the high
tide to the low tide.
The part of the offshore platform above the sea
mud in the low water level
The areas surrounded by the submarine
sediments
Atmospheric zone
Splash zone
Tidal zone
Full immersion area
Mud line
Fig. 5.27 Schematic diagram of corrosion zone divisions and typical corrosion curve of steel structure on the offshore platforms
598 B. Hou
The full immersion zone is the part below the splash zone cannot be the film attached to the surface. The process is
of the platform, which is located in the underwater or sea continuously cycled along with the changes of conditions,
mud for a long period. It primarily includes the auxiliary including the atmospheric humidity, temperature, salt con-
structures in the seawater, such as the jacket structure, piles, tent, etc., which leads to the continuous corrosion of the steel
drilling foundation plate, and water blocking pipe as well as structure in the atmospheric environment of the marine
the piles and risers penetrated in the sea mud. environment.
The corrosion of the steel structures on the offshore oil The resistance of the corroded microbattery increases
platforms in the marine environment is very serious, the remarkably and the range of the microbattery functions
corrosion degree of which is quite different in each zone. In under the thin liquid film layer is small. Therefore, the splash
particular, the corrosion in the splash zone is the most zone and the full immersion zone have relatively even cor-
serious. Please refer to Fig. 5.28 for the relationship between rosive forms of atmospheric corrosion, which is presented
the marine area and the corrosion rate where the steel is mainly by uniform corrosion. Generally speaking, the cor-
located. rosion rate in the steel structure exposed for a long time in
the atmospheric zone is gradually slowing down. On the one
5.2.2.3 Corrosion Mechanism and Characteristics hand, the thickening of the rust layer may cause the increase
of Offshore Oil Platforms of resistance of the rust layer and the difficulty of oxygen
infiltration; on the other hand, the internal layers of some
1. Corrosion Mechanism and Characteristics of the Atmo- rust layers with better adhesion will reduce the active anode
spheric Zone area and increase the anodic polarization, which finally
slows down the corrosion rate.
The steel structure above the splash zone on the sea surface
has the complicated structure, which has the faster corrosion 2. Corrosion Mechanism and Characteristics of the Splash
rate due to the factors of sunshine, wind and rain, ice and Zone
snow and salt spray with high concentration, etc. In general,
the corrosion on the night surface is much more serious than The steel structure on the offshore oil platforms is located at
that in the sunny side. The reasons are because the night the part between the rising tide and the falling tide and eh
surface has the great humidity, which makes the dust and salt part that the seawater splash can reach. This is the part that is
on the surface difficult to be washed away by the rainwater. the most corrosive in the marine steel structure. The seri-
The corrosion in the lower part near the seawater is much ousness of the corrosion on the platform is caused by harsh
more serious than that of the upper part. The corrosion rate environment, such as the sunshine, oxygen-rich spray spla-
will be further increased if there is SO2 in the marine shes and impacts, alternating wet and dry during the rising
atmosphere. The corrosion in the tropical environment is and falling tides, impacts and erosion of floating objects on
stronger than that of the temperate environment. the sea surface, corrosion of seawater electrolytes, and pol-
The corrosion in the atmospheric zone of the marine lution of petrochemicals. For example, the actually measured
environment is mainly caused by the moisture, salt, and corrosion rate in the splash zone of the Bohai Sea offshore
oxygen in the air. With great atmospheric humidity and platform is 0.45 mm/a, with many corrosion pits of a depth
long-time sunshine, the salt particles and salt spray in the of over 2 mm. The larger losses will inevitably lead to great
atmosphere are accumulated in the surface of the structure to influence on the mechanical performance of the platforms.
form the liquid film and constitute the conditions of elec- The corrosion in the splash zone is primarily caused by
trochemical corrosion. The existence of the electrolyte two points, namely, the mechanical impact and wear of the
membrane with saturated oxygen on the surface of the steel waves and floating objects and the accelerated corrosion due
structure makes the oxygen diffusion much easier than that to the wetting of the continuously oxygen-rich seawater on
in the full immersion state. This makes the cathode process the surface of the steel components, the thin films generated
in the electrochemical process of atmospheric corrosion be on the surface of the oxygen-rich seawater as well as the
transferred from the hydrogen depolarization to oxygen alternation of wet and dry, high and low temperature. During
depolarization (O2 + 2H2O + 4e = 4OH−). The anode pro- the process of alternative dry and wet in the splash zone, the
cess of atmospheric corrosion will be greatly retarded. The cathode current of steel is much greater than that in the
anode passivation and the difficulty of iron ion hydration seawater. The cathode reaction of steel in the seawater is the
process are the main reasons for resulting in the anodic reduction reaction of dissolved oxygen. The steel in the
polarization. In the corrosion process, first the red rust is splash zone makes the cathode current larger due to the
formed, which is easy to be fallen off because such substance function of the rust layer itself. After the drying process of
Marine atmospheric zone

The average high tide line in the splash zone
Tidal range zone
Average low tide line in the seawater full
immersion zone
Submarine soil area
Corrosion rate
Regional division
The platform structure is above the splash zone
of the sea surface
The area of alternative dry and wet on the
platform above the high tide.
The alternative dry and wet area in the rising
tide and the falling tide, the area from the high
tide to the low tide.
The part of the offshore platform above the sea
mud in the low water level
The areas surrounded by the submarine
sediments
Atmospheric zone
Splash zone
Tidal zone
Full immersion area
Mud line
Fig. 5.28 Relationship between the ocean area where the steel is located and the corrosion rate
600 B. Hou
the steel in the splash zone, the surface rust layer acts in the to the formation of block battery type. The corrosion in the
wetting process as the strong oxidant. However, the Fe2 in tidal range zone is much lighter than that of the splash zone.
the rust layer is oxidized to Fe3+ in the drying process due to In consideration of the reasons including the construction
the air oxidation. The repeated processes above have and maintenance of the anticorrosion protection measures, it
accelerated the corrosion of the steel. is generally required to combine the consideration of the
With the analysis of the corrosion data and microstructure splash zone and the tidal range zone. The protective mea-
of carbon steel in the splash zone, it shows that the carbon sures shall meet the anticorrosion protection requirements in
steel has a height with the maximum corrosion value. The both the splash zone and the tidal range zone as well.
rust layers formed by the carbon steel are relatively loose
with many voids and cracks, which cannot form the pro- 4. Corrosion Mechanism and Characteristics of Full
tective rust layer and the corrosion is relatively serious. The Immersion Zone
environmental factor for the most serious corrosion in the
splash zone is the large salt content, the long water film As located in the complex seawater electrolyte environment,
residence time and the high alternative dry and wet fre- the full immersion zone has the high water temperature,
quency; the inner factor is the reduction action of the rust almost saturated oxygen, strong biological activity, and oil
layer, which is generally the Fe3O4/FeOOH. When the leakage pollution. It is the most serious corrosion part under
external humidity reduces, the rust layer and the local battery the water. The part under the surface has relatively small
of the base steel form an open circuit and the anodic reaction oxygen content with little plant and animal pollution.
occurs at the Fe/Fe3O4 interface: Fe Fe2+ + 2e; the cathodic However, the water temperature is low, the pressure is high,
reaction occurs at the Fe3O4/FeOOH interface: 6FeOOH + and the corrosion is relatively high. In general, the corrosion
2e 2Fe3O4 + 2H2O + 2OH−; the cathode current is is caused by the electrolyte in the seawater.
increased to depolarize the cathode and accelerate the The corrosion rate of the submerged part of the seawater
corrosion. in the full immersion zone is generally 0.1–0.2 mm/a, while
The corrosion situation of alloy steel hanging pieces of the buried part of the sea mud is the least corrosive part of
the low-carbon steel in the sea area of Qingdao shows that the marine environment due to the lack of oxygen.
after 8 years, the hanging pieces form a thick brown rust The steel structure is corroded in the seawater of the full
layer in the surface of the low-carbon steel in the splash zone immersion area due to the impact of the dissolved oxygen
with the thickness of over 6 mm. The corrosion rate drops and the electrochemical corrosion is formed. This makes
along with the extension of the exposure time, which is some parts (anode) with high potentials in the structure
about 0.12–0.16 mm/a. In addition, the serious corrosive corroded while some parts (cathode) with low potentials
pitting and ulcer corrosion are formed, with the 1-year lar- protected. There are the following characteristics in the
gest pitting depth of 0.68–0.94 mm. The corrosion of electrochemical process of corrosion in the seawater:
stainless steel is relatively light in the splash zone, which is
because the zone has good aeration to make the surface of (1) The chloridion and other halogen ions in the seawater
the stainless steel form a passive film. The corrosion of the can prevent and destroy the metal passivation, which
stainless steel with chromium is relatively light in the splash makes the anode process of seawater corrosion much
zone of the sea area of Qingdao. Among them, the crevice easier.
corrosion is more serious than pitting corrosion. The largest (2) Oxygen is the cathode depolarizer of seawater corro-
pitting depth after exposure for 8 a is between 0.14 and sion. The cathode process is the control link of corro-
0.22 mm and the largest crevice corrosion depth is between sion reaction.
0.25 and 0.48 mm. (3) Due to the small resistive retardation of the seawater
corrosion, the contact between different metals can
3. Corrosion Mechanism and Characteristics of Tidal Range cause significant corrosion effects. The oxygen content
Zone in the sea mud of the full immersion zone plays a sig-
nificant role in the corrosion of sea mud. Due to the
The metal surface of the tidal range zone often contacts with difficulty of the oxygen in the sea mud, the corrosion rate
the seawater with oxygen and the tides and currents lead to in the sea mud is much smaller than that of the seawater
the alternative dry and wet on the surface of the metal. In and atmosphere. However, the nonuniformity of the sea
addition, the area is attached with marine organisms, with mud in the surroundings of the steel components leads to
the local protection function of the low-carbon steel. How- the difference of hundreds of teams in the oxygen con-
ever, it will lead to local corrosion on the stainless steel due tent in the sea mud. In the sea mud with the large
Table 5.11 Classification of Corrosion-resistant Metallic Black metal Cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless
corrosion-resistant materials material material steel
commonly used
Nonferrous Al and its alloys, Mg and its alloys, Ag and
metal its alloys
Ni and its alloys, Ti and its alloys, Ag and
its alloys
Rare metal Pt, Au, Ru, Rh, Pd, Zr, Hf, Ir, rare earth,
etc.
Nonmetallic Inorganic Carbon system: graphite, glassy carbon,
material nonmetallic carbon fiberglass reinforced plastic, etc.
materials Silicate system: glass, ceramics, cement
(concrete)
Organic Plastic: thermoplastic, thermoset plastic
nonmetallic Rubber: natural rubber, synthetic rubber
materials
Coating
difference of oxygen content, the steel structure will lead In the submarine mud area or polluted sea areas, the
to the oxygen concentration battery corrosion. sulfate-reducing bacteria has the greatest danger, which
makes the sulfate reduce to the hydrogen sulfide and other
5.2.2.4 Corrosion and Protection of Various sulfides with high corrosion so that the steel corrosion is
Materials in Marine Environment accelerated. Due to the very high alkalinity of the cement,
the contact of the fresh cement with the steel will be helpful
1. Classification of Corrosion-Resistant Materials Com- to the corrosion prevention; the addition of a small amount
monly Used of P, Cu, Cr, Al, and other elements in the steel will improve
the corrosion resistance substantially.
Please refer to Table 5.11 for the classification of the com-
monly used corrosion-resistant materials. (2) Stainless steel
2. Materials with Marine Corrosion Resistance Performance The corrosion resistance of the stainless steel mainly
depends on its chromium content. The chromium reacts with
(1) Carbon steel the oxygen quickly to form a chromium oxide film, which
can effectively prevent the further corrosion of oxygen. The
As an iron–carbon alloy with the carbon content of less than nickel in the stainless steel can improve the acid and cor-
1.7%, the carbon steel is classified into four categories: rosion resistance of stainless steel.
industrial pure iron with the carbon content of less than
0.04%, the low-carbon steel with the carbon content of 0.04– (3) Copper and copper base alloy
0.25%, the medium carbon steel with the carbon content of
0.25–0.6%, and the high carbon steel with the carbon con- In the marine environment, the copper and copper base alloy
tent of greater than 0.6%. have the common types of corrosion, including uniform
The corrosion of the steel in the seawater or in the actual corrosion, corrosive pitting, crevice corrosion, and
working environment is influenced by many factors, and component-selective corrosion (such as brass dezincifica-
therefore the corrosion rate of the same steel in different tion, white copper de-nickeling). Moreover, the stress cor-
environments is quite different from each other. The corro- rosion and corrosion fatigue can occur as well.
sion in the seawater of the same area is quite different on the The copper and copper alloy have the better pitting and
different parts of the embedded steel piles. The splash zone crevice corrosion resistance performances in the seawater.
has the most serious corrosion, which has the sufficient Among them, the white copper is one of the best types of
oxygen supply and strong oxygen depolarization action. It is copper alloy that is resistant to the seawater corrosion. The
easy for the spray to impact and damage the protective film. copper and copper base alloy have the resistance capability
The steel is also corroded by the organisms in the seawater. to biological contamination.
602 B. Hou
(4) Nickel and nickel base alloys resistance has resulted from the excellent self-passivation.
When it is damaged to some extent, the oxide film or pas-
With excellent corrosion resistance, the pure nickel itself still sivation film on the surface can be mended rapidly.
has the same possibility of corrosive pitting, just like the
stainless steel. In the nickel base alloys, Monel, Hastelloy C, (7) Other crystalline metals
and Inconel are the best structural materials for marine
corrosion resistance. With excellent corrosion resistance in Lead: It is not easily corroded by the seawater. The corrosion
the marine atmosphere, the nickel and nickel base alloys can rate is less than 25 lm/a. If the anticorrosive primer and
still maintain metallic luster even they are exposed for 20 a. antifouling paint are coated on the surface, the corrosion
In the full immersion areas, the corrosion resistance is still resistance of the lead will be better.
excellent. There is a possibility of intergranular corrosion in Welded alloys: Whatever kind of welded alloy to be used,
the weld zone; however, the low-carbon alloys and silver soldering flux must be carefully erased after the welding
alloys can prevent the crevice corrosion. because any combination action of one kind of flux and the
seawater will accelerate the corrosion.
(5) Aluminum and marine-grade aluminum
(8) Amorphous alloy
The anti-rust aluminum has good corrosion resistance in
marine tidal range zone; the industrial pure aluminum and As the new material, the amorphous structure of the amor-
wrought aluminum have poor corrosion resistance; the alu- phous alloy is the thermodynamic metastable structure. The
minum coating layer of the hard aluminum and superhard possibility of the local corrosion is much smaller than that of
aluminum plays a role of sacrificial anode, which protects the crystalline structure. It has good corrosion resistance.
the substrate. There is little change of their corrosive pitting
depth and crevice corrosion depth along with the time. The 5.2.2.5 Typical Corrosion Cases
pitting depth exposed to 16 a is less than that of anti-rust
aluminum. In the tidal range zone of the seawater, the sea 1. Corrosion Case of Bohai Sea Pearl
biofouling has the obvious influence on the corrosion of the
aluminum alloy, which will lead to local corrosion of the It is learned from the site management and operation per-
aluminum alloy; the magnesium and manganese can elevate sonnel of the serious corrosion problems of the seawater pipe
the corrosion resistance of aluminum alloy in the tidal zone and water injection system (see Figs. 5.29 to 5.34). Among
of seawater. The silicon reduces the corrosion resistance of them, the upper parts of the internal packing layer of three
aluminum substantially and the copper damages the corro- gas filter tanks are seriously corroded, especially the parts
sion resistance of aluminum seriously. near the weld. The pressure of the seawater flow in the
pipeline is 6–10 kg/cm2. The hydraulic lines, main lines, and
(6) Titanium and titanium alloys other exposed parts have been corroded seriously. The fire
protection, water injection, and the main deck pipelines in
As the currently known best materials for corrosion resis- the insulation layer have all been corroded. The living areas
tance in the ambient temperature, the titanium and titanium of the seawater pipelines have been replaced five times and
alloys have the best corrosion resistance even though they the fire hydrant has been rusted and damaged. Afterward, the
are in the polluted seawater, hot seawater (<120 °C), sea special bolt with the copper materials was produced and the
mud, and flowing seawater. The excellent corrosion contact surface was insulated with nylon materials. The
Fig. 5.29 Severe corrosion of

pipe sections, flanges, and rafts in
the insulation layer of the deck
operation area of Bohai Sea Pearl
Fig. 5.30 Repair welding at both ends of the horizontal branch pipes Fig. 5.32 Galvanic corrosion of stainless steel pipes and carbon steel
Fig. 5.31 External corrosion of the bilge pipelines in the bottom tank
Fig. 5.33 Valve corrosion in heat medium oil line
of the Bohai Sea Pearl
high-pressure seawater of the welding ports and fire pumps

were also corroded seriously. It cannot be maintained for a
long time after the welding (Figs. 5.30, 5.31, 5.32 and 5.33).
It can be seen from the site observation that the corrosion
of the pipe wall in the insulation layer is universal and
uniform form. The flanges and valves connected between
them are significantly corroded. The hydraulic pipe outside
the bumper is seriously corroded and the pipeline valves,
flanges, and bolts are greatly damaged and difficult to use;
the corrosion inside the insulation layer is serious.
2. Corrosion Case of CPOE-9 Platform
Since it has been in service for a long period in the

high-temperature, high-humidity, and high-salt-spray envi- Fig. 5.34 Corrosion groove ring at the valve and deck contact in the
ronment, as shown in Figs. 5.35, 5.36, 5.37, 5.38 and 5.39, the heat medium oil line
CPOE-9 Platform was seriously corroded in a short period.
604 B. Hou
Fig. 5.35 Hull corrosion
Fig. 5.36 Corrosion of the main

deck
Fig. 5.37 Corrosion in the cabin
5.2.3 Corrosion Prevention Methods of Offshore The corrosion prevention methods for offshore platforms
Platforms include ① coating protection method, ② cathodic protec-
tion method, ③ metal spray coating + coating protection
5.2.3.1 Overview of Corrosion Prevention method, ④ inorganic coating method, and ⑤
Methods Commonly Used corrosion-resistant metal protection method.
Compared with the ships, the offshore platforms have the It is required to consider the following factors in order to
biggest characteristic, that is, the structures to be protected choose the corrosion prevention methods: ① corrosive
are complicated with huge volume. It is suffered from the environment (atmospheric zone, splash zone, tidal range
corrosion of the marine environment with difficult mainte- zone, flooded zone, or seabed mud zone); ② sea zone
nance and repairing, which is high in costs. This proposes conditions (sea conditions, meteorological conditions, sea-
harsh requirements for the protection of the offshore plat- water, and attachment situation of marine organisms); ③
forms. In general, the service life to be protected is required service life; ④ adaptability to the shape and location of the
to be more than 10–20 years. engineering structure; ⑤ the possibility of regular repairing
Fig. 5.38 Corrosion of

freshwater and seawater pipelines
in the engine room
and maintenance; ⑥ construction technology of corrosion aluminum + thick film epoxy, zinc galvanized or alu-
prevention engineering; ⑦ economy, etc. minum + thick film epoxy resin); characteristics:
Types and characteristics of corrosion prevention meth- Although the metal spraying as the base course of the
ods of underwater steel structure: corrosion prevention is different with the coating, its
characteristics are the same as those of coating; when
(1) Coating (the thick film inorganic zinc-rich coat- the coating film is damaged, the durability of aluminum
ing + thick film tar epoxy, thick film inorganic spraying is much better.
zinc-rich coating + thick film epoxy, thick film inor- (3) Organic coating (tar epoxy, epoxy, polyester, poly-
ganic zinc-rich coating + thick film ethylene); charac- ethylene, neoprene); characteristics: the reinforced
teristics: the thick film coating is applied to increase the coating with the glass fiber, polyester, and other mate-
durability, with the low construction cost, which is easy rials is good; if both the thick film inorganic zinc and
to repair and recoat; the recoating can be carried out in aluminum spray are used simultaneously as primer
the alternative dry and wet zones by using the under- treatment, the corrosion resistance will be greatly
water hardening tar epoxy, wet surface with tar epoxy, improved; if the adhesive of the neoprene coating is
etc. At present, although the color of the thick film used improperly, the durability will be reduced.
inorganic zinc + tar epoxy series is limited to black, the (4) Inorganic coating (cement mortar and cement concrete);
corrosion prevention performance is excellent. characteristics: the minor cracks are generated due to
(2) Metal spraying + coating (spray galvanized or alu- the drying shrinkage and external force. At the same
minum + thick film tar epoxy, zinc galvanized or time, the corrosion resistance is poor at the time of
606 B. Hou
The iron wire plug is poor in quality, so it is corroded in

about one month.
The fuel injector on the main engine is corroded by high
water-containing sulfur-containing diesel.
The cooling water tank on the main engine is corroded in
the high-humidity and high-temperature environment.
In general, the leak points have appeared in less than
two months on the stainless steel pipeline of seawater
desalination equipment.
The well pump diesel engine placed in the open air
Electromagnetic valve
Fig. 5.39 Equipment corrosion
piling. The mixture and fiber are mixed and the syn- (5) Cathodic protection; characteristics: it is required to
thetic resin is used to replace the steel and cement. This combine the methods of coating and other corrosion
is the improvement measures to be considered at pre- prevention methods. Currently, the coating method is
sent. It is of great importance to ensure the uniformity mainly used for the protective measures of the steel
and thickness. structure in the marine atmospheric zone and the splash
zone. However, the coating performance at present cross-linked and solidified. Two advantages: one is the
cannot satisfy the requirements of the service life of the epoxy resins with the molecular weight of about 1,000
marine engineering, and therefore a certain amount of which provide the good toughness and the second one is the
corrosion allowance is necessary to be added when the more hydroxyl groups which improve the adhesion force of
thickness of the steel structure is designed. The cathodic the coating film to the substrate. However, there is a dis-
protection alone or the combination protective measures advantage of the early epoxy anticorrosive coatings, which is
of the coating layer and cathodic protection can be used that the solid content is low (40–45%). The thickness of the
in the full immersion zone. After the survey on the one-time film is only 50–75 lm.
protective methods used in the full immersion zone on It is a kind of progress to apply the inorganic zinc silicate
the offshore platforms, the results were the use of the coatings to the heavy-duty anticorrosive coating filed of the
shop primer + cathodic protection method took up 44% early offshore platforms. It can slow down the filamentous
and the use of the coating layer + cathodic protection corrosion and long-term corrosion under the membrane.
method took up 56%. The high-performance coatings With the inorganic zinc silicate coating as the base coating,
are used in the full immersion zone in order to improve the multilayered coating system with the thermoplastic resin
the service life and the film thickness is increased on the coating as the topcoat achieved great success at that time,
basis of the service life. which has been applied for 30–40 years. So far, this system
has still been used by some offshore platforms. In the splash
5.2.3.2 Coating Corrosion Prevention of Offshore zone and the full immersion zone of the offshore platforms,
Oil Platform the most commonly used in the early period is the epoxy
coal tar pitch with the thickness of the dry film of 300–
1. Development History of Marine Coating Corrosion 500 lm. Moreover, the vinyl coatings are also applied in
Prevention Technology these areas.
In the 1970s, the heavy-duty anticorrosive coatings of the
Since the 1940s, the heavy-duty anticorrosive coatings of offshore platforms have achieved great progress due to the
offshore platforms have started to be applied in the Gulf of development of oil in the North Sea. The inorganic zinc
Mexico. The high-performance industrial anticorrosive silicate coatings have been replaced by the epoxy zinc-rich
coatings were widely used in the USA at that time, mainly slowly because of the too harsh requirements for the surface
including vinyl coatings, epoxy/amine coatings, and chlori- processing; in the splash zone and full immersion zone of
nated rubber coatings. offshore platforms, the epoxy mortar is applied more and
The vinyl coatings are the most widely used type of more widely; the modified chlorinated rubber, polyurethane,
anticorrosion for the marine platforms at the early period. and acrylic coatings have also appeared and applied. It can
With the high relative molecular weight of the resin, the be said that the heavy-duty anticorrosive coatings of the
coatings have good stability and durability. The adhesion offshore platforms have developed into the prototype of
force of the coating can be improved by increasing the modern coating systems since the 1970s.
hydroxyl content of the resin and the water resistance of the It is the development direction of the marine engineering
coating can be increased by adding the chlorine content. anticorrosive coatings to develop the high-performance and
However, the existing problem was that the solid content of environmentally friendly coatings in the twenty-first century
the vinyl coating is as low as about 20% only, which meant due to the intensification of the global environmental pro-
that the one coating is difficult to get the higher dry film tection. The following aspects are the focus on the
thickness. The dry film thickness obtained by each coating is improvement of the anticorrosive performance, environ-
not more than 50 lm. It is required to carry out multiple mental protection, occupational health, and safety indicators
coatings in order to obtain the relatively ideal dry film of the coatings:
thickness (250–300 lm) of the anticorrosive results. This
will lead to the increase in the construction costs. Mean- (1) More reasonable long-term protection; the service life
while, too low contents of solid volume still led to the high of the coatings is required to be longer due to the dif-
volatile organic compound (VOC). With the development of ficulty of the offshore engineering maintenance.
the times, the vinyl coatings used earlier are rarely used due (2) The high solids and thick film coating are the effective
to the restrictions of HSE though the stability of the atmo- ways to improve corrosion resistance, which will reduce
sphere, corrosion, and thermal stress is good. the environmental hazards. However, it is required to
The epoxy resins with the size of the medium molecular improve the existing problems, such as sagging, level-
weight are adopted in the early epoxy anticorrosive coating ing, defoaming, and attachment.
systems. The low molecular weight aliphatic amines are
608 B. Hou
(3) The new materials and technologies are developed to protection function. Either two epoxy-scale intermedi-
suit the different corrosive environments, such as the ate coatings and two epoxy-scale topcoat coating sys-
fluororesin cured at room temperature, and tems, or the coating system with two epoxy zinc-rich
silicone-modified acrylic acid. In addition, the anti-rust primers as the base coating, four epoxy asphalt paints as
pigments and fillers with low pollution and high per- the medium coating and one epoxy mortar as the top-
formance are developed and applied. coat can be used.
(4) The performance testing and evaluation methods of (3) Underwater full immersion zone: The pile legs under the
anticorrosive coatings are improved, and the research platform waterline are located in the full immersion zone.
cycle of coatings is shortened. In general, it is required to adopt the anticorrosive mea-
(5) The decorative and functional requirements are sures with the coating and the cathodic protection. The
improved to develop toward the direction of multi- coating should be with the good seawater immersion
functional special coatings. resistance and potential resistance. Previously, the best
application results were the supporting system made up
2. Anticorrosion Status of Offshore Oil Equipment Coatings of the inorganic zinc-rich primer, epoxy intermediate
paint, and thick coated epoxy coal bituminous coating.
Currently, different heavy-duty anticorrosive coating systems Currently, the heavy-duty anticorrosive coatings without
are adopted by the marine oil equipment according to the tar are more and more widely applied in the anticorrosion
characteristics and requirements of different corrosion areas. of the zone. Meanwhile, the long-lasting antifouling
coatings are used to effectively reduce and prevent the
(1) Marine atmospheric zone: The part above the platform attachment and corrosion of marine organisms. The new
deck is the marine atmospheric zone. It is required to antifouling paints without the organic tin and other toxic
have the excellent atmospheric aging resistance and substances have begun to be applied.
salt-resistant sediments in the coatings of the marine
atmospheric zone. The good impact, abrasion, and slip 3. Anticorrosive Coating Supporting System of Marine Oil
resistance performance shall be provided on the paint of Equipment
the deck. The inorganic zinc-rich primer, epoxy
zinc-rich primer, or epoxy cloud iron thick primer can The anticorrosive coating system of the offshore platforms
be adopted as the primer generally; the chlorinated should be selected according to the relevant standards.
rubber, vinyl, epoxy, acrylic, or polyurethane topcoat The NACE SP0108—2008 presents the reference system for
can be adopted as the top coating. the new and repair coatings in different areas of marine
In the coating system of the marine atmospheric zone, carbon steel facilities.
the supporting system is made up of the Please refer to Table 5.12 for the new and repair coating
inorganic/epoxy zinc-rich primer, epoxy cloud iron systems in the atmospheric zone in NACE SP0108—2008.
intermediate coat, and the polyurethane topcoat, which Please refer to Table 5.13 for the new and repair coating
has the prominent performances including the atmo- systems in the splash zone of NACE SP0108—2008.
spheric aging resistance, petrochemical resistance, easy Please refer to Table 5.14 for the new and repair coating
cleaning, etc. In addition, the good appearance can be systems in the underwater zone of NACE SP0108—2008.
maintained for a long time. Good protection results
have been achieved by the system in the offshore oil 5.2.3.3 Cathodic Protection of Offshore Oil
platforms of the global multiple sea areas, which is the Platforms
most commonly used and the most important support- There are two kinds in the cathodic protection system,
ing coating system in the marine atmospheric zone. namely, the sacrificial anode protection and impressed current
(2) The tidal range splash zone: The splash zone is the protection. There is one ideal characteristic in the sacrificial
alternative part of wet and dry on the platform due to anodes, that is, the protection can be effective upon the plat-
the influence of tides, winds, and waves. The steel form placed in the seawater. However, the impressed current
structure in the zone is suffered from the most serious cathodic protection system cannot provide the protection
corrosion and mechanical damage by the oxygen-rich before the power is turned on. The sacrificial anodes have one
sea waves and splashes, alternative wet and dry, and the shortcoming, that is, the anodes may lose the protection due to
impact and wear of the surface floats. The coatings used premature consumption, large quality and mechanical dam-
in this area should have the best comprehensive ages and falling down and the update costs are huge.
Table 5.12 Coating system and repair coating system of new carbon steel facilities in the atmospheric zone
Environment Coating sequence Coating system Thickness of dry film/lm
New CN-1 atmospheric zone –50–120 °C 1 Zinc-rich primer 50–75
2 Epoxy coating 125–175
3 Polyurethane coating 50–75
3 Epoxy primer 50–75
CN-2 atmospheric zone 120–150 °C 1 Inorganic zinc-rich primer 50–75
without insulation
2 Acrylic silicone coating 25–50
CN-3 atmospheric zone 120–150 °C with 1 Epoxy phenolic coating 100–125
insulation
2 Epoxy phenolic coating 100–125
New CN-4 atmospheric zone 150–450 °C 1 Inorganic zinc-rich primer coating 50–75
2 Silicone coating 25–50
CN-5 Deck, aisle with relatively light 1 Zinc-rich primer coating 50–75
anticorrosion requirements, or medium
2 High solid epoxy coating 125–175
parts
3 Epoxy anti-skid coating 125–175
1 Epoxy primer coating 125–175
CN-6 Deck, aisle with relatively high 1 Zinc-rich primer coating 50–75
anticorrosion requirements
4 Polyurethane safety marking coating 50–75
1 Epoxy primer coating 125–175
Repair CM-1 Seawater cooling pipe 1 Underwater curing epoxy coating 350–750
CM-2 atmospheric zone –50–120 °C 1 Epoxy primer coating 125–175
1 Organic zinc-rich primer coating 50–75
1 Moisture curing polyurethane primer 75–125
2 Moisture cured polyurethane coating 75–125
3 Moisture cured polyurethane coating 75–125
CM-3 atmospheric zone 120–150 °C 1 Epoxy phenolic coating 100–125
2 Epoxy phenolic coating 100–125
1 Silicon-based HB coating 100–200
CM-4 atmospheric zone 150–450 °C 1 Silicone coating 25–50
(continued)
610 B. Hou

Environment Coating sequence Coating system Thickness of dry film/lm
CM-5 Deck, aisle with relatively light 1 Epoxy primer coating 125–175
anticorrosion requirements, or medium
parts
1 Nonslip HB epoxy coating Owner’s specification
CM-6 Deck, aisle with relatively high 1 Epoxy primer coating 200–250
anticorrosion requirements
1 Nonslip HB epoxy coating Owner’s specification
Table 5.13 New coating system and repair coating system of carbon steel facilities in splash zone
Environment Coating sequence Coating system Thickness of dry film (lm)
New CN-7 splash zone <60 °C 1 Epoxy glass flake coating 450–550 lm
2 Epoxy glass flake coating 450–550 lm
1 Primer 25–50 lm
2 Adhesive 25–50 lm
3 Neoprene 6–13 mm
CN-8 splash zone >70 °C and <100°C 1 Primer 25–50 lm
3 Neoprene 6–13 mm
CN-9 splash zone >100 °C and <130°C 1 Primer 25–50 lm
3 Olefin copolymer rubber 6–13 mm
Repair CM-7 splash zone <60 °C 1 Epoxy primer 125–175 lm
1 Surface resistant epoxy coating 300–2,000 lm
Underwater curing epoxy primer Owner’s specification
Fiberglass jacket
Table 5.14 New coating system and repair coating system of carbon steel facilities in the underwater zone
Environment Coating sequence Coating system Thickness of dry film (lm)
New CN-10 underwater zone <60 °C 1 High solid epoxy coating 150–200
New 2 Corner retention coating
3 High solid epoxy coating
Repair CM-8 underwater zone <60 °C 1 Underwater curing epoxy coating 500–1,000
Repair
1. Sacrificial anode protection for offshore platforms poorly distributed structure and the insufficient number of
the anodes will lead to the inadequate protection at the
(1) Characteristics: The impressed current power supply is welded joints.
not necessary, but the sacrificial anode materials must
have the sufficiently negative potential and the elec- 2. Impressed Current Protection for Offshore Platforms
trochemical performance of the negative potential
should be maintained for a long time. (1) Characteristics: It is required to have the perennial DC
(2) Advantages: ① The one-time investment is low in costs power supply and the long-life auxiliary anode
and there is no need to pay the maintenance costs grounded.
during the process of operation; the utilization rate of (2) Advantages: ① The high driving voltage can control
the protection current is high and will not lead to the the output of the cathodic protection current in a wider
overprotection; ② there is no disturbing influence on range flexibly; ② it can be applied in the harsh corro-
the neighboring underground metal facilities. It is sive conditions or the environment with high resistivity;
suitable for the long-distance pipelines in the plant and ③ the long-term cathodic protection can be carried out
without power supply and the small-scale distributed by selecting the insoluble or slightly soluble auxiliary
pipeline protection; ③ with both the grounding and anodes; ④ the full cathodic protection can be realized
protection functions; ④ the construction technology is on the pipes exposed or the pipes with poor quality of
simple and easy. There is no need of special profes- the anticorrosive coatings.
sional maintenance and management. (3) Shortcomings: ① The one-time investment is high in
(3) Shortcomings: ① The regulation range of the protec- costs. In addition, it is required to pay the electricity
tion current is narrow due to the low driving potential; costs during the operation process; ② the strict pro-
② in the interference zone with strong stray current, the fessional maintenance management is required during
anode performance may be reversed, especially the AC the operation process of the cathodic protection system;
interference; ③ the useful year of the effective cathodic ③ the external power supply is necessary. The peren-
protection is restricted by the service life of the sacri- nial power supply is required; and ④ the interference
ficial anodes, which is required to be replaced on a function may be caused to the neighboring metal
regular basis. structures.
(4) Classification: The suspended anode method, fixed
It is required to choose and use the design of the cathodic anode method, and far anode method. ① Suspended
protection scheme according to their respective characteris- anode method: The suspended anode method can be
tics, advantages and disadvantages, actual needs, external used in the shallow sea platforms, that is, the auxiliary
conditions, and funding indicators of the impressed current anodes are suspended from the platform with the cables,
protection and the sacrificial anode protection. The magne- making the auxiliary anodes located at each position
sium alloy, zinc alloy, and aluminum alloy are mainly with different depths within the platform. The best
adopted for the sacrificial anode materials. The electric current distribution can be provided and the platform
capacity of the aluminum alloy anodes is 3.6 times of the can be better protected. It is required to fasten the
zinc alloy, but the price is 30% cheaper. Therefore, the anodes on the structure due to the complicated structure
aluminum alloy has the lower installation costs and con- at the place with the water depth of less than 30 m. Or
sumption volume lower than that of the zinc alloy. The zinc the anodes are suspended through the jacket. The cables
alloy anodes were used in the subsea pipelines and platform are within the conduit and the anodes are allowed to
columns previously, which have been gradually replaced by extend in the seawater so that the cable damages can be
the aluminum alloy anodes in recent years. For example, avoided. ② Fixed anode method: That is, the auxiliary
almost 200 platform sacrificial anode protection systems anodes are installed on the structural surface. In order to
have been installed by the Japan Nakagawa Anti-Corrosion obtain the uniform current distribution and avoid
Co., Ltd., 95% of which were aluminum alloys. With vari- overprotection near the anodes, it is required to apply
ous varieties and shapes of the sacrificial anodes, the the insulating shielding layer or adopt the
long-shaped strip anodes are adopted for the steel structure cantilever-type fixed anode.
of the offshore platforms, with the trapezoidal sections and
casted galvanized iron stands. The number of anodes 3. Method of Assessing the Cathodic Protection Effects
required is determined by the size of the surface to be pro-
tected, the anode size, and the service life. It is very (1) Minimum protection potential: For the purpose of
important for the structural distribution of the anodes. The stopping the metal corrosion, the metal must reach the
612 B. Hou
minimum negative potential value of the absolute value common method of reducing the required amount of the
after the cathodic polarization, which is called the cathodic protection current; therefore, it can reduce the
minimum protection potential. quality of the sacrificial anodes or decrease the required
amount of the current in the impressed current protection.
US NACE Standards: ① When the cathodic protection is For this reason, most of the built platforms in recent years
applied, the negative potential of the protected structure can almost adopt the excellent coating layers and the cathodic
reach at least –0.85 V or less (relative saturated copper protection method to prevent the platform corrosion.
sulfate reference electrode). ② The negative electrode
potential of the relative saturated copper sulfate reference 5.2.3.4 Typical Anticorrosive Design Cases
electrode can reach at least 850 mV. ③ The minimum for Offshore Platforms
cathodic polarization value between the structural surface
and the stable reference electrode in contact with the elec- (1) Anticorrosive Coating Case of CPOE No. 9 Platform
trolyte is at least 100 mV.
Please refer to Table 5.15 for the coating system of CPOE
(2) Maximum protection potential: The more negative the No. 9 Platform.
cathodic protection potential is, the better the protection
effects will be and the wider the single-point protection (2) Coating of Offshore Oil 941 Jack-up Drilling Ship
range will be. However, the excessive negative poten-
tial will destroy the bonding force between the anti- Please refer to Table 5.16 for the coating system of the
corrosion layer of the metal components to be protected offshore oil 941 jack-up drilling ship.
and the pipe metals, which will lead to cathodic dis-
banding and even hydrogen embrittlement. (3) Anticorrosive Design of Jidong Oilfield Platform No. 1
In the cathodic protection, it is not the case that the more The method of combining the coating anticorrosion with the
negative the cathodic protection potential value, the more cathodic protection and prevention is mainly adopted on the
conducive to the metal protection. Instead, there should be a anticorrosive Design of Jidong Oilfield No. 1 Platform. The
negative value with the maximum absolute value, which is design is carried out on the basis of the NACE RP 0176,
called the maximum protection potential. NORSOK M-501, DNV RP B401, SY/T 10008, and other
domestic and international standards.
4. Application Range Please refer to Table 5.17 for the main coating design of
Platform No. 1.
Currently, the sacrificial anode protection method is almost
applied in most of the offshore platforms and all submarine
pipelines. The reason for the unpopularity of the application 5.2.4 Standards and Specifications on Corrosion
of the impressed current protection system is mainly because Prevention of Offshore Platforms at Home
the protection is suspended due to the damages of the anode and Abroad
cables. The system protection work is out of order because
the anode cable conduit or cable connector often breaks due Please refer to Table 5.18 for the coating standards of the
to the storm and heavy waves. It is sure that the situations of offshore platforms.
loose installation of iron stands, the falling down due to Please refer to Table 5.19 for the cathodic protection
collision, or the failure due to the poor quality occur in the standards of offshore platforms.
sacrificial anode protection. Since the quantity of the
installation is large, the hazards are much smaller. In addi-
tion, the application quantity is gradually expanding due to 5.2.5 Corrosion Prevention Cost of Offshore
the advantages of the impressed current cathodic protection Platforms
system economically and technically and the continuous
improvement. 5.2.5.1 Unit Price of Primary Anticorrosive
If the cathodic protection system is damaged, whatever Coating on the Offshore Platforms
kind it is, it should be repaired promptly. However, the costs The average level of the current unit price of the anticorro-
for the underground maintenance are too high. The use of sive coatings is presented in Table 5.20 according to the
the coating in the underwater structure has become the most market survey and accumulated price database.
Table 5.15 Coating details of CPOE No. 9 platform

Serial Coating part Coating Paint type (Jordan) Color Thickness Total film
no. serial of dry film thickness
no. (lm) (lm)
External surface of the ship hull
1 Flat keel 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 170 340
epoxy paint
2 Universal wear resistant Gray 170
epoxy paint
2 Blow the waterline and above the flat 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 265 340
keel epoxy paint
2 Polyurethane elastic paint Red 75
to be coated
3 Above the full-load waterline and 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 265 340
below the deck epoxy paint
2 Polyurethane elastic paint Gray 75
to be coated
4 Main deck 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
epoxy paint
epoxy paint
3 Epoxy topcoat Green 50
5 Upper surface of aircraft platform 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
epoxy paint
epoxy paint
6 Aircraft platform underside and 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
structure epoxy paint
epoxy paint
3 Epoxy topcoat White 50
7 External surface of the cantilever 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
beam/deck cabin epoxy paint
epoxy paint
3 Epoxy topcoat Gray 50
8 External surface of the windshield 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
wall on the drilling platform epoxy paint
epoxy paint
9 External deck of cantilever beam, 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
deck on drilling platform epoxy paint
epoxy paint
10 External surface of the living area, 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
internal and external parts of the epoxy paint
windshield on the second floor of the 2 Universal wear resistant Gray 100
derrick epoxy paint
(continued)
614 B. Hou

no. (lm) (lm)
11 Living area/open deck in deck house 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
(top deck) epoxy paint
epoxy paint
12 Pile leg 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 170 340
epoxy paint
epoxy paint
Cabin interior
1 Empty cabin 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 200
epoxy paint
epoxy paint
2 Drinking tank 1 Solventless epoxy paint White 300 300
3 Mud pool 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 150 300
epoxy paint
epoxy paint
4 Mud pool room, bag compartment, 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 150 230
ash tank compartment, mud pump epoxy paint
room 2 Epoxy topcoat White 80
5 Mud pool room, bag compartment, 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 150 230
ash tank compartment, mud pump epoxy paint
room floor 2 Epoxy topcoat Green 80
6 Ballast tank, drilling tank 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 150 300
epoxy paint
epoxy paint
7 Bilge sump, sanitary tank, slop tank, 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 200
pollutant discharge tank epoxy paint
epoxy paint
8 Oil tank, fuel tank, diesel tank Maintenance with slide oil
9 Non-insulated bulkheads, roofs of 1 Epoxy paint Gray 120 200
living quarters, engine rooms, 2 Epoxy topcoat White 80
machinery/storage, and other cabins
10 Subcortical structure of upper deck in 1 Epoxy paint Gray 120 200
the cabin 2 Epoxy topcoat White 80
11 Non-insulated floors in cabins, and 1 Epoxy paint Gray 120 200
machinery/storage rooms, etc. 2 Epoxy topcoat Green 80
12 Internal insulated surface of the living 1 Epoxy paint Gray 100 100
area inside, engine room, frequency
conversion control room, etc.
13 Non-insulated bulkheads and roofs 1 Epoxy paint Gray 120 200
inside the cantilever beams 2 Epoxy topcoat White 80
14 Non-insulated floor and grate plate 1 Epoxy paint Gray 120 200
inside cantilever beams 2 Epoxy topcoat Green 80
(continued)

no. (lm) (lm)
15 Insulated cabin inside cantilever 1 Epoxy paint Gray 100 100
beams
Pipes and fittings
1 Deck, work area galvanized 1 Galvanized primer Red 35 85
ladder/grid board treads 2 Epoxy topcoat Ladder frame 50
is gray/grid
board treads
are green
2 Deck non-galvanized railing and 1 –
handrails 2 Epoxy topcoat Yellow 50
3 Whole ship deck, work area 1 Galvanized primer Red 35 85
galvanized railing, and handrails 2 Epoxy topcoat Yellow 50
(except for living area)
4 Railings and handrails outside the 1 Galvanized primer Red 35 85
living area 2 Epoxy topcoat White 50
5 Pipe brackets of main deck 1 –
6 Crane base (retaining wall in the pipe 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 100 250
rack area, movable retaining pile) epoxy paint
epoxy paint
7 Deck pipe holders of cantilever 1 –
beams 2 Epoxy topcoat Green 50
8 Fittings in the fuel tank, oil tank, Shop primer
diesel tank, drinking water tank
9 Internal surface of the general tank 1 Universal wear resistant Aluminum red 150 300
part with the carbon steel as the epoxy paint
materials 2 Universal wear resistant Gray 150
epoxy paint
10 External surface of pipes in living 1 Epoxy paint Gray 120 200
area and work area 2 Epoxy topcoat White 80
11 External surface of fire pipes 1 Epoxy paint Gray 120 170
2 Epoxy topcoat Red 50
12 Exhaust pipe High-temperature-resistant Aluminum 30 30
paint
13 External surface of indoor pipelines in Same as the environment
other closed cabins
14 Deck mooring equipment 1 –
616 B. Hou
Table 5.16 Coating system of offshore oil 941 jack-up drilling ship
Positions Coating Paint type Coating Remarks
thickness
(lm)
A. Main hull 1 Zinc-rich primer 65 Strip coating of zinc-rich epoxy
(1) from the full-load waterline to the 2 H.B. Epoxy mid-coating 100 primer implemented on the
keel (boat bottom plate) bottom of the hull
(2) Main deck, full-load waterline, 3 H.B. Epoxy surface coating (color 100
lifting elements, bracing, and TBD)
platform
B. Helicopter platform 1 Zinc-rich primer 65 Strip-shaped coating
(1) Upper level 2 H.B. Epoxy mid-coating 100 implemented on all the welds,
(2) Downside and structure edges, corners, seams, ribbed
3 H.B. Epoxy surface coating (color 100 rear, nuts and bolts
TBD)
C. Derrick base/superstructure (in the 1 Zinc-rich primer 65
drilling package) 2 H.B. Modified epoxy mid-coating 100
(1) Drill floor, base, and cantilever
beam 3 H.B. Modified epoxy surface 100
(2) Deck bulkhead coating (color TBD)
(3) Deck roof or deck
(4) Windshield wall around the drill
floor (external) in the winch chamber
(5) External surface of the living area
E. Pile leg 1 Zinc-rich primer 65
2 H.B. Modified epoxy mid-coating 100
3 H.B. Modified epoxy surface 100
coating (color TBD)
F. Joints, pipelines, ventilated trunks, 1 Zinc-rich primer 65
hatches, etc. of the external decks 2 H.B. Modified epoxy mid-coating 100
coating (color TBD)
G. Cooling tower/crane base (on the 1 Zinc-rich primer 65
main deck)/railing 2 H.B. Epoxy mid-coating 100
3 H.B. Epoxy surface coating (color 100
TBD)
H. Empty cabin 1 Modified epoxy paint 150 Strip-shaped coating
2 Modified epoxy paint 150 implemented on all welds, edges,
corners, seams, ribbed rear, nuts,
I. Drinking water tank 1 Pure epoxy paint 100 and bolts
2 Pure epoxy paint 100
3 Pure epoxy paint 100
J. Mud pool (active, spare) 1 Modified epoxy paint 150
2 Modified epoxy paint 150
K. Mud pool room, bulk chamber, 1 Zinc-rich primer 65
mud treatment room, mud pump 2 H.B. Modified epoxy mid-coating 100
room
coating (The deck is gray)
L. Machinery/storage room 1 H.B. Modified epoxy mid-coating 125
(1) Bulkhead and roof 2 H.B. Modified epoxy surface 125
coating
(2) Deck (internal/external hatch 1 H.B. Modified epoxy mid-coating 100
coaming) 2 H.B. Modified epoxy surface 100
coating
(continued)

Positions Coating Paint type Coating Remarks
thickness
(lm)
(3) Ballast tanks, drilling water tanks, 1 Modified epoxy paint 150
and seawater tanks 2 Modified epoxy paint 150
(4) Fuel oil and slide oil tank Maintenance with slide oil
M. Pipelines in all compartments The coating supporting and the
pipelines are the same surrounding
environment
N. Insulation layer area 1 Modified epoxy paint 100
(1) Plane
(2) Reinforcing bars
P. 1 H.B. Modified epoxy paint 125
(1) Bottom septic tank 2 H.B. Modified epoxy paint 125
(2) Sanitary water tank
(3) Soil tank
(4) Pollutant discharge compartment
Q. 1 Zinc-rich epoxy coating 65
(1) Galvanized railings
Table 5.17 Main coating supporting system for platform no. 1

Application part Coating supporting system Thickness of dry film
(lm)
Jacket, cable guard, water conduit, landing stairs in the splash zone Modified epoxy coating 100
Epoxy glass flake coating 500
Epoxy glass flake coating 400
Total 1,000
Facilities, pipelines, jackets, cable guards, water conduits in the Epoxy zinc-rich coating 75
atmospheric zone Epoxy cloud iron coating 200
Polyurethane modified acrylic coating 60
Total 335
Main deck, helicopter deck Inorganic zinc silicate coating 25
Modified epoxy coating (slip resistance) 200
Modified epoxy coating (slip resistance) 200
Total 425
High-temperature part of upper facility Inorganic zinc silicate coating 50
Aluminum powder organic silicone heat 25
resistant coating
Aluminum powder organic silicone heat 25
resistant coating
Total 100
Internal part of the water tank, ballast tank Phenolic epoxy coating 100
Phenolic epoxy coating 100
Phenolic epoxy coating 100
Total 300
Galvanized parts such as handrails and ladders Thick epoxy coating 100
Polyurethane modified acrylic coating 60
Total 160
618 B. Hou
Table 5.18 Relevant standards for anticorrosive coating system of the offshore platforms
SSPC-SP1 Solvent cleaning
SSPC-SP2 Hand tool cleaning
SSPC-SP4 Power tool cleaning
SSPC-SP5 White blasting cleaning
SSPC-SP7 Brush-off blast cleaning
SSPC-SP10 Near white blasting cleaning
SY/T 10008—2000 Corrosion control of offshore fixed steel oil production platform
NORSOK M-501 Surface preparation and protective coating
ISO 12944 Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems
ISO 20340 Paints and varnishes—performance requirements for protective paint systems for offshore and related structures
ASTM A 123/A Standard specification for zinc (hot-dip galvanized) coating on iron and steel products
123 M-02
ASTM A 385 Practice for providing high-quality zinc coatings (hot-dip)
NACE RP 0176 Corrosion control of steel fixed offshore platforms associated with petroleum production
NACE RP 0287 Field measurement of surface profile of abrasive blast cleaned surfaces using a replica tape
NACE RP 0178 Fabrication details, surface finish requirements and proper design considerations for tanks and vessels to be lined for
immersion service
NACE RP 0184 Repair of lining systems
NACE RP 0188 Discontinuity (holiday) testing of protective coatings
NACE SP 0108 Corrosion control of offshore structures by protective coatings
Table 5.19 Relevant standards DNV RP Cathodic protection design

for cathodic protection systems of B401
offshore platforms
NACE SP Corrosion control of submerged areas of permanently installed steel offshore structures
0176 associated with petroleum production
DNV RP Cathodic protection of submarine pipelines by galvanic anodes
F103
Table 5.20 Unit price of Coating name Unit price (RMB/L)

primary anticorrosive coating on
the offshore platforms Inorganic zinc silicate shop primer 15890-19840 45–55
High-build epoxy iron paint 45880-12430 50–60
Epoxy zinc-rich primer 17340-19830 100–120
Polyurethane topcoat 55210-10000 95–105
High abrasion resistant epoxy paint (two component) 47741/3-12170 70–80
5.2.5.2 Quota Unit Price of the Anticorrosion overall installation is implemented with the platform. The
Engineering Construction installation costs of the anode blocks are not calculated
According to the Quota of the Oil Special Infrastructure separately.
Projects in the Shengli Shallow Sea Area, the quota unit
price of the anticorrosive engineering construction men-
tioned above is listed in Table 5.21 (excluding the main 5.2.6 Investigation on Corrosion of Marine
material fees). Pipelines
5.2.5.3 Costs of Sacrificial Anodes As a marine project with high investment and risks, the
The current cost of anode blocks commonly used on the submarine oil and gas pipelines play an extremely significant
platforms is about RMB 25,000–30,000/ton. In general, the role in the production and export of offshore oil and gas
Table 5.21 Quota unit price of anticorrosive engineering construction

Serial Quota Partial and subitem engineering name Unit Quota base price (RMB)
no. no. Labor Material Machinery Total
fee fee fee
1 1-1120 Second time of H53-6 epoxy cloud iron intermediate 10 m2 27.84 47.17 25.61 100.62
paint equipment
2 1-1121 Second time of H53-7 Epoxy cloud iron intermediate 10 m2 41.13 52.44 0 93.57
paint pipe
3 1-1128 First time of Epoxy zinc-rich paint equipment 10 m2 13.3 64.58 0 77.88
2
4 1-1129 Each additional time of epoxy zinc-rich paint 10 m 12.88 60.7 0 73.58
equipment
5 1-1130 First time of epoxy zinc-rich paint pipe 10 m2 14.54 71.29 0 85.83
6 1-1131 Each additional time of epoxy zinc-rich paint pipe 10 m2 14.54 66.9 0 81.44
7 1-1132 First time of epoxy zinc-rich paint metal structure 1,000 kg 13.3 71.03 0 84.33
8 1-1133 Second time of epoxy zinc-rich paint metal structure 1,000 kg 13.3 66.9 0 80.2
2
9 1-1134 Third time of epoxy mortar coating 10 m 59.83 622.69 0 682.52
fields. The marine environment where the submarine (2) Landing points from NP1-1 artificial island to NP1-3
pipelines are located is extremely bad, including not only artificial island: The length of the oil pipeline in total is
the influence of natural geological disasters, such as wind, 6.7 km, which is double layered, with the internal pipe
waves, currents, and earthquakes but also the human factors of 406.4 mm of the wall thickness of 15.9 mm and the
such as the offshore engineering construction, fishing external pipe of 559 mm of the wall thickness of
operations, and shipwrecks. Once the damages and leakage 17.5 mm; the water pipeline is single layered with the
of submarine oil and gas pipelines occur, it will lead to the diameter of 219.1 mm, the wall thickness of 14.3 mm,
suspended production of offshore oil and gas fields, pollu- and the total length of 6.7 km. It was put into operation
tion of marine environment, and even explosions, bringing in June 2009.
great economic losses to the enterprises and the country. (3) Landing points from NP1-2 artificial island to
The submarine pipelines operated by CNPC are mainly NP1-29P: The length of the oil pipeline in total is
located in the sea areas of Bohai Bay and Shenzhen Bay in 2.6 km, which is double layered, with the internal pipe
the northern part of the South China Sea. Let us take the of 168.3 mm of the wall thickness of 12.7 mm and the
submarine pipelines of the shallow sea of Jidong Oilfield external pipe of 323.9 mm with the wall thickness of
and the submarine pipelines of the Shenzhen-Hong Kong 14.3 mm; the water pipeline is single layered, with the
branch of the West Second Line as the examples, introduce diameter of 168.3 mm, the wall thickness of 19.1 mm,
the construction, production, operation, and maintenance of and the total length of 2.6 km.
the submarine pipelines of the CNPC. (4) Landing points from NP1-3 artificial island to NP1-5P:
The length of the oil pipeline in total is 0.85 km, which
5.2.6.1 Shallow Sea Pipelines in Jidong Oilfield is double layered, with the internal pipe of 219.1 mm,
As is shown in Fig. 5.40, the submarine pipelines of Jidong the external pipe of 335.6 mm, and the wall thickness
Oilfield of CNPC are mainly concentrated in the Nanpu of 14.3 mm.
operation area and include four oil pipelines and three water
pipelines. Please refer to Table 5.22 for the list of anticorrosive
Here below is the information of the pipelines: coating materials from NP1-3D to NP1-1D submarine
pipelines in Jidong Oilfield, including the pipe joints,
(1) Landing points from NP1-1 artificial island to NP1-2 elbows, riser casings, and other anticorrosion materials, but
artificial island: The length of the oil pipelines in total is excluding the coating materials of 3PE pipeline.
3.65 km, which is double layered, with the internal pipe Please refer to Table 5.23 for the list of sacrificial anode
of 508 mm, the external pipe of 660 mm, and the wall materials from NP1-3D to NP1-1Dsubmarine pipelines in
thickness of 17.5 mm; the water pipeline is single lay- Jidong Oilfield.
ered with the diameter of 355.6 mm and the wall thick- Please refer to Table 5.24 for the list of anticorrosive
ness of 14.3 mm. It was put into operation in August coating materials from NP1-5 to NP1-3D mixed pipelines in
2008. Jidong Oilfield, including the pipe joints, elbows, riser
620 B. Hou
Island No. 1:
Island No. 2:
Island No. 3:
Oil and gas pipelines:
Water pipeline:
Cable:
Fig. 5.40 Overall schematic diagram of the submarine pipelines in Jidong Oilfield
Table 5.22 List of anticorrosive coating materials for submarine pipelines from NP1-3D to NP1-1D in Jidong Oilfield
No. Material Specifications and attributes Quantity
Mixed pipelines Low-pressure water injection
from Island 3#— pipelines of Island 1#—Island
Island 1# 3#
1 Heat shrink sleeve (anode Diameter width thickness (attached 559 285 2.5 219.1 285 2.5
iron stands anticorrosion) with sealing strips, construction tools, etc.) 125 sets 4 sets
2 Heat shrink sleeve Diameter width thickness (attached 559 450 2.5 219.1 450 2.5
(submarine joints with sealing strips, construction tools, etc.) 650 sets 650 sets
anticorrosion)
3 Heat shrinkable belt Width thickness (the matching primer, 450 2.5 450 2.5
(bending pipe sealing strip, construction tools, etc. are 690 m 270 m
anticorrosion) required.)
4 High-density open cell Concrete void fillers of water injection pipe about 15 m3
polyurethane foam raw joint
materials
5 Iron sheet Length width thickness wrap joint 1,200 1,100 1 mm
filler 550 pieces
6 Anticorrosion coating of Epoxy glass flakes 260 L 160 L
riser casings
Table 5.23 List of sacrificial No. Material Specifications and Quantity

anode materials for submarine attributes
pipelines from NP1-3D to Mixed pipelines Low-pressure water injection
NP1-1D in Jidong Oilfield from Island 3#— pipelines from Island 1#—
Island 1# Island 3#
1 Anode 53 sets 44 sets
2 PVC-insulated 1 25 mm2 100 m
copper cable
3 Tar epoxy Used for anode end 100 L 30 L
coating faces and internal
faces
4 Mastic 100 L 300 L
Table 5.24 List of anticorrosive No. Material Specifications and attributes Quantity
coating materials for NP1-5 to
NP1-3D mixed pipelines in NP1-5-NP1-3D
Jidong Oilfield mixed pipelines
1 Heat shrink sleeve Diameter width thickness (attached 355.6 285 2.5
(anode iron stand with sealing strips, construction tools, etc.) 22 sets
anticorrosion)
2 Heat shrink sleeve Diameter width thickness (attached 355.6 450 2.5
(submarine joints with sealing strips, construction tools, etc.) 115 sets
anticorrosion)
3 Heat shrinkable belt Width thickness (the matching primer, 450 2.5
(bending pipes sealing strip, construction tools, etc. are 330 m
anticorrosion) required)
4 Anticorrosion coating of Epoxy glass flake 160 L
riser casings
casings, and other anticorrosion materials, but excluding the In September 2007, the People’s Government of Shen-
coating materials of 3PE pipeline. zhen actively signed the Strategic Cooperation Framework
Please refer to Table 5.25 for the list of sacrificial anode Agreement with China National Petroleum Corporation
materials from NP1-5 to NP1-3Dsubmarine pipelines in (CNPC). Then on December 18, 2008, the Further Deep-
Jidong Oilfield. ening Cooperation Agreement between Shenzhen Municipal
Please refer to Table 5.26 for the list of anticorrosive People’s Government and CNPC was signed.
coating materials from NP1-29 to NP1-2D mixed pipelines In this agreement, it is proposed that, according to the
in Jidong Oilfield, including the pipe joints, elbows, riser national approval of the second line engineering of west–
casings, and other anticorrosion materials, but excluding the east national gas transmission project, the natural gas will be
coating materials of 3PE pipeline. supplied by the CNPC to Shenzhen through the Shenzhen
Please refer to Table 5.27 for the list of sacrificial anode branch line, while the natural gas is supplied to Hong Kong
materials from NP1-29 to NP1-2D submarine pipelines in through CNPC.
Jidong Oilfield. To safeguard the prosperous development of Hong
The pipeline routes of the submarine pipelines of Jidong Kong, the National Energy Administration signed the
Oilfield are investigated each year, which includes the Memorandum of Understanding on Gas and Power
monitoring of pipeline routes and the pipeline burial. No Supply with the Hong Kong Special Administrative
corrosion leakage accidents have happened during the Region Government on August 28, 2008. It is supported
pipeline operation. to supply the natural gas to Hong Kong. It is agreed in
principle that the CNPC will carry out the feasibility
5.2.6.2 Submarine Pipeline of Shenzhen–Hong study on supplying gas to Hong Kong through the plan-
Kong Branch Line ned second line engineering of the west–east national gas
Shenzhen is located at the forefront of the Pearl River Delta, transmission project.
which is a link and bridge connecting Hong Kong and the To solve the users’ natural gas demand in Hong Kong,
mainland, an important transportation hub in the South the CNPC cooperated with Hong Kong Qingshan Power
China Sea and one of the portals for the communication Generation Co., Ltd. to establish a joint venture company,
between China and the world. which will be responsible for constructing, operating, and
622 B. Hou
Table 5.25 List of sacrificial anode materials for submarine pipeline from NP1-5 to NP1-3D in Jidong Oilfield
No. Material Specifications and Quantity
attributes NP1-5-NP1-3D mixed pipelines
1 Anode 10 sets
2 Tar epoxy coating Used for anode end faces 10 L
and internal faces
3 Mastic Filler 20 L
Table 5.26 List of anticorrosive coating materials for NP1-29 to NP1-2D mixed pipelines in Jidong Oilfield
No. Material Specifications and attributes Quantity
NP1-29-NP1-2D mixed NP1-2D-NP1-29 water
pipelines injection pipelines
1 Heat shrink sleeve (anode Diameter width thickness 323.9 285 2.5 168.3 285 2.5
iron stand anticorrosion) (attached with sealing strips, 30 sets 30 sets
construction tools, etc.)
2 Heat shrink sleeve Diameter width thickness 323.9 450 2.5 168.3 450 2.5
(submarine joints (attached with sealing strips, 280 sets 300 sets
anticorrosion) construction tools, etc.)
3 Heat shrinkable belt Width thickness (the matching 450 2.5 450 2.5
(bending pipe primer, sealing strip, construction 390 m 210 m
anticorrosion) tools, etc. are required.)
4 Anticorrosion coating of Epoxy glass flake 150 L 200 L
riser casings
Table 5.27 List of sacrificial No. Material Specifications and Quantity

anode materials for submarine attributes
pipeline from NP1-29 to NP1-2D NP1-29—NP1-2D NP1-2D—NP1-29 water
in Jidong Oilfield mixed pipelines injection pipelines
1 Anode 13 sets 13 sets
2 Tar epoxy Used for anode end faces 10 L 8L
coating and internal faces
3 Mastic Filler 50 L 50 L
managing the branch line of Hong Kong and providing the Please refer to the schematic diagram of the Shenzhen–Hong
gas to users in Hong Kong. Kong branch line project (Fig. 5.41).
The submarine pipelines of the Shenzhen–Hong Kong
branch line were completed and put into operation in 2012, 1. Parameters of submarine pipelines for the Guangzhou–
including two sections, namely, the Guangzhou–Shenzhen Shenzhen trunk line (Qiuyuling-Dachan Island)
trunk line and the Hong Kong branch line. The section of (1) Please refer to Table 5.28 for the design parameters of
Qiuyuling-Dachan Island connects the upstream Guangz- submarine pipelines.
hou–Shenzhen branch line (Guangzhou–Qiuyuling section) (2) Anticorrosive design basic data: It is required to set the
and the downstream Hong Kong branch pipeline. The sec- location of the cathodic protection station reasonably by
tion of pipelines can allow the second line of west–east considering various factors comprehensively since the
national gas transmission project to supply the gas to Dachan soil along the pipelines has strong corrosivity. The two
Island, Shenzhen, and Hong Kong. The Hong Kong branch values of 3 and 6 lA/m2 should be obtained for the
line starts from the end of the Dachan Island of the protection current density. Then the maximum protection
Guangzhou–Shenzhen trunk line of the project, and is laid to length and protection current required for the cathodic
the Lung Kwu Tan gas conveyor station of Hong Kong. protection under different conditions are calculated
Cross the planned port area

Cross the planned waterway
Cross the Dachan waterway
Cross the Tonggu channel
Cross the Longgu channel
Fig. 5.41 Schematic diagram of the Shenzhen–Hong Kong branch line project
according to the different pipeline parameters and the to Table 5.30 for the specific coordinate positions of the
potential ranges. Please refer to Table 5.29 for the results. routing key points of the submarine pipelines, Fig. 5.42
(3) The information of pipeline routes: The Guangzhou– for the schematic diagram of the submarine pipeline of
Shenzhen trunk line submarine pipelines of Guangz- Qiuyuling–Dachan Island line, and Fig. 5.43 for the
hou–Qiuyuling starts from the special excavation submarine topographical map.
channel at Shawan of Shenzhen and goes to the sea at (4) Pipe trench excavation and backfilling engineering: The
the intersection of the coastal expressway. The lines are full trench burial is adopted for the submarine pipelines.
basically laid along the offshore transmission lines of The burial depth is below the flushing line recom-
Qianwan Power Station of Dachan Island. It will cross mended in the flood control evaluation, which is not
the phase-III planned and new Dachan anchorage of less than 1.5 m. The body structure of the submarine
Dachan Bay during the period and land on the north- pipelines: The steel pipes are externally covered with
west side of Dachan Island. There are three inflection the three-layered PE anticorrosion coating with the
points in the middle, namely, AC1, AC2, and AC3. The thickness of 2.8 mm. To ensure the stability during the
lines have a length of about 9.3 km. The water depth of installation of the pipeline, it is required to coat the
the routes is from 0 to 8.5 m. Most of them are in the concrete pipelines with the density of 3040 kg/m3 and
water depth of 4–6 m. It is dominated by the sludge (the the thickness of 65 mm on the external part of the
surface layer is flow mud for 2–5 m). The routes are submarine pipelines. The whole process of
located at the Shenzhen sea area on the east bank of pre-trenching is adopted, and the gravel backfilling is
Lingdingyang Bay of Pearl River Estuary. Please refer carried out to protect the pipelines.
624 B. Hou
Table 5.28 Design parameters Pipe outer diameter mm 914

of submarine pipelines
Wall thickness mm 25.4
Pipe material – API 5L X65
Operating pressure MPa 4
Design condition Design pressure MPa 10
Set temperature °C 38.7
Medium density – Natural gas
Design pressure kg/m3 30
Hydrostatic test condition Hydrostatic test pressure MPa 12.5
Temperature °C 23.6
Transport medium – Seawater
Medium density kg/m3 1,025
External corrosion protection Material – Three-layered PE
Thickness mm 2.8
Dosage m2 26,639
Density kg/m3 940
Concrete Thickness mm 65
Density kg/m3 3,040
Corrosion allowance in the pipeline mm 1.5
Installation temperature °C 22.0
Operating temperature °C 50 below
Installation method Burial
Design life Year 30
Submarine pipeline anode (aluminum alloy) t 5.6
Table 5.29 Calculation results Type of anticorrosive layer Three-layered PE

of cathodic protection range of
914 mm pipelines Protection potential range V –0.85 to –1.15
Outer diameter of pipe mm 914
Pipe wall thickness mm 25.4
Steel pipe resistivity Ω mm2/m 0.230
Pipe longitudinal resistance Ω/m 3.2E–06
When the current density of 3 lA/m2 is obtained
One-side protection length km 146.5
Double-side protection length km 293
When the current density of 6 lA/m2 is obtained
One-side protection length km 104
Double-side protection length km 207
a. Shawan Bay Offshore Segment and the sludge layer and the drift mud layer should be totally
removed. Then some gravel cushions are backfilled, the
The pipelines cross the port terminals (including the special \ -shaped protective cover is placed, and finally the bed
excavation channels) and the planned port basins. It is stones are backfilled. The top layer of the bed stones will be
planned to use the \ -shaped protective cover to protect the the bottom elevation of the barge berth −5.4 m; for the
gas pipelines in order to reduce the mutual interference excavation highway section, it is required to excavate the
between pipelines and port area construction. The founda- road surface structure and subgrade, the foundation groove.
tion trench is excavated at the segment of the port terminal The ripped-rock layer is laid and the \ -shaped protective
Table 5.30 Key points of Dot Mark Remarks UTM-Easting UTM-Northing

submarine pipelines
LP Sea point at Shawan 791093.67 2500035.96
AC1 Inflection point 789408.90 2498992.50
TP1 Turning point 790353.24 2496566.57
TP2 Turning point 790491.10 2496061.10
TP3 Turning point 790728.88 2494599.41
TP4 Turning point 791242.11 2493554.53
LP Landing point at Dachan 792020.50 2492722.10
Note The coordinates in the table are WGS-84 coordinate system
Fig. 5.42 Schematic diagram of submarine pipeline in Qiuyuling–Dachan Island line
cover is placed. Finally, the subgrade and road surface The minimum trenching depth can ensure the distance
structure are restored. between the bottom elevations below −14.8 m of the plan-
ned waterway to the top of the pipe after the pipelines are in
b. General submarine bottom section (see Fig. 5.44) place is 3.0 m.
The minimum trenching depth can ensure that the distance d. Offshore section of Dachan Island (see Fig. 5.46).
from the bottom of the seabed to the top of the pipe after the
pipe is in place is 3.0 m. The maximum trenching depth can ensure that the distance
from the seabed bottom surface after the sea entry transition
c. The planned waterway section crossing the Dachan and zone is excavated to the top of the pipe after the pipes are in
Xiaochan Island and Lian Island (see Fig. 5.45) place is 1.5 m.
626 B. Hou
Planned harbor basin:

Drift mud
Sludge
Silty clay
Reef
Water surface:
Dachan and Xiaochan water channel:
(planned) :
Fig. 5.43 Marine topographic map of Qiuyuling–Dachan Island line
Stone:
Diameter (330-380mm) :
Center line of pre-paved submarine bottom gas
transmission pipelines
Seabed mud surface:
Fig. 5.44 Backfill design sketch of general submarine bottom section
2. Pipeline Parameters of Hong Kong Branch Line (2) Basic Data of Anticorrosive Design
(1) Pipeline Parameters Here are the relevant parameters of the pipeline operating
environment and the cathodic protection design: seawater
Please refer to Table 5.31 for the pipeline parameters of resistivity: 25 X cm and sea mud resistivity: 60 X cm. The
Hong Kong branch line. average current density should be selected according to

Bottom elevation of planned waterway
Undisturbed soil backfilling
Stone
Diameter: 20-50mm
Sand
Fig. 5.45 Backfill design sketch of the planned waterway section crossing the Dachan and Xiaochan Island and Lian Island
Table 5.32 (Table 5.32 is selected from DNV RP in the area of the routes. The water depth of the routes is from
F103-2003). Please refer to Table 5.33 for the coating 0 to 21 m, most of which is 3 m. The soil is primarily the
damage coefficients. sludge (the surface is the drift mud with 3–5 m). It crosses the
Anode electric capacity: sea mud: 1,800 A h/kg, seawa- Dachan waterway, Tonggu Channel, and Longgu Channel to
ter: 2,500 A h/kg; anode material density: 2,730 kg/m3; avid the distance of each anchorage of more than 100 m.
anode utilization coefficient: 0.8; anode closed-circuit Based on the pre-survey data of the submarine pipeline
potential (for Ag/AgCl reference electrode): sea mud: routes in Hong Kong branch line in November 2011, there
−1.00 V, seawater −1.05 V; open-circuit potential (for are two sand mining areas in the submarine pipeline routes,
Ag/AgCl reference electrode): sea mud −1.05 V, seawater: which are distributed, respectively, at KP2.25-KP3.32,
−1.10 V; polarization potential (for Ag/AgCl reference KP5.13-KP5.57. The sand mining area is within the scope of
electrodes): sea mud: −0.9 V, seawater: −0.8 V. 500 m on both sides of the pipeline routes. The maximum
The open-circuit potential of the magnesium anode to be water depth can reach −14.6 m, which is about 10 m lower
used is −1.48 V (vs.) SCE and the theoretical electric than the original seabed. Please refer to Table 5.37 for the
capacity is 2210 A h/kg. The protection current density is coordinates of the submarine pipeline routes of Dachan
designed to be 0.01 mA/m3, the anode weight is designed to Island–Hong Kong, as shown in Fig. 5.47. Please refer to
be 8.3 kg/piece, and the anode spacing is designed to be Fig. 5.48 for the topographical diagram and Fig. 5.49 for the
100 m. It is required to have 49.8 kg of magnesium anodes. location of the sand mining area.
In addition, two sets of testing piles are equipped (see Geodetic parameters: Projection, universal Mercator
Table 5.34). Please refer to Tables 5.35 and 5.36, respec- projection (band); 49° central longitude, 111°E; Katong,
tively, for the number of anodes and anode cores. 500,000 m; reference, 1,985 National Elevation Reference;
ellipsoid, WGS84.
(3) Information of Pipeline Routes
(4) Pipe Trench Excavation and Backfilling Works
The total length of the recommended routes is 19,670 m,
including 14,780 m in the sea area of Shenzhen, 4,890 m in Different trenching and backfilling methods are adopted
the water area of Hong Kong, and the sea area of 30.7539 for various submarine pipelines in Shenzhen section and
hm2. There are five straight segments and four arc segments Hong Kong section of the submarine pipelines.
628 B. Hou

Submarine bottom surface
Undisturbed soil or sand
Fig. 5.46 Backfill design sketch of offshore section of Dachan Island
Table 5.31 Pipeline parameters of Hong Kong branch line

Position Steel pipe Anticorrosion layer Concrete layer
(three-layered PE)
External Wall Grade Thickness Density Thickness Density
diameter thickness (API 5L) (mm) (kg/m3) (mm) (kg/m3)
(mm) (mm)
Pipelines in Zone 1 813.0 22.2 PSL2 2.8 940 60 3,040
X65
Pipelines in Zone 2 813.0 22.2 PSL2 2.8 940 60 3,040
X65
Materials Consumption 8483.68 t 141.66 t 8,131.27 t
consumption 6% allowance 509.02 t 8.50 t 487.88 t
Total 8,992.70 t 150.16 t 8619.15 t
consumption
Design pressure 7.0 MPa Operating pressure 6.3 MPa
Total length 19.67 km Shenzhen Section: Hong Kong Section:
14.77 km 4.9 km
Construction time 2012 Design period 30 years
Operating temperature 60 °C Installation temperature 17 °C
Note Zone 2 is defined as the submarine pipelines within 500 m from the landing point and 500 m from the entry point; the submarine pipelines
other than Zone 2 are defined as Zone 1
① Pipelines in Shenzhen section: Please refer to 1:7. Reefs and rocks are distributed on the shore. The
Table 5.38 for the summary of the trenching and blasting method is used to blast the reefs and rocks open in
backfilling methods of the submarine pipelines in the sea point area. The volume of the reefs to be blasted is
Shenzhen section. 300 m3 based on the preliminary survey. Then the water or
amphibious excavation equipment should be used to carry
a. Trenching and backfilling protection in the offshore out the trenching works according to the designed sections.
section of Dachan Island (Figs. 5.50 and 5.51) If the pipeline is landed along with the slope of the nat-
ural bank slope, the pipeline will be failure because it will
The offshore section of Dachan Island has the length of bring a large bending stress. After the calculation, it is rec-
180 m, the water depth of 0–8 m, and the shoreline slope of ommended that the axial slope of the landing section is 1:20.
Table 5.32 Pipeline operating Recommended designed average current density (in A/m2)
environment
The environment in which the pipeline is located Internal fluid temperature (°C)
50 >50–80 >80–120 >120
Non-buried 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.100
Buried 0.020 0.025 0.030 0.040
Table 5.33 Coating damage Average coating damage coefficient, Fcm Final coating damage coefficient, Fcf
coefficient
0.01 0.014
Table 5.34 Anticorrosion BOQ Item Unit Quantity Remarks

(including allowance) 2
Three-layered PE m 55025 Each anode is 8.3 kg, so it is a total
Internal resistance reduction coating m2 53523 of 49.8 kg
Heat shrinkable tape piece 1835

Submarine pipe anode t 8.1
Insulated joint piece 2
Magnesium anode of land-buried pipeline piece 6
Testing pile of cathodic protection of set 2
land-buried pipelines
Table 5.35 Number of anodes No. Material specifications Upper limit of the impurities (%) Number (kg)
1 Al99.80 Fe < 0.12 Cu < 0.01 8,878.8
2 Zn99.99 658.6
3 In99.9 3.3
4 Si99.9 14.2
Table 5.36 Number of anode No. Type Specifications Material Number (m)
cores
1 Reinforced bar /6h GB 700-88 Q235 B 129.6
2 Steel plate 80 5 GB 700-88 Q235 B 332.2
When the backfilling works are carried out, it is required to water depth of 14.8 m. The top elevation of the rock-fill
select the stones meeting the design level for backfilling. protection layer of the submarine pipelines in Dachan
waterway is recommended to be −14.8 m and the bottom
b. Channel section: In Shenzhen section, the submarine width of the trench is 3 m. Please refer to Fig. 5.52 for
pipelines cross two waterways: Dachan waterway and the cross section.
Tonggu channel. When the submarine pipelines cross the
channel, at least 3-m rock-fill protection layer should be Tonggu Channel has the current width of about 250 m
covered on the top of the pipeline so that the mechanical and the average depth of 15 m. The bottom section of the
damages caused to the pipelines due to the risks of pipelines crossing Tonggu Channel has the length of not less
anchoring can be prevented. Dachan waterway is passed than 1,250 m. The top elevation of the rock-fill protection
straight through and is near the commencement end of layer of the submarine pipeline in Tonggu Channel is rec-
the pipe-laying vessel. Dachan waterway has the maxi- ommended to be −21.5 m. Please refer to Fig. 5.53 for the
mum water depth of 9.7 m and the planned designed diagram of the cross section.
630 B. Hou
Table 5.37 Coordinates of the submarine pipeline routes of Dachan Island–Hong Kong (WGS84 coordinate system)
Inflection point WGS84 geodetic coordinate UTM 49 horizontal Length (m) Remarks
coordinate
North latitude East longitude North East
LP DCI 22°30.964147′ 113°50.318779′ 2492722.1 792020.5 1,593 Sea point
AC1 22°30.525043′ 113°49.520038′ 2491885.3 790665.5 Straight line/arc
ARC1 22°29.593030′ 113°50.113561′ 2490183.67 791716.43 2,070 R2000
AC2 22°29.594864′ 113°48.948137′ 2490149.3 789716.7 2,093 Arc/straight line
ARC2 22°28.598079′ 113°49.820362′ 2488056.73 791748.31 1,291 R2000
AC4 22°28.154307′ 113°49.088404′ 2487493.9 790007.4 5,640 Arc/straight line
ARC3 22°25.765388′ 113°51.807812′ 2483182.9573 794793.92 1,868 R1500
AC6 22°24.989781′ 113°52.067062′ 2481747.6 795231.0 107
AC7 22°25.012965′ 113°52.147350′ 2481793.0 795368.0 2,915 Hong Kong–Shenzhen boundary
AC8 22°25.463953′ 113°53.708812′ 2482677.2 798032.7 2808
ARC4 22°24.688314′ 113°53.967874′ 2481253.57 798505.1 1,529 R1500
AC9 22°25.299835′ 113°54.542729′ 2482401.9 799470.2 Arc/straight line
LP HK 22°25.101634′ 113°54.786614′ 2482044.0 799896.0 556 Landing point
Note The coordinate of ARC is the center of the circle, and the starting and ending points are the AC points before and after it
Table 5.38 Trenching and Area division of submarine pipeline routes Trenching and backfilling methods
backfilling methods of submarine
pipelines in Shenzhen section Offshore section of Dachan Island Pre-trenching burial/manual backfilling
Dachan Island Waterway Pre-trenching burial/manual backfilling
Pre-trenching burial/manual backfilling
Tonggu Channel Pre-trenching burial/manual backfilling
Other parts
According to the water depth drawing of the route survey, pre-trenching backfilling stones. Please refer to Fig. 5.55
Dachan waterway and the surrounding waters have relatively for the cross section.
gentle changes of water depth, without sharp changes of
height differences in the submarine mud surface. There is no ② Trenching and backfilling protection form in Hong
need for manual excavation of transitional area. Tonggu Kong section
waterway has relatively sharp changes of height differences
of the submarine mud level, and therefore it is required to For the purpose of convenient indication, HK-KP0 is set to
excavate the transitional sections on both sides of the be the intersection of the pipeline and the Shenzhen–Hong
channel manually (the slope is 1:10). In this way, the Kong junction line and HK-KP4.89 is set to be the landing
influence of the bending stress on the pipelines can be point of the pipeline at Lung Kwu Tan. Each HK-KP point
reduced. Please refer to Table 5.54 for the channel crossing in the middle should be selected according to the actual
schematic diagram (Fig. 5.54). distance from it to the HK-KP0 point.
Please refer to Table 5.39 for the summary of the
c. Other parts of the Shenzhen section: In addition to the trenching and backfilling methods of the submarine pipelines
landing section, Dachan waterway and Tonggu Channel, in Hong Kong section, Figs. 5.56, 5.57 and 5.58 are,
the other pipelines are also protected in the way of respectively, the schematic diagrams of sections A, B, and C.
Channel section
General section in Shenzhen
Non-channel section
East section and west section of Longgu
channel
Dachan waterway
Hong Kong-Shenzhen boundaries
Longgu channel
Anchorage ground for hazardous articles
Mawan cargo ship anchorage
North channel
Public channel in the west of Shenzhen
Chiwan channel
Shekou channel
Ship routes for mud barge and stone ships
Fig. 5.47 Schematic diagram of Hong Kong branch line

632 B. Hou
Dachan waterway
Planned width: 510
Tonggu channel
Planned width: 1,130m
Longgu channel
Width: 510m
Hong Kong-Shenzhen boundaries
Sand pit
Dachan Island
Longgu Bay, Hong Kong
Fig. 5.48 Topographic map of Hong Kong branch line
Sand mining area

Shenzhen
Fig. 5.49 Sand mining area of Hong Kong branch line

Pre-buried submarine gas transmission

Pipeline center line
Stones (Diameter: 330-380 mm)
Fig. 5.50 Schematic diagram of the sea entry section of Dachan Island
Midpoint on land
Sea level
Submarine mud surface
Sea entry excessive excavation area (200-300 m)
Fig. 5.51 Schematic diagram of the sea entry transitional area of Dachan Island
Current elevation of submarine mud surface

Natural backfill
Centerline of pre-paved submarine gas
transaction pipeline
Fig. 5.52 Typical cross section of crossing Dachan waterway

634 B. Hou
Current elevation of submarine mud surface

Natural backfill
transaction pipeline
Fig. 5.53 Typical cross section of crossing Tonggu Channel
Transitional area
Channel width
Transitional area
Sea level
Fig. 5.54 Schematic diagram of the channel crossing format
Natural backfilling
transmission pipeline
Fig. 5.55 Typical cross-section diagram of other parts of the Shenzhen section
Table 5.39 Trenching and Area division (km) Cross-section type Trenching and backfilling method
backfilling method for submarine
pipelines in Hong Kong section HK-KP0-KP0.73 B Post-trenching/combine manual and natural backfilling
HK-KP0.73-KP2.52 C Pre-trenching/natural backfilling
HK-KP2.52-KP4.78 B Post-trenching/combine manual and natural backfilling
HK-KP4.78-KP4.89 A Pre-trenching/natural backfilling

Stones (diameter: 330-380 mm)
Sand
Fig. 5.56 Schematic diagram of Section A
with the daily production of 200 m3 was established in

5.3 Investigation Report on Corrosion Xishan Yongxing Island by the Second Ocean Research
of the Seawater Desalination Industry Institute of the State Oceanic Administration. Due to the
continuous support of several national researches, China has
5.3.1 Basic Situation of Seawater Desalination entered the rapid development track in the seawater desali-
nation technology. A few industrial demonstration projects
5.3.1.1 Brief Introduction to the Development have been built one by one. In 2000, the 18,000 m3/d
of Desalination in China high-concentration brackish water desalination plant was
In the 1950s, China began to carry out the research on the established by Hebei Cangzhou Chemical Industry Co., Ltd.
seawater desalination technology. The national seawater In 2003, Hangzhou Water Treatment Center built a
desalination battle was organized nationwide from 1967 to “10,000-ton Reverse Osmosis Seawater Desalination
1969. In addition, the research and development on the Demonstration Project” in Rongcheng, Shandong Province;
multiple seawater desalination technologies and methods in 2004, the low-temperature multi-effect seawater desali-
were implemented, such as electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, nation project with a daily output of 3,000 tons was set up in
and distillation. This promoted the development of desali- Huangdao, Shandong by Tianjin Institute of Seawater
nation technology in China. In 1977, the first national Desalination. China has entered the rapid development per-
standpipe multi-effect evaporation seawater desalination iod in the desalination industry since the twenty-first cen-
device was successfully developed by Dalian Seawater tury. A batch of engineering projects have been constructed
Desalination and Distillation Coordination Team in China, successively, including the 200,000 t/d low-temperature
with the daily water production of 10–12 m3. In 1981, the multi-effect distillation desalination by Tianjin Beijiang
first national electrodialysis seawater desalination station Power Plant and 100,000 t/d reverse osmosis desalination by
636 B. Hou

Channel center line
Fig. 5.57 Schematic diagram of Section B

Stone (Diameter: 330-380 mm)
Fig. 5.58 Schematic diagram of Section C
Tianjin Xinquan. Some enterprises got access to the inter- seawater desalination project is 2.0 105 m3/d; there are 34
national market successfully, for example, Zhonghe Com- seawater desalination projects with the grade of above 1,000
pany has successively implemented six low-temperature tons and below 10,000 tons, with the water production scale
multi-effect desalination systems with a total scale of 21,000 of over 1.05 105 m3/d; there are 51 seawater desalination
t/d in Indonesia. projects with the grade of less than 1,000 tons, with the
water production scale of 9605 m3/d.
1. Project scale
2. Geographical distribution
In spite of the faster development rate in the seawater
desalination, the total scale of China is still small (see The national seawater desalination projects are distributed in
Fig. 5.59). As of the end of 2014, China had reached the the coastal areas and islands in nine provinces and cities,
total scale of seawater desalination projects of only which are mainly concentrated in Tianjin, Hebei, Zhejiang,
9.27 105 m3/d. Among them, nine national seawater Liaoning, Shandong, and the coastal cities and islands
desalination projects were newly established in 2014 and the (Fig. 5.60) with serious shortage of water. The majority of
newly increased water production of seawater desalination the projects in the north are the large-scale industrial sea-
reached the scale of 26,075 m3/d. Currently, there are 27 water desalination projects, which are mainly concentrated
seawater desalination projects with the grade of above in Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, and other high consumption of
10,000 tons, with the water production scale of about water, such as electricity and steel; the majority of the pro-
8.13 105 m3/d. The maximum scale of the largest jects in the south are the seawater desalination projects for
Years
Seawater desalination scale (10,000 t/d)
Fig. 5.59 Diagram of scale growth of national seawater desalination projects
island civil use, which are mainly concentrated in Zhejiang, Fig. 5.62). The engineering scale of 3.39 105 m3/d is used
Fujian, and Hainan with the projects of hundreds and for the residential living water use, which accounts for
thousands of tons. 36.62% of the total project scale, including the seawater
desalination projects in the islands of Liuheng, Zhejiang,
3. Technology progress and application Jinqing, Hainan, Yongle, etc. The engineering scale of
240 m3/d is used for other water use, such as the greening,
There are three major commercial seawater desalination accounting for 0.03%.
technologies worldwide, namely, reverse osmosis (RO),
low-temperature multi-effect (LT-MED), and multistage 4. Development trends
flash (MSF) desalination technologies. China has reached or
nearly reached the international advanced level in terms of According to the data of 2015 China Marine Economic
reverse osmosis and low-temperature multi-effect seawater Statistics Bulletin, China reached the newly increased output
desalination technology. The reverse osmosis technology of RMB 1.4 billion (only the output of desalinated water
accounts for 64.69% and the low-temperature multi-effect production) in terms of seawater desalination industry in
technology accounts for 34.64% of the total water produc- 2015. The proportion in the national marine economy was
tion scale in China. The rest are the multistage flash and small, only 0.1%. However, the output of the relevant
electrodialysis seawater desalination projects that were upstream and downstream industries driven by this reached
invested and constructed in the early period (Fig. 5.61). more than RMB 40 billion, including the relevant technology
However, the contemporary use of the desalinated water research and development, equipment manufacturing, mate-
in China is still single, the majority of which is for industrial rial anticorrosion, engineering construction, etc. In addition,
applications. The installed capacity is 5.87 105 m3/d, due to the gradual prominent contradiction between China’s
accounting for 63.35% of the desalination capacity that has water supply and demand, China has positioned the seawater
been invested and constructed in China. The thermal power desalination as an important supplement and strategic reserve
enterprise accounted for 27.42%, the nuclear power com- for water resources. In order to include it in the water
panies accounted for 2.37%, chemical companies accounted resources planning and deployment, further continuous
for 11.87%, petrochemical enterprises accounted for increase must be realized in the seawater desalination market
13.60%, and the steel companies were 8.09% (see to reach the industrial output value of RMB 100 billion.
638 B. Hou
Seawater desalination water production scale (10,000 t/d)

Liaoning
Tianjin
Hebei
Shandong
Jiangsu
Zhejiang
Fujian
Guangdong
Hainan
Fig. 5.60 Distribution chart of seawater desalination projects in national coastal provinces and cities
5. Comparison between domestic and foreign technologies the reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, ion exchange, etc.
However, the current mainstream commercial desalination
According to the latest statistics from the International technologies mainly include the multistage flash, multi-effect
Desalination Association, the global desalination capacity distillation, and reverse osmosis.
has grown at a rate of 10–30% per year over the past 5 years.
As of 2015, there have been 18,000 desalination plants built 5.3.1.3 Seawater Desalination Equipment
in more than 150 countries and regions worldwide with the and Materials
accumulated installed capacity of 8.65 107 m3/d. Com- There are two categories of desalination technologies from
pared with the foreign countries, China has only small the perspective of broad technical concept, namely, evapo-
desalination capacity, accounting for only 1% of the global ration and membrane separation methods. The key equip-
desalination capacity. Therefore, there is much room for the ment, materials, and corrosion conditions are quite different
future development. due to the difference in technical principles.
5.3.1.2 Main Technologies for Seawater 1. Distilled seawater desalination equipment and materials
Desalination
Seawater desalination, also called desalt seawater, is a The metal materials and equipment used in the distillation
technology and process of extracting freshwater from sea- desalination equipment mainly include the evaporator shell,
water. Based on the difference of separation methods, there heat transfer tubes, pipelines, and others (see Fig. 5.64).
are two categories of the seawater desalination technologies,
namely, thermal method and membrane method (see (1) Evaporator Casing
Fig. 5.63). The thermal method mainly includes multistage
flash, multi-effect distillation, solar distillation, freezing The evaporators have two categories of appearance struc-
method, etc. while the membrane method mainly refers to tures, namely, cylindrical and rectangular. Due to the
Seawater desalination water production scale

(10,000 t/d)
water production scale
Engineering quantity
Engineering quantity
Reverse osmosis (RO)
Low temperature multi-effect (LT-MED)
Multi-stage flash (MSF)
Electrodialysis
Fig. 5.61 Distribution chart of technical application situation of national seawater desalination projects
difference of the operation temperature, the multistage flash the relatively slow corrosion of the steam transmitted by the
and low-temperature multi-effect choose different materials. power plant.
In the earliest times, the Q235 low-carbon steel is mainly Please refer to Table 5.40 for the selection of materials
adopted for the evaporators, which was gradually modified for the multistage flash equipment casings of some desali-
to be 316L. Nowadays, it is a trend to use the duplex steel. nation plants operated by SWCC.
In terms of multistage flash, let us take Saline Water Recently, the duplex stainless steel replacing the 316L
Conversation Corporation (SWCC) as an example. Among stainless steel shall be taken as the casings and the internal
all the MSF seawater desalination equipment, the component materials of the evaporators for distillation sea-
high-temperature casing of the heat recovery section is 75% water desalination, which has been gradually accepted by the
carbon steel + 316L stainless steel. The lining is composed suppliers and owners of the thermal desalination equipment.
of 12% carbon steel + Cu/10Ni copper alloy plates. The rest For example, the company completed the Libyan Melittah
is adopted by the prevention measures of anticorrosive 15,840 m3/d multistage flash seawater desalination project in
coating painted with the coated ring carbon steel; for the 2004 with the use of the duplex steel evaporator structure.
low-temperature grade, in addition to coating the epoxy resin The US Aquatech company used the duplex steel evaporator
on the flash chamber floors, the rest parts are not processed casings in the Skikda desalination project in Algeria in 2005.
with non-surface anticorrosion. Some desalination plants are Afterward, the largest supplier of multistage flash desalina-
fully covered or lined with stainless steel. For the brine tion equipment worldwide, the Italian FISIA company, also
heater with the maximum multistage flash temperature, the adopted this design to complete the 136,000 m3/d multistage
carbon steel is mainly adopted for the casing materials due to flash desalination equipment for the Ras Abu Fontas B2
640 B. Hou
Thermal power enterprise 27.42%

Nuclear power companies 2.37%,
Chemical companies 11.87%,
Petrochemical enterprises 13.60%
Steel companies 8.09%
Living water use 36.62%
Other 0.03%
Fig. 5.62 Water use of seawater desalination products in China
project in Qatar, the 315,000 m3/d multistage flash seawater (2) Heat Transfer Tube
desalination equipment of phase-II of Taweelah B of Abu
Dhabi, and the 2,500,000 m3/d multistage flash seawater As a heat exchange process, the performance of heat transfer
desalination equipment development in phase-II of Dubai, materials in the distillation seawater desalination can directly
United Arab Emirates. influence the operating efficiency and reliability of the sys-
For the low-temperature and multi-effect technology, tem. Moreover, as the core components of the evaporator,
since 2006, the France SIDEM has used the duplex stainless the heat transfer tubes account for a large proportion in the
steel to replace the 316L stainless steel materials, completing total investment of the project. From the perspective of the
the Layyah 2 36,300 m3/d MED desalination project of system life cycle costs, it is the key of system optimization
the Sharjah Hydropower Bureau of the United Arab Emi- and cost control to adopt the low-cost, anticorrosive,
rates and Bahrain Al Hidd 273,000 m3/d MED Desalination anti-scaling, and efficient heat transfer materials.
Project (completed in 2008), as shown in Table 5.41. In the
Jingtang Steel 2 10,000 m3/d MED desalination project a. Copper alloy: As one of the most important materials in
undertaken in China, the France SIDEM company also used the distillation desalination device [44], the copper alloy
the material design of 2205 duplex steel + 316L austenitic heat transfer tubes must have good corrosion resistance
stainless steel evaporator. From the perspective of the trend, and excellent thermal conductivity, which always occu-
it has gradually become the mainstream to use the pies the leading position in the desalination industry.
high-strength, high-corrosion-resistant duplex stainless steel Among the distillation desalination devices worldwide
in thermal desalination projects. that have been invested and constructed, 90% of them
Desalination technology:
(Classified by separation methods) :
Membrane method:
Electrodialysis:
Ion exchange:
Reverse osmosis:
Membrane distillation:
Thermal method:
Multi-effect evaporation:
Multi-level flash:
Steam distillation:
Humidification and dehumidification:
Solar distillation:
Freezing method:
Fig. 5.63 Categories of seawater desalination technologies
have adopted the copper alloy heat transfer tubes. Cur- the low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination
rently, the common copper alloy heat transfer tubes for equipment, the HAl77-2 and arsenic–aluminum brass
seawater desalination mainly include the aluminum tubes are often used due to the relatively low environ-
brass, tin brass, and copper–nickel alloy materials, such mental corrosivity. This kind of material can not only
as HAl77-2, HSn70-1, BFe10-1-1, and BFe30-1-1. The meet the various requirements for use of the equipment
main manufacturing characteristics include the high with the performance but also have low prices. Please
requirement for surface quality, long production process, refer to Tables 5.42 and 5.43 for the chemical composi-
great hot and cold stress, internal and external cracks tion and mechanical properties of copper alloy heat
easy to be generated, large processing and deformation transfer tubes for the seawater desalination devices.
resistance, great tool and mold consumption volume,
high melting and casting temperature, high extrusion China has currently had the research, development, and
temperature, etc. The C70600 (BFe10-1-1) alloy has production capacity of heat transfer tubes used for seawater
good process performance, of which the seawater cor- desalination and scale export of the products has been ini-
rosion resistance and anti-sea bioadhesive performance tiated. The first national standards for copper alloy tubes of
are prominent. The typical seawater resistance rate is seawater desalination, namely, Copper Alloy Seamless Tubes
1.5–2.0 m/s. In addition, with the moderate nickel con- for Seawater Desalination Devices (GB/T 23609-2009) has
tent and certain economy, it is still widely used in the been officially promulgated and implemented.
multistage flash desalination equipment. Moreover, the
C71500 (BFe30-1-1) is also adopted in the b. Titanium and titanium alloys: The titanium and titanium
high-temperature section of some multistage flash evap- alloys are called the marine metals which have high
orators, so that the seawater corrosion resistance in seawater corrosion resistance in the marine environ-
high-temperature seawater can be improved. However, in ments. For this reason, they have been widely noticed
642 B. Hou
Raw sea water:

Vacuum:
Sight glass
Shell cover
Reinforcement:
Port access
Saddle:
Intake testing pipe board support combination:
Condensing testing pipe board support
combination, fresh water tank:
Concentrated sea water:
Steam:
Freshwater:
Condenser:
n effect:
1 effect:
2 effect:
Vapour-liquid separation device:
Sprinkler System:
Steam pipelines:
Fig. 5.64 Schematic diagram of the low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination unit
and applied in the distilled seawater desalination field, of wastewater mechanical compression, such as the
which the industrial pure titanium TA2 tube has the wastewater’s main component of calcium chloride and
widest application. For example, in the high-temperature magnesium chloride. Besides, it can be replaced by other
grade of the heat recovery section in the multi-stage flash titanium alloys, such as the Grade 7 and Grade12. Please
seawater desalination, or the condenser of refer to Table 5.44 for the chemical compositions of the
low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination and titanium and titanium alloy heat transfer tubes for the
the upper three rows of the various effects of evaporator distillation and desalination devices.
bundles. In addition, the industrial pure titanium TA2
tubes may suffer from serious crevice corrosion in some Please refer to Table 5.45 for the mechanical properties
distillation concentration equipment of industrial of various titanium and titanium alloy heat transfer tubes.
Table 5.40 Materials of casings used for some MSF desalination Table 5.41 Material selection scheme of UAE Layyah MED desali-
equipment evaporators in Saudi Arabia nation evaporator casings
Plant Evaporator Composite materials used for various Items Material Standard brand
series evaporator casings
Evaporator Duplex UNS S31803
Al-Jubail-I 22 Grades 1–3 and Grade 22: all are stainless steel
Casing in contact with the
316L coated carbon steel
seawater
Grades 4–21: Top: Carbon steel;
bottom: Carbon steel coated epoxy; Casing in contact with the Duplex UNS S32304
wall: Stainless steel; partial wall: Full steam stainless steel
316L Stainless steel External reinforcement Carbon steel EN 10025
Al-Jubail-II Evaporators of various levels: the Freshwater tank Duplex UNS S32304
316L coated carbon steel adopted stainless steel
(C2/C3 Area) 22 Tube sheet Duplex UNS S32304
(C4 Area) 19 stainless steel
(CS Area) 22 Support plate Duplex UNS S32304
Al-Khobar-II 16 Grades 1–16: 90/10CuNi alloy coated stainless steel
carbon steel Sprinkler Duplex 2 mm/UNS
Al-Khafji 22 Grades 1–3: 316L coated carbon steel stainless steel S32304
Grades 4–22: Carbon steel Nozzle ABS plastic Thermoplastic
Jeddah-II 34 Evaporator of various levels: 316L resin
coated carbon steel Condenser Duplex UNS S31803
III 16 Evaporator of various levels: 316L Casing stainless steel
coated carbon steel
Tube sheet Duplex UNS S31803
IV 24 Evaporator of various levels: 316L
stainless steel
and titanium plate coated carbon steel
Support plate Duplex UNS S32304
Median Yanbu 24 Grades 1–13: 316L stainless steel
coated carbon steel, epoxy coated on stainless steel
the surface Water tank Duplex UNS S31803
Grades 14–24: Carbon steel stainless steel
Assir 19 Evaporators of various levels: 316L
and 317L coated carbon steel
Shoaibia-I 19 Base plate: 317L coated carbon steel; and metal materials. This has affected the international
sidewall: 316L coated carbon steel;
top plate: 304L coated carbon steel market development of low-temperature multi-effect distil-
Shoaibia-II 21 Evaporator of various levels: 316L
lation desalination technology. The replacement of the tra-
coated carbon steel ditional copper alloy tubes with the aluminum alloy heat
Medina-Yanbu-II 21 Sidewall and top plate: 316L coated transfer tubes will play a role of promoting the market
carbon steel; bottom plate: 317L competitiveness of desalination technology of distilled
coated carbon steel seawater.
Al-Khobar-III 16 Base plate: 317L coated carbon steel, The aluminum and aluminum alloy materials have the
sidewall: 316 coated carbon steel
following general characteristics:
(1) Small density and high specific strength: The pure

c. Aluminum alloy aluminum has the density of only 2.7 g/cm3, 1/3 of that
of the iron. But the aluminum alloy can reach the
The evaporator accounts for more than 40% of the whole strength similar to that of low-alloy structural steel after
construction costs of the seawater desalination project in the various strengthening means are taken.
distillation desalination devices. Accounting for the maxi- (2) Excellent physical and chemical properties: Aluminum
mum proportion, the heat transfer material is the most sig- has good electrical and thermal conductivity, which is
nificant factor affecting the costs of the devices and the water second only to silver, copper, and gold. China is rich in
production costs. In recent years, the market price of the aluminum resources, so the costs are relatively low; the
traditional copper alloy heat transfer materials continues to Al2O3 protective film can be formed easily in the oxi-
increase due to the rise of the prices of international energy dizing medium of the aluminum, with certain corrosion
644 B. Hou
Table 5.42 Chemical composition table of commonly used copper alloy heat transfer tubes for domestic and foreign seawater desalination
devices
Name Standard Brand Cu Al Ni As Mn Fe Pb Zn
Aluminum GB/T 5231— HAl77-2 76.0–79.0 1.8–2.5 – 0.02– – 0.06 0.07 Allowance
brass 2012 0.06
ASTMB C68700 76.0–79.0 1.8–2.5 – 0.02– – 0.07 0.07 Allowance
111/111 M-11 0.06
Name Standard Brand Cu Ni + Co Mn Fe Pb Zn Sn Si + S + P + C
White GB/T 5231— BFe10-1-1 Allowance 9.0–11.0 0.5–1.0 1.0–1.5 0.02 0.3 0.03 Si 0.15
copper 2012 P 0.006 S 0.01
pipe C 0.05
BFe30-1-1 Allowance 29.0–30.0 0.5–1.2 0.5–1.0 0.02 0.3 0.03 Si 0.15
P 0.006 S 0.01
C 0.05
White GB/T 23609 BFe30-2-2 Allowance 29.0–32.0 1.5–2.5 1.7–2.3 0.01 – – S 0.03 C 0.06
copper —2009
pipe ASTM B C70600 Allowance 9.0–11.0 1.0 1.0–1.8 0.05 1.0 – –
552-12 C71500 Allowance 29.0–33.0 1.0 0.40– 0.05 1.0 – –
1.0
C71640 Allowance 29.0–32.0 1.5–2.5 1.7–2.3 0.05 1.0 – S 0.03 C 0.06
Table 5.43 Mechanical properties table of copper alloy seamless heat transfer tube materials commonly used in domestic and foreign seawater
desalination devices
Product Standard Brand State Rm/MPa Nonproportional Vickers Flare Grain size
name Tensile strength extension strength hardness rate (mm)
Rm/MPa Rp0.2/MPa HV (%)
Aluminum GB/T 23609 HAl77-2 M 340 120 70–100 30 0.010–0.045
brass —2009 M2 390 150 85–130 30
ASTM B C68700 O61 345 125 – 20
111/111 M-11
White GB/T BFe10-1-1 M 290 90 70–105 30
copper 23609-2009 M2 310 105 80–130 20
BFe30-1-1 M 370 120 90–120 30
M2 450 150 110–160 20
BFe30-2-2 M 435 150 90–125 30
M2 450 180 120–170 20
ASTM B C70600 O61 275 – – 30
552-12 H55 310 – – 15
C71500 O61 360 – – 30
H55 370 – – 15
C71640 O61 435 – – 30
H55 515 – – 15
resistance, such as in the dry or wet atmosphere, in the can reach extremely high strength with the heat treat-
salt solution with oxidizing agent. ment after it is molded.
(3) Good processing performance: The aluminum and
aluminum alloys (in the annealed state) have good However, in spite of the anticorrosion in the atmosphere,
plasticity, which can be cold formed, with good cutting the ordinary aluminum alloys have poor corrosion resistance
performance. The ultrahigh-strength aluminum alloys in seawater. For this reason, it is required to select the
Table 5.44 Chemical composition of titanium and titanium alloys for distillation and desalination devices
Name Standard Brand Ti Fe Max C Max N Max H Max O Max Other
impurities
Single Sum
Industrial pure titanium GB/T 3620.1—2007 TA1 Allowance 0.20 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.18 0.1 0.4
ASTM B338—2014 Grade1 Allowance 0.20 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.18 0.1 0.4
GB/T 3620.1—2007 TA2 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.25 0.1 0.4
ASTM B338-2014 Grade2 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.25 0.1 0.4
Name Standard Brand Ti Fe C N H O Al V Pa Mo Ni Co
Max Max Max Max Max
Ti-6Al-4 V GB/T 3620.1 TC4 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.05 0.015 0.20 5.5– 3.5– – – – –
—2007 6.75 4.5
ASTM B338 Grade5 Allowance 0.40 0.08 0.05 0.015 0.20 5.5– 3.5– – – – –
—2014 6.75 4.5
Ti-0.2Pd GB/T 3620.1 TA9 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.25 – – 0.12– – – –
—2007 0.25
ASTM B338 Grade7 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.25 – – 0.12– – – –
—2014 0.25
Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni GB/T 3620.1 TA10 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.25 – – – 0.2– 0.6–
—2007 0.4 0.9
ASTM B338 Grade12 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.25 – – – 0.2– 0.6–
—2014 0.4 0.9
Ti-0.05Pd-0.3Co ASTM B338 Grade30 Allowance 0.30 0.08 0.03 0.015 0.25 – – 0.04– – – 0.2–
—2014 0.08 0.8
suitable aluminum alloy materials and carry out surface titanium; however, the strength and stiffness are obvi-
modification so as to intensify its corrosion resistance. The ously higher than those of the titanium tubes (see
common surface modification techniques include sol–gel, Table 5.46). This can avoid vibration wear and other
chemical conversion, anode oxidation, micro-arc oxidation, mechanical damages in the equipment operation process
etc. Though the satisfactory results in the laboratory for effectively and reduce the number of evaporator tube
seawater desalination with the surface-modified aluminum sheets. Since 2000, the great majority of the European
heat transfer materials can be realized, the engineering and American power plants have adopted the super fer-
application degree that can reach actually is still relatively ritic stainless steel tubes to replace the copper heat
rare. The Israel IDE company realized the engineering transfer materials, which can avoid the excessive heavy
application by modifying the aluminum alloy compositions metal ions in the cold water drainage caused by corrosion
and improving the corrosion resistance of aluminum in the of the copper pipes. The German Fischer Group pro-
low-temperature multi-effect distillation seawater devices. In duced the 1.4565 (S34565) super austenitic stainless steel
the multistage flash seawater desalination devices, there are thin-wall heat transfer tubes, which have been pilot ver-
only reports on a small number of pilot research by using the ified in the MED desalination plant undertaken by the
aluminum alloy heat transfer materials. The realization of Vio Technology Vabag Company, Austria. At present,
engineering application of aluminum alloy heat transfer there are engineering applications on a few desalination
materials has not been realized yet. This may be related to devices in the Europe and North Africa.
the worse corrosion resistance of aluminum in
high-temperature seawater. The stainless steel has rarely been used as the heat
transfer tubes for distillation desalination devices for a long
d. Corrosion-resistant stainless steel: At present, the sub- period of time, with the main reasons as follows: ① due to
stitute materials in the main research for the titanium the low thermal conductivity, there is a lack of the confi-
alloy and copper alloy heat transfer materials commonly dence in the use of stainless steel in the industry and ②
used in multi-effect distillation seawater desalination are people still has doubts about the corrosion resistance capa-
super austenite and super ferritic stainless steel. The bility of the stainless steel heat transfer tubes in the working
super austenite and super ferritic stainless steel have the environment. In the research on the corrosion resistance
similar corrosion resistance to that of the industrial pure capability of the super ferritic stainless steel in thermal
646 B. Hou
Table 5.45 Difference of mechanical properties of several titanium and titanium alloy thin-wall heat transfer materials
Product name Pipe type Standard Brand State Main mechanical properties
Tensile Nonproportional Elongation
strength extension after breakage
Rm/MPa strength A50 mm/%
Rp0.2/MPa
Industrial pure Welded pipe GB/T 26057—2010 TA1 M 240 140–310 24
titanium Seamless pipe GB/T 3624—2010
Welded pipe ASTM B862—2014 ASTM Grade1 M 240 140–310 24
Seamless pipe B861—2014
Welded pipe GB/T 26057—2010 TA2 M 400 275–450 20
Seamless pipe GB/T 3624—2010
Ti-0.2Pd Welded pipe GB/T 26057—2010 TA9 M 400 275–450 20
Seamless pipe GB/T 3624—2010
Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni Welded pipe GB/T 26057—2010 TA10 M 483 345 18
Seamless tube GB/T 3624—2010 450 300 18
Welded pipe ASTM B862—2014 Grade12 M 483 345 18
Seamless tube ASTM B861—2014 450 300 18
Table 5.46 Performance difference between super austenite, ferritic stainless steel, and industrial pure titanium
Alloy name UNS brand Nonproportional Tensile strength Rm/MPa Elongation after Modulus of
extension breakage (%) elasticity (GPa)
strength Rp0.2/MPa
Industrial pure titanium R50400 275 400 20 107
Grade 2
Aluminum brass C68700 125 345 55 110
HAl77-2
Super ferrite S44735 415 515 18 207
AL29-4®
Super ferrite S44660 445 580 20 215
Sea-Cure®
Super austenite SS34565 440 825 55 190
1.4565
Note Unless otherwise explained, the mechanical properties are all measured at 20 °C
seawater environment carried out by the active promotion of high-corrosion-resistant ferrite seawater
France VALTIMET, the results are shown that the super desalination heat transfer pipes for many years by the
ferritic stainless steel has the similar corrosion rate to that of France VALTIMET (stainless steel brand S44735) and USA
the industrial pure titanium in the brine at the high temper- Plymouth Steel Company (stainless steel brand S44660), the
ature of 150 °C with the chloride ion content of large-scale engineering applications have not been realized
100,000 ppm (mg/L), which can fully meet the working yet.
requirements in the thermal seawater. Please refer to
Table 5.47. (3) Vacuum system
Though the stainless steel has been used in the thermal
desalination technology, it has not been applied in a large The vacuum system is the necessary device for the distilla-
scale yet due to the relatively low price–performance ratio of tion desalination seawater. In addition to the steam jet vac-
super austenite and super ferrite materials. In spite of the uum pump and the exhaust heat condenser in the multistage
Table 5.47 Comparison of corrosion resistance performance of different materials in hot brine environment
Experimental condition Corrosion rate (lm/a)
Temperature [Cl−]/(mg/kg) Industrial pure Super Ferrite 70/30CuNi(C71500) Aluminum brass (C68700)
(°C) titanium (S44735)
(R50400)
50 50,000 – – 12 ± 3 13 ± 1; slight pitting corrosion
Slight pitting
corrosion
50 100,000 0 0 7±0 38 ± 2; uniform corrosion
Uniform corrosion
150 50,000 0 0 22 ± 4 238 ± 2; severe uniform
Uniform corrosion corrosion
150 100,000 0 1±0 4±1 150 ± 29; severe uniform
Slight pitting Uniform corrosion corrosion
corrosion
Note The experiment is conducted in the degassed NaCl brine with the salt solution adjusted to be pH = 8 after adding the ammonia
flash seawater desalination equipment, the vacuum system corrosion of the steam and non-condensable gas drops
also includes a degasser, a brine heater, and a vacuum line of because the chloramine, bromoamine, or other strong oxi-
the various steam condensers at the heat recovery section dation in the non-condensable gas is little due to the maxi-
and the heat exhaust section. mum evaporation temperature of the low-temperature
The multistage flash degasser has the same materials with multi-effect seawater desalination system and the relatively
the evaporator casings, so that the continuity and uniformity low requirements for dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
of the material selection of the main equipment can be in seawater. Therefore, the 304 stainless steel is often used in
ensured. However, the 304L stainless steel lining or full the steam injection pumps, three-stage jet vacuum pumps,
stainless steel design is usually adopted in the part that is in and steam lines for low-temperature multi-effect seawater
direct contact with the seawater. In the process of applica- desalination.
tion, it is strictly necessary to control the vacuum degassing
system equipment and piping layout design of the raw (4) Saddle and Bracket
seawater.
For condensing the power steam after the vacuum, the As shown in Fig. 5.65, the evaporator is often equipped with
exhaust heat condenser is special equipment for multistage the saddle support. The regulations of the symmetrical
flash seawater desalination. There are two types, namely, arrangement of double saddles are regulated in the JB/T
hybrid type (direct contact) and shell-and-tube type. As the 4731—2005 Steel Horizontal Vessel. For the evaporator
most commonly used type in the multistage flash devices, cylinder with a large diameter, three saddles setting can be
the hybrid type (direct contact) includes the casing, nozzles, considered to avoid serious deformation and excessive stress
and liquid lines. The 316L stainless steel exhaust heat con- on the cylinder resulting from excessive spacing between
densers are adopted in 80% of the multistage flash desali- saddles. In case of more than three supports equipped,
nation plants in the Middle East, and the nickel-based alloy additional bending moments and additional counterforces
steel, bronze, or titanium are used by some plants; the may be introduced at the place of the supports due to the
nozzles of the condensers are 304 or 316 stainless steel, the height deviation of the supports and uneven settlement of the
condensing tube is 316L stainless steel and copper nickel. foundation. Therefore, it is necessary to avoid using more
Please refer to Table 5.48. than two saddles. When the saddles are installed, it is
The three-stage jet vacuum pump is usually adopted for required to install the fixed support at one end and the sliding
the low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination supports at the other ends. In this way, the additional load on
equipment for engineering application, which ejects and the supports caused by the cold shrinkage and thermal
extracts the air to the evaporator through the working steam expansion or the quality of the cylinder and the materials can
that is input externally. In addition, the steam jet pump is be reduced. The saddles should be installed on the supports
also equipped on many low-temperature multi-effect near the internal plates of the evaporator, so as to transfer the
desalination systems, which ejects the low-temperature internal load directly to the saddle and reduce the deforma-
secondary steam by the working steam that is input exter- tion volume of the cylinder.
nally so as to improve the steam utilization efficiency of the For the evaporator located on the saddles symmetrically
system. Compared with the multistage flash equipment, the distributed, the external forces mainly include the designed
648 B. Hou
Table 5.48 SWCC material selection of multistage flash desalination plant noncondensing heat exhaust condenser equipment in SWCC
Desalination Casing Heat transfer Tube sheet Nozzle Connector
plant tube
Jeddah-II Cast steel Industrial pure Aluminum 304 stainless steel Stainless steel
titanium bronze
Jeddah-III Stainless steel – – Stainless steel Carbon steel
Jeddah-IV 904L stainless steel – – 904L stainless –
steel
Medina 316L stainless steel 316L stainless 316L 316L stainless 316L stainless steel
Yanbu-I steel stainless steel
steel
Shoaiba-I FRP FRP – FRP –
Assir Vinyl ester plastic 316L stainless 316L Vinyl plastic FRP or thermoset plastic
steel stainless
steel
Jubail-I FRP FRP FRP SS Rubber/stainless steel
Jubail-II Carbon steel lining 316 stainless – 316L stainless Rubber
316L board steel steel
AI-Khobar-II Industrial pure – – – Lined copper–nickel alloy
titanium
AI-Khafji Thermoset plastic Thermoset – Stainless steel Thermoset plastic
plastic
Shoaiba-I FRP FRP – –
Medina FRP – – CF8 M stainless When the temperature is >60 °C, use FRP
Yanbu-II steel casting or 316L stainless steel
Al-Khobar-III 317L stainless steel – – 317L stainless The support plate is Fe 430A carbon steel
steel
load and the bearing reaction force. The designed load seen as the simply supported overhanging beam subject to
mainly refers to the weight of the evaporator (including the uniform load at two hinge points.
weight of the cylinder itself, the internal attachment, the Based on the process requirements of distillation seawater
insulation weight, etc.). When the cylinder is under the desalination technology, it is generally required to install
influence of gravity, the evaporator with two saddles can be various pumps, pipes, valves, and other devices in the lower
part of the evaporator and the steam hot compression
equipment and steam pipes in the upper part. The entire
device and the auxiliary equipment should be installed on
the brackets.
The carbon steel materials can be selected for the saddles
and the brackets because they are not in contact with the
seawater and steam. In consideration of the relatively high
humidity and salinity of the marine atmosphere, the treat-
ment of coating protection can be carried out on the carbon
steel surface.
(5) Process Piping System
The distilled seawater desalination equipment is equipped

with the process piping system, which mainly includes the
seawater pipelines, freshwater pipelines, concentrated brine
pipelines, steam pipelines, and the supporting process pumps
and valves, etc. The reliable and economical materials for
the piping system should be selected according to the type of
Fig. 5.65 Saddle support
conveying medium, temperature, flow rate, etc. as well as the cathodic protection technology as well as the anticorrosion
differences of the external environments (such as the layout coatings to ensure the service life of the pipelines.
of open air, overhead, or buried).
b. Process pump and valve overcurrent materials: in order
a. Pipeline used for conveying seawater and concentrated to ensure the continuous transmission of process medium
brine medium: In the distillation seawater desalination and product water, etc., it is necessary to use the seawater
devices in the early times of the Middle East, the concrete supply pump, concentrated brine pump, freshwater
pipes or cement-lined carbon steel pipes were usually pump, and condensate pump in the distilled seawater
adopted for the seawater and concentrated brine convey- desalination devices. It is required to select the materials,
ing pipelines. After the use of many years, the corrosion respectively, according to the use environment due to the
damages were often caused by the penetration and erosion obvious differences in the corrosive environments of
of sulfate and chloride ions. The reason is because the different types of pumps.
sulfate precipitation of a larger volume is generated when
the sulfate radical in the seawater reacts with some of the Exposed to the high corrosive conditions, special atten-
components in the cement lining, leading to the expansion tion must be paid that the seawater supply pump must
and cracks generated in the cement lining of the steel withstand high flow rates and erosion of seawater containing
pipes; in terms of the concrete pipes, however, the con- sand. Moreover, it is necessary to notice the pump impeller,
crete pipe cracks because the chloridion in the seawater shaft, and other moving parts can withstand the breakage of
penetrates into the concrete and corrodes the reinforce- stress corrosion and the corrosion fatigue caused by
ment while the chloride salt crystal takes up the pore mechanical strength changes. Please refer to Table 5.49 for
between the concrete aggregate and the binder. the specific material selection. The valves have the primary
functions of controlling the flow direction and flow rate of
In recent years, the concrete pipelines or the cement-lined the four process media, namely, the seawater, concentrated
carbon steel pipelines conveying the seawater have been brine, freshwater, and steam. The most commonly used four
replaced by the FRP pipelines. In addition, as the conveying types of valves include the butterfly valves, ball valves, gate
pipe materials for the raw material seawater and concentrated valves, and universal valves. The first three types have the
brine, with the comparison in terms of short-term and primary function of open/close the pipeline while the last
long-term costs, the FRP has more advantages than the tradi- one has the function of controlling the flow rate of the
tional concrete and steel pipes. This has been gradually process medium. The universal valves play a very important
accepted by the large-scale distilled seawater desalination role in avoiding the equipment being washed and corroded
plants in the Middle East and the gulf area. The France SIDEM, by the process medium. Please refer to Tables 5.50 and 5.51
Israel IDE, and other mainstream international suppliers of for the material selection program of the valves used for the
low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination equipment distilled seawater desalination piping systems.
have adopted the FRP as the process pipelines of the seawater
and the concentrated brine below 70 °C. 2. Material Selection of Reverse Osmosis Seawater
On the other hand, the FRP pipelines are easily broken Desalination Equipment
and damaged in the transport and installation process in the
rocky landforms and special terrains due to its brittleness and Different from the thermal desalination process, the reverse
poor impact resistance of the materials. In addition, for osmosis seawater desalination is driven by the pressure and
large-scale distilled seawater desalination equipment, the the temperature of the seawater which should not be higher
volume of the raw seawater intake and concentrated brine than 45 °C. For this reason, this has low requirements for the
discharge is great. Therefore, in order to prevent the impact materials. Except for the high-pressure pipeline and energy
of the seawater quality changes in the intertidal zones on the recovery device, the nonmetallic materials can be adopted
seawater desalination system, and accelerate the mixing for the membrane casing, most of the pipelines, and the
effect of concentrated brine and the seawater in the dis- adapting pieces.
charged waters, it is often required to install a submarine
seawater intake pipe and a brine discharge pipe of a dozen of (1) Preprocessed ultrafiltration membrane material for
kilometers with the tugboat method. In this way, it is reverse osmosis seawater desalination
extremely difficult for the pipelines of the FRP materials and
concrete materials to satisfy the mechanical performance As a membrane material intercepting macromolecular
requirements for installation and application. Therefore, it is organic suspension, insoluble particles, microorganisms,
necessary to adopt the steel pipelines and carry out the bacteria, etc., the ultrafiltration is often used in the raw water
650 B. Hou
Table 5.49 Pump material selection for distilled seawater desalination

Casing Riser Impeller Axis
Raw seawater pump of High nickel cast 316, CF8M or steel at CF3M 316 or steel at a higher
multistage flash iron D-2W a higher grade grade
Concentrated brine pump High nickel cast 316, CF8M or steel at CF3M or alloy steel at a higher 316 or steel at a higher
of multistage flash iron D-2W a higher grade corrosion-resistant grade corrosion-resistant grade
Product water pump High nickel cast 316 stainless steel CF3M 316
iron D-2W
Table 5.50 Material selection of valves for multistage flash seawater desalination in the middle east
Media environment Casing Disk Shaft Precautions
Seawater 2205 duplex steel 316 stainless steel 316 stainless Cathodic protection is
steel required
Concentrated hydrochloric acid 2205 duplex steel 316 stainless steel 316 stainless Cathodic protection is
steel required
Concentrated hydrochloric acid Nickel aluminum Nickel aluminum Monel metal For 90/10CuNi piping
bronze bronze 400
Product water non-condensable 2205 duplex steel 316 stainless steel 316 stainless
pipeline steel
Table 5.51 Material selection of valves for low-temperature Fig. 5.66 for the membrane elements, including the ultrathin
multi-effect seawater desalination separation (desalting) layer, the rigid support layer, and the
Valve type Media Component Material support fabric (nonwoven fabric).
type At present, the aromatic polyamide is the main material of
Butterfly valve Seawater Casing 2205 the ultrathin separation layer in the reverse osmosis mem-
Valve plate 316L brane. In the 1980s, Cadotte proposed the invention patent of
Lining plastic Sealing Rubber, PTFE FT-300 membrane. The water flux of the reverse osmosis
diaphragm valve ring membrane was substantially improved by getting the rough
Lining rubber,
Rubber, PTFE PTFE surface structure through the cross-linking. A series of
Others Seawater 2205, plastic
commercial reverse osmosis membranes were successfully
developed, respectively, based on FT-300 by the USA Dow
Chemical, the UTC-70 by Japan Toray, the CPA2 by Japan
preprocessed process of seawater desalination so that the Nitto Denko/USA Hydecanme. The standardization of
fouling of reverse osmosis membrane can be reduced and the membrane elements was also realized so that the full
cleaning cycle can be extended. Please refer to Table 5.52 cross-linked aromatic polyamide thin layer composite
for the foreign primary ultrafiltration membrane manufac- reverse osmosis membranes were widely applied in the
turers and the membrane materials. global scope. With the surface modification of the reverse
There are three categories of ultrafiltration membranes, osmosis membrane and the development of the interfacial
namely, internal pressure type, external pressure type, and polymerization technology, the water flux and salt rejection
immersion type. The commonly used materials include the of commercial polyamide reverse osmosis membranes are
cellulose, polysulfone (PS, PES), polyvinylidene fluoride gradually improving (see Fig. 5.67). This makes the appli-
(PVDF), polyacrylonitrile, and inorganic ultrafiltration mem- cation cost of reverse osmosis membranes gradually drop. In
brane. Currently, the PVDF hollow fiber membranes have addition, the Toyobo Co., Ltd. of Japan produced the hollow
occupied over 85% in the global water treatment market with fiber separation membranes with the cellulose acetate, which
its high mechanical strength and environmental stability, occupies a small share in the seawater desalination market.
which is the most significant ultrafiltration membrane material.
(3) Process Piping
(2) Reverse Osmosis Membrane Material
It is usually required to use the high-corrosion-resistant alloy
The reverse osmosis membrane is the core of reverse materials since the high-pressure pipelines of the reverse
osmosis seawater desalination technology. Please refer to osmosis should withstand the pressure of 6–8 MPa. The
Table 5.52 Material selection of different types of ultrafiltration membranes for foreign primary ultrafiltration membrane manufacturers
Internal pressure type External pressure type Immersion type Major foreign manufacturers
PS PVDF PVDF curtain type Kanpur
PES vertical/horizontal Norit
PVDF Dow
PS PVDF lining curtain bundle type Koch
PVDF PVDF curtain box type GE
PVDF PVDF cylinder type Asahi Kasei
PVDF PVDF cylinder type Siemens
PES PVDF Hydecanme
Ultra-thin desalting layer (about: 2,000A)

Rigid support layer (about: 50)
Support fabric (about: 110)
Fig. 5.66 Structural schematic diagram of the reverse osmosis membrane material
main reason is because the dissolved oxygen, carbon diox- or 2507 super-duplex stainless steel have been verified and
ide, and other substances in the seawater cannot pass through promoted for application. Please refer to Fig. 5.68 for the
the reverse osmosis membranes, which will lead to the schematic diagram.
accumulation in the concentrated water pipeline. So the
crevice corrosion and other problems are often caused on the (4) High-Pressure Pump and Energy Recovery
metal materials, especially the part of the piping connection.
Please refer to Fig. 5.68. The SS316L, SS317L, SS904L As the key equipment in the reverse osmosis seawater
austenitic stainless steel or 2205 duplex stainless steel is desalination, the high-pressure pump provides the core
often used for the reverse osmosis high-pressure pipelines in power for the operation of reverse osmosis system. With the
the Arabian Gulf and the Mediterranean area. At present, the general operating pressure between 5.0 and 6.0 MPa, the
high-pressure pipelines for reverse osmosis and the adapting medium-pressure range should be between 1.6 and 10 MPa
pieces adopting the 254SMO and other 6Mo stainless steel according to the classification of the pressure levels.
652 B. Hou
Salt rejection rate

Note: The index of the membrane cost is based on the
membrane cost per unit volume of water produced in 1978
for reference.
Index of membrane cost
Year
Fig. 5.67 Development of reverse osmosis desalination membrane materials
However, it is called the high-pressure pump in order to serialized. In general, the imported products are used in the
differ it from other pumps and highlight the special nature in great majority of the domestic seawater desalination projects
the working environment of the reverse osmosis seawater while domestic high-pressure pumps are used in only several
desalination. Its performance can depend on the running small desalination devices. The 316L, 904L austenitic
energy consumption of the reverse osmosis seawater system stainless steel or 2205, 2507 duplex steel are the main
in a direct manner. overcurrent materials of the equipment. Please refer to
As soon as the design of the reverse osmosis membrane Fig. 5.69 for the high-pressure pumps produced by the
and membrane stack is determined, the energy consumption companies of German KSB and DUCHTING PUMPEN.
indicators of the reverse osmosis seawater desalination sys- The energy recovery devices used for the seawater
tem should be dependent on the efficiency of the desalination are subject to the rotational and reciprocating
high-pressure pump and energy recovery devices. In the frictions between metals. Though the friction surface of
reverse osmosis seawater desalination system, the electricity the devices is coated with the antifriction protective
costs account for 1/2–2/3 of the water production costs. As a coating or wearing resistant layer, the part in direct con-
main kind of energy-consuming equipment, the tact with the seawater is still subject to the corrosion of
high-pressure pump consumes the electricity consumption of the high-temperature concentrated seawater. Therefore, the
about 35% of the total operation costs of the system, which materials selected are similar to that of the high-pressure
is one of main factors influencing the water production costs. pipelines. The 2507 super-duplex stainless steel with
The high-pressure pumps used for the seawater desalination strong corrosion resistance is usually used for the over-
are divided into two forms: ram-type high-pressure pumps current materials, such as the DWEER plunger energy
and centrifugal high-pressure pumps. These products have recovery device of CALDER AG of Switzerland shown in
been developed maturely abroad and the products have been Fig. 5.70.
Branch pipe 1
Branch pipe 2
Main pipeline
Amplification
Shelling port
Clamping short pipe/clamp
Fig. 5.68 Schematic diagram of the connection between the high-pressure pipeline and the membrane casing
Fig. 5.69 The 2507 duplex

stainless steel as the overcurrent
material for the high-pressure
pumps from KSB (a) and
DUCHTING PUMPEN (b)
(5) Material Selection for Reverse Osmosis Equipment efficient operation of the equipment. On the basis of the
simulation tests and corrosion failure studies in a lot of real
Please refer to Table 5.53 for the material selection of the working conditions, with the development for over 50 years,
primary components of the reverse osmosis seawater the foreign seawater desalination technology (especially the
desalination devices. thermal desalination) has set up the multiple scientific
selection schemes for thermal seawater desalination equip-
ment, including the multistage flash, multi-effect distillation
5.3.2 Corrosion and Protection of Seawater and machinery compression distillation, as well as the
Desalination Equipment operation control methods for the desalination equipment
with the purpose of inhibiting or delaying environmental
As the basis for constructing seawater utilization technology corrosion of materials. This has played a great promotion
and equipment, the engineering materials play a very role in the scale application of distilled seawater desalination
important role in safeguarding the long-term stable and technology and provided the basic guarantee for the
654 B. Hou
Fig. 5.70 Energy recovery

devices (DWEER, 2507 duplex
stainless steel) used by Israel
Ashkelon (a) and Singapore
Reverse Osmosis Desalination
Plant (b)
Table 5.53 Conventional material selection for reverse osmosis desalination system
Component Element Material
Large-diameter Seawater intake (before the water pumping station); concentrated water Concrete or stainless steel
pipelines discharge (after the concentrated water pumping station)
Filter Dual medium-gravity type Concrete-elastomer film lining
Dual medium-pressure type Carbon steel-ethylene oxide spray or
chloroprene rubber lining
FRP or stainless steel, AISI 316L, or 904L
Security filter-pressure vessel type PVDF membrane material
Ultrafiltration membrane filter Concrete-elastomer film lining
Membrane Membrane filtration Aromatic polyamide membrane material
stack End plate (internal) support PVC or 6Mo austenitic stainless steel,
super-duplex steel
End plate and seal ring (external) AISI 316L stainless steel
Membrane shell FRP
Pump and Cover AISI 904L, 254SMO, or duplex stainless steel
energy recovery castings
Impeller 316 or 904 castings
Tank of vertical pump (cylinder) AISI 316L, AISI 904L, or FRP
Process piping Low-pressure inlet pipe (before high-pressure pump) and concentrated FRP
and valves brine pipe (after energy recovery or control valve)
High-pressure pipeline branch and connection points 6Mo austenitic stainless steel or duplex
stainless steel
Membrane water production and product water PVC, FRP, or AISI 316L stainless steel
Chemical cleaning PVC, FRP, or AISI 316L stainless steel
Low-pressure valve Butterfly valve-nodular cast iron or rubber
lining casting, nickel alloy
High pressure, control, and emergency shut-off valves Ball Valve-316 stainless steel casting (ACI
CF-8 m) or 6Mo austenitic stainless steel
Table 5.54 Differences in internal working conditions of multistage flash seawater desalination equipment
Multistage flash evaporation seawater desalination equipment Low-temperature multi-effect seawater
desalination equipment
Sections of Within the heat Heat recovery Heat discharge section Outside the heat Outside the heat
equipment exchange tube of the section transfer tube of transfer tube of
brine heating section Within heat Within Within flash the evaporator the condenser
exchange tube and heat evaporation
flash evaporation exchange chamber
chamber tube
Temperature 110–120 °C 50–110 °C <50 °C 40–70 °C <40 °C
range
Dissolved <50 ppb <50 ppb Not Concentration < 600 ppb 1–10 ppm
Oxygen degassed <50 ppb
CO2 content <3 ppm <3 ppm Not <3 ppm —* —*
degassed
Salinity Normal salinity Gradually rising salt Normal 1.5 times of It is gradually rose Normal salinity
content in the salinity concentration to 1.5–2 times of
seawater concentration
* “—” indicates there has not been publicly reported data yet
construction of the super large-scale desalination plants with Generally speaking, the copper alloy material has good
the daily production of hundreds of thousand tons or even a corrosion resistance performance in the natural seawater full
million tons. immersion environment. However, it is very hard to reach
With the continuous support of the key national scientific the corrosion protection requirements by using the carbon
and technological projects in the national “Eighth Five-Year steel material without anticorrosion measures. This is mainly
Plan” to the “Twelfth Five-Year Plan”, the seawater desali- because the carbon steel has a higher corrosion rate in the
nation technology of China is developed on the basis of the seawater environment. The corrosion process of carbon steel
deepening research on the design and development of meets the electrochemical corrosion principle, namely, the
desalination process and equipment, with the analysis of the ferrite phase in the matrix reacts the iron dissolution reaction
foreign advanced experience. Especially, in terms of the as the corrosion anode region, and the cementite phase reacts
corrosion failure mechanism, equipment material selection, the oxygen depolarization reaction as the corrosion cathode
and new material engineering application technology region. The seawater corrosion process is mainly controlled
research of the seawater desalination equipment, it is basi- by the cathode oxygen depolarization process, that is, the
cally the same as the foreign advanced experience. corrosion rate is controlled by the diffusion steps from the
oxygen to the carbon steel surface. However, the distilled
5.3.2.1 Common Corrosion Problems in Seawater seawater is in the special desalination working environment,
Desalination Equipment where, to some extent, the temperature, salinity, dissolved
oxygen, and CO2 content of the internal seawater process
1. Uniform Corrosion medium are different from the natural seawater environment.
Please refer to Table 5.54. These environmental factors have
In terms of the distilled seawater desalination technology a very prominent impact on the seawater corrosion process
field, the multistage flash seawater desalination plant built by of metallic materials, which leads to the special corrosion
Weir Company in 1960 in Kuwait opened the prelude to the characteristics of the equipment materials.
large-scale application of modern seawater desalination Among them, special attention should be paid that it is
technology. The carbon steel structural materials and copper required to carry out sufficient degassing process before the
alloy heat transfer tubes with long application time and raw seawater pump enters the desalination equipment for
relevant rich corrosion data in the marine environment were heating and steam, so that the accumulation of the
adopted in the early distillation desalination equipment. non-condensable gas generated by evaporation of seawater
Through the prediction of the corrosion rate of the equip- in the heat exchange area can be reduced and the heat
ment materials in the working environment, the engineering exchange efficiency of the equipment can be improved. For
designers designed the sufficient corrosion allowance to example, the seawater degassing is accomplished in a sep-
meet the requirements for the service life of the equipment. arate degasser in the multistage flash seawater desalination.
656 B. Hou
Corrosion rate
Flow rate
Oxygen concentration
The most economical corrosion rate
Temperature
Fig. 5.71 Effects of seawater temperature and dissolved oxygen content on corrosion rate of carbon steel
However, the seawater degassing is accomplished in the corrosion of the carbon steel shell exceeding the expectation.
condenser and in some low-temperature effect groups in the Please refer to Fig. 5.72 for the relationship between the
low-temperature multi-effect distillation seawater desalina- seawater corrosion rate of carbon steel and the changes of
tion. The process of removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, and flow rate and dissolved oxygen content.
other dissolved gases from the seawater can reduce the In particular, the flow restriction orifice (namely, the brine
corrosivity of the seawater as well. Please refer to Fig. 5.71 channel) is usually set in the lower part (see Fig. 5.73a) of
for the relation of the corrosion rate of carbon steel with the the carbon steel baffle between the two-stage flash rooms in
changes of seawater temperature and dissolved oxygen the multistage flash equipment. This can ensure that plenty
content (seawater flow rate 2 m/s). When the dissolved of brine can smoothly flow into the next-stage flash room
oxygen is reduced from 200 to 10–20 ppb, the carbon steel and maintain the necessary temperature and pressure dif-
can reach the most economical corrosion rate in the degassed ference between the two-stage flash rooms. The passage is
seawater below 80 °C even if there are no other anticorro- narrowed and the flow rate and turbulence are increased
sion measures taken. As the heat transfer materials, the when the seawater is close to the orifice. In addition to the
copper alloy pipes also have relatively low corrosion rate in actions, including the impact of the droplets from the steam
this environment to satisfy the requirements for application. entrainment and the cavitation corrosion generated by the
breakage of the steam bubble on the wallboard, the corrosion
2. Erosion Corrosion rate of carbon steel (Fig. 5.73b) is further increased. The
corrosion products in this part of the individual flash room
It is found that, in the long-term application process, this are even entrained by the steam to the upper vapor–liquid
type of material selection scheme may also lead to other separator and cause blockage of the separator, resulting in
kinds of corrosion forms in some special environments. For frequent machine halt for inspection and maintenance.
example, after the process water of multistage flash seawater The copper alloy is a common material for distilling
desalination equipment is degassed, the corrosion resistance seawater desalination. In the static seawater environment, the
of the carbon steel is reduced. However, the sharp erosion of copper alloy has relatively good corrosion resistance because
seawater can reduce the thickness of the diffusion layer at the a layer of protective film can be formed on the surface. The
solid–liquid interface of the material. The increase in the passivation film on the surface of copper alloy is easily
limit diffusion current density of oxygen is shown in the peeled off due to the action of the high flow rate seawater
gradually increasing corrosion rate, leading to the local shear stress, resulting in the risks of corrosion. Especially, the
Corrosion rate
Flow rate
Dissolved oxygen
The most economical corrosion rate
Temperature
Fig. 5.72 Relationship between seawater corrosion rate and flow rate and dissolved oxygen content in carbon steel
heat exchange process in multistage flash is the one-sided the internal pipes of the machine on a regular basis even if
phase change (that is, the steam outside the pipe is condensed the phosphate scale inhibitor, a polymer scale inhibitor or
to form freshwater and the latent heat of condensation is used acidified seawater and other methods are adopted. This will
to heat the seawater inside the pipe). For the purpose of damage the passivation film on the surface of the copper
improving the heat exchange efficiency, it is required that the alloy and increase the corrosion rate of the seawater in the
flow rate of the seawater inside the pipe reaches 2–3 m/s. copper pipe. Please refer to Fig. 5.75 for the changes of the
This kind of high flow rate of the seawater and the wide corrosion rate of some copper alloys used in the brine heater
operating temperature range of 110–40 °C bring greater risks for 30 months. The copper–nickel alloy pipes have good
of corrosion for heat transfer materials. Among the multistage corrosion resistance during the process of use. The copper–
flash seawater desalination equipment that have been inves- nickel alloy is also commonly used in the high-temperature
ted and constructed abroad, more than 70% of the corrosion stage of the heat recovery section.
problems are caused by the heat transfer materials. However,
based on the statistics of SWCC of Saudi Arabia, more than 3. Stress Corrosion Cracking
85% of the corrosion failure of copper alloy pipes in the
multistage flash seawater desalination equipment is caused Generally, for the seawater in the evaporator, the local cor-
by the seawater erosion corrosion. The inlet end of the heat rosion is not caused on the sides of the seawater and the
transfer tubes, in particular, is most seriously influenced by steam due to the degassing processing and the use of
the erosion corrosion. The internal damage of this heat material selection design of 316L stainless steel.
transfer tube is usually located within 150 mm from the inlet However, even though the condenser nozzles and vac-
of the seawater inlet to the inside of the pipe. The strong uum piping are produced by the 316L stainless steel in some
turbulent flow is generated in the seawater at this time (the distillation desalination plants in the Middle East, the serious
infinite local seawater flow rate) and the more serious erosion stress corrosion cracking still occurs. This may be related to
corrosion occurs. The seawater is converted into the laminar the joint impacts of the excessive amounts of strong oxi-
flow after this section and the scouring action on the heat dizing components (such as bromide, chloride or bromine
transfer tube is gradually reduced, as shown in Fig. 5.74. molecules, and chlorine molecules.) generated when the
The seawater temperature has exceeded 100 °C in the contaminated seawater extracts the non-condensable gases,
brine heater. The calcium carbonate scale and calcium sul- dissolved CO2, and the entrained seawater droplets. With the
fate scale are prone to be much, which should be descaled in joint actions of impact corrosion and pitting corrosion of
658 B. Hou
(a) (b)
Sprinkle net:
Condenser bundle:
Air suction pipe:
Fresh water pipeline:
Freshwater outlet:
Concentrated water outlet:
Flash steam:
Concentrated water pool
Flow restriction orifice
Concentrated water outlet:
Fresh water tray:
Air block
Freshwater outlet::
Fig. 5.73 a Cross-sectional diagram of a single-stage flash evaporator and b topography of long-term erosion corrosion
droplets, the inner wall of the vacuuming pipe is thinned and of 316L stainless steel if special attention is not paid to the
the stress corrosion cracking is caused. Please refer to stainless steel welding process. Please refer to Fig. 5.78 for
Figs. 5.76 and 5.77 (Fig. 5.75). the experiment of the corrosion resistance of the duplex steel
in the low-temperature multi-effect distillation seawater
4. Pitting Corrosion and Crevice Corrosion desalination equipment. The 2304 duplex phase steel plate is
welded to the surface of the 316L casing, which causes the
To avoid severe erosion corrosion of the carbon steel casing local pitting corrosion in the welding heat-affected zone of
in the high-temperature heat recovery section of the multi- 316L stainless steel because of the welding process.
stage flash seawater desalination, some desalination plants The steam side of condenser pipe at the heat recovery
have installed the 316L stainless steel inner liner inside the section of the multistage flash seawater desalination has the
evaporator. However, the stainless steel inner liner and the most serious pitting corrosion problems. The corrosion on
carbon steel casing are usually riveted and the inner liners are the steam side of the copper alloy heat transfer materials in
connected by seam weld. The local pitting and crevice cor- the distilled seawater desalination is usually related to the
rosion are prone to generate in the welding point and the heat CO2 non-condensable gas during the process of seawater
influence areas, the riveting points and the riveting crevices. steam. This kind of oxygen-containing weakly acidic envi-
Even in the multi-effect distillation seawater desalination ronment can speed up the corrosion of the copper alloy heat
evaporator at the low seawater temperature, the pitting cor- transfer pipes. The oxidation film on the surface of the
rosion can be easily caused in the welding heat-affected zone copper pipes is dissolved by the CO2 condensed water.
Wall shear stress

Distance from the seawater inlet end of the heat transfer tube seawater
Fig. 5.74 Relationship between shear stress of heat transfer tube at the inlet end of seawater and changes of flow rate
Corrosion rate
Temperature
Dissolved oxygen
Corrosion time/month
Fig. 5.75 Corrosion rate changes of the copper alloy tube in brine heater during service life in an MSF pilot plant
Fig. 5.76 Stress corrosion

cracking generated in 316L
stainless steel of the vacuum
piping system induced by
chlorine
660 B. Hou
Fig. 5.77 Stress corrosion

cracking generated in 316L
stainless steel of the vacuum
piping system induced by
bromide
Fig. 5.78 Surface appearance of

UNS S32304 duplex steel plate
welded in the MED device in
service
Moreover, the pitting corrosion of the copper heat transfer seawater temperature of not higher than 45 °C. Therefore,
materials can be accelerated because the dissolved oxygen the requirement for the materials is low and the membrane
from the seawater evaporation and the air infiltrated into the casing, most of the pipelines and the adapting pieces, except
negative pressure container from the external atmosphere are the high-pressure pipeline and the energy recovery device
dissolved in the condensate, which can be directly diffused can be produced by the nonmetallic materials. The metal
to the surface of the copper alloy substrate.
For example, the aluminum brass pipes were often used
in the high-temperature grades of some multistage flash
desalination plants in the Middle East. The breakage and
perforations have occurred after the 15 years of service
because the steam side was subject to the corrosion of the
non-condensable gases and the pitting corrosion of
high-temperature steam. Even if the 90/10CuNi white cop-
per pipes were used, the steam side corrosion could not be
avoided, as shown in Fig. 5.79. Please refer to Fig. 5.80 for
the cross-section diagram of the pitting corrosion in the
90/10CuNi heat transfer tube for the Jabel Dhana multistage
flash desalination plant in Abu Dhabi. It is shown that the
holes of pitting corrosion are blocked by the corrosion
products. Please refer to Fig. 5.81 for the surface appearance
before and after the cleaning of 90/10CuNi heat transfer
tubes with the failure of pitting corrosion in one multistage Fig. 5.79 The comparison of surface corrosion morphology in
flash desalination plant in the Middle East. laboratory simulation of 90/10CuNi specimen steam side pitting
Different from the thermal desalination process, the corrosion (up) and 90/10CuNi pipe in MSF desalination plant in
reverse osmosis desalination is pressure driven at the usual service for 15 years 9 (down)
Fig. 5.80 Cross-section diagram

of the pitting corrosion in the
90/10CuNi heat transfer tube for
the Jabel Dhana multistage flash
desalination plant in Abu Dhabi
Fig. 5.81 Surface appearance

(up) after the failure corrosion of
90/10CuNi heat transfer tubes in
one multistage flash desalination
plant in the Middle East and the
local enlarged view after cleaning
(down)
materials with higher strength must be used for the reverse 904L austenitic stainless steels are mainly used in the reverse
osmosis high-pressure pipeline because it should withstand osmosis high-pressure pipelines; however, as is shown in
the pressure of 6–8 MPa. In the Arabian Gulf and the Fig. 5.82, the obvious crevice corrosion is easily generated
Mediterranean areas at the early times, the 316L, 317L, and in the clamping short pipes. This may be related to the fact
(a) (b)
Crevice corrosion pit
Fig. 5.82 Crevice corrosion morphology of austenitic stainless steel high-pressure piping and membrane casing joints. a SS316L stainless
steel-Jeddah; b SS904L-Spain
662 B. Hou
that the dissolved oxygen in the seawater is accumulated on the carbon steel casing in each evaporator flash room of the
the concentrated water side, and leads to crevice corrosion in multistage flash is not lower than 12 mm so as to ensure the
the stainless steel materials. service life of the equipment for 25 years. If the vacuum
degasser fails to reach the performance indicators mentioned
5. Galvanic Corrosion above, adding a certain amount of sodium sulfite reducing
agent can ensure the oxygen removal effect of the system.
The distillation desalination equipment has a small risk of Therefore, the sufficient seawater degassing and improved
serious galvanic corrosion, because focused consideration equipment sealing performance can also effectively reduce
has been paid on the matching of the tube sheet of the the steam side corrosion of carbon steel casings and the brass
shell-and-tube heat exchanger with the heat transfer tube at and white copper heat transfer tubes. Therefore, the seawater
the stage of engineering design. For example, the copper degassing process can be deemed as one of the keys for the
tube sheets are usually used as tube sheet and supportive reduction of corrosion failure of distilled seawater desali-
plate for the heat recovery section and tube bundle in the nation equipment.
heat exhaust section of the multistage flash. The serious The modern technology of low-temperature multi-effect
problems of galvanic corrosion do not happen even if the distillation seawater desalination began in the 1980s. This
316L stainless steel plate is used as the tube sheet and the kind of equipment does not have the requirements for the
supportive sheet of the copper alloy tube bundle in the seawater degassing as strict as the multistage flash equip-
evaporator of the multi-effect distillation seawater desalina- ment because the equipment operation temperature is low
tion. This is because even though the potential difference of and the environmental corrosivity is small. Therefore, the
about 200 mV between the stainless steel tube plate and the high-efficiency degasser is not separately equipped, and the
connected copper alloy tube exists, the heat transfer tube and degassing process is usually completed in the condenser.
the tube sheet are large anodes and small cathodes. In Then the simply flocculated and precipitated raw seawater is
addition, the seawater degassing reduces the reaction rate of sprayed on the surface of the heat transfer tube bundle of the
the cathode depolarization. Moreover, the HCO3−, CO32− in condenser, so that the remaining steam in the pipe can be
seawater can form a thin layer of scale on the surface of the cooled. Besides, the part of the dissolved gas of the sprayed
cathode of the galvanic couple, which will further delay the seawater outside the pipe overflows due to the decrease of
galvanic corrosion process of the copper tube. Therefore, the partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the negative
obvious galvanic corrosion does not occur. pressure container (consistent with the Henry’s theorem, as
However, in the seawater tank at the upper condenser of shown in Fig. 5.83). This has effectively protected the cor-
the heat recovery section and the heat discharge section in rosion protection requirements of the medium and
the multistage flash, if the titanium heat transfer tube is high-temperature effect groups.
directly connected with the copper alloy or the 304L, 316L
stainless steel tube sheet and the supportive plate, the sea- 2. Coating Protection
water medium filled with the water tank may constitute the
continuous conductive paths, which will result in more Since the maximum evaporation temperature of seawater is
serious problems of galvanic corrosion. only about 70 °C, the low-cost material selection schemes
combining carbon steel, coating corrosion resistance, and
5.3.2.2 Control Methods of Seawater cathodic protection are also adopted in the low-temperature
Desalination Corrosion grade of multistage flash heat recovery section and the
low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination equip-
1. Seawater Degassing ment, such as the Israel IDE company. Inside the evaporator
of the low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination,
In the distillation desalination equipment at the early times, some cylinder materials are immersed in concentrated brine,
the strict control of the seawater degassing process is mainly and others are located in the high-temperature steam and salt
carried out by reducing the uniform corrosion rate of the spray environment. The cathodic protection technology
carbon steel casing and the copper alloy heat transfer tube. cannot cover all the areas inside the evaporator in full and
For example, the SWCC of Saudi Arabia had the require- the steam and salt spray areas must be mainly protected with
ment for the seawater degassing unit of the multistage flash the heavy anticorrosion coating.
that the liquid load cannot exceed 20 kg/(s m2) and the strict At present, the internal anticorrosive coating for the dis-
control of the dissolved oxygen and CO2 of the outlet sea- tilled seawater desalination is mainly coated by hand or
water to be below 20 ppb and 3 ppm, respectively. In machines. The type of the coating is epoxy paint. With
addition, it should be ensured that the corrosion allowance of excellent adhesion and low shrinkage rate, the epoxy resin
Nozzle
Tube bundle
Tube sheet
Oxygen dissolved in raw water
Dissolved oxygen distributed around the tube
bundle.
Dissolved oxygen balance
Fig. 5.83 Schematic diagram of typical oxygen distribution in a multi-effect distillation device
has good corrosion resistance and permeability resistance for of 120 °C. In addition, the coatings are expected to last the
water, acid with medium strength, alkali, and other solvents. service life for more than 5 years in the abovementioned
The more curing agent held can make it have good film environment. The improved coatings were used to repair two
formation performance under various construction condi- MSF devices (each set has a water production of 11,500 m3/
tions, which can well miscible with various resins, fillers, d at the maximum brine temperature of 90 °C) with 11 years
and auxiliaries. In addition, it is not easy for the paint film to of operation at the Sitra Power Plant, Bahrain in 1987. The
dissolve the toxic and harmful substances in the desalinated repaired coatings performed well after 10 months of opera-
water medium, so it is in line with the hygienic safety tion of the devices, but it was found that there were perfo-
requirements of drinking water. Currently, two main types of ration and substrate corrosion on the repaired coatings after
coating products abroad are applied for the internal anti- 13 years during the reinspection.
corrosion processing of the thermal desalination equipment A series of research work has also been conducted on the
—the Ankiol series coatings of Akzo, Netherlands and the heavy-duty anticorrosive coatings for low-temperature
heavy anticorrosion coatings of Carboline, USA. multi-effect seawater desalination equipment in China. Dur-
For example, the Ankiol series of coatings were applied ing the period of the “Tenth Five-Year Plan”, the Tianjin
in the internal anticorrosion processing of the carbon steel Institute of Seawater Desalination and Comprehensive
evaporator in the MSF low-temperature section (<80 °C) in Utilization Research of National Oceanic Administration
1973. By the end of the 1980s, the inner walls of the screened out the formula of anticorrosive coatings with high
evaporators with the area of 250,000 m2 had been accu- vitrification temperature and good impermeability of cured
mulated. To improve the corrosion resistance of the coatings resin. With the research direction of developing the
in high-temperature brine, the Akzo Company developed the heavy-duty anticorrosive coatings with high
organic amine or amide cured epoxy resin anticorrosive anti-permeability and high build, it is based on the phenolic
coatings. The improved coatings of Ankiol series can still epoxy resin and the research on the various epoxy curing
maintain good performance after being in service for 3 years agents and impermeability fillers. Moreover, the
in the environment at the salinity of 7% and the temperature low-temperature curing performance of the coatings is further
664 B. Hou
improved for the possible construction situation in winter, so the 3–4-level high-temperature part before the heat recovery
that the coatings can be applied in the environment below 15 section of the multistage flash equipment, the majority of the
°C. These high-build rust-bearing heavy-duty anticorrosive desalination plants have used the 70/30CuNi with better
coatings (THD) were successively applied in the 60 m3/d corrosion resistance. In addition, the compositions
pilot device and the 3,000 m3/d low-temperature multi-effect (66/30/2/2CuNiFeMn copper–nickel alloy), including the
seawater desalination demonstration device of Huangdao microscale Fe and Mn, added in the copper–nickel alloy can
Power Plant, Shandong. The coatings can be cured within further improve the alloy strength, elevate the stability and
24 h in the temperatures of 9–18 °C and within 48 h at the self-repairability of the surface passivation film. Moreover, a
outdoor temperature of below 5 °C. few desalination plants have applied the industrial pure
In addition to considering the performance of the coating titanium pipes with higher corrosion resistance or the
itself in terms of the material selection scheme of carbon Pd-containing titanium alloy heat transfer pipes. In order to
steel + coating anticorrosive evaporator, the pretreatment of avoid the risks of galvanic corrosion, the material selection
surface coatings is key as well. The corrosion is the most easily for pipe sheets corresponding includes 70/30CuNi,
generated in the welded junctions and the flatness of them has 90/10CuNi, naval brass, nickel aluminum bronze, and a
great impact on the quality of the coating. In the devices, all the small number of aluminum bronze, carbon steel composite
welded junctions, the sharp corners, and burrs must be pol- board, etc. In the low-temperature multi-effect seawater
ished and the residual weld slags should be removed and desalination equipment, the nozzle pressure of the seawater
degreased. Next, the sandblasting and rusting (above Sa2.5), spray liquid system in the upper part of each effect evapo-
sand removal, and dust removal should be conducted in order. rator reaches 1.0–2.0 bar. The initial velocity of the seawater
Finally, the coating construction on the surface can be carried sprayed on the upper part of the heat transfer tube bundle is
out. If the carbon steel materials are used for the screws, nuts, relatively high. After the buffer from the first three rows of
gaskets, etc. connecting the tube sheet, the freshwater tank heat transfer tubes at the top, the seawater flow rate is
cover, and the sealing plates inside the evaporator, the surface reduced to the normal flow rate range of the falling-film
should be coated for protection as well. evaporation. Therefore, the first three rows at the top of each
effect heat transfer tube bundle are relatively influenced by
2. Material Selection of Optimized Equipment the seawater cloth liquid. The industrial pure titanium tubes
are generally used to avoid the corrosion failure problem of
Since the equipment depreciation accounts for a small pro- the heat transfer tubes which resulted from the high-speed
portion (about 20%) of the water production costs in the flushing of seawater. In addition, the TA2 industrial pure
seawater desalination projects, the seawater desalination titanium tubes are generally used in the multi-effect distil-
industry should select the high-grade anticorrosive materials lation condenser because the seawater is located in the slow
according to the corrosive environments of different parts of degassing stage with the relatively high dissolved oxygen
the equipment. The common low-cost protection measures content. Besides, for example, when the steam supplied by
include the use of the stainless steel plate of carbon steel the power plant has more N2H4, NH3, and other materials, it
casing liner, copper–nickel alloy plate, or the internal anti- is required to use the titanium heat transfer tube at a higher
corrosive coating to be brushed. Besides, using the full grade to replace the aluminum brass heat transfer material,
duplex steel casing can also reach the good cost performance so that the accelerated corrosion of the contaminated sea-
in the structural design of the optimized equipment, which water can be prevented.
can also effectively reduce the operation and maintenance In order to combine the consistence with the material
costs in the later period. Therefore, the application propor- selection with the evaporator casing and the corrosion
tion in the multistage flash and low-temperature multi-effect resistance of the internal direct contact with the seawater
distillation equipment is gradually increasing. droplets, the 316L, 317L stainless steel lining or the full
Traditionally, the copper alloy heat transfer pipes were stainless steel design is usually adopted in the vacuum sys-
used for the heat transfer materials, which has reached the tem and the seawater degassing system. Currently, the
proportion of more than 90% in the distilled seawater nickel-based alloy steels such as Incoloy 825 or super aus-
desalination plants invested and constructed worldwide. tenitic steel such as 254SMO are also used by some
Later, according to the corrosion conditions of different parts desalination plants in the Middle East to replace the 304L,
of the distillation desalination equipment, the refined 316L, 904L austenitic stainless steel as the material of the
adjustment of material selection is carried out on the con- main body of steam injection pump (including suction
ventional 90/10 copper–nickel alloy or aluminum brass chamber, suction pipe, diffuser chamber, and diffuser pipe).
pipes. For example, in order to resist the erosion and cor- In this way, the pitting corrosion resistance can be improved,
rosion of high-temperature seawater in the brine heater and as shown in Fig. 5.84.
concentration cannot fully remove the accelerated corrosion

of 0.01–0.1 ppm S2− in the contaminated seawater, it has
effectively inhibited the pitting corrosion of copper pipes
after the use for 90 days. For the multistage flash desalina-
tion equipment with the use of titanium heat transfer tubes,
the iron sacrificial anode materials are installed in the tank
tube sheets of the condenser, so that it can avoid the
occurrence of perforation of galvanic corrosion in the copper
alloy or stainless steel tube sheets. For example, the 9%
nickel steel is used as the sacrificial anode material at the
high-temperature grade with the operating temperature
Fig. 5.84 Vacuum system made of 316L and 254SMO stainless steel
for a MSF desalination plant in the Middle East
above 70 °C and the soft iron is often used as the sacrificial
anode material in the evaporator at the operating temperature
below 70 °C.
In order to prevent the problem of crevice corrosion at the Since the carbon steel + anticorrosion coating or full
joints of high-pressure pipelines in the reverse osmosis stainless steel design is often adopted in the evaporator
seawater desalination equipment of the areas with high cylinder of the low-temperature multi-effect distillation
temperature in tropical or subtropical regions, the seawater desalination equipment, the material has relatively
high-pressure pipelines and fittings are made from the low corrosion rate in the low oxygen seawater environment.
high-grade corrosion-resistant materials, such as the super To further reduce the corrosion failure risks of the lower part
austenitic or duplex stainless steel. For example, the use of of the evaporator in the seawater immersion area, a small
reverse osmosis high-pressure pipelines and fittings made number of sacrificial anode materials are also installed in this
from the 254SMO and other 6Mo stainless steels has been part, including the iron anodes or aluminum anodes. The
verified and promoted for application, as well as the sacrificial anode materials are not necessarily installed on the
high-pressure pipelines and fittings are made from 2205 and tube sheet inside the evaporator. However, if the evaporator
2507 duplex steels. In recent days, China has been devel- and the condenser do not have good sealing performance, it
oping the titanium high-pressure pipelines and fittings will lead to more volume of gas leaked in the device. This
reverse osmosis seawater desalination and passed through will prone to cause the problem of crevice corrosion of the
the pilot experiment research on the Fujian Gulei Site for a tube sheets. Under these circumstances, it is necessary to
period of half a year. The titanium pipelines and fittings can ensure the normal operation of the evaporator by replacing
reach the application requirements in various performances, the seal, repairing the corrosion area of the tube hole, and
which have good technology promotion value. pasting the iron anode to the tube sheets.
3. Sacrificial Anode and Cathodic protection 4. Control Seawater Pretreatment Process
It is a kind of common anticorrosive technology in the dis- In the vacuum lines of the distillation seawater desalination
tillation desalination equipment, that is, use the sacrificial and the steam jet vacuum pump, it is generally required to
anode and cathodic protection technology to improve the regulate the seawater pretreatment process reasonably to
corrosion resistance of special parts of the equipment. For avoid the local pitting corrosion perforation and stress cor-
example, the evaporator made of the 90/10CuNi alloy tube is rosion cracking generated in this part, and control the dosage
used in the multistage flash equipment. It should pay of the fungicide so that the residual chlorine and bromine
attention to the crevice corrosion between the heat transfer content in the seawater can be reduced; the design of the
tube and the tube sheet and the erosion corrosion at the vacuum piping system is adjusted, the pipeline effluent is
seawater inlet end of the heat transfer tube. In general, it reduced, and the vapor–liquid separator with the higher
should be protected by pasting the sacrificial anode material. efficient separation is adopted to reduce the non-condensable
Most of the anode materials are made from the iron anode. Cl−, SO42− content in the vacuum line; meanwhile, the
Compared with the aluminum anode commonly used in the corrosion allowance of the pipelines and the parts in various
seawater environment, the iron anode can not only provide vacuum systems is optimized to avoid the problems of stress
sufficient protection current but also the anode corrosion can corrosion cracking generated due to local pitting corrosion
release the Fe2+of 0.01–0.2 ppm. This is helpful to the and reduction of the wall thickness.
corrosion-resistant passivation film formed on the seawater Moreover, it is required to consider the issue of seawater
side surface of the copper tube. Although the Fe2+ of this contamination when the desalination plant site is selected
666 B. Hou
and the water intake is designed. The water intake place with different technologies. Please refer to Figs. 5.85 and
should be away from the sea areas vulnerably contaminated 5.86. The high-grade alloy materials in multi-effect distilla-
as much as possible and the contents of the pollutants in the tion are mainly used to make the stainless steel and con-
raw seawater, including the H2S, organic acids, should be denser of evaporator casing and the titanium heat transfer
strictly monitored. In this way, it can avoid the resulting tubes in evaporator while the high-grade alloy materials in
problem of corrosion failure of copper alloy heat transfer reverse osmosis are mainly used to make the stainless steel
materials. If it is extremely difficult to avoid the microscale high-pressure pipeline and adapting pieces.
S2− (concentration 0.1 ppm) contamination in the sea- Let us take the seawater desalination project with a scale
water, the risks of the copper tubes of the pitting corrosion of 50,000 m3/d as an example, if it uses the low-temperature
induced by the S2− can be reduced by adding a small amount multi-effect distillation seawater desalination technology, the
of ferrous sulfate to the process seawater. However, during basic construction cost of the project is about RMB 400
the process of use, it should pay attention that the excessive million, the anticorrosion cost (that is, the cost of using
amount of Fe2+ will increase the scaling rate of the heat high-grade alloy materials) in the initial stage is about RMB
transfer tube surfaces and influence the heat transfer effi- 40 million; if it uses the reverse osmosis technology, the
ciency. It was recommended by the experts that the anti- basic construction cost of the project is about RMB 325
corrosion and scaling problems can be taken into million, the anticorrosion cost (that is, the cost of using
consideration by gradually reducing the dosage of the high-grade alloy materials) in the initial stage is about RMB
divalent iron salt after the passivation film is formed on the 48.75 million.
surface of the copper heat transfer tube at the preliminary There are two parts in the costs of the seawater desali-
period of the equipment operation. nation water production, namely, fixed costs and variable
If the aluminum alloy heat transfer tubes are used in the costs. The fixed costs include the costs required to be paid by
low-temperature multi-effect distillation seawater desalina- the desalination plant, regardless of the water production,
tion, it is generally required to set the ion trap device before which mainly includes the equipment depreciation and
the material water enters the evaporator, namely, the simple investment cost interest, labor costs. Sometimes, the equip-
container containing the same aluminum “fragments” or ment maintenance and repairing costs are also included in
short tubes as the heat transfer material system. In this way, the fixed costs for the purpose of simplifying the cost
the heavy metal ions such as copper and iron, which are easy accounting, even though they are also related to the opera-
to induce the pitting corrosion of aluminum tube in the tion time of the desalination plant. The variable costs refer to
seawater, are removed to avoid the accelerated pitting cor- the costs incurred during the water production operation of
rosion of the aluminum tube in the devices. the desalination plant related to the operation time and water
production capability of the desalination plant, which mainly
includes the fees for steam consumption, operating elec-
5.3.3 Analysis of Investment in Corrosion tricity, chemical consumption, and waste discharges (such as
Protection and Typical Cases in Seawater the wastewater discharge fee required to be paid in some
Desalination Industry in China countries). According to the statistics of the Spanish Asso-
ciation of Desalination and Reuse, please refer to Figs. 5.87
5.3.3.1 Anticorrosion Investment in Seawater and 5.88 for the composition and proportion of water pro-
Desalination Projects duction costs of the thermal and membrane desalination. At
present, there has not been the data of annual average
1. Anticorrosion Investment Estimation of Seawater maintenance costs of corrosion protection in terms of the
Desalination Projects reverse osmosis membrane desalination projects in China
and foreign countries. Therefore, this kind of difference can
Since the products in the seawater desalination projects are only be shown through the maintenance cost in the costs of
mainly the desalinated water and the process routes are the water production indirectly.
mature technology with the verification for many years, the Let us take the seawater desalination project with a scale
relatively accurate investment estimation can be obtained in of 50,000 m3/d as an example. If the low-temperature
the early period of the planning stage according to the multi-effect distillation seawater desalination technology is
engineering projects that have been completed. In the adopted, based on the steam price of RMB 30/ton and the
desalination market research reports released in 2007, Global water production ratio of 12, the unit water production cost
Water Intelligence (GWI) conducted the statistics of the (the cost of desalinated water per ton) is about RMB
engineering investment data of three commercial desalina- 6.25/m3. According to the full-load operation of 300 days
tion technologies invested prior to 1006, and analyzed the per year and the annual average water production of 15
composition and proportion of the engineering investment million m3, the annual average equipment maintenance cost
Installation engineering
Engineering design fee
Legal cost
Water intake and drainage
Pre-treatment
Civil engineering
Pump
Equipment and materials
High-grade alloy material
Processing
Fig. 5.85 Investment proportions of multi-effect distillation seawater desalination projects
is about RMB 2.5 million. If the reverse osmosis seawater Fig. 5.89 for the initial anticorrosion costs for the con-
desalination technology is adopted, the unit water production struction in each year.
cost is about RMB 4.85/m3, according to the full-load It is extremely difficult to effectively define the anticor-
operation of 300 days per year and the annual average water rosion investment during the operation period of the sea-
production of 15 million m3, the annual average equipment water desalination equipment, with the main reasons as
maintenance cost is about RMB 3.4 million. follows: ① because of the issue of water supply system, it is
very difficult for the seawater desalination equipment to be
2. Analysis of AntiCorrosion Investment in Seawater operated at full capacity. In particular, the large seawater
Desalination Projects in China desalination equipment with the aim of municipal water
supply, the actual operating time of which is impossible to
In terms of the desalination industry, China has currently be defined. Therefore, it is hard to effectively calculate the
entered a period of steady development. There were 17 new engineering operating costs of the project and the anticor-
seawater desalination projects in 2013 and 2014 with the rosion maintenance costs; ② in the cost accounting, only the
newly increased capacity of 151,540 m3/d, including the maintenance and repair expenses of the equipment are listed
new 25,030 m3/d of low-temperature multi-effect desalina- even though the desalination plant is put into operation, in
tion. The reverse osmosis desalination technology was which the anticorrosion maintenance expenses are not
adopted in the rest. Please refer to Table 5.55 for the details. refined. In addition, the public reports of the above infor-
The basic construction cost of the low-temperature mation are restricted because it is the enterprise business
multi-effect distillation desalination project for the above secret or based on the information disclosure system of listed
equipment investment is estimated to be about RMB 200 companies. Moreover, it is impossible for the research
million according to the newly increased capacity. The basic institutions to conduct the detailed statistics; ③ the operat-
construction cost of the reverse osmosis desalination project ing and maintenance expenses of seawater desalination
is about RMB 822 million. The initial anticorrosion cost for equipment are not only related to the desalination technol-
the construction is about RMB 143 million. Please refer to ogy adopted by the company but also restricted by the
668 B. Hou
Installation engineering
Engineering design fee
Legal cost
Water intake and drainage
Pre-treatment system
Civil engineering
Pump
Equipment and materials
Pressure container
Membrane material
Pipeline and high-grade alloy material
Fig. 5.86 Investment proportion of reverse osmosis seawater desalination projects
subjective and objective factors, such as the raw water (1) Project Overview
quality conditions, seawater pretreatment conditions, oper-
ating experience, maintenance, and repair experience. For In 2004, the Tianjin Institute of Seawater Desalination and
these reasons, it is also difficult to get the relatively accurate Comprehensive Utilization Research of the State Oceanic
statistical data. Administration independently designed and produced the
Due to the above reasons, the annual operating and 3,000 m3/d multi-effect distillation seawater desalination
maintenance expenses of desalination industry nationwide device, achieving the zero breakthrough in the multi-effect
can only be estimated according to the relevant experience distillation seawater desalination project in China. Please
and data in foreign countries. In addition, it is assumed that refer to Fig. 5.90. This project has integrated the technolo-
the seawater desalination projects that have been constructed gies, including the multi-effect evaporation, multistage flash,
have realized the full capacity operation. Based on this, the steam hot compression, etc., and has realized the water
daily equipment maintenance and repair expenses of the production proportion of 10.3.
desalination industry nationwide are calculated (not includ- The whole device is made up of the evaporator, con-
ing the desalination equipment constructed in the current centrated water, freshwater flash tank, the support, the
year). Please refer to Table 5.56 for details. platform, the ladder, and other parts. The process pump and
piping system are located inside the support below the
5.3.3.2 Analysis of Typical Cases evaporator. With the total length of 62.66 m, the width of
8.92 m and the height of 11.46 m, the whole set of the
1. 3,000 m3/d Low-temperature Multi-effect Distillation equipment consists of nine-effect evaporators and one con-
Seawater Desalination Equipment of Huangdao Power denser. The cylinder has a diameter of 4 m, which is covered
Plant with the rock wool insulation layer with the thickness of
50 mm. The single effect evaporator has a length of 6.02 m.
Thermal seawater desalination

Steam
Electric energy
Chemical agents
Labor
Equipment maintenance
Chemical cleaning
Fig. 5.87 Composition and proportion of water production costs of distilled seawater desalination
(2) Equipment Selection and Anticorrosion Design more convenient. The two-layered louver type is adopted by
the foam trapping device for gas and liquid separation, in
In the project, the copper heat transfer tubes are made of the which the separated production and site assembly are adop-
material of HAL77-2 with the specification of u19 0.75 ted. The self-developed V-shaped external pressure rubber
mm and the length of 4,220 mm. There are 50,000 pieces in gasket is also used for the flange connection and seal of the
total, which is processed and completed by the Luoyang effect room. Based on the needs, the ultrahigh molecular
Copper Co., Ltd. The cylinder of the evaporator is made of weight polyethylene, CPVC, 304 stainless steel, 316L
the carbon steel. The problem of seawater corrosion is solved stainless steel, and other materials are adopted in the piping
by the measure of internal anticorrosion coating, which also of the system.
reduces the production costs of the device. The socket-type A great amount of supporting structures are installed
sprinkler system is adopted inside the evaporator, which inside the evaporator, including the tube plate bracket, which
makes the installation and replacement of the nozzles easy are used to install the tube sheets, freshwater tanks, etc. In
and convenient. In consideration of the anticorrosion and the processing process of the equipment, the anticorrosion
high-efficiency heat transfer problems, the triangle arrange- problem of the evaporator is solved from two aspects,
ment is adopted for the heat transfer tubes and the titanium namely, the material selection and processing process. The
tubes are installed in the first three rows from the top of the use of carbon steel anticorrosion coating is useful for the
tube bundle. Others are arsenic-aluminized brass tubes. The reduction of the water production costs. However, it is
heat transfer tube and the tube sheet are connected by the inevitable to lead to the damage of the anticorrosive coating
self-developed elastic rubber ring. It not only reduces the when the connected is used with the bolts. For this reason,
installation difficulty of the heat transfer tube but also avoids the 316L stainless steel is used to make these supporting
contact corrosion between different materials in an effective structures. The plates are used to produce the required
manner. The separated structure is adopted for the design of channel, angel steel, and other materials. The tube sheet
the tube sheet, which makes the processing and installation bracket is welded on the platform, which is installed in the
670 B. Hou
Amortization (including equipment depreciation and investment

interest)
Electricity energy
Chemical agent
Labor
Equipment maintenance
Membrane replacement
Chemical cleaning
Fig. 5.88 Composition and proportion of water production costs of reverse osmosis seawater desalination
Table 5.55 List of new seawater desalination projects in coastal areas nationwide in 2013 and 2014
No. Time Project name Scale Process
(t/d)
1 2013 Qingdao Baifa Seawater Desalination Co., Ltd. 100,000 RO
2 Phase-III Seawater Desalination Project of Hebei Guohua Cangdian Huangye Power Plant 25,000 MED
3 Luojiashan Seawater Desalination Device in Putuo Mountain, Zhoushan City, Zhejiang Province 120 RO
4 Seawater Desalination Device, Zhaoshu Island, Sansha, Hainan 40 RO
5 First Seawater Desalination Device, Jinqing Island, Xisha, Hainan 30 RO
6 Hainan Solar Thermal Seawater Desalination Device 30 MED
7 Scenery and Wood Storage Seawater Desalination Device, Institute of Desalination 5 RO
8 Seawater Desalination Device, Tianjin Port, China Coal Huaneng Coal Terminal Co., Ltd. 240 RO
9 2014 Jiangsu Dafeng Non-grid Wind Power Seawater Desalination Project 5,000 RO
10 Phase-II First Seawater Desalination Project, Liuheng Island, Putuo District, Zhoushan City, 12,500 RO
Zhejiang Province
11 Phase II Seawater Desalination Project, Qushan Island, Daishan County, Zhoushan City, Zhejiang 5,000 RO
Province
12 Phase II Seawater Desalination Project, Xiushan Island, Daishan County, Zhoushan City, Zhejiang 3,000 RO
Province
13 Seawater Desalination Project, Baishaben Island, Putuo District, Zhoushan City, Zhejiang Province 500 RO
14 Second Seawater Desalination Device, Jinqing Island, Xisha, Hainan 30 RO
15 Seawater Desalination Device, Lingyang Island, Yongle Islands, Sansha City, Hainan 15 RO
16 Seawater Desalination Device, Yagong Island, Yongle Islands, Sansha City, Hainan 15 RO
17 Seawater Desalination Device, Qilianyu North Island, Sansha City, Hainan 15 RO
Anti-corrosion investment/RMB 10,000

Year
Fig. 5.89 Anticorrosion investment for new desalination equipment in 2013 and 2014
Table 5.56 Estimation of 2013 2014

operating and maintenance costs
of seawater desalination Total seawater desalination scale (m3/d) 774,365a 900,830b
equipment nationwide in 2013 MED Full-load capacity (m3/d) 296,060a 321,090b
and 2014 3
Annual average production volume/(based on 300 days, 10,000 m ) 8882 9633
3
Water production costs/(estimation, RMB/m ) 6.25 6.25
Annual maintenance and repair costs/(estimation, RMB 10,000) 1499 1626
3 a
RO Full-load capacity (m /d) 472,105 573,540b
3
Annual average production volume/(based on 300 days, 10,000 m ) 14,163 17,206
3
Water production costs/(estimation, RMB/m ) 4.85 4.85
Annual maintenance and repair costs/(estimation, RMB 10,000) 3228 3922
Total annual average maintenance and repair costs/RMB 10,000 4727 5548
a
The seawater utilization report data nationwide at the end of 2012
b
The seawater utilization report data nationwide at the end of 2013
cylinder as a whole. In this way, the corrosion problem of

the supporting structure is solved. The corrosion is easily
caused at the welding junction, the flatness of which greatly
influences the coating quality. All the welding junctions
have been totally polished in these devices. However,
because of the structural shape, some positions may not be
polished well. For these problems, the following measures
are taken:
A piece of stainless steel lining is installed on the welding
junction between the structural section and the cylinder.
First, the structural section and lining plate are welded.
Then, the lining plate and the cylinder are welded. In this
Fig. 5.90 3,000 m3/d low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalina- way, there is no need to carry out anticorrosion in some
tion equipment of Huangdao welding junctions with complicated shapes. It is only
required to conduct the anticorrosion of the welding
672 B. Hou
made for improving the low-temperature curing perfor-

mance. It can be seen from the site application situation that
the THD coating has relatively good construction perfor-
mance. It can be cured at the outdoor temperature of 5 °C,
but it takes a longer time, that is, about 48 h. Curing in 24 h
can be realized when the indoor temperatures are from 9 to
18 °C, which has reached the degree for the coating of the
next paint. In addition, the THD primer has good perme-
ability to the substrate. During the process of construction, if
a neat and uniform red color can be seen under the bottom
when a piece of paint film is cracked out and the substrate is
not exposed, it means that the primer and the metal substrate
can be closely combined. However, it is decided to build a
Fig. 5.91 Internal anticorrosion coating construction in the evaporator temporary drying room in order to ensure there are no
defects of the anticorrosion problem, which heats and dries
the equipment with the completed coating. In this way, the
junctions between the lining plate and the cylinder, which is curing temperature of the coating is improved, so as to
easy to be processed. In addition, the steel plate is used to ensure the corrosion resistance of the coating and extend the
implement the seal as a whole in some places with com- service life of the equipment.
plicated shapes which are hard to be processed. Therefore, Whereas the anticorrosion is a very significant aspect of
the internal surface of the cylinder is very simple, which has the seawater desalination devices, the by sacrificial anode
reduced the difficulty of the coating construction and protection is added as the auxiliary measure while the anti-
improved the anticorrosion quality. Please refer to Fig. 5.91 corrosion coating is applied in the device. Please refer to
for the pictures of the internal anticorrosion coating con- Table 5.57 for the costs of the coating protection and its
struction in the evaporator. supporting measures.
In the device, the THD-specific coating for the The anticorrosion materials and construction costs of the
high-temperature seawater corrosion resistance is used, project are RMB 276,000 and the sacrificial anode and
which has been researched and developed by the Tianjin cathodic protection costs are RMB 20,000. The total costs
Institute of Seawater Desalination and Comprehensive are RMB 296,000, accounting for only about 1% of the total
Utilization of the State Oceanic Administration Research for investment of the project. It can be seen that, compared with
the seawater desalination equipment. The anticorrosion of the use of the corrosion-resistant stainless steel materials, the
the equipment directly affects the service life of the device, application of the carbon steel + anticorrosion coating
the anticorrosion quality of which is one of the important design can reduce the investment costs of distilled seawater
control points in the process of device manufacturing. In desalination equipment effectively.
particular, multiple construction schemes have been devel-
oped for the circumstances of winter construction, which (3) Corrosion Failure Analysis
ensures the curing conditions of the coating. It is because the
curing temperature is directly related to the final quality of The device was shut down for the purpose of inspection and
the coating. Based on the relevant national standards, it is maintenance in 2008, which mainly checked the corrosion
not appropriate to carry out the coating construction when situation of the heat transfer tubes and structural parts in the
the environmental temperature is lower than 15 °C. There- evaporator. It is found by the investigation that there was no
fore, in addition to considering various measures so as to obvious erosion corrosion and pitting corrosion in the copper
increase the curing temperature, improvement has been alloy heat transfer tubes of various effect evaporators. There
Table 5.57 Estimation of 3,000 m3/d low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination anticorrosion costs
Cost composition Estimated area (m2) Material costs/RMB 10,000 Construction costs/RMB 10,000
Anticorrosion inside the cylinder 1040 23.4 23.4a
Anticorrosion outside the cylinder 1040 4.2 4.2a
Sacrificial anode material – 2 –
Total – 29.6
a
The costs of coating construction are estimated according to the works and the materials
Fig. 5.92 Appearance of heat

transfer tubes during the
inspection and maintenance in
2008
was obvious scaling formed on the surface of the heat equipment coating, the quality of which is related to 60% of
transfer tubes. Please refer to Fig. 5.92. It can be seen that, the service life of the coating. The conventional procedures
under the working environment of the low-temperature and are using the solvent (gasoline or thinner) to wipe off the oil
multi-effect seawater desalination, the aluminum brass contamination on the internal surface of the equipment and
materials have good corrosion resistance. applying the sandblasting treatment after it is completely
During the inspection of the damages of the internal cleaned. The level of sandblasting and rust removal should
anticorrosion coating of various effect evaporators, there was reach above the Sa2.5 (compared with the standard photo)
no blistering, peeling, or other situation in most of the regulated in the national standard GB 8923-88. In addition,
internal anticorrosion coatings, which was relatively com- there was no visible oil contamination and iron rust scale on
plete. There was no obvious red rust mark on the surface of the surface. The grayish-white metallic luster is presented
the paint film. However, some welding junctions and the
backs of the tube sheet welded reinforcing ribs were seri-
ously damaged, especially the first effect evaporator. Since
the temperature of the working steam is relatively high, the
corrosion problem in the coating thin and weak part can be
accelerated. Please refer to Figs. 5.93 and 5.94. In addition,
some small adapting pieces were also slightly corroded, such
as the escalator inside the evaporator. Please refer to
Fig. 5.95.
In general, it is required to carry out appropriate heat
treatment on the welding area in the evaporator before the
equipment is coated, so that the local stress of the welded
joints and the heat-affected zone can be eliminated. Then the
coating can be implemented. However, the effective heat
treatment measure in some welding positions has not been
taken in the actual engineering process, which has resulted in
the local pitting corrosion in the welding junctions between
the tube plates and the reinforcing ribs. In addition, it is very
Fig. 5.93 Damages to the paint film in the welded joints and welded
critical to carry out the surface processing before the heat-affected positions
674 B. Hou
during the actual engineering process, which has influenced

the durability of the coating paint film.
It is required to polish the paint film in the defective
positions with an angle grinder and the substrate carbon steel
is exposed during the process of repair. Then the sanding
paper is used to polish the corrosion products and the uneven
positions. Finally, the anticorrosive coating is coated after
the cleaning. The total thickness of the paint film is
300 lm.
Since this set of equipment supplies the water for the
boiler of the power plant and the steam comes from the
power plant as well, Huangdao Power Plant has not done
independent detailed water production costs accounting of
this set of equipment and failed to calculate the annual
average costs for anticorrosion maintenance.
2. 200,000 m3/d Low-temperature Multi-effect Distillation

Seawater Desalination Equipment of Beijiang Power
Plant
(1) Project Overview

Fig. 5.94 Damage to the paint film in the heat-affected zone on the
back of the tube sheet of the welded reinforcing ribs
Tianjin Beijiang Power Plant has the planned installed
capacity of 4 1,000 MW. In the Phase-I engineering, the
seawater desalination project with two ultrasupercritical
coal-fired units and the supporting facilities with the daily
output of 200,000 tons of freshwater have been completed.
Located at the coast of the Bohai Sea in the south of Hanyu,
Tianjin, the Tianjin Beijiang Power Plant is a large-scale
system project integrating the operation mode of power
generation, seawater desalination, and salt production of
concentrated seawater. It is pilot project of circular economy.
As the key link in the process system of the Beijiang Power
Plant, the seawater desalination acts as the role of the link
between the preceding and the following. The freshwater is
produced by the power plant using the power, the large
amount of generated low-pressure steam and the seawater
water intake and drainage facilities. Some freshwater is
served as the supplementary water of the boiler in the power
Fig. 5.95 Corrosion situation of the escalator in the evaporator plant, the industrial water and domestic drinking water and
the rest is supplied to the cities. After the seawater is
desalinated, the concentrated brine discharged is sent to the
during the treatment. It is required to carry out the sand
salt field for the production of salt.
removal and cleanup after the sandblasting is completed.
To improve the overall thermal efficiency of the whole
The internal various corners and the surface dust in the
plant and reduce the cost of water production, Beijiang
equipment should be removed with the vacuum cleaner and
Power Plant adopted the lowest pressure for steam extraction
the metal surface should be kept dry. The first primer can be
in the steam design of the seawater desalination device;
coated after it is checked to be qualified. It is extremely
meanwhile, the consumption of the steam is reduced. The
important to polish the uneven positions in the welding
peak shifting operation method of power generation and
junctions, such as the burrs. However, the surface treatment
water production is adopted. Try to carry out the water
of these weak and thin positions has not reached the stan-
production when the power generation is low. Therefore, the
dards due to the negligence of the construction personnel
high water production proportion is selected. According to
Table 5.58 Correspondence table between power steam pressure and seawater temperature changes is 6–33 °C and the scope of
water production proportion the salt-containing concentration changes is 48,600–
Power steam pressure (MPa) Water production proportion (GOR) 66,000 mg/L. The water discharged is sent to the seawater
0.12 13 cooling tower for recycled use.
0.50 15 The power steam of the seawater desalination device is
0.03 10.3 the five-stage extraction (medium-pressure cylinder exhaust)
and/or six-stage extraction of the steam turbine. The steam
parameters are changing with the load variation of the
the ecological and environmental protection requirements of generator unit of the steam turbine. The scope of the inlet
the Bohai Bay, there is no seawater outlet set in the power power steam pressure of the desalination device is 0.03–
generation and seawater desalination system. Therefore, 0.669 MPa, the steam temperature scope is 69–310 °C. For
there is no wastewater discharged. The concentrated brine of the use of driving the steam jet compressor, the vacuum
the seawater desalination plant is discharged to the salt field, steam pressure is 0.6–1.2 MPa, which is the superheated
which should be used for producing the edible salt and other steam. The vacuum steam consumption volume of each set
industrial products. This has not only reached the environ- of device is 2 t/h.
mental protection requirements but also improved the The water temperature varies when the equipment is
operating economy of the power plant. operated. The highest temperature of the raw seawater is
The seawater desalination project of Beijiang Power Plant 30 °C and the lowest temperature is −2.1 °C; the highest
is made up of eight devices with the single nominal output of temperature of the cooling water in the condenser is 33 °C
25,000 m3/d of each device, which were introduced from and the lowest temperature is 6 °C.
Israel IDE. The total scale of the seawater desalination is Under the conditions mentioned above, one generator unit
200,000 m3/d. Each set of device is made up of the 13-effect of the steam turbine in the project has installed four sets of
evaporator and two sets of condensers. The steam supplied low-temperature multi-effect distillation seawater desalina-
to the seawater desalination devices is fluctuated between tion devices with the daily output of 25,000 m3 of freshwater.
0.03 and 0.50 MPa. Please refer to Table 5.58 for the cor-
responding water production proportion. The length of the (2) System Operation and Control Method: The process flow
equipment is 123 m, the height is about 18 m, and the includes seawater–seawater intake pump–mixed floccu-
internal diameter of the evaporator is 7.7 m. lation sedimentation tank–clean water tank–seawater
lifting pump–MED–TVC–freshwater tank/pool–user.
(2) Equipment Operating Conditions
Based on different unit load, the seawater desalination device
(1) Water Source Conditions and Power Steam Conditions has different operation modes. The five-stage steam extrac-
tion pressure is 0.669 MPa under the fixed working condi-
Two types of water sources are used in the seawater tions of generator set of 1,000 MW ultrasupercritical steam
desalination device, namely, the raw seawater is adopted for turbine and the temperature is 310 °C. The six-stage pres-
the feed water and the secondary circulation seawater is sure is 0.286 MPa and the temperature is 200 °C. The steam
adopted for the condenser cooling water. extraction pressure of the set is reduced when the load drops.
The raw seawater intake is carried out at the high tide The steam parameters of the seawater desalination device are
level. Two sedimentation adjustment tanks are set outside not greater than 0.669 MPa. When the power steam pressure
the sea block. The entrance gate of the first-stage sedimen- is 0.669–0.5 MPa, the device will enable the steam into the
tation adjustment pool adjusts the inlet water level. After the high-voltage TVC automatically and the water production
second-stage sedimentation adjustment pool and the pressure proportion of the seawater desalination device is 15 at this
improvement of the seawater intake pump, it is sent to the time. When the power steam pressure is 0.5–0.3 MPa, the
cooling tower system of the power plant and the pretreat- device will enable the power steam into the high-voltage
ment system of the seawater desalination device. TVC automatically and the water production proportion of
The concentration of the feed seawater seston is required the seawater desalination device is equal to or smaller than
to be not higher than 25 mg/L in the seawater desalination 15 at this time. When the power steam pressure is 0.3–
device; the scope of the temperature changes is −2.1 to 0.12 MPa, the device will switch the power steam into the
+30 °C and the scope of the salt-containing concentration low-voltage TVC automatically and the water production
changes is 27,000–34,000 mg/L. The secondary circulation proportion at this time is 13. When the steam pressure is
seawater of the generator set is used to cool the condenser of reduced to be smaller than 0.12 MPa, the device will switch
the seawater desalination device. The scope of the cooling the power steam automatically and directly to enter the first
676 B. Hou
effect of the seawater desalination device after the temper- the sludge transmission pump, the mud cake generated
ature and pressure are reduced. is transported outside.
When the concentrated brine of the seawater desalination
device is discharged to the salt plant, the quality concen- When the equipment is operated normally, the drainage
tration of the salt discharged under the fixed working con- of the seawater pretreatment system is discharged to the
ditions is not smaller than 66,000 mg/L. This can meet the collection pool located in the dosing chamber of the seawater
requirements for the production of edible salt and other salts. pretreatment. When the content of the seston meets the
The centralized control method is adopted in the project. requirements of the circulating cooling water system, it is
The monitoring is conducted in the control room of the sent to the circulating cooling water system through the
seawater desalination station. The necessary monitoring recycled water pump. The unqualified water discharged
instruments are installed in the system, which can realize the during the debugging period of the seawater pretreatment
automatic adjustment according to the changes of the equipment is drained to the rainwater drainage system.
parameters of the feedwater and outlet water within the
required design scope, such as temperature and pressure. (4) Performance Parameters of Seawater Desalination Device
Meanwhile, the automatic alarm printing, microcomputer
control, CRT display can be realized, which can be operated Output: Under the rated working conditions, the single
by automation, self-automation, manual locally, and key- output of the device is not less than 25,000 m3/d; the load
board microcomputer in the control room. The seawater adjustment scope is between 40 and 110%. In case of
desalination device is laid in the open air. The auxiliary exceeding the output scope above, the maximum allowable
equipment and the electric control equipment of the seawater operation time is 4 h.
desalination system, such as the water pump, are installed in Quality of product water: The total amount of the solid
the room under the tube bracket on the side of the seawater dissolved matter (TDS) is less than or equal to 5 mg/L. The
desalination device and set in a centralized control room. water production proportion: the water production propor-
tion of the high input parameters is not less than 15.0 and the
(3) Pretreatment system of the seawater desalination water production proportion of the low input parameters is
device: According to the water quality requirements for not less than 13.0.
the feedwater in the seawater desalination device, Power consumption: When the steam pressure is
whereas the situation of poor quality and seriously 0.50 MPa, the power consumption is ensured to be 1.45 kW
polluted raw seawater in Beijing Power Plant, the sea- h/m3; when the steam pressure is 0.12 MPa, the power
water pretreatment procedures are determined as fol- consumption is ensured to be 1.55 kW h/m3.
lows: seawater in secondary sedimentation tank– Noise level: Under the stable operation status with the
seawater intake pumping–micro-sand-accelerated floc- output of not less than 1,000 m3/h, the equipment is 1 m
culation and sedimentation equipment–clean water away from the equipment casing, and 1.2 m away from the
tank–seawater clean water pump–MED equipment– operation platform and the noise level should not be over
sludge concentration and shrinkage–sludge centrifugal 85 dB(A). The scale inhibitor dosing system is set in order
dewatering machine. Based on the requirements for the to prevent the equipment scaling and the scale inhibitor is
volume of the feedwater in the seawater desalination added in the feed raw seawater. The defoaming dosing
device, it is required to consider the water volume of the system is set in order to prevent the occurrence of the foams,
pretreatment of 240,000 m3/d. The seawater pretreat- which can be used according to the situation. The pickling
ment facilities of the project are divided into two device is set in the system as well.
groups, with the water treatment volume in each group
of 5,000 m3/ h. The seawater from the water intake (3) Equipment Selection and Operation Costs Analysis
works is evenly distributed to enter the two groups of
mixed flocculation sedimentation tanks arranged in (1) Equipment selection: The carbon steel is used to pro-
parallel. The water after the treatment of coagulation- duce the evaporator, condenser, flash tank, steam jet
sanding-aging-precipitation enters the clean water pool pump, and steam pipeline. The corrosion resistance of
and is sent to the seawater desalination device after the the equipment is improved through the internal and
clean water pump is elevated. After the sludge gener- external anticorrosion technology. The thin-walled
ated from the flocculation and sedimentation equipment tubes are welded with the aluminum alloy of special
is concentrated by the sludge pool and sent into the imported material in the heat transfer tubes of the
centrifugal dewatering machine for treatment through evaporator and the tube sheet is also made of the
aluminum alloy; the titanium tubes are used in the first (2) Operation Cost Analysis
three rows in various steam units in order to reduce the
erosion corrosion of the seawater. In the condenser, The power plant shall be responsible for bearing the depre-
since the seawater is degassed, with the relatively strong ciation, financial, and other expenses of the steam production
corrosion, the titanium tubes are used for the heat equipment because the 200,000 t/d low-temperature
transfer tubes in this part. The 316L stainless steel is multi-effect seawater desalination project of Beijiang Power
used for the tube plate. Please refer to Table 5.59 for the Plant is a power–water cogeneration project. Therefore, it is
main equipment materials. The use of the above only required to consider the fuel cost, that is, RMB 29.5/ton,
equipment selection plan after the analysis can save in the calculation of the steam price during the water pro-
about 25% of the total investment of the project. duction cost processes. The power plant includes the sea-
water desalination operation and maintenance expenses as
In addition, to reduce the pitting corrosion of the alu- variable costs, excluding the 17% tax, the costs and sewage
minum alloy heat transfer tube in the seawater pretreatment charges of the desalinated water transported to the urban area.
stage, the ion trap device is installed in front of the con- The average water production price during the equipment
denser to prevent heavy metal ions from entering the evap- depreciation period in the internal accounting is as follows:
orator. Meanwhile, the special scale inhibitors are used to The fixed costs mainly include the depreciation of the unit
reduce the corrosion action on the aluminum alloy tubes. fixed assets and financial costs of other units, such as the
Table 5.59 Equipment selection of 8 25,000 m3/d low-temperature multi-effect distillation seawater desalination in Beijiang Power Plant
Item Material Remarks
Evaporator Carbon steel Internal and external corrosion protection of the casing: epoxy heavy-duty
Casing anticorrosion coating, with the total film thickness of 250–400 lm. The
sacrificial anode is installed at the bottom of the casing
Internal supportive frame Carbon steel Same above
External reinforcing rib Carbon steel Same above
External insulation Insulation glue + galvanized With the use of the polyurethane foam, after the galvanized sheet is
sheet + external spray paint installed, fill in the gaps with the sealant. The thickness of the external paint
film is 50–60 lm
Tube sheet Aluminum alloy Special material
Tube support plate Aluminum alloy Special material
Heat transfer tube Welded aluminum alloy tube Special material aluminum alloy, TA2 titanium tube in the upper three rows
Nozzle Polypropylene Special grade
Condenser Carbon steel Internal and external anticorrosion of the casing: epoxy heavy-duty
Casing anticorrosion coating, with the total film thickness of 250–400 lm. The
sacrificial anode is installed at the bottom of the casing
Internal supportive frame Carbon steel Same above
External reinforcing rib Carbon steel Same above
External insulation Insulation glue + galvanized With the use of polyurethane foam, after the galvanized sheet is installed,
sheet + external spray paint fill the gap with sealant, with the external film thickness of 50–60 lm
Tube sheet Stainless steel SS316L
Tube support plate Stainless steel SS316L
Heat transfer tube Titanium tube TA2 industrial pure titanium
Nozzle Polypropylene Special grade
Steam jet pump Carbon steel External anticorrosion and external insulation of the casing of the
Casing and connector evaporator and the insulation
Nozzle Stainless steel SS316L

Product water, concentrated Carbon steel Internal and external casing anticorrosion and external insulation and the
brine evaporator
Flash tank, foam catcher Baffle plate Thermoplastic resin
Vacuum line Carbon steel Internal and external epoxy coating anticorrosion
Product water, concentrated FRP or polypropylene –
brine pipeline
678 B. Hou
Variable costs
Pharmacy cost
Electricity charges
Maintenance fee
Fuel cost
Fig. 5.96 Water production costs calculated in the 200,000 t/d low-temperature multi-effect seawater desalination project of Beijiang Power Plant
interest and wages. The fixed cost per ton of produced water demonstration project of Huangdao Power Plant was com-
is converted to be RMB 3.43. pleted by the Tianjin Institute of Seawater Desalination and
The variable costs refer to the unit operation costs, which Comprehensive Utilization Research of the State Oceanic
mainly include the fuel costs, electricity charges, chemical Administration, and the engineering construction was com-
consumption, equipment maintenance, repair, etc. The pleted by Qingdao Huaou Co., Ltd. The project is mainly
variable cost per ton of produced water is converted to be responsible for ensuring the living water utilization of the
RMB 4.72. Please refer to Fig. 5.96 for the proportion of power plant.
various cost breakdowns. The 3,000 m3/d RO demonstration project is from the
Total unit water production costs = variable costs + fixed 2004 energy conservation and water resources saving and
costs = RMB 8.15/ton. comprehensive utilization project of the National Develop-
The variable costs account for 58% of the water pro- ment and Reform Commission, in which also the major
duction cost in the seawater desalination plant in the power– comes from the 2004 Energy Conservation Water Resources
water cogeneration distilled seawater desalination project, Comprehensive Utilization Project. It is also the scientific
including more than 70% of the fuel cost for the production and technological research project in Tianjin for three con-
of steam. The depreciation of equipment fixed assets secutive years—the application and continuous innovation
accounts for about 20% in the water production costs of the of the technology research for the membrane seawater
distilled seawater desalination. desalination series. The project was jointly established and
The costs for equipment maintenance and repair in the completed by Tianjin Institute of Seawater Desalination and
variable costs account for about 3%, about RMB 0.14 per Comprehensive Utilization Research of the State Oceanic
ton, which is much lower than the expenses of equipment Administration and Qingdao Huaou Group Co., Ltd. The
maintenance and repair in the foreign multi-effect distillation project was initiated in January 2005, the plants were con-
seawater desalination operating costs. This may be related to structed in September, and the equipment was installed in
the fact that the equipment operation time is short, and the November, which was completed in March. On March 20,
corrosion problem is not prominent. the water production is debugged.
3. 3,000 m3/d Reverse Osmosis Desalination Equipment of (2) Material and Investment of High-Pressure Pipeline
Huangdao Power Plant
In this project, the simple and efficient double membrane
(1) Project Overview process (Fig. 5.97) of “self-cleaning filter + UF + RO” was
adopted. The integrated innovation and optimized design
The technology research and engineering design of the were carried out by monitoring the seawater quality, carrying
3,000 m3/d reverse osmosis (RO) seawater desalination out the on-site full flow pilot test, on-site ultrafiltration
Fig. 5.97 Ultrafiltration system of 3,000 m3/d reverse osmosis desali-

nation device in Huangdao Power Plant
membrane performance test, and optimization operation

research. The domestic high-pressure pump and booster
pump were used for the first time to build a 3,000 m3/d Fig. 5.98 Reverse osmosis membrane frame and high-pressure pipeli-
nes of 3,000 m3/d reverse osmosis desalination device in Huangdao
double membrane RO demonstration project.
Power Plant
The 316L stainless steel (Fig. 5.98) was used for the
high-pressure pipeline and high-pressure valve of 3,000 m3/d
reverse osmosis seawater desalination device. Compared projects in Liuheng Island, including the COSCO Group
with the duplex stainless steel, it has the price advantage, shipbuilding base, coal–electricity integration project, bulk
which substantially reduces the engineering construction material transfer base, petrochemical industry, etc. There-
investment. There are about RMB 900,000 for the expenses fore, the 100,000-ton sea desalination project is planned in
of the high-pressure pipelines and valves in this project, only Liuheng Island. The phase-II construction is the 20,000 m3/
accounting for 4% of the total investment, which is lower d reverse osmosis desalination project. Please refer to
than the high-pressure pipelines investment of the foreign Fig. 5.99. This project was invested by Liuheng Water
similar equipment. In addition, the 316L stainless steel can be Company of Putuo District, Zhoushan City, constructed by
localized. This has not only shortened the procurement and Hangzhou Water Center and funded by the National Sci-
processing cycle of engineering equipment materials but also ence and Technology Support Program.
reduced the engineering construction period correspond-
ingly. Since the water production in 2006, this set of equip- (2) Process Characteristics
ment has been operated well and there has been no obvious
corrosion. Since the equipment only supplies the water for The system process procedures are seawater–seawater intake
the production in the power plant, there is no detailed pump–mixed flocculation sedimentation tank–clean water
accounting of water production costs and it is impossible to tank–multimedia filter–RO–regulation pool of water qual-
define the annual average anticorrosion maintenance costs. ity–user.
The seawater of the device is from the channel seawater in
4. 20,000 m3/d reverse osmosis desalination equipment of Dageteng Bay. The characteristics are the seawater flow rate
Liuheng, Zhoushan, Zhejiang which is fast and the water quality is in line with the first and
second class of the water quality conditions in the GB3097
(1) Project Overview Seawater Quality Standard. The seawater is taken in the
self-priming way. The water intake tube is made of HPE, with
As the third largest island of Zhoushan Islands with the the length of about 130 m. The water pump is the bedroom
area of 106.79 km2, the Liuheng Island, Putuo District, single-stage centrifugal pump. The duplex steel is used for the
Zhoushan City, Zhejiang Province is a typical overcurrent material. The secondary coarse hole filter is set in
resource-type water shortage island. The shortage problem the suction pipe at the front end of the water intake pump.
of water resources in the local area is more and more The folded plate flocculation reaction + inclined tube
serious due to the settlement of the port-neighboring sedimentation—filter filtration process without valves is
680 B. Hou
Fig. 5.99 20,000 m3/d reverse

osmosis desalination project in
Liuheng, Zhoushan
adopted for the seawater class-I pretreatment, so that the steel are used for the high-pressure pipelines and the corre-
harmful substances in seawater, such as suspended sediment, sponding duplex stainless steel is used for the clamps and
colloids, organic matter, microorganisms, and bacteria are pipe joints. The water production volume of each set of
removed. The seawater flocculant is ferric chloride and the reverse osmosis equipment is 208 m3/h. There are a total of
coagulant is bone cement; two sets of flocculation reaction four sets with the water production conductivity <200 lS/cm.
sedimentation tanks are built, with the processing water The postproduction mineralization treatment system is
volume for each set of 1,200 m3/h and the effluent turbidity equipped because the desalinated water is used by the island
is not higher than 10 NTU; six sets of non-valve filter tanks residents for living. The main process is to increase the
are built, with the processing volume of 400 m3/h for each carbon content by adopting the CO2 aeration. Then the
set and the effluent turbidity is not higher than 1 NTU. There calcium hardness, pH value, and alkalinity of the water are
is no additional power pump in the set of pretreatment produced after the CaCO3 filter and quartz sand filter pool.
system. Only the front-end seawater pump provides the The ClO2 disinfection equipment is adopted in the water
power to save the electricity consumption. supply system, which is also equipped with the residual
The pressure-type mechanical filtration function is adop- chlorine and pH-monitoring instrument. The water produc-
ted in the secondary seawater pretreatment so as to remove tion is in line with the GB5749 Sanitary Standard for
the minute impurities in seawater and prevent fouling of the Drinking Water, which has good stability in the current
reverse osmosis membrane. Different grades of refined quartz water supply network.
sand are filled in the pressure mechanical filter. Each set is
designed with the seawater flow rate of 8–10 m/h, with the (3) Operation Cost Accounting and Corrosion Protection
water output of 80 m3/h and the effluent water quality
SDI < 4. There are 28 units in total. The reverse osmosis The average water production of the equipment of Liuheng
seawater desalination system is made up of the devices, Water Co., Ltd. is 20,000 m3/d according to the actual
including the security filters, high-pressure pumps, booster operating time of 330 days per year excluding the inspection
pumps, energy recovery devices, reverse osmosis membrane and maintenance and the holidays in the year. The operation
stacks, etc. The design of one section for one grade is adopted costs are estimated according to the sales power price of
for the membrane stack. The phase-I membrane element is RMB 0.82/(kW h) in Liuheng City. Among them, the
the US Dow high desalting membrane (model membrane and material costs include the replacement cost of
SW30HRLE-400) and the phase-II is the domestic reverse microporous filter and reverse osmosis membrane compo-
osmosis membrane element of the Big Dipper Co., Ltd. nents. The microporous filter is replaced every 3 months on
(model BDX8040S). The membrane shell is the domestic average and the average service life of the reverse osmosis
FRP membrane casing with 1,000 psi pressure of Lepu. The membrane elements is 3 years; the wages and welfare fees
American PX 220 energy recovery device is adopted for are calculated according to RMB 50,000 per person on
energy recovery with the energy recovery efficiency of con- average and the fixed number of the labor personnel is 20,
centrated water >90%. The duplex steel and super-duplex the annual wages and welfare fees are in total of RMB 1
Table 5.60 Water production Cost composition Annual amount of Water costs Proportion (%)
costs estimation of 20,000 m3/d expenses/RMB 10,000 RMB/Ton
seawater desalination system
Electricity fee 1,458.6 2.21 65.44
Pharmacy fee 180.18 0.273 8.09
Membrane and material costs 369.94 0.561 16.61
Maintenance fees 68.98 0.105 3.11
Wages and welfare fees 100 0.152 4.50
Other fees 50 0.076 2.25
Total 3.377 100
million; other costs include the office expenses, travel 5.3.4.2 Corrosion Protection Standards
expenses, labor insurance fees, hospitality expenses, etc., for Seawater Desalination
which are calculated according to 50% of the wages and As a comprehensive cross-cutting technology, the seawater
welfare fees. Please refer to Table 5.60 for the production desalination technology involves multiple subjects, includ-
costs of the reverse osmosis desalination plant. ing the marine, chemical, water supply and drainage, thermal
The maintenance and repair costs of Liuheng 20,000-ton power, corrosion, electrical, control, etc. For this reason, the
seawater desalination equipment only accounts for 3.11% of standard system of seawater desalination has a relatively
the water production costs. If the equipment depreciation, wide and broad structure. A higher requirement for the
investment interest, and other amortization items are added, matching and coordination of the standards room is pro-
the proportion of the equipment maintenance and repair costs posed in the desalination industry. However, the current
will be even less. It can be seen that the domestic water pro- number of the implementation of the domestic seawater
duction costs accounting cannot fully reflect the equipment desalination projects is limited, and there have been plenty
maintenance and repair costs in the designed operation service of standard works in terms of the standard systems required
life of the desalination plant. The low maintenance fees to be carried out. This is the same case for the corrosion
invested in the early period of the operation of the desalination protection standards in seawater desalination. Since the
plant is related to the factors, including the anticorrosion foreign relevant technologies are technical secrets of enter-
measures in the design stage and the relatively small corrosion prises and there are no open standards for reference, China
protection problems in the initial period of the operation. has not researched on the independent technical standards
because of the short-term research work conducted. Only a
small number of engineering design specifications and heat
5.3.4 Standards for Seawater Desalination transfer tube product standards are partially reflected.
Industry
5.3.4.1 Status of Industrial Standards 5.3.5 Existing Problems and Suggestions

With the development of the seawater desalination industry on Corrosion Prevention Strategies
in China, some national standards, industry standards, and
local standards for seawater desalination have been released 5.3.5.1 Existing Problems
so far. Please refer to Table 5.61 for the currently effective
67 seawater desalination standards nationwide. There are 8 1. Corrosion Protection Technology and Research on New
national standards, 4 national military standards, and 54 Corrosion-Resistant Materials
industry standards, which are mainly combining the marine
industry standards, with industry standards, including the (1) The seawater desalination technology of China was
shipbuilding, environmental protection, and urban con- initiated late. Two kinds of seawater desalination
struction, and 1 local standard. The preparation and release technologies are mainly developed nationwide, namely,
of these seawater desalination standards have played an the low-temperature multi-effect distillation and reverse
important and fundamental role in the development of Chi- osmosis. The thousand-ton above seawater desalination
na’s seawater desalination industry, and have provided the was put into operation in 2005, which has not been
powerful technical support and guarantee for new product 10 years so far. In addition, it is very difficult for the
development and technology upgrading. They are conducive domestic large-scale desalination equipment to be
to promoting the great development of the seawater utiliza- operated at full capacity for a long time because of the
tion industry in China. water supply costs problem. Therefore, the potential
682 B. Hou
Table 5.61 List of current effective seawater desalination standards in China

No. Standard name Standard no. Level
1 Copper Alloy Seamless Pipe for Seawater Desalination Device GB/T 23609—2009 National standard
2 Design Code for Seawater Desalination Engineering of Thermal Power Plants GB/T 50619—2010 National standard
3 Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Equipment GB/T 19249—2003 National standard
4 Naming of Membrane Modules and Device Models GB/T 20502—2006 National standard
5 Technical Specifications for Membrane Element Cleaning of Reverse Osmosis GB/T 23954—2009 National standard
System
6 Hollow Fiber Curtain-type Membrane Modules GB/T 25279—2010 National standard
7 Technical Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of Integrated GB/T 22413—2008 National standard
Seawater Utilization Projects
8 Technology Terminology of Membrane Separation GB/T 20103—2006 National standard
9 Code for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Equipment for Ships GJB 5454—2005 National military standard
10 Surface Combat Ship Mooring and Navigation Test Procedures Seawater GJB 350.34—1987 National military standard
Desalination Device Tests
11 Specifications for Mooring and Navigational Testing of Surface Ships- GJB 6850.160—2009 National military standard
Sect. 5.160: Tests for Seawater Desalination Devices
12 General Specification for Ship Desalination Units GJB 4064—2000 National military standard
13 Technical Requirements for Repair of MFA01 Reverse Osmosis Desalination HJB 401—2007 Naval standard
Device
14 Electrodialysis Technology Heterogeneous Ion Exchange Membrane HY/T 034.2—1994 Marine industry standard
15 Electrodialysis Technology Electrodialysis Apparatus HY/T 034.3—1994 Marine industry standard
16 Electrodialysis Technology Desalination Method HY/T 034-4—1994 Marine industry standard
17 Electro-dialysis Technology for Boiler Feed Water Treatment Requirements HY/T 034.5—1994 Marine industry standard
18 GTL-D Membrane Aperture Tester HY/T 038—1995 Marine industry standard
19 Testing Methods of Measuring the Microporous Membrane Performance HY/T 039—1995 Marine industry standard
20 Testing Methods of Hollow Fiber Reverse Osmosis Membrane HY/T 049—1999 Marine industry standard
21 Testing Methods of Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Membrane HY/T 050—1999 Marine industry standard
22 Testing Methods of Hollow Fiber Microporous Membrane HY/T 051—1999 Marine industry standard
23 Microporous Membrane HY/T 053—2001 Marine industry standard
24 Hollow Fiber Reverse Osmosis Technology and Hollow Fiber Reverse HY/T 054.1—2001 Marine industry standard
Osmosis Module
25 Testing Methods of Hollow Fiber Reverse Osmosis Technology and Hollow HY/T 054.2—2001 Marine industry standard
Fiber Reverse Osmosis Module
26 Folded Cylinder Microporous Membrane Multi-filter HY/T 055—2001 Marine industry standard
27 Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Device HY/T 060—2002 Marine industry standard
28 Tube-type Ceramic Microporous Membrane Element HY/T 063—2002 Marine industry standard
29 Testing Methods for Tube-type Ceramic Microporous Membrane HY/T 064—2002 Marine industry standard
30 “Polyvinylidene Fluoride Microporous Membrane HY/T 065—2002 Marine industry standard
31 Folded Filter of Polyvinylidene Fluoride Microporous Membrane HY/T 066—2002 Marine industry standard
32 Glass Steel Tank for Water Treatment HY/T 067—2002 Marine industry standard
33 Drinking Pure Water Preparation System SRO Series Reverse Osmosis HY/T 068—2002 Marine industry standard
Equipment
34 Hollow Fiber Microfiltration Membrane Module HY/T 061—2002 Marine industry standard
35 Hollow Fiber Ultrafiltration Membrane Module HY/T 062—2003 Marine industry standard
36 Rolling Ultrafiltration Technology Flat Ultrafiltration Membrane HY/T 072—2003 Marine industry standard
37 Rolling Ultrafiltration Technology Roll Ultrafiltration Membrane Element HY/T 073—2003 Marine industry standard
38 Design Specification for Membrane Water Treatment Reverse Osmosis HY/T 074—2003 Marine industry standard
Seawater Desalination Engineering
(continued)

No. Standard name Standard no. Level
39 General Technical Requirements for Multi-Effect Distillation Desalination HY/T 106—2008 Marine industry standard
Units
40 Reverse Osmosis Energy Recovery Device HY/T 108—2008 Marine industry standard
41 Technical Requirements for High Pressure Pumps for Reverse Osmosis HY/T 109—2008 Marine industry standard
42 Polypropylene Hollow Fiber Microporous Membrane HY/T 110—2008 Marine industry standard
43 Ultrafiltration Membrane and Its Components HY/T 112—2008 Marine industry standard
44 Nanofiltration Membrane and Its Components HY/T 113—2008 Marine industry standard
45 Nanofiltration Device HY/T 114—2008 Marine industry standard
46 General Technical Requirements for Distillation Seawater Desalination Steam HY/T 116—2008 Marine industry standard
Injection Equipment
47 Rolling Reverse Osmosis Membrane Module Test Method HY/T 108—2008 Marine industry standard
48 Design Specification for Distillation Seawater Desalination Engineering HY/T 115—2008 Marine industry standard
49 Hollow Fiber Microporous Membrane Device HY/T 103—2008 Marine industry standard
50 Ceramic Microporous Membrane Module HY/T 104—2008 Marine industry standard
51 Hollow Fiber Membrane N2-H2 Separator HY/T 105—2008 Marine industry standard
52 Electrochemical Deionization Membrane (Component) HY/T 120—2008 Marine industry standard
53 Evaluation Methods for Water Quality Impact of Wastewater Discharged from HY/T 129—2010 Marine industry standard
Seawater Comprehensive Utilization Project
54 Spray-type Desalination Device CB/T 3803—2005 Ship industry standard
55 Reverse Osmosis Seawater Desalination Device CB/T 3753—1995 Ship industry standard
56 Tube Desalination Device CB/T 841—1999 Ship industry standard
57 Specification on Plate-type Desalination Device CB 1397—2008 Ship industry standard
58 Ultrafiltration Device HJ/T 271—2006 Environmental protection
industry standard
59 Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Device HJ/T 270—2006 Environmental protection
industry standard
60 Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Equipment CJ/T 119—2000 Urban construction
industry standard
61 Microfiltration Water Treatment Equipment CJ/T 169—2002 Urban construction
industry standard
62 Ultrafiltration Water Treatment Equipment CJ/T 170—2002 Urban construction
industry standard
63 Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Pressure Shell for Reverse Osmosis Water CJ 692—1998 Urban construction
Treatment Equipment industry standard
64 Technical specification for seawater desalination in the steel industry Part 1: YB/T 4256.1—2012 Metallurgical industry
Low-temperature Multi-effect Distillation Method standard
65 Design Guidelines for Normal Pressure Reactor Desalination Plant (I) HFB J0086—2003 Nuclear safety industry
standard
66 Guidelines for the Acceptance of Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment Plants in DL/T 951—2005 Power industry standard
Thermal Power Plants
67 Guidelines for Design of Reverse Osmosis Desalination Device in Thermal DB37/T 1177—2009 Local standard
Power Plants
corrosion failure problem of the equipment has not been failure phenomenon of the equipment used in consid-
exposed fully. Moreover, the users of the equipment eration of the commercial or technical confidentiality,
carry out the plugging or partial coating restoration for instead of carrying out the in-depth research analysis.
simple treatment for the small number of the corrosion This has caused that the domestic relevant research
684 B. Hou
institutions cannot effectively master the corrosion (2) Insufficient Standard Verification
failure problems exposed in the process of use by the
users, which has added the difficulty in improving the In the Marine Standardization Management Measures, it is
corrosion protection technology of the equipment. emphasized that in the standard experimental verification
(2) Recently, the domestic enterprises have shown great work, the work steps and planning progress of the experi-
interest in desalination with the warming of the mental verification work in the period of drafting should be
desalination market. The enterprises, including Shang- formulated and three companies or more should carry out the
hai Electric, Baocheng Boiler, Beijing Enterprises experimental verification on the standard key contents. In
Holdings Limited, Shougang, Dongqi, China Ship- addition, specific requirements for the unit and the report of
building, etc., have established the special desalination the experimental verification should be proposed. The
companies or institutions to enter the seawater desali- standard verification work has become one of the important
nation industry. In addition, the raw materials produc- contents in the preparation and revision work of the seawater
tion enterprises have also paid great attention on the desalination standards. However, for the technical contents
plate materials, tube materials, and structural section in some standards in the actual preparation and revision
used for the seawater desalination, and launched the work, there are only a small number of units that can
production line for the materials used for the desalina- undertake the verification experiments. The number of ver-
tion devices, including Hailiang, Luotong, Xiangtou, ification units cannot reach the regulated requirements and
Baotai, etc. However, compared with the foreign many seawater desalination standards are lagging behind due
advanced level, there are still some differences in the to the lack of the experimental verifications. In particular, the
domestic materials, which are shown primarily in the corrosion protection technology standard requires long-term
incomplete quality control measures in the production on-site corrosion failure analysis data support. Under the
line process and the poor quality stability of the prod- circumstances of the insufficient research funds for the
ucts supplied by the bulk supply, as well as the lagged domestic standards, it is extremely difficult to carry out the
research on the development of new materials and the work above.
engineering application technology. This is related to
the reason that the domestic enterprises pay attention to 5.3.5.2 Anticorrosion Strategic
the production instead of the research and development. Recommendations
2. Corrosion Protection Standardization Work (1) The integrated and innovative special research and
development projects for seawater desalination should
(1) Seriously Insufficient Standard Preparation Funds be established for developing the technology renovation
of the industrial residual heat distillation seawater
Only a small proportion of the funds for the preparation and desalination and new energy seawater desalination,
revision of the seawater desalination standards in China completing the process and equipment integration of
came from the government financial allocations for many new energy utilization and seawater desalination,
years. The insufficient part has been resolved by the project developing the minor scale desalination equipment with
undertaking units. However, great changes have taken place high reliability; with these as the open research platform
in the development trend of the seawater desalination for the corrosion protection technology of seawater
industry, with the gradually increasing demands for the desalination equipment, develop the different types of
standards. However, the funds for the standardization work long-term corrosion environment tests for seawater
are very limited. There is only less than RMB 50,000 of desalination equipment materials and corrosion protec-
national subsidy for some standards. Unless there are other tion technology, establish the environmental corrosion
channels to supplement the funds, the verification, and failure database of seawater desalination materials (in-
testing of the standards work is only a piece of paper. The cluding main structural materials, heat transfer materi-
lacking of the funds for standardization work makes the als, corrosion protection materials nonmetallic sealing
basis research work of the standards unable to be operated materials, and pipeline materials), analyze and investi-
and the technical contents cannot be updated timely. The gate the key factors leading to the material failure, and
high-tech talents are unwilling to take up the standardization the rapid evaluation methods of corrosion resistance
work and the standardization work institutions and stan- and corrosion protection technology, set up complete
dardization workers often face the survival problems. These seawater desalination material and corrosion protection
are the fundamental reasons for the relatively low standard technical standards, develop the series of desalination
level of the seawater desalination in China. equipment conforming to different demands of the
users, speed up the solid foundation of the new mate- 370,000 km2 of sea area with 12 nmi1 territorial water rights.
rials and new anticorrosion technologies in the pro- These have provided a substantially broad world for the
motion and application of the seawater desalination development of marine economy in China. During the
projects. In this way, the development goal of “Thirteenth Five-Year Plan” and for a longer period of time,
improving the independent equipment technical stan- China will build a large number of coastal and offshore
dards and the international competitiveness of the sea- engineering facilities in terms of the fields of marine
water desalination technology can be realized. resources, transportation, energy, national defense, new
(2) The special research and development projects for materials, and deep-sea environmental development, such as
seawater desalination materials are established to fund the port terminals, sea-crossing bridges, ships, oil platforms,
the research and development of materials by relevant submarine pipelines, and other major facilities. The explo-
scientific research institutions and enterprises, break ration of marine resources and the development of marine
through the engineering application technology mate- economy have become important pillars of national devel-
rials of new seawater desalination equipment, pay opment of China. In 2013, China reached the total marine
great attention to the optimal design and material production value of RMB 5,431.3 billion, with an increase
application matching technology of the evaporators on of 7.6% over 2012, accounting for 9.5% of the gross
the basis of titanium composite sheets and duplex domestic product (GDP). Among them, the added value in
stainless steel materials, and the low-cost processing the marine industry was RMB 3,196.9 billion and the added
and engineering application technology of ultrathin value in the marine-related industries was RMB 2,234.4
wall titanium heat transfer tubes, engineering appli- billion. After the marine engineering facilities are immersed
cation technology of aluminum alloy heat transfer in seawater, the two natural processes of ocean erosion and
materials, application technology, and economic anal- biofouling will occur at the same time and interact with each
ysis of titanium material in membrane seawater other to influence the marine engineering facilities jointly.
desalination high-pressure pipeline system, improve This is a very serious economic and environmental issue.
the application reliability of the independent technical The key factors affecting the performance degradation of
equipment, and reduce the costs for equipment oper- marine engineering facilities are marine corrosion and bio-
ation and maintenance. fouling, the mechanisms and related control technologies of
which are major scientific and technical issues that have not
been fully understood and solved internationally. The marine
fouling organisms are a collective term for the animals,
5.4 Investigation Report on Corrosion plants, and microorganisms inhabiting or attached to the
and Fouling of Marine Organisms marine environment and various artificial facilities leading to
unfavorable influence on the people’s economic activities
As a huge treasure library of resources as well as the and resulting in the negative benefits to investors, which
indispensable space environment for human survival and mainly include some large-sized algae, leeches, outer anal
development, the ocean is the hope of solving the three animals, dragon worms, bivalves, barnacles, and sea squirts.
major problems, namely, the population growth, resource The number of varieties of fouling organisms recorded
shortage, and environmental degradation. Due to the con- worldwide was more than 4,000, the community composi-
tinuously increasing pressure of survival, various countries tion of which is obviously regional and seasonal. The larval
worldwide are looking for ways to improve the quality of battalion of most fouling organisms live on camp phyto-
life and sustainable development. The coastal countries have plankton and the adult battalion live on attachment or fixa-
turned to the ocean gradually, speeded up the marine tion. These organisms adhere to and accumulate on the
development plans, vigorously developed the marine surface of underwater artificial facilities. The biological
high-tech, strengthened naval construction and marine fouling refers to the harm it causes to the human economic
management, and constantly accelerated the development activities. This is the biological hazard faced by the human
pace of marine resources. It can be predicted that human beings since the beginning of the marine development.
beings will greatly depend on the ocean to achieve the Various countries worldwide spend a lot of money per year
sustainable development in the twenty-first century, with the in preventing the marine organisms fouling. According to
main theme of the research, development, utilization, and the latest statistics, the costs for the fouling on the ships of
protection of the ocean. The ocean will certainly contribute commercial transport are converted to be about USD 30
to the progress of the human society. billion. Moreover, based on the incomplete statistics, the
As a country with abundant marine resources, China has
not only more than 18,000 km of continental coastline,
6,500 coastal islands with an area of more than 500 m2, and 1
nmi is a non-statutory unit, 1 nmi = 1.852 km.
686 B. Hou
biofouling has caused the losses of more than USD 6.5 photosynthesis action will increase the concentration of
billion per year on the various underground engineering dissolved oxygen in the water and lead to the corrosion of
facilities and marine equipment worldwide. Therefore, it is the metal. In addition, it will cause unfavorable influence on
of strategic importance to China as well as the great eco- the aquaculture industry. According to incomplete statistics,
nomic and social benefits to carry out the investigation of there has been more than USD 200 billion of the losses
ship biofouling corrosion. The serious marine biofouling caused per year on various underwater engineering facilities
may cause the increasing load on the offshore platform, and ship equipment by the biofouling worldwide.
blockage of pipelines, reduced speed of ship facilities, and Therefore, it is extremely important to carry out in-depth
other problems, which has not only reduced the performance study on the biofouling issue and the development of
of the equipment but also significantly decreased the safe antifouling technology, which has attracted the attention of
and efficient operation of facilities and materials. For the all countries worldwide. This report mainly investigates the
marine ships and facilities, the biofouling brings about huge status and protection technologies of biofouling corrosion
costs because it can substantially increase the dynamic and proposes the recommendations in the six industries,
resistance of the outer ship casing. The 100-lm biofilm will namely, bridge terminals, offshore platforms, ships, clean
increase more than 10% of the frictional resistance and the energy, submarine pipelines, and marine aquaculture.
1-mm microbial mucosa will increase 80% of the frictional
resistance, which will reduce 15% of the ship speed. In case
of serious ship biofouling, the sea creatures attached to the 5.4.1 Research Status of Biocorrosion
ship’s bottom can reach thickness of more than 10 cm, and Fouling in the Industry
which will lead to the reduction of the speed, the increase of
energy consumption, and the serious influence on the per- 5.4.1.1 Bridge Terminals
formance and safe operation of the equipment for the
large-scale commercial ships or military ships with a ship 1. Microbial Corrosion of Steel Structures in Terminals
bottom of nearly 10,000 m2. In addition, the biofouling may
block the key membrane components, seawater transmission The microbial corrosion means the corrosion caused by the
pipelines, or internal pipelines of heat exchangers in the microorganisms or affected by the microorganisms.
seawater desalination equipment, which will cause the According to the reports, the corrosion rate of the metal
reduction of the mass transfer or heat transfer efficiency; materials caused by microorganisms can reach more than ten
increase the weight of offshore oil platforms, which will lead times of the normal corrosion rate, which will accelerate the
to the overload operation of the platforms; increase the destruction process of metal engineering materials and
cross-sectional area of the facilities; and improve the greatly shorten the service time of engineering buildings.
dynamic load effects caused by waves and currents, which Please refer to Fig. 5.100 for the changes of the corrosion
will cause safety risks. The attachment of the fouling rate of the exposed steel in different positions of the simu-
organisms to the bottom of the ship and other equipment will lated tidal seawater. Among them, the black part shows the
lead to the weakening and failure of the equipment signal; average corrosion rate of the steel materials in the area while
lead to the failure of the instruments and rotating mechanism the gray part shows the maximum corrosion rate of the steel
which will influence the normal use of the buoys, valves, materials in the area. It can be seen from Fig. 5.100 the
and other equipments; the attachment to the surface of the maximum corrosion rate caused by the microbial corrosion
sacrificial anodes will lead to the failure of the sacrificial can reach 4 mm/a and the average corrosion rate is also
anodes; in addition, the self-metabolism of the organisms 0.3 mm/a. It means that the microbial corrosion has a great
attached of various types of marine bacteria, such as the impact on the safety of offshore engineering [45].
sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and iron bacteria will make The reports on microbial corrosion were found more than
the cathodic depolarization and accelerate the electrochem- 100 years ago; however, human beings have started to pay
ical corrosion of marine metal structures and destroys the attention to the research on the microbial corrosion in the
protection layer on the metal surfaces, which will lead to recent 10 years. There are exclusive names for microbial
local corrosion; the attachment of the fouling organism on corrosion in different industries and fields, such as the
the steel surface will intensify the metal corrosion, will break accelerated low water corrosion, low-cost astronomical tide
the coating on the metal surfaces, make the metals exposed corrosion, and accelerated freshwater corrosion. It can be
and lead to the metal corrosion; the fouling organisms seen from these names that the microbial corrosion mainly
attached on the metal surface of the lime shell will change occurs near the lowest tide level and there are some diffi-
the local oxygen supply on the metal surfaces and form the culties in the occurrence of the microbial corrosion.
oxygen concentration cell to exacerbate the corrosion; and The low water-level accelerated corrosion is a corrosion
the oxygen generated by some algae due to the phenomenon reported in the past 20 years, especially the
Corrosion rate
Average corrosion rate
Maximum corrosion rate
Atmospheric zone
Tidal zone
Intertidal zone
Full immersion area
Bottom area
Microbial attachment zone
Fig. 5.100 Corrosion rate of different corrosion zones
corrosion phenomenon of the accelerated local corrosion the circumstances of low water accelerated corrosion, the
process of the nearby engineering and buildings along the steel piles can reach the corrosion rate of 0.5 mm/a or
coastline. If the low water-level accelerated corrosion is not higher, more than four times of the average rate of seawater
found in a timely order and processed, it will lead to the corrosion. This has shortened the service life of marine
corrosion and perforation of building materials and back- engineering structures substantially [46].
filling loss, and serious influence on the service safety and Currently, the only way to detect the low water acceler-
life of marine engineering. Currently, the low water-level ated corrosion is to observe by naked eyes, that is, it can be
accelerated corrosion has been ascertained as one of the inferred that the phenomenon of low water accelerated cor-
microbial corrosions of marine engineering materials. rosion occurs (Fig. 5.101) when there are yellow patches
However, the relationship between the corrosion products with relatively poor adhesion forces to be observed up and
and the microbial organic matter has not been defined yet. In down the sea surface at the low tidal level. The black sludge
2005, the relevant regulations for the definition and control covers the metal substrate below the yellow strip and plenty
of low water accelerated corrosion were released by the of metal corrosion pits are found on the surface of the metal
International Shipping Association (PINAC) and the World substrate (Figs. 5.102 and 5.103). To ensure the safety and
Association of Building Industry Research and Intelligence service life of the marine engineering structure, it is required
(CIRIA), which regulates the low water accelerated corro- to consider the detection and maintenance of the low water
sion to be one important issue to be considered in the marine accelerated corrosion at the preliminary period of the engi-
engineering design and construction. Let us take the steel neering construction. However, generally speaking, it cannot
piles commonly used in the ports and terminals as an observe the detailed location of the low water accelerated
example, the steel piles are often in an unprotected state or in corrosion from the appearance, the inspection on the marine
a low-protection state and easily corroded by the seawater engineering materials requires the cooperation of the tidal
media. Therefore, in the design of the marine engineering rising and falling. In addition, there is no obvious law for the
structure, especially the long-time service engineering of the occurrence of accelerated corrosion in low-water areas.
ports and terminals, one important data to be considered is Therefore, it is extremely difficult to predict the occurrence
the corrosion rate of the steel piles. It is generally believed of accelerated corrosion in low-water areas in the prelimi-
that the corrosion rate of the steel piles is related to the sea nary period [47].
area, climate, exposure conditions, and test methods of the To better research on the microbial corrosion of ports and
steel piles. The fastest corrosion rate in the spray splash zone terminals (low water accelerated corrosion), the European
or tidal zone is between 0.08 and 0.2 mm/a. However, under Commission launched a 3-year MICSIPE (Microbiologically
688 B. Hou
Fig. 5.101 Location, structure schematic diagrams, and site map of yellow patches on the surface of metal substrates representing the accelerated
corrosion in the low-water areas
Induced Corrosion of Steel Structures in Port Environment) to SRB accounts for about 1/2 of all microbial corrosion. In
research project in Europe in 2008. It selected three termi- the natural world, the SRB is distributed under the oxide film
nals (Boulogne-surMer terminal in France, Dover terminal and rust layer of steel, with strong vitality in the formation at
and Shoreham terminal in the UK) suffering from the the temperature of 70–80 °C and the pressure of 700–
microbial corrosion in the Europe as the main body of 1,000 Pa. These kinds of bacteria will be the hydrogen donor
research and carried out the in-depth exploration on the for the organic acid or use the hydrogen directly. The
microbial corrosion products, microbial diversity, and cor- reduction action can be carried out with the sulfate as the
rosion detection methods. China has not yet carried out the final electron acceptor and the final products are sulfide,
systematic microbial corrosion surveys [46]. including the hydrogen sulfide. The focus of the research for
There are various varieties of the microorganisms related microbial corrosion has always been the corrosion mecha-
to the microbial corrosion, including the prokaryotes (bac- nism of SRB. There has been more than one century for the
teria and archaea) and micronuclear eukaryotes (fungi, algae, research on the mechanism of accelerated corrosion caused
and protozoa). The SRB is the most important and the most by SRB. The currently formed mechanisms include cathode
widely studied microorganism. The corrosion process related depolarization mechanism, concentration cell mechanism,
Fig. 5.102 Photos of yellow

patches (a and b) and metal
substrate under the patches in
actual environments (c and d)
Fig. 5.103 Metal corrosion pits

caused by accelerated corrosion
in low-water area
metabolite mechanism, acid corrosion mechanism, and local corrosive environment and accelerate the corrosion
anode fixing mechanism. In recent years, the bacteria with process, while SOB and IOB can inhibit microbial corrosion.
other metabolic characteristics, such as sulfur-oxidizing The structure of microbial populations changes with the
bacteria (SOB), iron-oxidizing bacteria (IOB), and space in the area with serious and long-term microbial cor-
sulfhydryl-reducing bacteria, have attracted the attention of rosion time. These changes of space can be seen as the sulfur
the humans gradually. The metabolic processes or biofilm metabolism in the microenvironment and the SOB and IOB
properties will change the surface properties of the engi- can partially oxidize and consume the sulfide produced by
neering materials and result in the influence of the corrosion SRB. Generally speaking, the SRB is distributed in the inner
process. layer of the microbial population, while SOB or IOB is
With the continuous progress of biomolecular technol- distributed in the outer layer of the microbial population;
ogy, the identification of the microbial populations is however, some SOBs (Thiothrix sp. or Thiomicrospira sp.)
becoming easier and easier. The microbial varieties in the with the reduction nature of nitrate can also be found in the
corrosion area within the same sea area are basically the inner layer of the microbial population. Besides, the SRB
same. There is certain difference in the factors of the struc- has the proportion closely related to the microbial corrosion
ture of the microbial population, such as the corrosion rate of steel materials in terminals and ports in the microbial
location, engineering materials, and degree of protection; population structure. The proportion of the SRB populations
however, there are obvious difference of the microbial in the areas with high microbial corrosion rates is large,
varieties in the corrosion area in different sea areas due to the which is caused by the steel materials, especially the carbon
factors of seawater temperature, salinity, trace elements, etc. steel. It is one important energy and electron in the SRB
The bacteria varieties with the maximum influence in the metabolic activity. It is worth mentioning that in the
steel material process in the ports and terminals include microbial population structure, there are various varieties of
SRB, SOB, and IOB. Among them, the SRB can acidify the SRB. There are certain differences in the genetic sequences
690 B. Hou
and metabolic activities of different SRB populations. This Province, Shantou Port has great seawater salinity fluctua-
phenomenon is more obvious in areas with severe microbial tion (5.0–28.2), and the water temperature ranges of 12–31 °
corrosion, but there are certain characteristics of the rules in C. With great tide, turbid water quality and the transparency
the distribution law and population ratio of different SRBs. of 0.2–1 m, it is irregular half-day tide and the main
The photosynthetic bacteria is the prokaryotic organisms that domestic and foreign trade port in the eastern part of
are ubiquitous in nature with a primordial light energy Guangdong Province. The hanging board test was carried
synthesis system, which is a general term for bacteria that out in Shantou Port from June 1991 to May 1992. In addi-
does not emit oxygen photosynthesis under anaerobic con- tion, the survey on the fouling organisms of the buoys,
ditions. The photosynthetic bacteria is also an integral part of terminals, and ship bottoms was conducted. The national
the microbial population in the corroded area, mainly dis- marine survey specifications were adopted for the survey
tributed in the anoxic zone where light can be transmitted methods. There were 119 kinds of organisms obtained, 72
through the aquatic environment. Compared with the areas kinds of test boards, 70 kinds of buoys and ship bottoms,
with slight microbial corrosion in the ports and terminals, the and 54 kinds of terminals. There are dominant species,
photosynthetic bacteria accounts for a high proportion of including the mud barnacle, net barnacle, oyster cap oyster,
total microbial populations in the serious microbial corrosion jade mussel, Anthopleura pacifica, double branch lychee,
in the ports and terminals, especially the low-water areas. and double knots. Shantou Port is attached with biological
This may be an important parameter in indicating the reproduction in the four seasons per year, with the acme
microbial corrosion rate. The water, carbon sources, nitrogen months from May to November, the peak in September, and
sources, inorganic salts, and growth factors are the required the lowest peak in February. The sequence is autumn,
nutrients for the growth and reproduction of summer, spring, and winter. It is shown in the experimental
microorganisms. results that the main fouling organisms in Shantou Port are
The water is necessary for various biological cells. All the widely distributed along the coast and low-salt species in the
biochemical reactions in the metabolic process of microor- estuary, with the characteristics of prominent dominant
ganisms are inseparable from the action of water; as the raw species and a large amount of adhesion.
materials for the synthesis of bacterial components, the
carbon sources are the main sources of the microbial energy; (2) Yangshan Port
the nitrogen source mainly provides the raw material for the
synthetic bacterial structure, rarely used for the energy uti- Yangshan Port is the hub port of Shanghai International
lization; the inorganic salts mainly provide various important Shipping Center. A lot of foreign freighters berthed make the
elements other than carbon and nitrogen for the microor- Yangshan Port become the area with high risks of the
ganisms, including the main functions of constituting the infringement of the fouling organisms. Meanwhile, the large
bacterial components, regulating the osmotic pressure and amount of adhesion of the fouling organisms has caused
activating the activity of the enzyme as the composition of serious influence on the facilities in the port. To know about
some enzymes. The growth factors are mainly the compound the current status of the diversity and evolution trend of the
of the B vitamin. In spite of the many classification methods fouling organisms at the terminal of Yangshan Port, through
of the microorganisms, the research on the corrosion the sampling of the fouling organism community in different
microorganisms according to the energy metabolism meth- tidal areas at the terminal in May 2010, the community
ods is a reasonable way. It is because the metabolic methods structure and diversity status of Yangshan Port were ana-
of the microorganisms directly affect the metabolic activity lyzed. At the terminal of Yangshan Port, a total of 17 varieties
on the surface of materials, and different methods have of fouling organisms have been collected, including the
different influence on the corrosion. Please refer to dominant species of netting barnacles and the mitral oysters.
Table 5.62 for the influence of different metabolic methods The fouling organism community has obviously different
of the microorganisms on the local corrosion factors of the structures from the high to the low tidal areas; the number of
metallic materials [47]. varieties, the density, and the number of organisms have
basically presented the rising trend and the uniformity is
2. Community Structure and Diversity of Fouling Organ- obviously decreasing. However, the index of diversity is
isms in China’s Offshore Terminals presenting the trend of fist rising and then falling. It is known
from the return analysis of the coverage rate and the diversity
(1) Shantou Port indexes that the Yangshan Port presents a single peak arch
curve in the coverage rate and the diversity indexes of the
Located in the Baojiang River Estuary of Hanjiang River fouling organisms. The diversity of the fouling organisms is
and Rongjiang River in the eastern part of Guangdong the highest when the coverage rate is from 30 to 40% [48].
Table 5.62 Typical microbial metabolic processes and influence on the surface of local metal materials
Energy harvesting Electronic donor Electron acceptor Representative Impact on the local environment
method microorganism
Light energy H2O In vivo substance Photosynthetic Increase O2 concentration,
autotrophic/heterotrophic microorganisms (such produce H2O2, increase pH, and
microorganism as cyanobacteria) possibly produce H2
H2S, S Green sulfur bacteria, Produce the corrosive
purple sulfur bacteria intermediate valence sulfur
species, lowering pH
Heterotrophic Organic matter None Fermenting Reduce pH, produce H2, CO2, and
microorganism (polysaccharides, microorganisms (such H2S
proteins, fatty acids, as clostridium)
etc.) O2 Aerobic bacteria (such Reduce O2 concentration and
as the pseudomonas) lower pH
SO42−, S2O32−, S SRB Influence the pH, produce sulfide
film
Fe3+, Mn3+ Iron-reducing bacteria Destroy the iron oxide/manganese
oxide protective layer
Autotrophic H2O SO42−, S2O32−, S Hydrogen nutrition Affect pH, produce a sulfide
microorganism SRB protective film, and directly
acquire electrons from metal
CO2 ! CH4 Methanogen Some bacteria can get electrons
directly from metal
CO2 ! CH3COOH Acetogen Influence pH
NH4+, NO2− O2 Nitrifying bacteria Reduce pH and oxygen
concentration
Fe2+ O2 Aerobic Lower pH, affect O2
iron-oxidizing concentration, deposit iron oxide
microorganism
NO3−, NO2− Anaerobic
iron-oxidizing
microorganism
Mn2+ O2 Manganese-oxidizing Lower pH, deposit the manganese
bacteria oxide
(3) Xiamen Port mesembryanthemum, jade mussels, reticulated barnacles,

and long buckwheat stalk worms; there are fouling organ-
Xiamen Port started the research on the fouling organisms in isms attached all year round. The monthly boards present the
the early 1950s. Huang Zongguo and others carried out the dual cycle nature along with the annual variation in wet
systematic investigation and research on the fouling organ- weight. The highest peak occurs in June to July, the second
isms of the terminal piles, ships, the buoys, and the highest peak appears in March to April, and the highest peak
dynamics of the main varieties and population. In the 1990s, of the seasonal attachment is in summer. There exists great
they conducted the board hanging and mesh simulation tests difference in the amount of organisms attached in different
for the fouling organisms of cage farms, and the study of test points. The amount of attachment organisms of the
experimental ecology and alien species. Yang Qingliang testing board at the harbor is larger than that of the terminal.
[49] and others carried out the hanging board experiments of The attached wet weight of the three positions is in the order
the fouling organisms month after month in four seasons and of harbor > floating raft > bridge pier.
the annual year to the official terminal at Xiamen Port and
Baozhu Island in the western sea area. According to these (4) Daya Bay
data obtained from February 2007 to October 2008, they
researched on the diversity of the fouling organism varieties As an important bay in the South China Sea, Daya Bay is
and the distribution features. There are 86 kinds of fouling located between the Honghai Bay and Dapeng Bay in the
organisms recorded, which belong to 11 biological species. eastern part of Guangdong Province. There are coastal
The main dominant species include the Tubularia mountains in the north of Daya Bay and both the east and
692 B. Hou
west sides are protected by Pinghai Peninsula and Dapeng including the peak period from June to October. The peak
Peninsula. It has the total area of 650 km2 and the golden value in the surface layer and middle layer monthly boards
coastline of 52 km. Huang Zongguo and others [50] con- occur in July and the lowest values occur in February and
ducted the survey (December 1986 to October 1987) on the January. There are a total amount of organisms of
fouling organisms community in the tidal areas of eight 2,006.1 g/m2 in the surface monthly board all year round,
terminal piles from the entrance of Daya Bay to the top of with the average monthly amount of 167.18 g/m2; there are a
the bay. It is found in the survey there are extremely obvious total amount of organisms of 2,388.15 g/m2 in the middle
vertical division belts of the organism community in the layer monthly board all year round, with the average
piles and the intertidal areas. There are common character- monthly amount of 199.01 g/m2; the sequence of the
istics of the fouling organism communities in eight terminal organisms amount of the fouling organisms in the quarterly
piles, namely, ① with high and wide salt, without low salt; board is in order of the summer > autumn > spring > win-
② with obvious snail-small barnacle belt in the high tidal ter; the organisms amount of the fouling organisms on the
area, with spiny oyster belt in the middle tidal area; and ③ board in the first half of the year is > the board in the second
with the maximum amount of organisms in the middle tidal half of the year. In the vertical distribution, the organisms’
area among the three tidal areas. There are great differences amount and the attachment density of other experimental
of the fouling organism communities in the terminals with boards other than the quarterly boards in the middle
hidden water areas and the open water areas due to the layer > surface layer. According to the ecological habits,
different exposure degree in different terminals. These dif- distribution characteristics and salinity of the fouling
ferences are shown in the three tidal areas. For example, the organism, the main fouling organisms in the Zhujiajian sea
white barnacles and the black buckwheat oysters are domi- area of Zhoushan can be defined as low-salt species in the
nant species in the hidden eastern mountains and the high estuary. The water temperature is the main factor that
tidal area at the terminal. These two kinds have not been influences the distribution of fouling organisms in the sea
found yet at the terminals at the open nuclear power plants, area surveyed. The salinity of the water body plays a deci-
Dalajia and Sanmen Island. For example, there are plenty of sive role in the distribution of the types and indicators of
tetraclita squmosa in the middle tidal area of the open fouling organisms in Zhujiajian sea area.
Dalajia and Sanmen Island facing the sea waves while there
is none in the eastern island and Autou terminal. For (6) Lushun Port
example, the wrinkled sea squirt is the main sign of the low
tide area of the hidden piers such as eastern island and Located at the southern end of the Liaodong Peninsula,
Aotou, while the sessile coral algae and other varieties of red Lushun Port is located in the major crossroad between the
algae are the main sign in the low tidal area of the open sea Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea, which conjugates the Bohai
areas, such as Dalajia and Sanmen Island. Sea jointly with archipelago of Temple Island and Dengzhou
Head. The water in the port is clean, smooth with high
(5) Zhoushan salinity and high transparency. The monthly average maxi-
mum water temperature is in August (20.9 °C) and the
Yang Yuanli and others [51] carried out the hanging board minimum temperature is in February (1.8 °C). The monthly
test for the fouling organisms in the Wugong Passenger average seawater salinity is between 3.01 and 3.17%. Zhou
Terminal, Zhujiajan, Zhoushan from March 2007 to Febru- Ningqi [52] and others carried out the systematic hanging
ary 2008, and conducted the preliminary research on the board experiments in Lushun Port from September 1979 to
varieties compostio, attachment seasons, distribution of the August 1980, with the focused research on the species,
organism amount, and the ecological characteristics of the amount, and attachment seasons of the attached organisms. It
fouling organisms in the sea area. It is shown in the results is found in the survey that the species of the attached
that there are 85 species of fouling organisms recognized in organisms in Lushun Port is abundant with the main tem-
the sea area, including 13 species of algae, 13 species of perate species and without the warm water species and low
coelenterate, 4 species of bryozoa, 12 species of polychaetes, salt. There are a total of 64 species of fouling animals to be
8 species of mollusks, 22 species of crustaceans, and 13 found, five algae, including the most eye-catching species of
species of others. The medium embryo flower tube, the mud sea squirt (mainly stalk), bryozoan (such as California grass
barna, the white ridge barna, the oyster hat oyster, the omi worm and broad-mouthed worm), and purple mussels as
oyster, the maltese hook shrimp, the round buckwheat stalk well as many serpula vermicularis. There are two kinds of
worm, the long buckwheat stalk worm, and the coil worm barnacles; however, the importance in the community is
are the dominant species. The fouling organism reproduces lower than that of other ports in the coast of China. The main
and attaches in the sea area of Zhujiajian all year round, attachment seasons of the species are from June to October
and the attachment peak periods in August and September. and 6 species of other animals. The obvious zoning phe-
There have been few attached organisms in the nomenon is presented in the attached fouling organisms,
low-temperature months in winter. The main factors which is basically divided into three belts as given below:
influencing the attachment seasons are the temperature
changes in the water. (1) Periwinkle belt: The high tidal area is mainly dominated
by the rough snails and nodules snails, with a small
(7) Qingdao Port number of intermediate snails and agglomerated oys-
ters. The average amount of the organisms is
Dominated by Jiaozhou Bay, Qingdao Port has the Xiao- 121.74 g/m2.
gang, Zhonggang, and Dagang along the Jiaozhou Bay. The (2) Oyster-scaled barnacle belt: Located in the middle tidal
coastal terminals have been developed in the recent years, area, the oysters (agglomerated oysters, spiny oysters,
including Huangdao, Xueijia Island, Jiaonan, etc. Located at mitral oysters) and scale barnacles are dominant spe-
the western coast of Jiaozhou Bay, Qingdao Zhonggang has cies, which are distributed in almost all the middle tidal
the artificial building breakwaters to reduce wind and waves areas. The body is relatively large with folded attach-
in the port. It is not only a safe haven and berth for small- ment to each other. The maximum thickness can reach
and medium-sized ships but also a good experimental base 16 mm. There are a large number of organism species,
for the experimental research of marine engineering. Ma including the burrowing organisms to inhabit here and
Shide [53] and others carried out preliminary survey and many active species, such as the gastropods, migratory
research on the micro-biofilms and small fouling organisms hairy, amphipods, amphibians, snaketails, and worms.
in this area from April 2011 to November 2012. The fouling The average amount of the organisms can reach as high
organisms are divided into three categories according to the as 8,422.56 g/m2.
size of the fouling organisms, namely, the large fouling (3) Algae belt: The low tidal area is mainly attached with
organisms with the body size larger than 1 mm, the small canola, sarcophagus, and broccoli, as well as tubercu-
fouling organisms with the body size from 0.5 to 1.0 mm, lous polychaetes, scallops, stag beetles, small hand
and the micro-fouling organisms with the body size smaller crabs and migratory hairy, and a small amount of sea
than 0.5 mm. After some experiments and multi-cycle squirts. The average amount of organisms is
microscopy, the fouling community of the micro-fouling 1,403.25 g/m2.
organisms in this area evolved to: the marine bacteria can be
detected for 1 to 4 days first in general (during the biological 5.4.1.2 Offshore Platforms
breeding season), and then the marine microalgae will form
an aggregate with the extension of the time. The marine 1. Damages of Biofouling to Offshore Platforms
protozoa began to appear in the sea for about 15 days and
the marine larvae of the marine body appeared in different The weight on the offshore platforms will be increasing due
large-scale fouling organisms after 20 days. Later, the to the attachment of the fouling organisms, which will result
sample boards are attached with large-scale fouling in the risks for the safety service of the platforms. In addi-
organisms. tion, the accumulated fouling organisms will increase the
diameter of the tubes and the roughness of the surface of the
(8) Bailong Terminal tube brackets. This will increase the force of water flow
structure and the resistance coefficient of the components.
Located in the western coastal area of Guangxi, Bailong Therefore, the marine fouling will increase the hydraulic
Terminal lies in the most southwestern end of the mainland load on the structure. The 150-mm-thick fouling layer will
China, which is a peninsula extending from the mainland increase 0.15% of the structural weight. However, the
into the northern gulf area; surrounded by the sea on three fouling layer in the same thickness will lead to 17.5%
sides and neighboring Vietnam in the west, it has a very increase of the hydraulic load, the increase of 62.3% of the
important geographical location. Yan Yan [54] and others fatigue fracture and the reduction of 38% of fatigue service
carried out the survey on the fouling attached organisms on life.
Bailong Terminal from March 2, 2006 to February 2, 2007. For the purpose of considering the safe operation of the
The average water depth of Bailong Terminal is 8.5 m with offshore platform, it is required to arrange the divers or
the average tidal range of 5 m. There are a total of 59 species install the mobile devices to inspect the underwater part of
of organisms collected, including 7 species of algae, 3 spe- the platforms. However, the fouling will also influence the
cies of coelenterates, 5 species of mosses, 10 species of examination and maintenance of these structures. For
annelids, 17 species of mollusks, 11 species of crustaceans, example, the fouling on the surface of the platform structure
694 B. Hou
before the examination is required to be removed. The organisms near the location of the Yellow River estuary on
markings made on the surface of the steel structures can Platform B include the Menbranipora grandicella, Sagartia
become indistinct due to the attachment of the fouling rosea, and Balanus uliginosus. The thickness of the fouling
organisms. The hard fouling organisms, such as oysters and organisms is 3–12 cm. The fouling organisms are mainly the
barnacles, can influence the operation of the underwater Mytilus edulis in the place 20–40 nmi away the coastline on
equipment and even damage the instrument. In addition, the the remaining three platforms. The thickness of the fouling
existence of the fouling organisms will accelerate the organisms is, respectively, 7–15 cm, 13–32 cm, and 1–
microbial corrosion and local corrosion of the steel. 7 cm.
The hanging pieces experiments for a period of 1 year are
2. Biofouling Situation of Offshore Platforms in Typical carried out in 11 stations of the South China Sea area, which
Sea Areas of China analyzed the species composition, distribution, thickness,
and seasonal variation of fouling organisms. The species and
It is of great importance to analyze the characteristics of degree of the fouling organisms in the southeastern part of
fouling organisms in some particular area for the construc- the Pearl River Estuary continuously change with the off-
tion of the offshore platform design and the effective shore distance. The most commonly seen fouling organisms
removal of the system. In China, the construction of offshore in the place at the station point Z1, the water depth of 27 m
platform started in the 1880s and some initial surveys on the offshore 8.5 nmi, are the coastal species and the dominant
fouling organisms on the oil production platforms started in species is barnacle balanus reticulatus. The dominant species
the end of the 1870s. The method is to hang pieces on a fixed at the station point Z2, with the water depth of 71 m and
platform. However, China did not have offshore platforms 38.7 nmi offshore, are oceanic species, including Lepas
on the area of East Sea and South Sea until the middle period anserifera and Conchoderma hunter, water aphids (Obelia
of 1880s, and therefore the relevant data are insufficient. To sp. and Clytia sp.). Compared with the station point Z1, the
obtain the deepwater and different environmental conditions, biological diversity of the fouling organism community is
the researchers designed a series of devices to analyze the not obvious. The composition of the fouling organism
fouling organisms on the material surfaces in different community is similar to that of Z2, which is located at 60
depths. and 63 nmi in the western part of the Dongsha Islands and
The in situ analysis was realized on the surface fouling the deep-sea station of A3 and ZM3 (the water depth is over
after the offshore platform was constructed. The largest oil 300 m). The Balanus reticulatus was not found on these two
production platform is distributed in the South China Sea platforms.
and the Bohai Sea currently, which have become the con- The data in the water with the depth of more than 100 m
centrated place with research on fouling organisms. were collected at the two stations of W1 and J2 in the eastern
The Platform F on the Bohai Sea area carried out the part of Hainan Island. In these two stations, the main species
1-year hanging experiments. Located at the western Bohai are water locust Clytia delicatula, Obelia dichotoma, the
Sea area, the offshore platform is 10 nmi away from the barnacles Conchoderma hunteri and Lepas anserifera, and
coast with the immersed depth of 6 m. The main fouling the oyster Alectryonella plicatula. The Barnacles Balanus
organisms on the hanging pieces include the water mites reticulatus, Balanus trigonus, Megabaranus rosa, and
Bougainvillia sp., the amphipods Corophium sp., the bar- Megabalanus tintinnabulum were found only at site J2 and a
nacles Balanus uliginosus, and the bryozoa Acanthodesia small number of Balanus poecilotheca was found at the
bifloris. The attachment highest peak of the fouling organ- station W1.
isms is from June to September. There is no obvious In the southwestern waters of Hainan Island, four moni-
attachment from December to March. In addition, the foul- toring stations (Y1, Y2, Y3, and YM1) were monitored. The
ing organisms on five fixed platforms were analyzed. A total main fouling organisms include vines Conchoderma hunteri,
of 75 species of organisms were identified, including the Lepas anserifera, the water mites Clytia sp. and Obelia sp.,
Mytilus edulis, Sagartia rosea, and Ostrea denselamellosa the barnacles Megabalanus tintinnabulum, Balanus poe-
and Menbranipora grandicella. The fouling organisms’ cilotheca, Chirona amaryllis, and Balanus reticulatus as well
composition and degree are affected by the platform con- as the common oysters Parahyotissa sinensis and Ostrea
struction time, geographical location, water depth, and off- mordax, etc. The number and density of barnacles is reduced
shore distance. The main species on the Platform A of the to one variety from the station Y1 to Y3. Only the Megal-
Bohai Sea Bay includes the Ostrea denselamellosa, Sagartia abanus tintinnabulum was found at the station Y3.
rosea, and sponge Haliclona palmata. The thickness of the There were three stations B1, B2, and B3 in Beihu Port.
fouling organisms is between 2 and 9 cm. The main fouling The main fouling organisms include the barnacles Balanu
reticulatus and Chirona amaryllis, pearl oyster Pteria pen- (1) Corrosion and Fouling of the Underwater Part of the
guin, and common oysters Saccostrea cucullata and ane- Hull and Waterline Area
mone Actiniaria sp. The dominant species is barnacle
balanus reticulatus. However, the main fouling organisms The underwater part of the hull can be divided into four parts
after 5 years of the establishment of the oil production according to the corrosive and fouling environment, namely,
platform W10-3 are the commonly seen oysters, Dendostrea entrance of vessel, stern, rail, and bottom of the ship. There
folium, Hyotissa imbricata, the barnacles Balanus trigonus, are different corrosion actions in the four parts due to the
and Chirona amaryllis. In addition, other important species different conditions of the corrosion media, which are not
include the anemone Actiniaria sp., the bryozoa Schizo- included in the discussion scope in the chapter. For the
porella errata and the Microporella ciliate, and the oysters underwater part of the modern ships, the marine corrosion
Chamasemipurpurata and Chama reflex. The barnacles and biofouling in the underwater part can be controlled by
Lepas anatifera and Lepas anserifera are found on the sta- adopting the anticorrosion and antifouling coatings. Since
tions B1 and B2 sometimes. the underwater part of the hull is directly in contact with the
seawater, it is usually suffering from the fouling of the
3. Distribution Characteristics of Fouling Organisms in Sea attached marine organisms. Lots of marine organisms and
Area of China microorganisms can be attached to the hull underwater part,
grow and reproduce. In particular, these hazardous organ-
The main species in the sea area of China include the mites, isms can rapidly grow and reproduce in the warm sea areas
vines, coelenterates, and bryozoans. The algae fouling are in spring and summer, with extremely serious fouling. These
mainly limited to small species close to the sea level. The marine organisms and microorganisms can damage the
composition and structure of the fouling community depends surface anticorrosion protection layer of the underwater part
on the type of platform structure, the exposure time, of the hull, so that the paint film can be peeled off, the
dimensions, distance from the terminal, water depth, and resistance of the ship rails can be added, and the oil con-
environmental conditions. The main fouling organism is the sumption can be increased. In addition, the corroded
mussel Mytilus edulis on the offshore platform after the microorganisms can directly contact the metal substrate to
establishment for many years in the Bohai Bay in northern induce microbial corrosion in the broken part of the hull
China. It is the same with other sea areas worldwide. underwater part, which will shorten the ship’s service life,
The fouling communities on the surface of the large-scale add the costs for maintenance and repair, and even endanger
fixed marine structures in the northern part of the South the safety of the ships.
China Sea are mainly including the commonly seen oysters The biofouling community structure of the underwater
and other important species including barnacles. The similar part of the hull is affected by multiple factors, mainly
results can be found in other sea areas worldwide as well. On including the marine ecological environment and the speed
the floating marine structures in the northern part of the of navigation of the ship in the sea area. The sea area, sea-
South China Sea, the fouling organisms mainly include the son, water temperature, illumination, water flow velocity,
stalked barnacles and water mites. Although the barnacles salinity, and other factors have certain influence and
are also one of the most important fouling organisms, the restrictions on the attachment varieties and quantity of the
attachment volume drops substantially with the increasing organisms fouling in the underwater part of the ships.
distance from the terminals. The calcareous organisms in Generally speaking, the sea area with eutrophication, high
some places are gradually increasing with the time, such as water temperatures, and slow water flows is prone to have
the commonly seen water mites and barnacles. the attachment of the fouling organisms.
Apart from the sea area, the navigation speed of the ship
5.4.1.3 Ships is also an important factor affecting the biological level of
the underwater part of the ship. Generally speaking, the
1. Hazardous Occurrence Site attachment amount of the fouling organisms is proportional
to the time the ship is berthed in the harbor and inversely
There are great differences in the biological corrosion and proportional to the speed of the ship. It is believed that the
fouling situations of the ships according to the corrosion and organisms cannot be attached when the relevant flow rate of
fouling environment, the sea area of the ship, age of the ship, the seawater is larger than 5 mi/h. If the ships stay on the
and degree of maintenance of various places on the hull. terminal for a long time, with the short navigation time and
Here we will mainly focus on the discussion of the corrosion flow rate, it is prone to be seriously affected by the organism
and fouling situation of various parts in the hull. fouling. Therefore, it is allowed to clean and scrape the ship
696 B. Hou
surface by accelerating the navigation rate or by machines or microorganisms chosen can be observed within 1 week.
manual labors, so that the organism attachment can be The water supply is sufficient under laboratory condi-
reduced or completely peeled off. tions, but in actual environments, the water content is
Of the several factors affecting the attachment of marine often a controlling factor.
fouling organisms in the underwater part of the ship, the
marine ecological environment cannot be artificially regu- Moreover, the water dissolved in the fuel can also
lated. However, people can realize a certain choice, control, maintain the growth of mold. It is generally believed that the
and adjustment of other factors by the technical means. In microorganisms in the fuel live in the water droplets or in an
addition to increasing the navigation speed, the currently environment surrounded by the water film. In addition,
optimized technical means is to prevent the marine fouling plenty of water is required for the growth of the large
organisms from being close to the target substrate or effec- amount of microorganisms. The water content is generally
tively prevent the fouling organisms from attaching and required to be over 1% (mass fraction). It is required to point
living on the substrate surface, such as the antifouling out that the key controlling factor is the available amount of
coating; second, when it is difficult for the marine organisms water instead of the water content. For example, the additive
to attach and live, if the antifouling coatings and bionic in the fuel can migrate from the oil phase to the water phase
antifouling coatings are coated on the surface of the ship, the to lower the relative humidity (the activity of water), such as
organisms attached can be removed easily. All in all, the the glycol antifreeze, so that the available water can be
currently used and developing antifouling coatings in the reduced and the growth of microorganisms can be inhibited.
ship underwater part are designed and completed on the two Therefore, the more ethylene glycol content, the better the
points above. bacteriostatic effect will be. In general, the amount of
ethylene glycol added to the fuel is 0.15% (mass fraction).
(2) Corrosion and Fouling of the Hull Water Structure The increasing amount of the ethylene glycol is a safer way
to prevent microbial fouling.
The hull water structure includes the freeboard, deck, and The new lead-free gasoline has water-soluble oxygenat-
superstructure and is mainly corroded by the seawater and ing agent, including the methanol, ethanol, methyl tert-butyl
condensate used for the marine atmosphere, seawater dro- ether, etc. These additives can also migrate from the oil
plets, rain and snow, and seawater used to flush the deck. phase to the water phase. With sufficient concentration, it
The water accumulated and exists for a long time in various can inhibit the microbial growth.
unprotected places, which is also one important reason for
the local corrosion damage of the hull water structure. a. Nutrients: The nutrients are required for the microbial
Generally speaking, the probability of the occurrence of the growth. The carbohydrates and various chemical addi-
organism fouling is very small in this part. tives in fuels and lubricants, and the nutrients available in
water can be used as nutrients for microbial use. It seems
(3) Corrosion and Fouling of the Hull Internal Structure that there is no great difference for the growth of
microorganisms, regardless whether the latter is brine or
Different from the hull underwater part, the large-scale freshwater. There is one exception, that is, the SRB in
biofouling does not occur on the hull internal structure seawater is converted to H2S. The seawater near the sea
because it is not in direct contact with the seawater. How- harbor used for cleaning the ballast tanks that have been
ever, since the hull internal structure is complicated, there contaminated also has nutrients and fertilizers. In addi-
are six areas from the perspective of the marine with the tion, the microorganisms are degraded by oil left behind.
potential possibility of microbial corrosion, namely, distillate All these have provided the nutrients for microbial
fuel, lubricating oil, cooling water, bilge water, ballast water, growth in ballast water.
and distillate cargoes [55].
In the six hull internal structures mentioned above, the In addition, the cargo residues (such as urea, fertilizers,
several factors [55] of the existence of the microorganisms and sugar.) in the internal cargo hold of the ship, small
are water, nutrients, heat, and oxygen (in some cases, oxy- amounts of fungicide residues, rust layers, and dead
gen depletion). microorganisms may act as the nutrients for the growth of
microorganisms in the cargo hold.
a. Water: Water is the most important factor. The water in Actually, the ideal microbial growth conditions do not
fuels and lubricants provides conditions for the microbial exist in the internal structure of the ship. The rapid growth
growth. Under the laboratory conditions with the can be realized in the laboratory within a week, which is
appropriate medium and temperature, the growth of the much faster than that of the actual environment. Maybe it
will take a few months and the microbial corrosion will not shore and the attachment amount decreases with the increase
occur ahead of time. The clean, dry, low-temperature fuels of the offshore distance. The community vertical belt is
will also never result in the significant microbial growth. obvious with broad distribution. The organism species and
attachment amount from the upper to the lower tide zones
c. Temperature: It is generally believed that the internal first increase and then drop. The maximum attachment
structure temperature of the hull is from 15 to 35 °C, amount of the nearby water surface organisms reach on the
which will provide an ideal growth environment for sea surface. The species composition and quantity of fouling
microorganisms. If the internal structure temperature of organisms will change with the seasons, the overall trend of
the ship is lower than 5 °C or higher than 70 °C, it is bad which is the summer and autumn is higher than that of the
for the microbial growth. winter and spring [56].
d. External environment: The corrosive microorganisms do The maximum change of the diversity of fouling organ-
not prefer the disturbed environment, so it is prone to isms in the East China Sea lies in the estuary area and the
occur in the microbial corrosion in the ships at the port or minimum change lies in the internal bay area. This is
intermittent voyage. because the environmental factors in the estuary area are
large while the factors in the internal bay area are little. The
The corrosive microorganisms can grow on the oil and flow rate has the influence on the distribution of the fouling
water surface, and oxidize the carbohydrates in the oil phase organisms, with the maximum in the harbor. For example, it
to acids, including the toxic, irritating H2S. The corrosive shows from the fouling organism research on the six
microorganisms can also utilize sulfur compounds in fuels, experimental positions in Dongshan Bay that the flow rate of
lubricants, seawater, and waste. The sludge formed by the Taiping Island at the estuary reaches 210 m/h, with most
growth of the corrosive microorganisms can block pipelines organism species and the maximum organism amount. The
and filters. The microorganisms can survive in almost all prominent species in the East China Sea are completely the
physical conditions. In the fixed ideal environment, the same with the offshore of South China Sea in terms of the
microorganisms will substantially grow in a very short time, distribution, including the netting barnacle, the triangular
and several kilograms of biomass can be produced. barnacle, the red giant barnacle, the bell giant barnacle, and
the jade mussel, but greatly different from the Yellow Sea
2. Corrosion and Fouling Biome Characteristics and the Bohai Sea. The dominant species above do not enter
the Yellow Sea or the Bohai Sea area while some prominent
(1) Characteristics of Corrosion and Fouling Biome of Ship species in the north do not enter the East China Sea area,
Underwater Part such as the dense barnacles. This is obviously related to the
strong runoff of the Yangtze River [57–59].
With the nonuniformity and discontinuity features, the cor- The Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea are located in the
rosive and fouling biomes in underwater parts of ships temperate zone. The fouling organisms generated are tem-
change with the dynamic changes of multiple factors. The perate and broad-temperature species with broad salt and
species composition, dominant species, major hazard spe- low salt, mainly including mollusks, mosses, crustaceans,
cies, biomass, coverage area, distribution status, and other polychaetes, coelenterates, sea squirts, and algae. The
parameters of fouling organisms change with the change of changes of the fouling organisms in various sea areas occur
marine ecological environment. Different sea areas have due to the difference of the geographical location and
different dominant varieties. Due to the difference of geo- environmental factors. The species of fouling organisms are
graphical location and environmental factors, there are dif- not many with low attachment amount in the survey stations
ferent species composition and structural characteristics of with unsmooth water flow (such as Qinhuangdao Port and
the fouling biome in the various offshore sea areas of China. Lianyungang Port). In addition, it mainly includes the vari-
Spanning the tropics and subtropics, the South China Sea eties of dense scale oysters, bryozoa, and sea squirts, with
has complex natural environment, high water temperature, few barnacles; however, the dominant species in the sea area
high salinity, and high transparency, with various fouling with rich runoff and low salinity (such as the Bohai Bay,
organism species. With rapid growth, the fouling organisms Laizhou Bay, and Lusiyang sea areas) are mud barnacles,
can be attached all year round, which is the most serious area long oysters, etc. The species of the fouling organisms are
with fouling organisms nationwide. In the South China Sea, abundant with complicated composition of dominant species
the sessile vines are dominant in the fouling biomes in the in the offshore sea area with smooth water flow and high
coastal waters, and the attachment amount decreases with the salinity (such as the southeastern part of the Liaodong
increase of the offshore distance; however, the cirripedia Peninsula and the northeastern part of the Shandong
occupies advantages in the offshore sea area distant form the Peninsula). The attachment amount of organisms is
698 B. Hou
relatively large; the purple mussels occupy the advantageous can also produce resistant spores, which can cause the
position in the fouling organism community in the open sea contamination to spread in the oil phase; the yeast has the
area (such as the central Bohai Sea). The similar cases occur filamentous or ovate cells (usually 5–10 lm). The yeast and
in the oil and gas facilities in the coast of the British North mold belong to the classification of fungi in microorganisms.
Sea. In addition, the species composition and the number of The large number of microorganisms mentioned above
the fouling organisms in the Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea exists in the environment and can easily enter into the oil
change with the seasons. In general, the species in summer supply pipelines. They can grow in water and feed on
and autumn of the fouling organisms are most with the hydrocarbons in fuels. The carbohydrates are oxidized to
maximum amount, followed in the season of spring. There is produce a large amount of low molecular weight compounds
few attachment of fouling organism [60] due to the low for the use by SRB, such as the organic acids. In addition,
water temperature in winter. the demand for oxygen from the mold and yeast also pro-
vides the good conditions for the growth of SRB [55]. For
(2) Characteristics of Corrosion and Fouling Biome of Ship example, as the most common mold in the microbial con-
Internal Structures tamination of fuel tanks, the hormoconis resinae will break
the asphalt, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, N-butadiene
The microbial fouling of the internal structure of the ship rubber, polysulfide, polyurethane ether, polyether coatings,
mainly blocks the pipelines and induces the microbial and alloy structures. If there is no biocide, some poly-
corrosion. urethane coatings will be penetrated within 4–6 weeks.
There are pitting spots on the bottom layer structure of the
a. Microbial species: The microbial fouling can seriously metal, which will lead to the intergranular detachment.
endanger the safe and efficient operation of the Besides, the hormoconis resinae may also cause galvanic
ship. However, this influence in the actual situation is corrosion. For example, the aluminum alloy surface is the
prone to be neglected, especially the microbial fouling as anode and the microorganism is the cathode. The corrosion
partial hazardous factors in some circumstances. It is process can be intensified from the oxygen-deficient envi-
doubtless that the microbial corrosion research in the ronment to the oxygen-rich environment.
marine industry lags behind other industrial systems. As is shown in Fig. 5.104, various microorganisms often
Although the research experience of other industrial coexist in the actual internal structure of the ship. It can be
systems can be referred, the marine industry has its own seen on the filter fragments that inside the ships there are
characteristics. Currently, there are three basic types rod-shaped bacteria, dendritic molds, and ovate yeasts.
related to the microbial corrosion in the marine industry,
namely, bacteria, mold, and yeast. b. Corrosive and Fouling Microbial Origin of Internal
Structure of the Ship
In general, the bacteria is small (1–5 lm) with rod-shaped
cells. There are extracellular viscous polymers in some cells. (1) Seawater; In general, each liter of seawater has no more
The current corrosion bacteria found on the ships mainly than 103 bacteria and the yeasts and molds that can be
include the bacteria, sulfur bacillus, sulfur-dissolving bac- neglected. Among them, only 0.1% of the bacteria can
teria, desulfovibrio, and desulfurizing genus [61]. Among degrade carbohydrates, while SRB can degrade less
them, the anaerobic SRBs have the maximum number with carbohydrates. However, the bacteria content in the
the broadest scope and the most serious danger. The typical seawater of the seaports, estuaries, and oil tanks is
SRBs include Desulfovibrio spp., Desulfotomaculum spp., greater than 103, and there is plenty of SRB. In addition,
and Desulfobulbus spp. The SRB is generally found in the the sulfides and nitrides from fertilizers in the nearby
water, seawater pipelines, sewage wells, and the sludge and harbor and the additional corrosion inhibitors and oil
sewage environment in the bilge of the internal ship hull. additives can supply for the growth of SRB [55].
The bilge accumulated water and the pipeline in the ship are (2) Refinery plant: The oil quality problem will lead to the
anaerobic environments in the non-strict sense, which has microorganisms in the fuel when transported out to the
provided the conditions for the growth and reproduction of factory. Under suitable conditions, the microorganisms
SRB. The SRB can reduce SO24 to H2S, which are harmful can grow and lead to the microbial corrosion.
gases. Under appropriate conditions, the massive accumu- (3) Bottom position of the internal structure of the ship:
lation has caused corrosion damage and wear on the bilge The sewage and continuous hydrocarbon supply in the
board within the ship and the pipelines [55]. As the fila- bilge of the ship internal structure, and the environ-
mentous microorganisms, the mold can form reticular con- mental characteristics that cannot be totally drained has
tamination at the oil and water interface and the surface; they provided good environment for the growth of SRB. It
(3) Symptoms of Microbial Fouling of the Ship Internal

Structure
A serious of symptoms can occur due to the microbial fouling

in the internal structure of the ship. Different symptoms exist
according to the different positions of the microbial fouling.
Please refer to Table 5.63 for the special details.
a. Fuel oil: If the fuel oil with serious biofouling, multiple

problems will occur in a few hours, such as the filter
blockage, lack of oil, and syringe fouling. If the coalescer
is used, it will fail. Therefore, it is the key to prevent
these problems from occurring above by maintaining the
fuel quality. However, in the current standards for fuel
oil, the definition of the microbial fouling has not been
specified yet, so it is required to focus on the microbial
contamination problem of fuel oil used in the ships and
Fig. 5.104 Photo of microbial community on the filter fragments make the industry standards as soon as possible. In
inside the ship
addition, it is explicitly regulated that during the supply
of oil products, the fuel oil purchased cannot contain the
leads to serious microbial corrosion with the main pit- microorganisms [55].
ting corrosion [55]. b. Lubricating oil: Since only a small number of microor-
(4) Fuel oil: The microbial contamination may possibly ganisms can survive in the lubricating oil and due to the
occur in the entire fuel oil supply process, which can high-temperature environment at work, the microbial
grow in large quantity in the suitable conditions. If there fouling problem in the lubrication system is not serious.
is no drainage and water cleaning system, the However, the fouling microorganisms from the oil
microorganisms will grow in large quantities. The products themselves, cooling water and seawater can also
storage tanks in the cabin, other storage tanks in warm form the biofilms in the lubrication system. If there is
environments, and the storage tanks accepting the cir- SRB in it, the microbial corrosion can also occur [55].
culating fuel oil injection are all the ideal microbial c. Bilgewater and ballast water: One of the most important
cultivation sites. The duplex substrate storage tanks are forms of microbial corrosion is the pitting corrosion
not conducive to the microbial growth due to the low caused by the SRB in bilgewater and ballast water. From
temperature [55]. many cases, it is believed that SRB can be identified by
(5) Lubricating oil: The temperature is reduced and the visual inspection of the form of corrosion products and
water is accumulated when the lubricating oil system the presence of pungent odors.
related to the ship is shut down. The microbial fouling
can occur in mineral hydraulic oil systems. This is The carbohydrates and organic waste in the bilgewater
because the heat can be generated during the operation can become nutrients for microbial growth. The oil can be
process and will stimulate the growth of microorgan- degraded by microorganisms with the presence of dissolved
isms. If it enters the air, it can maintain the continuous oxygen and the oxidation products can become nutrients of
growth of the aerobic microorganisms according to the other microorganisms by migrating from the oil phase to the
different content of the pressure oxygen. Under the water phase. For example, the SRB can eventually induce
normal operating pressures, the microbial growth is not the occurrence of microbial corrosion. The microbial cor-
inhibited or destroyed. They may generate the cavita- rosion can accelerate the pitting perforation rate of the hull
tion corrosion as the foam. The microbial fouling is steel. The SRB corrosion in ballast water is related to
prone to occur due to the adjustable pitch propeller nitrides, phosphides, and other nutrients in water, microbial
hydraulic oil system, which will lead to the bactericide mucosa, and sludge at the bottom of the storage tanks.
to be added to the hydraulic fluid [55]. Moreover, the contaminated microorganisms in the
cooling water can consume the corrosion inhibitors in
the system. As time goes by, the water environment in the
700 B. Hou
Table 5.63 Symptoms of microbial fouling in fuel, lubricating oil, bilge water, and ballast water systems [54]
Media Fuel oil Lubricating oil Bilgewater and ballast water
Visual The discoloration, turbidity, and fouling of fuel The lubricating oil becomes sticky and The mucus layer and a
inspection oil can be caused when the microorganisms grow slippery. The mucus layer is generated in sludge layer that is black or
to be a certain amount of biomass the crankcase door black after peeling off are
The bacterial biosurfactants generated will Rust layer formed
reduce the surface tension of the oil phase and The honey film is generated on the journal Pitting corrosion at the
allow the water phase, microorganisms, and and is subsequently associated with bottom of steel structures,
other contaminants to enter and suspend in the pitting corrosion pipelines, and storage tanks
oil phase Black strains are generated on white alloy Rapid corrosion of the
The purifiers and coalescers related to the clean bearings, pins, and journal surfaces plating layer
fuel and water can fail Brown or gray/black precipitate found in
Storage tank pitting corrosion metal parts
Corrosion rotary drum and new machined
surface corrosion
Sludge is accumulated in the crankcase;
the excessive accumulation of sludge in
the slag discharge process by the purifier
The coating is peeled off in the crankcase
Operation Within a few hours, the bacterial polymer will • Additional loss and consumption • Unusual stain and sulfide
block the filter and orifice plate • Rancid or sulfide taste taste
It will foul the filters, pumps, and syringes and • The acidity is added or suddenly • Structural damage
cause failure alkalinity is lost • Pipeline suction loss
During the combustion process, the uneven fuel • The purifier cannot reduce the water
flow and changes will accelerate the wear rate of content in the oil
the piston ring and cylinder liner and influence • The filter is blocked under severe
the camshaft output torque weather conditions
• Continuous demulsification problem
• The heat transfer efficiency of the
condenser is reduced
system will change from alkaline to acidic gradually and order to prevent the H2S generated from SRB corrosion from
form the anaerobic environment. The SRB can grow in large corroding the ship equipment. It is shown from the investi-
quantities and lead to the microbial corrosion. The serious gation results that the SRB and aerobic escherichia coli were
microbial fouling, if any, will influence the heat transfer found in the bilgewater of the Australian Royal Navy and
efficiency. foreign naval vessels. After the testing of the bilgewater
microorganisms on 37 ships (including ferries and tankers),
3. Microbial Corrosion of Marine Materials it is shown from the results that the anaerobic, aerobic, yeast,
and mold, including SRB, generally exists [64].
People did not pay attention to the microbial corrosion of
ships. With the deepening research on the corrosion in the (1) Steel Microbial Corrosion of Hull
past 20 years, many abnormal fast corrosion problems have
attracted the people’s attention and have been found with The SRB has a great influence on the corrosion of carbon
plenty of microbial corrosion in the ships. Chen Debin [61] steel. It is believed by the research of Japanese scholar,
and others carried out the testing on the bilgewater in various Kanno Sugano, that the ratio of the corrosion rate of carbon
types of ships in different sea areas and found the presence steel in sea mud with and without SRB is 37:17. Ulanovsky
of SRB in nearly all the ships tested. The SRB even exists in once evaluated that the corrosion rate of steel under the
the harbor, the number of which is three or four lower than action of SRB is increased by 50–60%; Bachelson once
that of the cabins. measured that the increasing rate of the steel corrosion by the
The culturable microorganisms were detected in 80 tanks SRB can reach 20 times. Some researchers measured that the
of eight warships from the USA Navy [62]. The bacteria, corrosion rate of the steel ship plates immersed by the water
fungi, and yeast were found by the Canadian Navy at the with SRB can reach 25 mg/(dm2 d), while the corrosion rate
joints of the fuel tank interfaces and the hormoconis resinae of the sterile steel is 2.6 mg/(dm2 d). The difference between
was proved to be the main fouling microorganism [63]. them is nearly 10 times [61].
Plenty of investigations have been conducted on the In 1966, Copenhagen [65] and others reported the sus-
microbial corrosion of ships by the Australian Royal Navy in pected microbial corrosion at the bottom of the bilge. The
8-mm carbon steel plate near the stern propeller was cor- Table 5.64 Chemical composition of four metal materials for immer-
roded and perforated in 2 years, with the corrosion rate of sion test
4 mm/a. Compared with the corrosion rate (0.127 mm/a) of Element Surface ship Submarine UNS UNS
the same steel plate in the seawater, it is 30 times faster. The hull steel hull steel S31603 S32550
presence of FeS, the corrosion product of SRB, proves the S <0.22 0.13 <0.03 <0.04
occurrence of microbial corrosion. Si <0.55 0.24 <0.75 <1.0
In 1994, serious corrosion was generated in the bilge of Mn <1.7 0.93 <2 1.5
certain ship in the South China Sea. A total of 217 ulcer-type Ni <0.5 1.30 10–14 4.5–6.5
corrosion pits with the diameter of 8–20 mm and the pit
Cr <0.3 0.48 16–18 24–27
depth of 3–6 mm were found in the main engine compart-
Mo <0.35 0.40 2–3 2.9–3.9
ment, the auxiliary engine room, and the tail shaft cabin. The
Cu <0.40 0.21 1.5–2.5
annual ulcer corrosion rate was 1.5–3.0 mm/a and the
maximum ulcer corrosion rate was 4.5 mm/a. Among them, S <0.03 0.012 <0.03 <0.03
one place in the left side of the left main engine compartment P <0.040 0.010 <0.045 <0.04
has been corroded and perforated, with the diameter of the V <0.03 0.02
pit of 80 mm and the diameter of the hole of 20 mm. The Ti <0.04 0.01
rest are elliptical or stepped ulcer corrosion pits. With the
investigation and analysis of some domestic experts, the
main reason for the accident was caused by the microbial materials soaked in the natural seawater, the hull used for the
corrosion. For the first time, the recommendation of navy warship soaked in the bilgewater had the accelerated
managing the microbial corrosion of ships was made [61]. steel corrosion rate with increasing sensitivity of the pitting
In 2000, multiple corrosion perforations were generated corrosion. The presence of hemispherical pitting corrosion
in less than 2 years’ use when six ships entered the water in pits indicated that the corrosion in the bilgewater was related
China. After the measurement, the number of SRB of the to the microbial corrosion caused by the SRB. Compared
unit volume of the accumulated water in the cabin is 103–104 with two kinds of stainless steel samples, no evidence can
times that of the outboard seawater, which means there is indicate that the corrosion in the natural seawater and the
plenty of SRB in the bilgewater of the ship. In addition, it is bilgewater is related to the microbial corrosion.
shown in the investigation results that the corrosion Hill [69] once reported that 11-mm hull steel was cor-
appearance has the obvious characteristics of SRB corrosion. roded and perforated in less than 6 months. It was one of the
The corrosion products have smelly odor with the appear- fastest microbial corrosion rates that have been reported.
ance of black sticky paste covering the steel plate. The Cleland and others [70] discussed the microbial corrosion in
corrosion pits are usually some open stepped cones with ballast tanks with corrosion rates of 6 mm/a in 2 years. The
some concentric rings inside the pits. There were black microbial corrosion rate of the exposed bottom plates in the
corrosion products in the pit and the bright metal surfaces are oil storage tanks with single and double tankers was 2 mm/a
seen under the products [61]. [71].
In 2007, Mart [66] reported that the 10-mm hull plate of In addition, the corrosive microbial communities includ-
the warship from Australian Royal Navy corroded and pering SRB and acid-producing bacteria were found in the
forated in less than 1 year, with the corrosion rate of water and sludge at the bottom of the tank and in the water
10 mm/a. This process may also be caused by the microbial droplets contained in the crude oil itself. The use of micro-
corrosion. bicides to control microbial corrosion in crude oil storage
In these days, Wade and others [67, 68] carried out tanks is not practical.
detailed study on the microbial corrosion of four metal
materials in the bilgewater of seven warships from the (2) Microbial Corrosion of Other Metal Materials in the
American Royal Navy. It included two kinds of the warship Hull
hull steels of Australian Navy (one low-alloy steel used for
surface warships and one high-strength and low-alloy steel Besides the steel materials, the SRB generates the corrosion
for submarines) and two kinds of stainless steel (austenitic actions with different degrees on the stainless steel, alu-
UNS S31603 and super-duplex UNS S32550). Please refer minum, zinc, copper, and the alloys on the ships. People
to Table 5.64 for the chemical composition. The surface have begun to pay attention to the corrosion of marine
morphology and composition of the optical microscopy, pipelines by microorganisms in the recent years. It was
scanning electron microscopy, and energy spectroscopy found in the research that the SRB can reproduce in the
were analyzed after immersing for 116 days. It was found seawater pipelines under the anaerobic conditions and gen-
from the comparative study that, compared with the erate the sticky substances to accelerate the formation of
702 B. Hou
scaling and block the seawater pipelines. In addition, the system. The cooling water contains the microorganisms and
SRB bacterial colony can lead to the local corrosion of nutrients, which will cause the microbial corrosion. The
pipeline facilities and even perforation, which will result in pitting corrosion caused by the microbial corrosion was also
the great economic losses [61]. At the very beginning, the found in the copper–nickel alloys used in the submarine
corrosion process of the pipelines was formed by the iron cooling system of the British Royal Navy [73]. The multiple
bacteria or some mucus attached in the tube walls, and it microorganisms including SRB, fungi, and yeast were
formed the large colonies, nodules, or uneven mucus layers, detected in the bottom cabin water and sludge. The sulfides
which caused the oxygen concentration in batteries. With the were detected in the corrosion products and the sea mud
expansion of the biofouling, the anaerobic conditions for samples, which indicated the microbial corrosion mainly
SRB reproduction can be formed and the corrosion of caused by the SRB.
oxygen-concentrated cells was accelerated. In addition, the It is shown from the above results of the research that the
SRB depolarization and corrosion of sulfide products further microbial corrosion was generated in the multiple positions
worsened the corrosion and caused local perforation [61]. of the ships and the corrosion microorganisms were found.
It is shown from plenty of failure cases that the copper– In addition, the corrosion rate is greatly higher than that of
nickel alloy does not have marine biofouling, it has micro- the seawater corrosion rate (0.1 mm/a) under the same
bial corrosion sensitivity. Liu Guangzhou and others [72] conditions. Please refer to Table 5.65 for some corrosion
carried out the microbial corrosion test on the B10 tube used cases.
in the marine seawater pipeline system. It was found in the
results that the corrosion rate of the B10 alloy was greatly 5.4.1.4 Clean Energy
increasing in the PostgateC medium with SRB. The iron and
nickel elements in the alloy were selectively dissolved and 1. Tidal Power Generation
the corrosion form was like sponge. The microbial corrosion
of stainless steel often occurs in welding junctions and During the process of the tidal power station operation,
heat-affected zones. From the research, it is shown that the plenty of aquatic organisms are attached on the surface of
microstructure and surface structure of stainless steel mate- parts, including the inlet gate, the unit overcurrent compo-
rials have an impact on metal antimicrobial corrosion, nents, etc. Most of them are shellfish with hard external
especially the great influence of the nature of the passivation shells and it is very difficult to remove them. However, few
layer on the microbial corrosion prevention. The microor- research reports have been made on the characteristics and
ganisms playing a role in the corrosion of the stainless steel mechanism of corrosion and fouling organism community in
mainly include the algae, SRB, IOB, manganese-oxidizing tidal power stations. Wu Xiusheng [79] analyzed the oper-
bacteria, etc. The surface of the stainless steel materials ation status of the Jiangxia Chaoxi Power Station for
consumed the oxygen due to the metabolism of aerobic 15 years. He pointed out that the surface without the
bacteria, and generated the oxygen concentration battery antifouling processing in the No. 1 machine flow channel
under the biofilm. In addition, due to the growth activities of was attached with the 4–5 cm-thick barnacle after the
IOB and manganese-oxidizing bacteria, the local precipita- operation for half one year. However, the supporting paint
tion was formed on the metal surface and prevented the dominated by the high-contact-type cuprous oxide antifoul-
oxygen from diffusion in the biofilm. The oxygen-free ing paint was coated on the surface of the metal components
environment is formed in the center of the biofilm, which is in contact with the seawater and the concrete flow channel.
suitable for the SRB growth and reproduction. With the joint Only a small amount of the monomer marine organisms
actions of the SRB, IOB, and manganese-oxidizing bacteria, (barnacle) were attached on the entire surface of the pro-
the pitting corrosion was generated. It is also believed that tected body within 2 years of operation; after 4 years of
the minor precipitated tumors were formed on the metal operation, the attachment of marine organism community
surface and resulted in the crevice corrosion [61]. was found on the local surface (about 10% of the entire
In general, the copper has the toxic nature to the SRB protected area), especially the concrete surface of the flow
organism, but the SRB has certain adaptability to copper. channel surrounded by the bulb body (the upper part of the
The materials which are the most resistant to SRB corrosion flow channel is denser than that of the below part); and after
are titanium and titanium alloys [61]. The report of the the operation for about 7 years, the dense marine organisms
British Royal Navy also mentioned that the failure of the gas were attached on the entire protected surface except for the
turbine engine on the warship was caused by the microbial paddles and the runner chamber. Therefore, he believed that
corrosion. The reasons for the failure are related to the use of the effective time of the supporting pain dominated by the
the seawater as the cooling medium by the cooling pipeline cuprous oxide was about 5 years.
Table 5.65 Cases of microbial corrosion of materials in different parts of the ship
Author Location Evidence of microbial corrosion Corrosion
Corrosive Microbial High Related rate (mm/a)
microorganism corrosion corrosion corrosion
products rate morphology
Copenhagen [65] Ship bottom deck ✓ ✓ 4
US Navy [62] Fuel storage tank and its ancillary ✓ ✓ ✓
equipment
Haggart [63] Fuel storage tank ✓
Upsher [74–76] Bottom compartment and engine room ✓ ✓
Mart [66] Bottom deck, sludge storage tank, ✓ ✓ ✓ >10
drinking water storage tank
Wade [67, 68] Bottom compartment ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Bolwell [77] Engine cooling system ✓ ✓
Nicklin [73] Seawater cooling pipeline ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2
Campbell [78] Hull steel, ballast tank ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8
Cleland [70] Ballast tank ✓ ✓ ✓ 6
Huang [71] Cargo tank ✓ ✓ ✓ 2
Hill [64, 69] Hull steel and bilge cabin ✓ ✓ ✓ 22
2. Wind Power Generation 3. Nuclear Power
There have been few reports on the organism corrosion and The biological corrosion and fouling of nuclear power plants
fouling of the relevant offshore wind power plants so far. In usually occur in the seawater system. Although the stainless
the data checked, Whihelmsson and others [80] analyzed the steel has good corrosion resistance, the corrosion failure also
fouling status of the offshore wind plants in the Karma Strait. occurs in the bad environment of seawater system. Most of
It was found that after 2–3 years, the marine organisms were them are pitting corrosions with the frequent intergranular
basically covered with the single-pile substrate, including corrosion and stress corrosion. The uniform corrosion, cre-
about 80% of the oil black shells in the attached organisms vice corrosion, and galvanic corrosion are included in the
and about 10% of the extremely dense barnacles and fila- corrosion mechanism of carbon steel and lining pipelines.
mentous algae. Cao Guangqi and others [81] analyzed the The corrosion and perforation of pipelines are mainly caused
premature failure of the steel structure foundation of the by the aging, bumps, or other local defects of the lining.
anticorrosion layer (the use of the anticorrosion coating) of After the damages of the lining, the perforation is soon
the offshore wind power station in China. The conclusion caused due to the fact that the carbon steel substrate is not
was obtained that the marine organism fouling was the main
reason for the failure of the anticorrosion layer. From
Fig. 5.105, the photo of the organism fouling on the steel
structural base of the offshore wind power station, it was
found that plenty of oysters were attached. After the oysters
were attached to the steel structural base, although the
oxygen molecules on the surface of the carbon steel can be
prevented from diffusing to the corrosion surface, it has
certain protection action to the corrosion of the carbon steel.
However, the oxygen-deficient environment on the surface
of carbon steel was formed due to the impermeability of the
adhesion layer and the aerobicity in the outer fouling layer.
This is conducive to the growth of SRB and will accelerate
the anaerobic corrosion of carbon steel. Fig. 5.105 Photos of organism fouling of steel structure base of a
domestic offshore wind power station
704 B. Hou
Galvanic corrosion
Thermal fatigue
Other
Crevice corrosion
Stress corrosion
Vibration fatigue
Fig. 5.106 Mechanism statistics of pipeline failure cases in nuclear power plants
resistant to the seawater corrosion. The perforation is There were plenty of microorganisms in the static seawater in
developed from the inside to the outside. Liu Xiao and the duct, including the fungi, molds, and algae. The
others [82] conducted a statistical analysis of the collected microorganism metabolic products caused the adverse cor-
pipeline failure cases. Please refer to Fig. 5.106 for the rosion environment, such as the black odorous sulfides and
failure ratios of various types. The fluid accelerated corro- organic acids. On the one hand, the concentration and pH
sion and vibration fatigue failure account for 25% and 18%, value of the oxygen in the fluid media were changed and the
respectively. In addition, there is a higher proportion of the possibly dissolved H2S may be in the water due to the cor-
crevice corrosion, pitting corrosion, microbial corrosion, and rosion degradation of bacteria and fungi in water. Therefore,
stress fatigue. Therefore, the microbial corrosion plays an the iron sulfide produced by the action of H2S exacerbates the
important role in corrosion failure of pipelines in the nuclear corrosion process; on the other hand, the deposit sediments
power plants. and attachment generated on the surface of the impellers
The filtered seawater used for cooling of the condenser make the formation of the local corrosion cells, including the
and the auxiliary cooling water system were delivered by the metabolic products of the microorganisms.
circulating water pump. After the operation of a domestic The filter screen of the gravel filter can fail due to the
nuclear power plant for 1 year, the corrosion was found on fouling corrosion of the marine organisms. Yang Fan and
the impellers of the super-duplex stainless steel made of the others [84] analyzed the causes for the failure of the gravel
material ZG06Cr25Ni7Mo2N. The marine organisms filter (filter screen) of the Lingao Nuclear Power Plant. It was
(shellfish, algae) were attached on the surface of the impellers believed that the filters made of DIN 1.4439 stainless steel
after the examination. The occurrence of the corrosion was were immersed in seawater for a long time. Since the linings
related to the attachment of the marine organisms [83]. The in the upper, middle, and lower pipelines are rubber liners
biochemical corrosion was caused to the attachment positions and the internal wall of the carbon steel water room is also
from the acidic body fluids by the marine organisms. More- the rubber liner, the water room plate is made of titanium.
over, the marine organisms were accumulated in the seawater No materials can be served as the sacrificial anode of the
where the circulating water pump is stationary for a long filter screen. The serious corrosion was caused due to the
time. The corrosion under the scaling was easily formed. multiple factors, including the seawater and microorganisms.
Bacterial counting on carbon steel

Bacterial counting
Corrosion rate
Month (Years from 2005-2007)
Fig. 5.107 Relationship between the corrosion rate and the number of microorganisms on its surface of carbon steel exposed to circulating water
in the test station
Rao and others [85] studied the organism fouling and Many organisms and microorganisms can accelerate the
corrosion of heat exchangers in certain test station. The corrosion process through metabolic processes. It is shown
number of iron-reducing bacteria (IRB), IOB, SRB and in plenty of researches that the existence of microorganisms
heterotrophic bacteria in the corrosion products was identi- in many environments can cause local corrosion of metallic
fied and determined by separation and culture was 1 106 materials rather than uniform corrosion. In addition to var-
cfu/g, 5 105 cfu/g, 6 105 cfu/g, and 3 105 cfu/g. ious microorganisms, there are plenty of metal ions, which
Four types of microorganisms accounted for the proportions, indicate that the microorganisms participate in the corrosion
respectively, of 41%, 21%, 25%, and 13%. Meanwhile, the process. It is common that the microbial corrosion processes
corrosion rate is positively correlated with the number of can be seen in the transport of petroleum pipelines. The
microbes on the carbon steel surface (see Fig. 5.107). In corrosion form caused by microorganisms in the pipeline is
addition to SRB, IOB, and IRB, the nitrate-reducing bacteria usually pointed holes at the edge side or holes in holes.
are also considered to be closely related to the corrosion of Whether the pipeline is in a dry or wet circulating state, or
naval brass condensing tubes in nuclear power plants. the sedimentation water at the bottom of the pipeline due to
Besides, the nitrate-reducing bacteria can reduce nitrate to slow flow rate, or the fluid with the water content of 30% in
ammonia, and the concentration ammonia at the interface the pipeline, these holes are in the pipelines. In general, the
between the substrate and the biofilm can reach 5.8 mg/L. corrosion holes usually occur at the bottom of the pipe or
The cracking of the brass condensation tube was caused by linearly distributed at the oil and water interface and at the
the existence of the high-concentration ammonia [86]. edge of the sediment layer.
The bacteria primarily grow on the tube walls on the
5.4.1.5 Submarine Pipeline pipeline, which can form the colonies made up of various
bacteria after the development. These bacteria can live
1. Corrosion and Fouling Overview of Submarine Pipelines together and promote the metabolism of each other. There
are some typical strains that can cause corrosion, including
In different fields, the microbial corrosion is considered to be the acid-producing bacteria, SRB, iron bacteria, and
the important corrosion problem and the growth of manganese-oxidizing bacteria. The two kinds of bacteria
microorganisms can cause fouling and corrosion problems. commonly existing in the pipeline are SRB and
706 B. Hou
acid-producing bacteria. The SRB can produce H2S and the heterotrophic microorganisms absorb the energy and carbon
acid-producing bacteria can produce acetic acid or sulfuric sources from the organic substance. In addition, the auto-
acid. These substances have strong aggressiveness to the trophic microorganisms get the energy through the light or
pipeline. There are other types of manganese-oxidizing assimilation of carbon of oxidizing minerals. The anaerobic
bacteria and heterotrophic bacteria in the pipelines. The iron bacteria does not need oxygen during the process of growth.
bacteria exist in the solution with iron produced by corrosion They are the main types of corrosion in wet soils and water.
or the tumor blocks formed at the holes of corrosion [87]. The main types involving the microbial corrosion are SRB
and SOB.
2. Corrosion-Related Microorganisms
a. SRB (anaerobic corrosion)
(1) Fungi
The action of the hydrogenase activity in the corrosion pro-
In general, the molds in relation to the metal corrosion are cess of carbon steel caused by SRB has not been defined yet.
mainly divided into filamentous molds (mold) and The SRB containing hydrogenase can oxidize the molecular
single-cell molds (yeast). The filamentous molds have hydrogen produced in the cathode region and stimulate the
hyphae and are usually dendritic and intertwined with each cathodic depolarization reaction. The process of combining
other. The organic acids released during the metabolism H2S gas with adsorbed hydrogen atoms in this mechanism is
process can accelerate the corrosion process. As the most deemed to be the speed control step. The bacteria can effec-
dry-tolerant microorganisms, the fungi can remain active tively increase the rate of hydrogen evolution reactions, and
when the Aw is lower than 0.6. Most fungi are aerobic therefore the metabolic activity increases the corrosion rate.
bacteria, which can only be found in the aerobic conditions. Besides, the sulfides produced by bacteria can also stimulate
As the non-photosynthetic organisms, the fungi have a the anode reaction. In addition, the FeS generated within the
nutrient structure called hyphae. The reproduction process biofilm system can accelerate the initial corrosion rate through
depends on the single germ cells or spores. The hyphae are the depolarization reaction of the anode and cathode. How-
composed of the hyphae-like clusters or thread-like sub- ever, according to the research by King and others [89], the
stances, which can be reproduced almost under limited corrosion engineers mainly considered the capability of SRB
growth conditions (when appropriate moisture and nutrients generated by them when the action of SRB in the corrosion
exist). Therefore, the fungi are generally found at the process under anaerobic conditions.
microscopic scales. Spores, the control stage without the
metabolic processes, can survive for a long time in the b. Acidogenic bacteria
unsuitable growth conditions, just like the dryness and
nutrients are insufficient. The fungi in the gas and liquid It seems that the metabolite products with the most aggres-
environments can decompose the organic substances and siveness generated by the bacteria are the organic acids. The
generate the organic acids, including the oxalic acid, formic acetic acid and butyric acid are representatives of these
acid, acetic acid, and citric acid. It has been proved that the aggressive metabolites. The SRB can generate sulfuric acid
carbohydrate decomposition and contamination are caused with the use of sulfur and hydrogen sulfide, such as
by fungi. As a type of kerosene fungus, the cladosporium Thiobacillus. The process often occurs in the solids, soil, and
can survive in the kerosene containing 80 mg/L of water. water with sulfide minerals. It was reported that the sulfuric
Little and Ray [88] conducted the study and indicated that acid was generated and detected in some damaged pipelines
the hyphae of the fungi can complex metal ions and cause [90]. The local corrosion in concrete and steel pipes is also
the formation of metal ion concentration cells. The exposure related to the sulfuric acid produced by Thiobacillus.
conditions for different gases were formed on the metal
surfaces due to the attachment of the fungi and the colonies, c. Iron-reducing bacteria
which can lead to the occurrence of crevice corrosion. In
addition, the metabolic production generated from the fungal It has been proved that the Pseudomonas of various types
metabolism can lower the pH of the system and accelerate can reduce the Fe (III) [91]. The solid Fe (III) compound has
the metal corrosion as well. low chemical activity and can protect the metal surface from
further corrosion, and this is because the Fe (III) is insoluble
(2) Bacteria in conditions with low pH value, In general, the Fe (II) salt is
soluble, so the reduction of Fe (III) salt can damage the
The microorganisms can be not only autotrophic but also protective layer. For this reason, the Pseudomonas with the
heterotrophic, anaerobic, and aerobic as well. The iron-reducing capability can promote the corrosion process.
d. IOB to only a small number of microbial species. It has been

proved that many bacteria and fungi have this ability. More
The aerobic IOBs can oxidize the Fe (II) to produce Fe (III), than 100 species of organisms were mentioned in the sum-
such as the genus Pseudomicrobium and genus Caroline. mary of ZoBell, including 30 microorganisms that have
The tumor-shaped deposit sediment can be formed on the shown the capability to use the hydrocarbons. Twenty-two
surface of the metal because of the oxidation of the iron and kinds of bacteria, one kind of microalgae, and 14 kinds of
manganese. In the tumor, the concentration gradient is large fungi were listed in the summary made by Bartha and Atlas
and the internal pH value is very low [92]. [95]. All these can utilize the hydrocarbon petroleum com-
pounds and are separated in the liquid environment. The
e. Manganese-oxidizing bacteria most important kinds (according to the frequency of sepa-
ration) in the liquid environment include Pseudomonas,
It has been reported that the manganese-oxidizing bacteria Achromobacter, Micrococcus, Nocardia, Candida, Vibrio,
with active metabolism can generate the MnO2 deposit Acinetobacter, Brevibacterium, Rhodotorula, Saccha-
sediment layer. The anaerobic microenvironment can be romyces, Corynebacterium, and Flavobacterium. Walker and
generated in this process, which is conducive to the growth others [96] compared the abilities of bacteria and fungi in
of SRB. The electrochemical potential can be stimulated in terms of hydrocarbon degradation. The types included in the
this process to reach the value conducive to the corrosion. research are Candida, Hansenula, Acinetobacter, Rhodotor-
Xu and others [93] proposed that the loss or re-passivation of ula, Bud Mycobacterium, Penicillium, Aspergillus, Pseu-
the metal passivation film is caused because of the strong domonas, Vibrio, Nocardia, and Rhobium. Plenty of
oxidizing environment due to the Mn (III) complex product. Pseudomonas has been separated by using the petroleum
This can stimulate the occurrence of the local corrosion hydrocarbons. The wide research has been carried out on
process of the passive metal. such bacteria to degrade the genes and enzymes in hydro-
The SRB can stimulate the corrosion of the existing carbons. In general, the genes for degrading hydrocarbons in
active sites on the carbon steel and the biosulfide can react these microorganisms were detected in the plasmids. Lots of
with the soluble Fe (II) dissolved from the metal matrix. The taxonomic methods have been used to identify the bacteria
biomineralized MnO2 comes from the oxidation of soluble degraded by the petroleum. The main factors influencing the
manganese in the bulk medium, which facilitates the microbial petroleum degradation include the nitrogen,
occurrence of the corrosion process. The SRB can cause a phosphate, dissolved oxygen, temperature, pressure, etc. In
series of reactions through the autocatalysis action. When the petroleum pipeline system, the oil degradation conse-
the MnO2 exists, it can be reduced as a cathodic depolarizer quences caused by the microorganisms are the changes of
and the microbial process continues. Although the cathodic the chemical nature of physical debris, oil turbidity, and oil
reactions caused by these two microorganisms are operated materials. The most visible result caused by the microbial
with the different electrochemical potentials, the important activity is that the solids visible to the naked eyes can be
redox characteristics are retained. formed. The solids have the components including live and
dead microbial cells, inorganic metabolites, foreign debris,
(3) Oil degrading microorganisms: ZoBell [94] summa- and membrane materials generated by the organisms. For the
rized the role of the microorganisms on hydrocarbons. oil materials, the most important is clear and transparent and
It was believed by him that many microorganisms can the growth of microorganisms often leads to serious tur-
rely on the hydrocarbons as the only source of energy. bidity. The by-products generated during the microbial
These microorganisms are widely distributed in the metabolism process can add the aggressiveness and change
nature. In addition, he believed that the use of the the chemical nature of the storage tank or the pipelines. For
hydrocarbons by microorganisms depends on the example, the H2S, SO2, and CO2 generated by the microbial
chemical and environmental conditions of various metabolism can be dissolved in the gasoline.
components of the petroleum mixture.
(4) Microorganisms degrading corrosion inhibitors and
After 21 years from the classic summary made by ZoBell, fungicides
some scientific groups began to pay attention to the issue of
oil pollution. The changes of hydrocarbon mixture depend Under normal circumstances, the organic film type corrosion
on the nature of the oil and the microorganism community as inhibitors in oil and gas product storage and transportation
well as a series of environmental factors. These can influence systems are prone to be suffered from the microbial degra-
the activity of the microorganism. The capability of the dation, which leads to the failure of corrosion inhibition. The
hydrocarbons with the petroleum degradation is not limited occurrence of accidents caused by the use of many
708 B. Hou
fungicides/corrosion inhibitors is because of the insufficient (2) Identification of Microbial Communities in Gas Trans-
understanding of the nature of fungicides/corrosion inhibi- mission Pipelines
tors before the use. The diversity and molecular transfor-
mation in the genes of the microbial community lead to the Jan-Roblero and others [100] analyzed the separation of
more effective and capable transformation and use of the PCR products with the denaturing gradient gel elec-
hydrocarbon compound/corrosion inhibitors. trophoresis. It was indicated in the sequence analysis that the
It was reported that the Acinetobacter calcoaceticus can mixed microbial communities (see Table 5.67) were
decompose the benzoic acid. The alkanes and several obtained in the pipeline of the acid gases (hydrogen sulfide,
naphthenes in oil and gas were reported to be degraded. low molecular weight hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and
Ingram [97] conducted the research and showed that the nitrogen) in the Gulf of Mexico. Only one kind of SRB was
yeast could degrade not only the benzoic acid but also the detected in the mixed community and the rest was Enter-
sugars. It has been indicated in the previous studies that few obacteriaceae. The characteristics and metabolic abilities of
organisms could utilize methylparaben, but the research these bacteria are possibly related to the microbial corrosion.
conducted by Hugo and Foster [98] indicated that the The abundance of SRB can be obtained from the environ-
Pseudomonas aeruginosa NCTC7244 can be utilized. Fur- mental scanning electron microscopy results. When the
ther investigation was made on the decomposition of the biofilm was removed, the explicit local corrosion occurred
parabens by the Beveridge and Hart [97]. It was found that on the steel surface of the pipeline.
the Alcaligenes, Aeromonas, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
fluorescent pseudomonas isolated in different environments (3) Types of Microorganisms in Oil–water Mixture
can degrade the esters.
In the submarine oil–water (97% oil, 3% water) pipeline in
3. Community Characteristics of Corrosive Microorganisms Mumbai, Jayasinghearachchi and others [101] adopted the
selective peptone medium and obtained a strain of bacteria.
(1) Analysis of microbial community structure in water Through the identification of the metabolic process, it was
injection system of the oilfield found that the bacteria have the action of hydrogen. The
results of the 16S rRNA gene sequence measurement have
A. The X52 steel samples were placed at different locations indicated that the bacteria are a kind of amygdalinum
in the oilfield water injection pipeline by Miguel and Clostridium.
others [99]. They investigated the composition of the
microorganism community in the corrosive biofilms in 5.4.1.6 Marine Aquaculture
the steel pipelines of the oil–water injection system of
the Gulf of Mexico after 3 months. The main bacteria is 1. Fouling Overview of Marine Aquaculture
mainly the heterotrophic aerobic bacteria according to
the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis method in the One of the main problems in aquaculture is fouling [102–
research. Through the analysis of the gene denaturing 104]. The floating cage aquaculture in hot seasons is espe-
gradient gel electrophoresis, the metagenomics of the cially prone to the influence of the fouling organisms [105,
bacteria in the biofilm were obtained and established on 106]. The most common large marine fouling organisms
the basis of the 16S rRNA-based metagenomic library. include the barnacles, mussels, large algae, etc. and the
The results of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis micro-marine fouling organisms include the diatoms,
and analysis of ribosomal database have indicated that microorganisms, etc. [107]. The common marine fouling
there is limited bacteria diversity within the biofilm. organisms [108] are usually attached on the farming trusses,
Most microorganisms in the pipelines include the Pro- nets, bottoms, submarine cables, pipelines, etc., including
teobacteria (Halomonas spp., Idiomarina spp., Mari- the algae (Brassica oleracea, multi-algae, etc.), barnacles,
nobacter aquaeolei, Thalassospira sp., Silicinobacter bivalves, external anal fauna, etc. The damages caused to the
sp., Chromohalobacter sp., Bacillus sp., Bacillus spp., facilities often bring about the great economic losses.
and Vitoriabacterium spp.) (See Table 5.66). It was One of the important factors affecting the safety and
reported for the first time in the research that the service life of marine facilities is the fouling organisms. The
community composition of the bacteria was in the species composition and structural characteristics of fouling
corrosive biofilms. The existence of the SRB was not organism community in various offshore areas are different
separated and detected through the PCR method in the because of the difference in geographical location and
research. environmental factors. However, the main framework of the
Table 5.66 Bacterial 16S rRNA sequences obtained from the biofilms
Representative clone* ¶ ┼ Similarity (%) Microbial community
(Genebank No.) Number of Best matching database┼ ╟ relationship ╬
clones¶
Isdated strain
ABKPF3(DG235547) Halomonas aquamarina 99.7 Halomonas aquamarina
(AJ306888)
ABKPF4(DG235548) Idiomarina zobellii(AF052741) 98.7 Idiomarina zobellii
ABKPF5(DG235549) Bacillus licheniformis 97.6 Bacillus licheniformis
(AF492486)
BA3B(DG235550) Bacillus firmus(AY833571) 99.7 Bacillus firmus
BR5A(DG235551) Exiguobacterium aurantiacum 97.7 Exiguobacterium aurantiacum
(X70316)
BR5B(DG235552) Bacillus firmus(AY833571) 98.8 Bacillus firmus
M1C(DG235553) Exiguobacterium lactigenes 98.9 Exiguobacterium lactigenes
(AY818050)
M3A(DG235554) Bacillus licheniformis 96.4 Bacillus sp.
(AF492486)
M4-2(DG235555) Bacillus litoralis(AY608605) 97.1 Bacillus sp.
M53(DG235556) Marinobacter aquaeolei 98.9 Marinobacter aquaeolei
(AY669171)
M21-1(DG235557) Bacillus licheniformis 97.6 Bacillus licheniformis
(AF492486)
M21-5(DG235558) Thalassospira lucentensis 96.3 Thalassospira sp.
(AF358664)
M23-4(DG235559) Bacillus licheniformis 97.6 Bacillus licheniformis
(AF492486)
SiPiBi(DG235560) Marinobacter aquaeolei 99.3 Marinobacter aquaeolei
(AY669171)
16S rRNA gene 1 library
Clone1(DG235561) 1 Bacillus licheniformis 95.8 Bacillus sp.
(AF492486)
Clone2(DG235562) 46 Idiomarina zobellii(AF052741) 99.3 Idiomarina zobellii
Clone3(DG235563) 18 Halomonas meridiana 99.5 Halomonas meridiana
(AJ306891)
Clone6(DG235564) 10 Chromohalobacter salinarum 96.8 Chromohalobacter sp.
(AJ427626)
Clone7(DG235565) 20 Idiomarina baltica(AJ440214) 99.9 Idiomarina baltica
Clone24(DG235567) 12 Idiomarina abyssalis(AF052740) 99.2 Idiomarina abyssalis
Clone31(DG235568) 2 Halomonas aquamarina 99.5 Halomonas aquamarina
(AJ306888)
Clone38(DG235569) 2 Marinobacter aquaeolei 98.9 Marinobacter aquaeolei
(AY669171)
Clone53(DG235570) 2 Bacillus licheniformis 96.7 Bacillus sp.
(AF492486)
Clone69(DG235572) 1 Bacillus marisflavi(AF483624) 99.5 Bacillus marisflavi
Clone70(DG235573) 8 Halomonas axialensis 98.9 Halomonas axialensis
(AF212206)
Clone76(DG235574) 2 Silicibacter pomeroyi(AF434674) 96.3 Silicibacter sp.
(continued)
710 B. Hou

Representative clone* ¶ ┼ Similarity (%) Microbial community
(Genebank No.) Number of Best matching database┼ ╟ relationship ╬
clones¶
Clone 91(DG235575) 1 Idiomarina abyssalis(AF052740) 99.3 Idiomarina abyssalis
Clone100(DG235576) 2 Idiomarina loihiensis 98.1 Idiomarina loihiensis
(AY505529)
Clone102(DG235577) 1 Idiomarina fontislapidosi 98.8 Idiomarina fontislapidosi
(AY526861)
Clone109(DG235578) 2 Halomonas meridiana 98.8 Halomonas meridian
(AJ306891)
Clone135(DG235579) 1 Halomonas meridiana 99.2 Halomonas meridiana
(AJ306891)
*Representative clone sequenced
¶Grouped after RFLP analysis (phylotypes)
┼The best match was selected using the closest sequence from the phylogenetic tree
╟Similarity percentage was estimated by considering the number of nucleotide substitutions between a pair of sequences divided by the total
number of compared bases100%
╬The nucleotide similitude percentages between the sequence problem and its closest matched sequence to define genus and species were 95%
and 97.5%, respectively. Possible members of a new species were designed as sp. and new genus genera were designed at the family level
Table 5.67 Bacterial 16S rRNA sequences obtained from the aggressive communities
DGGE Recent species (BLAST search) GenBank Similarity Microbial community relationship
bank no. no. (%)
1 Desulfovibria vulgaris strain AY485425 100 Bacteria, proteobacteria, d-proteobacteria, desulfovibrionales,
DSM 644 (AF418179) desulfovibrionaceae, desulfovibrio
2 Klebsiella pneumonia strain AY485426 100 Bacteria, proteobacteria, c-proteobacteria, enterobacteriales,
DM-5 (AF290084) enterobacteriaceae, klebsiella
3 Selenite-reducing bacteria TSA AY485427 99 Bacteria, proteobacteria, c-proteobacteria, enterobacteriales,
(AB018593) enterobacteriaceae, citrobacter
4 Citrobacter sp. strain DW38 AY485428 100 Bacteria, proteobacteria, c-proteobacteria, enterobacteriales,
(AJ534867) enterobacteriaceae, citrobacter
5 Citrobacter freundii strain WA1 AY485429 99 Bacteria, proteobacteria, c-proteobacteria, enterobacteriales,
(AY259630) enterobacteriaceae, citrobacter
6 Uncultured bacterium clone AY485430 100 Bacteria, proteobacteria, c-proteobacteria, enterobacteriales,
Phe17 (AF534210) enterobacteriaceae, pantoea
7 Uncultured bacterium clone AY485431 100 Bacteria, proteobacteria, c-proteobacteria, enterobacteriales,
Caf57 (AF534210) enterobacteriaceae, pantoea
fouling organism community is basically composed of promotion of the generation and growth of the fouling
bivalves and sessile vines. organisms. The main species of microorganisms include the
Lots of marine aquaculture facilities are constituted by the algae, rotifers, bryozoans, barnacles, etc. [109]. On the one
fibrous materials, such as mesh sheets. The netting tools, hand, the mesh blockage is caused, which prevents the cir-
nets, and fixed ropes have many crevices and they are placed culation of seawater and influences the growth of the fish
in the seawater for a long time. In addition, with a large and shellfish; on the other hand, the load on the nets and
surface area and without toxin, the fishing nets and netting ropes is increased and the service life of the breeding
tools have the immersion depth between 0 and 20 m gen- facilities is shortened. To ensure that the mesh on the
erally. This is just the area with the most vigorous growth of breeding nets is not blocked due to the attachment of the
the marine organisms and it is easy for the marine organisms marine fouling organisms, it is required to paint the
to be attached. The water bodies in the marine cage aqua- antifouling coating to the fishing nets. The technical
culture area are abundant with the nutrient salt, residual requirements for the antifouling coatings suitable for the
baits, fish metabolites, and excretions. It is easy for the fishing nets include nontoxic or low-toxic, bio-safe, with
medium-term antifouling effect, good adhesion to flexible growth, which can lead to some hazards to the output of the
fishnet materials, and moderate price as well. It was reported cultured shellfish [117, 118].
that the output of using the nontoxic antifouling coatings Based on the investigation and research, the shellfish cul-
will be increased by 10% at least with significant economic ture cages mainly include the fouling organisms, including the
results, compared with that without the use [110]. mollusks, arthropods, annelids, algae, porous animals, mos-
The following aspects show the main influence of the ses, coelentus, echinoderms, slings, etc. There are differences
organism fouling on marine aquaculture: in terms of the species composition of the fouling organisms
on the cages and the shells due to the different kinds of sea
(1) Restrictions formed on water exchanges: The fish cage areas and the breeding shellfish. It is a common phenomenon
fouling is shown in the mesh blockage and the water that the fouling organisms have a hazardous attachment on the
quality is changed due to the restricted water flow breeding cages, which is also a relatively harsh problem.
volume. The changes in environmental conditions can There have not been safe and effective methods for preventing
rapidly influence the stress of cultured fishes [111, 112]. the attachments to the nets. The breeding cages are placed in
(2) Impact caused on water quality: The water exchanges the seawater. The mesh materials are conducive to the growth
can replenish dissolved oxygen in the fish cage and deal of the fouling organisms due to the toxin-free and large sur-
with the excessive feed and remove all the wastes. The face area. The meshes are blocked due to the attachment of the
decrease in water exchanges may cause the increase of marine organisms, including the seaweed, which will influ-
the ammonia content of the cages and influence the ence the water convection inside and outside the cage [119–
health of the fishes. 121], and the light penetration [122, 123]. This makes the
(3) The health of cultured organisms was endangered from inside of the cages be oxygen and food deficient, which will
the diseases. The fouling organism community can slow down the development of the enclosed marine organ-
store plenty of pathogenic microorganisms and directly isms. In addition, it will induce multiple diseases and even
cause the body damages of the cultured species. death, resulting in great economic losses.
(4) The fish cage deformation [113–115] and structural Moreover, the attachments of plenty of organisms will
fatigue caused. The cages exposed in the water can be increase the weight and flow area of the net, the load of the
deformed due to the action of water flow. The attach- meshes, and even damage the meshes seriously; in the sea
ment of lots of fouling organisms can block the net area with serious attachment of some shellfish (such as
mouths, which will increase both the weight and the mussels, scallops, and oysters.), the shellfish will cut off the
drag resistance of the cages. The organism fouling of the meshes with the sharp corners, which will bring about risks
marine cages can cause the mesh blockage, which will for the safety of the cage culture. There are two types of
reduce the productivity and the health level of the fishes. the fishing net antifouling coatings according to the resin
This will lead to structural fatigue and cage deformation. base materials, namely, oil-based fishing net antifouling
Therefore, the organism fouling in the aquaculture can coatings and water-based fishing net antifouling coatings.
significantly increase the costs of management. There are three types of antifouling agents, namely,
organotin compounds, copper salt compounds, and organic
Due to the marine attachment of marine fouling organ- insecticides. The resin base materials of oil-based fishing
isms, the marine aquaculture cages and floating rafts may net antifouling coatings include the acrylic resin, the
prevent the seawater exchanges. The damages of the fouling ethylene resin, and the rubber resin, such as the chloro-
organisms to the aquaculture industry are mainly shown in sulfonated polyethylene resin. The antifouling agents are
the blockage of the mesh in the aquaculture cages and fixed dominated by the organic pesticides that are easily degra-
catching nets, the fight for the attachment base and the baits ded and accumulated with the antifouling effect of more
with the cultured shellfish and the fouling cultured kelp, than half a year. The dip coating method is usually adopted
laver and wakame leaves, etc. The output is reduced and the for the fishing net coating.
quality is dropped [116]. Most of the current domestic Most of the resin base materials of the water-based fishnet
breeding methods of shellfish are the cage aquaculture. antifouling coatings are acrylic emulsion and the antifouling
However, there will be some organisms attached to the agents are organic compounds without heavy metal. For
breeding cages after the shellfish is kept on the sea for a example, the polyethylene fishing net has an antifouling
period of time, which will become the fouling organisms. effect of more than 6 months after it is immersed with the
The blockage of the meshes by these organisms will restrict mixture of one kind of the hexamethylene phthalate phos-
the water quality exchanges inside and outside the cages, phate antifouling agent, the acrylic emulsion, and water.
which will be attached to the shells. This will increase the Since 2003, the organotin antifouling agents have been
weight of the shells and influence the normal activities and banned due to the serious environmental pollution.
712 B. Hou
Therefore, the antifouling coatings dominated by the organic externally, resulting in the oxygen deficient in cages, lacking
insecticides have gradually replaced the original fishing net of baits, and accumulation of excrement. This is not helpful
antifouling coatings dominated by the organic tin, such as to the growth of the shellfish. Although the marine fouling
alcohol amine antifouling agents, copper salt compounds, organisms, such as the bryozoites, attached bivalves, citrus
and phospholipid antifouling agents [124]. Cirripedia, and ascidian Ascidiaces, do not directly eat or
damage the bodies of the cultured shellfish, the attachment in
2. Organism Fouling Hazards in Marine Aquaculture large quantities will fight with the cultured shellfish for baits,
which will influence the feeding, growth, and shellfish
The main hazardous targets of the fouling organisms in the opening and closing of the cultured shellfish. This will
marine aquaculture include the aquatic facilities (such as provide convenience for the threatening of other hostile
fishing cages, fishing nets, and floating rafts.) and aquatic organisms. The attachment of the barnacles has great hazard
products (in particular, the aquatic shellfish such as mussels, to the culture of the shellfish, such as oysters and pearl
scallops, and oysters.). Due to the blockage of the meshes of shells. If a great amount of barnacles are attached when the
the cages, nets, fences, etc., the attachments of the fouling oysters are harvested, they will take up the seedlings of the
organisms will influence the internal and external environ- oysters, compete with the oysters for living space and bait,
mental water exchanges and reduce the accumulation of and hinder the normal growth of the oysters and even cause
dissolved oxygen and waste in the water environment of the death; the hazards of the barnacle to the pearl shell culture is
breeding facilities, which will endanger the survival of the similar to that of the oysters, that is, the indirect influence of
cultured species, for example, the attachments of the bar- the calcium metabolism of pearl shell and reduction of the
nacle to the nets and cages will block the cages and meshes, pearl quality [125].
reduce the seawater flow exchanges, which will deduct the The attached bacteria may influence the attachment of
breeding environment and cause multiple diseases to cul- aquatic economic animal larvae indirectly, participate in the
tured animals [125]. organism corrosion and fouling, which will cause the eco-
Moreover, the fouling organism may lead to the death of nomic losses in marine aquaculture [131, 132]. For example,
cultured animals as the host of pathogenic bacteria. It was in the abalone aquaculture in the harbor area, the large
reported that the fouling organisms in the Atlantic salmon amount of fouling organisms are attached to the abalone
cage breeding, especially the large fouling organisms such as shells and internal walls of the cages, such as the oysters,
bryozoan and Ascidian ciona, carried the pathogen Neop- barnacles, and glass sea squirts, which has led to the slow
aramoeba pemaquidensis and caused the amoebic disease in growth, low survival rate, some questions, etc.
cultured Atlantic salmon [126].
The organism fouling will reduce the efficiency; add the 3. Community Characteristics of Fouling Organisms in
wear and load; shorten the service life of the fishing gear; Cage Culture
increase the additional weight of facilities such as cages,
cause drift, and wear of farming facilities, which will reduce Since 1906, the hanging board test method of fouling
the buoyancy of floating bodies and shorten the service life of organisms initiated by the USA Navy has been widely used
cages; the attachment of barnacle will increase the resistance in countries worldwide. At present, it is still one of the
of the cages and meshes, which will cause drift, large tidal classic methods of the natural ecological research of fouling
flood, and the fish body abrasion during the typhoon period. organisms. Different marine cultured animals in different sea
The fouling organisms may fight for attachment base and areas have different community characteristics and changes
bait with the cultured animals (shellfish and algae), directly substantially with the seasons. One of the special living
attach to the surface of the cultured organisms, such as environments is the cage culture areas and the production
shellfish, kelp, and seaweed, which will influence the growth facilities.
and development of the cultured animals, and reduce the
output and quality of the aquatic products [107, 127, 128, (1) Floating Raft of Xiamen Port
129, 130]. The fouling organisms attached to the scallop
culture trusses, floats, and net cages include Mytilus edulis, Li Chuanyan and others [133] carried out the annual fouling
Crassosltrea gigas, Hiatella orientalis, Styela clava, Skeleton organism hanging on the floating rafts of the antifouling and
shrimp, etc. The attached fouling organisms above are fixed anti-rust experiments at Xiamen Port. There are 90 kinds of
on the kelp and scallop cages in marine aquaculture. A small organisms recorded, including the netting barnacle, mud
number of the attachment base and shells of the shellfish are barnacle, clam cap oysters, jade mussel, middle embryo
attached in the breeding cages. This will seriously influence flower tube, the Anthopleura pacifica, Xiamen film hole
the water exchanges internally and the fishing cages worm, and the dominant species of various amphipoda
species. The organisms are attached all year round, with the organisms were recorded, including 13 species of seaweed
significantly different dominant species in the summer, that was dominated by Dendrobium and Brassica, 57 species
autumn, winter, and spring. With the large volume of the of animals (6 species of coelenterate, 12 species of bryozoa,
attachments, there are 38 recovered experiment plates, 407 2 species of flat animals, 1 species of nemertean animals, 7
specimens. A total of 90 kinds of organisms are recorded (12 species of hairy type, 10 species of mollusks, 18 species of
species of seaweed and 78 species of animals), including 10 crustaceans, and 1 species of small fish). The common
species of coelenterate, 2 species of flat animals, 1 species of species are mud barnacle, net barnacle, mitral oyster, middle
nemertean animals, 22 species of bryozoa, 16 species of embryo flower bud, Anthopleura pacifica, Hong Kong mesh
polychaetes, 8 species of mollusks, 4 species of barnacles, worm, multi-toothed silkworm, horned horn, Corophium
11 species of other crustaceans, 1 species of echinoderms, acherusicum, strong foot hook shrimp, hagens pen scorpion,
and 3 species of sea squirts. The dominant species are the scorpion, large membranous hole worm, whole thorn silk-
netting barnacle, the barbed barnacle, the mud barnacle, the worm, and shovel hook shrimp. The organisms are attached
clam cap oyster, the jade mussel, the middle embryo flower, all year round, with significantly different dominant species
the Anthopleura pacifica, the multi-toothed silkworm, the in summer, autumn, spring, and winter. The dominant spe-
Xiamen film hole worm, the long scorpion, the fine-footed cies are prominent, with great attachment amount. It mainly
shrimp, and big cockroach. The common species are den- includes the Tubularia mesembryanthemum and algae in
drobium, stone cauliflower, tube scorpion, large ventricle, spring, and it is dominated by barnacles and oysters in
worm, dragon worm, lead-colored prawn, Corophium summer and autumn.
acherusicum, etc. Different kinds of fouling organisms are In January at the surface plate, it is dominated by canola
attached in various months all year round in Xiamen Port; in terms of algae, the Tubularia mesembryanthemum in
however, none of the organism reproduction can last for terms of animas. In February, no organisms are attached and
1 year. The winter and spring attached organisms (such as there are no plates from March to May. It is dominated by
Tubularia mesembryanthemum and wheat straw worms) in sarcophagus, schistosomiasis, intestinal moss, and marginal
the low-temperature months and the summer and autumn tube in terms of algae from June to July. The algae are few
attached organisms (such as barnacles, mussels, and bry- from August to October, only the base of the genus Cae-
ozoans) in high-temperature months are alternated. The norhabd and a few sarcophagus and sphagnum moss. With
attachment period of the middle embryo flower tube is from main crustaceans, it is dominated by Brassica and Clado-
December to June in next year, with the peak period in phora in November and the main animals are dominated by
January; the attachment seasons of the netting barnacle are Tubularia mesembryanthemum. The plates are lost in spring
from June to December, with the peak period in June; the and there are plenty of stone plaques covered on the bar-
attachment seasons of the jade mussel is from June to July, nacles in summer. It is dominated by water clouds in
with the peak period of July; the attachment seasons of the autumn. In winter, the experimental plates are nearly occu-
mitral oysters are from April to August, with the peak period pied by the Tubularia mesembryanthemum, with only a
in May. The four groups of quarterly boards have the small amount of mosses attached to the surface.
maximum average wet weight organism amount in summer, The fouling organisms at the bottom plate have the
followed by spring and winter. The barnacles are dominated maximum wet weight from June and August, the minimum
and the amphipods and otters are dominated in winter. There in March. In February and December, there are no
are a lot of kinds of fouling organisms in two groups of large-scale organisms attached. The dominant species is
half-year and 1-year experimental plates, with the relatively thecrustacean, followed by the coelenterate. The mollusks,
large coverage area and wet weight organisms. There were bryozoans, and polychaetes take up low proportions. The
14 kinds of experimental plates in the first half of the year, dominant species are prominent, such as the Tubularia
which was dominated by the bryozoan, followed by mitral mesembryanthemum and mud barnacles.
oysters and mud barnacles. There were 18 kinds of experi- Shacheng Port has the maximum quarterly fouling
mental plates, dominated by the jade mussels, followed by organisms in summer, which is followed by autumn and
the barnacle. The 1-year experimental plates are dominated witner. Most are mud barnacles in summer and most are mud
by bryozoans, followed by barnacles, oysters, and mussels. barnacles, mitral oysters, and Hong Kong mesh worms in
autumn. In addition, there is also a large number of
(2) Shacheng Port Anthopleura pacifica. In spring, it is dominated by Tubularia
mesembryanthemum, followed by the amphipoda. In winter,
Li Chuanyan and others [134] carried out the annual fouling it is almost covered by Tubularia mesembryanthemum.
organism hanging plate experiment in Shacheng Port at the The amount distribution on the half-year and 1-year
boundary of Fujian and Zhejiang. A total of 70 species of plates of fouling organisms in Shacheng Port is occupied by
714 B. Hou
the mud barnacles from March to August in the first half frequency of more than 20%. The surface monthly plates are
year, followed by the oysters. It is dominated by the dominated by algae, coelenterates, barnacles, and amphi-
checkered barnacles in the second half-year plate (September pods. The bottom monthly plates are dominated by the
to February in next year), which is followed by the mitral coelenterate, barnacles, and amphipods. In spring, the sur-
oysters and the bryozoa. The mud barnacle and the mitral face quarterly plates are dominated by the Balanus uligi-
oysters occupy the most in the 1-year experimental plates. nosus. In summer, it is dominated by the jade shells and
Saccostrea cucullata. In winter, the amount is the minimum,
(3) Xiamen Port Cage Farm/Huoshaoyu Cage Farm in which is dominated by the amphipoda. In spring, the bottom
Xiamen Western Sea Area quarterly plates are dominated by the mud barnacles and
Tubularia mesembryanthemum. In summer, the dominant
It was reported that Wang Jianjun and others [135] carried species are jade shells, mitral oysters, and checkered bar-
out the hanging plate and net (30 50 cm2, mesh 1 cm) nacles. In autumn, it is dominated by the mitral oysters and
experiments in Huoshaoyu Cage Farm in Xiamen Port from the Anthopleura pacifica. In winter, it is absolutely domi-
March 1990 to March 1991, and conducted the initial nated by the amphipoda.
research on the fouling oragnisms in the cage farm. The The jade shells and mitral oysters are dominant species in
Tubularia mesembryanthemum, Obelia, hagen pen hydro- the first half of the surface half-year plates and the Cras-
rhiza, mitral oysters, jade shells, checkered barnacles, mud sostrea rivularis and mitral oysters are dominant species in
barnacle, long scorpion, gray hooked shrimps, strong and the second half of the year. The dominant species are gray
thin hooked shrimp, Corophium acherusicum, etc. are hooked shrimp, tailed thorns, cockroaches, strong and thin
dominant species. The organisms are attached all year round, hooked shrimps, and long crickets. The bottom layer is
with the focus of organism prevention and removal in winter absolutely dominated by the mitral oysters and jade shells
and summer. and the dominant species are mitral oysters and hagens pen
A total of 678 specimens were obtained from the enamel in the second half-year plates.
four-quarter hanging experiment. There were a total of 100 The dominant species is Reniera sp. due to the death and
types after the identification, including 12 species of algae, losses of large species on the surface annual plates, such as
10 species of coelenterates, 4 species of bryozoa, 13 species the oysters; the dominant species at the bottom annual plates
of polychaetes, 29 species of mollusks, 22 species of crus- are mitral oysters, jade shells, and the Membranipora
taceans, 6 species of sea squirts, and 4 species of other hugliensis.
species. The wet weight is the maximum in summer, fol- The organisms are attached all year round to the cage
lowed by winter, spring, and autumn, respectively. In spring, farm of Xiamen Port, with the peak periods in summer and
the Tubularia mesembryanthemum and the Obeliabicuspi- winter. There are a total of 128 types of fouling organisms,
data are absolutely dominant species. In summer, the Perna including 15 species of algae and 113 species of animals (1
viridis are dominant species, followed by Halocordyle dis- sponge species, 10 coelenterate species, 13 species of moss
ticha and Microcosmus exasperates; in autumn, the Ulva insects, 21 species of polychaetes, 32 species of mollusks,
sp. and Cladophora sp. are absolutely dominant species. In 25 species of arthropods, 7 species of sea squirts, and 4
terms of other water faces, the amphipoda and coelenterate species of other species.). The number of types is 17. There
are dominant species, including the species of hagens pen are plenty of types of fouling organisms in cage farm of
scorpion and lychee, Anthopleura pacifica, Caperella scaura, Xiamen Port, including the Balanus trigonus and Bugula
Stenothoe valida, Podocerus sp., and the Corophium neriltina commonly seen in the high saltwater areas, as well
acherusicum. In winter, the water surface is absolutely as the mud barnacles and ostrea rivularis in the estuary
dominated by amphipoda. The dominant species include low-salt areas. The dominant species include Tubularia
Corophium acherusicum, strong stalked shrimp, Caprella mesembryanthemum, lychee, hagen pen, mitral oyster, jade
equilibra, horned scorpion, ash hook shrimp, etc. mussel, reticulated barnacle, mud barnacle, long scorpion in
The fouling organisms on the experimental plates: There the amphipoda, ash hook shrimp, strong and thin feet
was 1137 specimen in the hanging plate experiment for hooked shrimp, Corophium acherusicum, etc.
1 year. A total of 90 kinds of fouling organisms were
identified, including 12 species of algae, 78 species of ani- (4) Marine Aquaculture Tanks and Cages of Daya Bay
mals (1 species of sponge, 6 species of coelenterate, 12
species of bryozoan, 18 species of polychaetes, 14 species of Zheng Dongqiang and others [136] conducted the study on
mollusks, 17 species of crustaceans, 6 species of sea squirts, the cage farm of Daya Bay, eastern Guangdong, the net
and 4 species of other species). A total of 62 species have cages of Mashi Zhumubei Farm and the fouling organisms.
appeared on the mesh and 18 of them have the occurrence With a total of 124 species of organisms recorded, the
dominant species are adherent mountain sponge, total grass and 13 species of other animals. The algae have not been
worm, unicorn worm, phoenix coil, radiating oyster, retic- found. In terms of the number of species or the wet weight,
ulated barnacle, wrinkled sea squirt, coronal sea squirt, etc. the fouling organisms on the cages in the first half of the year
The organisms are attached all year round, with the most are significantly higher than that of the second half year. The
serious seasons from March to June. A total of 15 nets (with fouling organisms on the cages of the first half of the year in
the mesh of 3 mm) recycled in a year and 267 specimen Dongshan pearl field have the maximum proportions of the
were obtained. There were a total of 49 kinds of fouling mollusks and sponges, followed by sea squirts and bryozoa.
organisms after the identification, including 5 species of However, the cages in the second half of the year are
large algae, 1 species of sponge, 1 species of leeches, 1 dominated by the bryozoan, which is caused by the attach-
species of turbellarian worm and nemertean worms, ment and growth of the Bugula neritina. 80 species of
respectively, 5 species of bryozoa, 11 species of hairy spe- organisms are found on the pearl shells, including 4 species
cies, 8 species of mollusks, 11 species of crustaceans, 5 of bryozoans, 18 species of polychaetes, 22 species of
species of sea squirts, and 3 species of fish, as well as 101 mollusks, 14 species of crustaceans, 9 species of sea squirts,
species of diatoms. and 13 species of other animals. The main fouling organisms
In terms of the algae, it is dominated by the water clouds. on the pearl shells include the mollusk, barnacles, sea
Besides, the diatoms are attached every month on the mesh, squirts, and sponges.
with the great number in January, June, and November. The
dominant species are Amphora coffeaeformis, Navicula (5) North Coast of the South China Sea
hamulifera, Navicula parva, and Syndella tabulata. The
species are obviously alternated with seasons. The mites are Li Chuanyan [137] investigated on the fouling organisms on
attached to the net all year round, including the Bugula the coastal harbor buoys, boats, terminals, aquaculture
neritina and Sinupetraliella umbonaloidea with the maxi- facilities, and other underwater facilities and reported the
mum occurrence frequency and the maximum attachment situation of bryozoans in the fouling organism on the north
amount. coast of the South China Sea. There are 3871 specimen of
The dominant species in both winter and spring is Bugula bryozoans in total. A total of 88 species were identified after
neritina and the Sinupetraliella umbonaloidea is attached all the analysis, which belonged to 3 orders and 30 families.
year round. In addition, the Hong Kong nets screen moss There were 63 species in the experimental plates, 47 species
worms and Unicorn wormhole are often found on the of buoys, and 15 species of cages. The dominant species
meshes. include the Xiamen membranous bryozoa, large ventriculal
The polychaetes dominant species are boxworms and bryozoite, condylar larvae, beautiful amber worm, amor-
nymphs, both of which are attached all year round. As one of phous amber worm, multiroom worm, Hong Kong worm,
the main fouling organisms on the mesh, the sea squirt has mites, liverworts ovale, and horned worms. The common
the peak period of attachment in summer. The main domi- species are net worm, Borrelia acuminate, Harborella labi-
nant species are the coronary sea squirt, oceanic longitudinal alis, crowned worm, and gynosaurus. Most of these species
sea squirt, and wrinkle sea squirt. With a short attachment are warm water species with high salt, such as the
period, the oceanic longitudinal sea squirt has the attachment single-horned thick-celled bryozoa, and the genus Rhizoc-
peak in September. The wrinkle sea squirt has a small tonia solani; in addition, there are distribution species with
attachment amount on the meshes. wide temperature and salt, such as the net worm, beautiful
The organism fouling exists all year round in Daya Bay. amber worm, unicorn worm, etc.
The attachment period of some organisms can last for There are a small number of low-salt species in the
1 year, such as the Sinupetraliella umbonaloidea, Serpula estuary, such as the Xiamen membranous bryozoan and
vermicularis, Hydroides elegans, and boxworms. These foraminifera and there is no cool water species. A total of 26
fouling organisms are found in the nets all year round, with species are distributed along the coast of China, 29 species
different peak periods, respectively. Most fouling organisms have been released in the Yellow Sea and the Bohai Sea, 31
are attached in some months during a year, including the species in the East China Sea, and 28 species in the coastal
coronary sea squirt, wrinkle sea squirt, oceanic longitudinal sea area of the South China Sea. The bryozoans on the
sea squirt, etc., which were found from April to October with northern coast of the South China Sea can be reproduced and
the relatively high water temperature. For the fouling attached all year round. The peak period of the attachment is
organisms on the pearl shell cultured cages, there are 78 low-temperature months in winter and spring.
species of organisms on the cages, including 4 species of The bryozoans on the southern coast can be reproduced
bryozoans, 12 species of polychaetes, 24 species of mol- and attached all year round. However, some differences exist
lusks, 15 species of crustaceans, 10 species of sea squirts, in the species and locations of the harbor, such as the
716 B. Hou
multi-chambered bryozoite in the Yulin Port and Hong Kong checkered barnacles, which are prone to damage the meshes
can be reproduced and attached in four seasons all year and influence the cage safety; there are plenty of algae on the
round, with different peak periods; in the high-temperature mesh surface in spring. The amount of the Tubularia
months from July to September in Yulin Port and in the mesembryanthemum, checkered barnacles, and wheat straw
low-temperature months in winter and spring in Hong Kong worms is larger than that of the fouling organisms on the
and Daya Bay, the amorphous amber worms are reproduced meshes or experimental plates in the harbor, with greater
and attached all year round in Qinglan Port. There is none in differences.
winter in Zhanjiang Port; the Hong Kong moss worms are There are 35 species of algae recorded, including Cer-
not found in Hong Kong sea area in the high-temperature amium tenuissun, etc. They are often generated in the sur-
months from July to September while they are found in Daya faces of low water temperature from December to April in
Bay and Weizhou Island in North China Sea from June to next year in winter and spring. The attachment becomes
October. In other seasons, they cannot be reproduced and serious from March to April, which will block the surface
attached; the unicorn larvae are reproduced in four seasons meshes. The Pseudolithophyllum yendoi is only attached on
all year round, with the peak period from July to September. the netting twine on the surface of the high-temperature
season, just like the pink flakes. Plenty of Endoachne
(6) Abalone Culture Cage binghamiae are attached on the frame from March to April.
The individual volume is huge; the Ulva fasciata is mainly
It was reported by Liao Jiayi and others [138] that the attached and grown in winter and spring. Plenty of them are
fouling organisms in the abalone culture cages are all ani- attached on the frame, with the length up to 40 cm.
mals, including sponges, sea anemones, planarians, and The number of species of leeches is five. In winter and
silkworms (including species that are inhabited in the horny spring, the dominant species include the Tubularia mesem-
tract), dragon worms, mites (mussels), gastropods (horse- bryanthemum. The index species in summer and autumn
shoe snails), and crustaceans (amphipods, a few equal foots). include the Pennaria disticha and the small species such as
The great majority is the dragon worm, followed by crus- feather, medlar, and lychee. In addition, there are seven
taceans and silkworms; the sea squirt has the maximum wet species of coral and anemones in the cnidaria.
weight, followed by sponge and scorpion. This is the same There are seven species of barnacles recorded in the
case with the scallops and pearl shells in terms of the cul- arthropod cirripeds. The species with the maximum amount
tured cages. The dragon worm, the amphipod, and the is the Balanus reticulatus, which is attached in various
mussel are also the main fouling organisms. This is the same months other than the low temperature from January to
with the cultured cages of scallop. March (<15 °C). The peak period is from late May to
mid-October (<17–18 °C).
(7) Deepwater Cage Culture Area in Weitou Bay, Fujian There are 11 species of arthropod amphips recorded,
including eight species of hooked shrimp and three species
The annual hanging net of fouling organisms was carried out of wheat straw worms. The most dominant species include
by Huang Guifang and others [139] in the deepwater cage the scorpion-shaped hooked shrimp. It is rarely seen in most
culture area in Weitou Bay, Fujian. (The experiment black harbors nationwide that the number of the amphipoda in
no-nodular PA meshes have the specifications of 210D/26 winter and spring is the maximum, which is also the char-
deepwater cage, which are the hexagonal with the diameter acteristic of the fouling organisms in deepwater cages [107].
of the cables of 3 mm. The fishing nets are bandaged on the The muddy habitat tubes are pasted with the Tubularia
50 cm order. The meshes are bandaged within the metal mesembryanthemum to foul and damage the meshes. At the
frame, with the shrinkage coefficient of 0.595/0.490.) There same time, there are plenty of Caprella equilibra. There are
are 154 species of fouling organisms recorded, which belong nine species of bivalve and three species of gastropods
to 12 biological gates (4 algal gates and 8 animal gates). recorded in terms of the mollusk.
A total of 83 species are recorded on the meshes, 108 species The Saccostrea cucullata and the Pernaviridis are the
on the frame, 45 species on the anchor rope, 31 species on dominant species. These two kinds are attached from June to
the sink and anchor, and 109 species on the buoys of the July in large quantities. The attachment to the netting twine
auxiliary facilities. The fouling organisms are attached on with the limestone shells at the front ends for a long time
the meshes all year round. The dominant species in winter does harm to the netting twines. Many scorpion mollusks on
and spring include Dendrobium, Mesophyll, and the hydranth, such as the Sakuraeolis enosimensis, feed on
Long-necked Straw, with the main influence on the water the gonosome of the hydra in winter and spring. There are 32
exchanges both internally and externally on the net cages. species polychaetes of annulata recorded, with only 12
The dominant species in summer and autumn include the species recorded on the net in small quantities. The Nereis
heterocirrata is commonly seen on the experimental meshes. equilibra Say, C. scaura templeton, Membranipora amoyen-
The organisms are attached all year round, but with different sis, Ceramium japonicum Okam, and Cladophora spp..
species attached in winter, spring, summer, and autumn. The From the perspective of the floristic nature, the majority
seasons of attachment is closely related to the water tem- of fouling organisms in the cage culture area of Tongan Bay
perature. A great number of fine algae, other algae and are warm water types. A small number of tropical strong
Tubularia mesembryanthemum, scorpion-shaped hooked warm water species also enter this area due to the location of
shrimp, and wheat straw worms are attached due to the low Xiamen in the southern subtropical zone and the influence of
temperature from February to April in next year; a great seawater system in the South China Sea, such as the Lima
number of checkered barnacles and double rows are attached basilanica, Mytilopsis sallei, Litorina scabra, Membranipora
due to the high water temperature from June to September. savartei, Seasarma plicata (Latreille), and Megalomma
sp. Most of the algae are cold or warm temperature types;
(8) Cage Culture Area in Tongan Bay therefore, the main attachment period for algae is the winter
and spring with low temperatures, with obviously high
Zheng Yanling and others [140] carried out the experiment organism amount. A lot of algae are declined or totally
on the annual hanging plate (wood plate, PVC plate, PVC retreated from the species composition of the fouling
meshes) of the fouling organisms in the cage culture area, organism community because of the failure to spend the
Tongan Bay, Xiamen City from March 2003 to February summer in both summer and autumn, such as the thorn pine
2004 to study on the ecology of fouling organisms. There algae, feldspar, intestinal moss, and brittle hedges.
were 135 species of fouling organisms identified in the From the perspective of salinity adaptation, the broad salt
experiment, including 28 species of algae (including 14 species occupy the most in the cage culture area in Tongan
species of green algae, 10 species of red algae, and 4 species Bay, including the Brassica, Dendrobium, Gracilaria inter-
of brown algae); 107 species of animals, including 4 species media Suring, Reniera japonica Kadota, Tubularia mesem-
of sponges and 12 species of coelenterate, 1 species of flat bryanthemum, Halocordyle disticha, sharp-footed thorn
animals, 25 species of annelids, 20 species of mollusks, 9 silkworm, gorgeous coilworm, mitral oysters, Sphaeoma
species of outer anus, 27 species of arthropods, 3 species of retrolaevis, checkered barnacles, multiroom grass worm,
echinoderms, 4 species of scorpionfish, and 2 species of fish. Xiamen film hole worm, long scorpion, Sphaerozius nitidus
The algae include the green algae with the maximum species, Stimpson, pleated sea squirt, papillary sea squirt, etc.; the
accounting for 50% of the total number of algae, followed by species, including the Bougainville sp., Crassostrea rivularis,
the red algae, accounting for 35.7%; the animals include the Balanus uliginosus Utinomi, Thais gradata Jonas, etc., are
arthropods with the maximum species, accounting for 25.2% affected by the location of the internal bay in the estruary of
of the total number of animals, followed by annelids the cage culture area in Tongan Bay, the freshwater runoff in
accounting for 23.4%, Molluscs accounting for 18.7%, coe- Xixi and coastal seasons, as well as the great changes of
lenterates accounting for 11.2%, and outer anal animals salinity. One of the basic characteristics of benthic com-
(namely, mossy animals) accounting for 8.4%, etc. (Please munities is the composition of the life species. The species,
refer to the table of the specific fouling organisms on three organism amount composition, and the relationship of var-
types of materials in the literature). The dominant species of ious life types decide on the basic ecology of the organism
fouling organisms in the cage culture area of Tongan Bay communities. Same as the general fouling organism com-
according to the number of organisms, occurrence rate, munity, there are three life types of the fouling organism
coverage area, and ecological role include Baranus reticula- community in the cage culture area in Tongan Bay. Among
tus Utinomi, Balanus cirratus Darwin, Perna viridis, Tubu- them, there are 46 fixed life species accounting for 48.9%,
laria mesembryanthemum, Styela plicata, Molgula including the sponges, leeches, coiled worms, oysters, bar-
manhattensis, S.canopus, Corophium uenoi, C. acherusicum, nacles, sea squirts, and seaweeds; 18 attached life species
Bugula neritina, and other animals, as well as the large-scale accounting for 13.3%, including the anemones, mussels,
algae, such as the Enteromorpha prolifera, Enteromorpha sarcophagi, siphonopods, etc.; 51 active life species
tubulosa, Ulva lactuca L., Ulva linza, Codium fragile(sur.) accounting for 37.8%, including the outer corners planari-
Heriot, Ulothrix flacca (Dillw.), Obelia gracilis, Obelia ans, isobutyl foot Sosa silkworm, Sternaspis scutata, Epito-
geniculate, Eudendrium capillare, Anthopleura pacifica, nium scalare, Cantharus cecillei (Philippi), long gill
Pseudoceros exoptatus, Sabella penicillus Linuaeus, Nex- vermiculite, cornu vermiculite, fine-footed shrimp, round
toneanthes oxipoda (Marenzeller), Lurnbrineris heteropoda Paranthura japonica, Nanosesarma minutum (de Man)
(Marenzeller), Hydrioides elegans (Haswell), Saccostrea Ophiura sarsii Lutken, Gobiidae und, etc.
cucullata, Anomia chinenisis, Musculus barbatus, Watersi- A total of 106 species of fouling organisms were on the
pora subtorquata (datersipo), Stenothoe valida, Caprella wood plates, accounting for 78.5% of the total species,
718 B. Hou
which was followed by the PVC plates, with 97 species mesembryanthemum, sea otter, canola, intestinal moss, and
accounting for 71.9%. There was a small difference of the feldspar. A small number of animal species are generated all
number of species of fouling organisms between these two year round, such as the multiroom grass worm, the euca-
experimental plates. A total of 62 species of the fouling lyptus, and the long cockroach. The attachment period is
organisms were on the meshes, accounting for 46% of the closely related to the reproduction seasons of the organisms.
total amount of species, which was substantially lower than
these two experimental plates. From the perspective of the (9) Shallow Sea Area in Fodu Cage Culture and Production
population composition, there was no obvious difference in Zhejiang Province
between these two experimental plates. However, there were
obvious differences between the composition of the meshes During the net hanging period in the shallow sea area, the
and these two experimental plates in terms of the population main fouling organism species on the antifouling mashes
composition of the barnacles, mollusc, and bryozoan. This is (the experimental meshes are the high-strength polyethylene
related to the obvious differences of the forms between the non-nodular meshes imported from Japan, which are sewn
meshes and the attachment structure of the experimental on the square meshes with the stainless steel frame of
plates. The checkered barnacles, barbed barnacles, jade 50 50 cm2 and the mesh screen of 3 cm) include the
mussels, Tubularia mesembryanthemum, pleated sea squirts, Caprella sp., Obelia sp., and Anthopleura pacifica. Among
coronal sea squirts, mastoid sea squirts, E. sinensis, scorpion them, the anemone can release the stinger by itself, with
scorpions, multi-chambered grass worm, canola, sarcopha- great harm to the cultured organisms. There is not much
gus, and soft cyanobacteria are the dominant species on the attachment amount in terms of other attached organisms,
wooden plates. The common species are slender lychee, which will not cause much influence on the cultured cages.
curved knee lychee, tubular true twig, outer horned worm, It was reported by Xu Wenjun and others [141] that the
aphid, gorgeous coilworm, mitral oysters, Chinese unequal primary types and seasonal changes of the attached organ-
mites, Xiamen membranous bryozoites, necklace blood isms in the culture sea area cages in Fodu, Xiangshan, and
worms, long scorpion, horned scorpion scorpion, fine-footed Dachen of Zhejiang Province, including aphids (such as
shrimp, Cladophora, Japanese celery, etc.; the dominant and Obelia sp, Eudendrium sp., and Gonothyrea sp.), Actiniaria,
common species on the PVC plates are equivalent with those Caprella sp, Gammarus, Baranus sp., pachylasma sp.,
on the wooden plates; the dominant species on the meshes Mytilus, Ostrea, Polysiphonia sp., Ulva L., Enteromorpha
include the Tubularia mesembryanthemum, jade mussels, sp., benthic diatoms, etc. Among them, the dominant
pleated sea squirts, coronal sea squirts, milkskin sea squirts, organism species causing great harms to the meshes on the
tail scorpion wins, multiroom grass worms, Asbestos, thorn cages are similar basically, including the water aphids
pine, soft filament algae, etc. The common species include (litchi), sea anemones, and wheat straw worms. During the
the slender lychee, curved knee lychee, tubular true branch, peak period of reproduction, the maximum degree of
Anthopleura pacifica, long scorpion, horned scorpion, fine attachment can reach 100% and the whole meshes are totally
foot hook Shrimp, feldspar, and thorn pine algae. The covered.
greatest difference between the experimental plates and the
meshes lied in that the important species of fouling organ- (10) Scallop Culture Cage in Liuqinghe Bay, Qingdao
isms, such as the barnacles, dredged bryozoans, and oysters
on the experimental plates, are totally not attached or The artificial hanging plate experiment (the plates are the
attached sometimes on the meshes. In particular, the barna- epoxy phenolic glass cloth laminate, with the thickness of
cles occupy an absolutely dominant position on the experi- 3 mm) of the annual fouling organisms was carried out by
mental plates in most months, which was seldom seen on the Sun Dapeng and others [142] in the scallop culture cage in
meshes. Liuqinghe Bay, Qingdao from September 2006 to August
The fouling organisms are attached all year round in the 2007. There were 65 species of large-scale fouling organ-
cage culture area in Tongan Bay. The types of attachment isms recorded in total, including 21 species of algae, with 10
periods conform to the attachment characteristics of the species of green algae, 6 species of red algae, 3 species of
subtropical sea area. The attachment period of the great brown algae, and 2 species of cyanobacteria included; 44
majority of the animal species is from April to October, species of animals, including 3 species of coelenterate, 1
namely, the cycle of the seawater temperature from the rising species of flat animals, 11 species of nemertean animals, 6
period to the falling period gradually. For a small number of species of mollusks, 13 species of arthropods, 7 species of
animal species and a great number of seaweeds, the attach- bryozoans, and 2 species of protochordata. The dominant
ment period is limited to the low-temperature months in species include the sarcophagus, sphagnum moss, polytube
winter and spring, such as the Tubularia algae, Pacific oyster, purple mussel, large membranous
worm, and Mohs second sea squirt. There are characteristics There are 82 species of organisms in total, including the
of the northern coastal types of China on the species com- dominant species of sea otter, amphip, coilworm, stalk, sea
position, with the majority of wide temperature and warm squirt, squid, vine, mussel, etc. The peak period of attach-
water species. The main attachment period is from May to ment is from July to September. There are nine times of
November and the maximum wet weight in the monthly recycling in a year, with 27 meshes, 45 plastic plates, and
plates is in September; the maximum wet weight in quarterly 204 specimen obtained. There are 54 species of large fouling
plate is in autumn; and the maximum wet weight in the organisms after the identification, including 11 algae, 5
half-year plate is in the second half of the year (from coelenterates, 2 species of planaria, 2 species of nymphs, 6
September to February in next year). Vertically, the surface species of hairy species, 3 species of mollusks, 2 species of
plate is dominated by the algae and amphipoda of the fouling barnacles, 2 species of amphips, 8 species of bryozoa, and 4
organism species and the bottom plate is dominated by the species of sea squirt. The dominant species are the algae
bivalves and sea squirts; from the perspective of the species mainly generated on the hanging plates. The brassica are
diversity all year round, the number of species in summer generated with the maximum times (from October 1995 to
and autumn is more than that in winter and spring. The May 1996). In October and November, it is the most com-
uniformity degree in autumn community is lower than that mon to see the feather algae. Almost all the hanging plates in
of the three other seasons. January are occupied by the Navicula and Viburnum.
A small number of algae are hung on the nets, mainly with
(11) Scallop Culture Area of Yatou Farm, Rongcheng City the Lithothamnion and Lithophyllum (seen in June and
October). The Navicula and Viburnum are hung on the nets
The investigation and study on the species composition, in January.
growth and decline law, and the seasonal changes of the The sea otter and the curved stalk are the dominant species
fouling organisms attached on the scallop cages in Yatou in terms of the leeches. The sea otters are generally seen from
Farm, Rongcheng City, as well as the influence of the May to July and from October to November. The curved
attached organisms on the growth and survival of the scallop stalks are generally seen from May to July and November,
was carried out by Wang Guanghua and others [143]. It was with the maximum attachment amount in June. The amphi-
shown in the results that the main species of organisms pods are generated nearly all year round on the experimental
attached to the scallop cages included the sea squirt (glass plates, which are the most dominant fouling organism com-
sea squirt, stalk sea squirt, spirulina sea squirt, purple munities. The long buckwheat stalk worm, thorn wheatworm,
chrysanthemum sea squirt), leeches (abalone), multi-algae, multi-spindle stalk worm, big scorpion, and corophium are
sponge, etc.; in August, the total amount of the attached the dominant species. The amphipods on the meshes from
organisms reached the maximum, which was declined July to October, from January to February, exceed 50% of the
gradually in September; the times of pouring the cages had a total wet weight, with the maximum ratio 95.5% in Septem-
greater influence on the growth of the scallops. If the cages ber. In spite of a relatively small proportion, the hanging
are poured once every month in the experimental culture plates exceed 50% from August to October, from May to
period, the increase in the weight is the fastest, but with the June, with the maximum ratio 91.2% in August. The hanging
highest mortality rate; from the perspective of the compre- nets and plates in August and September are nearly all
hensive individuals, the weight increase and mortality rate, it occupied by the mud tubes of hooked shrimps.
is the best to pour the cages once every 2 months and not to The main species of bryozoan are divided into three
pour the cages in the high-temperature seasons. types, namely, the western stevia sea squirt, three-breasted
worm, the California grassworm, and the Polymeric soft
(12) Dalian Bay moss worm. The first two types are usually seen in the high
water temperature months, with small attachment area and
The experiment of combining the hanging pieces and plates wet weight. The polymeric soft moss worm is often seen in
and the overall cages was carried out by Cao Shanmao and the low water temperature seasons. The attachment is the
others [144] in terms of the fouling organism community on maximum on the experimental plates from March 6 to May
the scallop cages in Dalijia seawater farm in Dlian from June 8. With a small attachment amount in the short-term monthly
1995 to June 1996. With the screens of 5 mm, the nylon experimental plates, the sea squirt mainly includes the styela
meshes is stuck to the meshes of 20 30 cm2 to the iron clava, the stevia sea squirt, and glass sea squirt. Most of
wire frame of 30 40 cm2 to make the attachment nets. them are not adult sea squirts collected due to the short time
The hanging plates are the 5-mm polyvinyl chloride plates. of placing the plates, with the small wet weight percentage.
720 B. Hou
(13) Coastal Area in the Bohai Sea mud barnacles often occur in low-salinity sea area; the
tunicate animals include the common species of scabbard sea
Located in the temperate sea area, the fouling organisms squirt, the spirulina sea squirt, the glass sea squirt, and the
attached to the aquatic facilities include coelenterates, mos- Manhattan sea squirt; the bryophytes mainly include the
ses, mollusks, crustaceans, tunicates, polychaetes, and algae. stalk worm, the western tricystis, and soft worms; the algae
Most of these organisms belong to wide temperature and include the species of dendrobium, brassica, water cloud,
wide salinity species. The dominant species of mollusks and multi-tube algae [127, 143, 147, 149–153].
include the purple mussels, pleated oysters, long oysters, and From June to September, the purple mussel, the stalk sea
oriental snails; the sea urchins, Clytia hemisphaerica, squirt, and Portuguese grass moss insect are generally con-
Tubularia mesembryanthemum, and Obelia geniculate are centrated. The main attachment period of the hairy genus
the dominant species of the coelenterates; the dominant represented by the inner tube worm is from June to October
species of the Bryozoan include the western tricystis, with high water temperatures, especially in the summer with
beautiful amber bryozoa, and stalked worms; there are the maximum attachment amount; in general, the sea otter in
plenty of vine barnacles, wheat stalk worms, microjassa, the coelenterate is attached from April to July, while the
corophium, etc. in terms of crustaceans [145–147]. In the Clytia hemisphaerica is attached from July to September.
scallop culture area in Liaodong Bay, the sessile cirripeds The seasons of spring and autumn are suitable for the
with the maximum fouling organisms on the aquaculture is attachment of medlar and lychee.
the white ridge; the Hydroides ezoensis and Perinereis cul- The great attachment amount of the amphipod crus-
trifera are dominated in terms of polychaetes; the styela taceans is in spring and summer while the attachment period
clava and sea squirt of stevia are dominated in terms of for checkered barnacles is mainly in summer and autumn;
squirts; the spongy animas sometimes appear, such as the the algae are attached and grow mainly in spring, autumn,
skin sponges and sputum sponges; the water clouds, canola, and winter in large quantities [127, 143, 144, 147, 149, 150,
and multi-tube algae [144, 145, 148] are dominated in terms 153].
of the algae.
In terms of algae, it is dominated by moss in winter and (15) Coastal Sea Area of the East China Sea
spring, water cloud in summer, and multi-tube algae in
autumn. In terms of coelenterate, the highest peak period of The fouling organisms mainly include the wide cosmopoli-
Tubularia mesembryanthemum and Clytia hemisphaerica is tan and eurythermal species in the coastal areas of China and
from September to October while the highest peak period of the subtropical warm water species, with the slight differ-
sea otters and stalks is from May to July and from October to ences of the dominant species and common species in var-
November. The peak attachment period of barnacles is in ious sea areas. The dominant species of crustaceans include
August. The amphipods can be seen almost all year round, the triangular barnacles, checkered barnacles, and netting
with the peak period from August to September; the main barnacles, followed by the mud barnacles and barbed bar-
attachment period of bivalves such as purple mussels and nacles; the fouling mollusks mainly include the jade mus-
pleated oysters is in June; the western tricystis and por- sels, mitral oysters, marginal teeth oysters, and short-toothed
tuguese grass moss insect are commonly seen in the high mites. The common mossy animals include the Foraminifera
water temperature months while the polymerized soft worms kirschner, western tricystis, multiroom bryozoa, and stalk
are found in the low-temperature seasons; the peak attach- worms; the main fouling species of the coelenterate include
ment period of the styela clava and sea squirt of stevia is the Tubularia mesembryanthemum, Obelia geniculate,
mainly from July to August [144–146, 148]. Didentate serval polyp, hagens pen intestinal worm, and sea
anemone. The spongy animals include the common species
(14) Sea Area along the Yellow Sea of rock sponge and mountain sponge. The hairy species
mainly include the Hydroides elegans and Hydroides
The majority of the fouling organisms in the aquaculture ezoensis. The sea squirt mainly includes the tumor sea squirt,
facilities in this sea area include the warm water species and wrinkle sea squirt, Manhattan sea squirt, and hard squid sea
wide temperature species. Among them, the bivalve mol- squirt. The algae mainly include the intestinal stalk, the moss
lusks mainly include the purple mussels, followed by pleated stalk, the sarcophagus, the clostridium, the fine stalk algae,
oysters and long oysters; the coelenterates mainly include etc. [135, 154].
the Clytia sp., Obelia, Tubuaria marina, and abalones; the The fouling organisms include the maximum species and
polychaetes mainly include Hydroides ezoensis; the crus- attachment amount in summer, followed by autumn and
taceans include the dominant species of Balanus Amphitrite, spring. No attachment of large species is found in winter or
wheat stalk worms, and sickle leaf hooked shrimp. Plenty of even in a short time. The attachment period of algae, such as
the intestinal moss, is mainly in the late spring and early attached from April to October with relatively high water
summer. The C. occidentalis and D. sylvestris in large temperatures. The moss, water cloud, and other algae have
quantities are mainly found in late autumn, early winter, and the great attachment amount in spring and winter. The main
spring; for the Tubularia mesembryanthemum, the peak attachment period of the sponges is in summer and autumn.
attachment period is from March to May while for the The leeches are attached all year round, with most species
Anthopleura pacifica, the peak attachment period is from dominated in spring.
August to September. The multiroom grass worms are
attached in large quantities in spring. For the Manhattan sea 4. Attachment Mechanism of Organism Fouling in Marine
squirts, the peak attachment period is in June. In general, the Aquaculture
hydroides ezoensis is found from April to October. The peak
attachment period of checkered barnacles, triangle barnacles, The life history of barnacles can be summarized into two
mud barnacles, and paste barnacles is from June to August. primary phases, namely, the floating life phase and the fixed
The triangle barnacles are mainly attached from July to life phase. After the development for 2–3 weeks in the
August while the attachment amount of the jade mussel floating life phase, the nauplius larvae of the barnacles
reaches the maximum from June to July [154]. become the glandular larvae, which are attached and fixed on
the appropriate attachment substances. The antennae are
(16) Sea Area along the South China Sea used to attach to the contact surface and fix the anterior
larvae. This kind of attachment is easily movable, which can
The fouling organisms attached to aquatic facilities have be called temporary attachment [155]; if the attachment
many species with large quantities and rapid growth. Of all surface is suitable at this time, the cypris larva will convert
these organisms, the sessile cirripeds in terms of crustaceans from temporary attachment to perpetual attachment. The
are the main fouling organisms in the aquaculture facilities fixed cypris larva transforms the status and becomes the
in the South China coast, with the absolute dominance adult barnacle, which can secrete barnacle glue on the sur-
occupied by the checkered barnacles, followed by the barbed face of the attachment base surface and intensify the
wire barnacles and triangular barnacles. However, the attachment. The glue secreted from the barnacle is trans-
checkered barnacles are mainly found in the sea area of the parent without adhesion and can be penetrated into the gaps
east Pearl River Estuary. In terms of the bivalve mollusks, it of the substrate through the capillary action and polymerized
is dominated by the jade mussels and short-toothed scorpion, into the non-transparent rubber blocks within 6 h. The
as well as fang oysters, mitral oysters, and small tendons. polymerization process generated by the attachment between
The mossy animals include the main species of multiroom the glue and the substrate surface of the attached organisms
bryozoites, the genus moss, and the single-horned worms. can make the glue have the large cohesive strength and
The hairy species include the dominant species of Hydroides resistance to biodegradation [156].
elegans and Perinereis cultrifera. The dominant species of The discussion on the influence of the water seasons,
coelenterates include the Anthopleura sp., the medlar, and cycle, and species dependence relationship on the fouling
the lychee. For sponges and tunicates, the common species organism community was carried out by Sun Dapeng and
include the adherent mountain sponge, the wrinkle sea others [157], and developed the evolvement process of the
squirt, and the coronal sea squirt. The algae species are fouling organisms in the 1-year cycle. He believed that the
dominated by the water clouds and enteromorpha. fouling organism community began to enter the middle term
Generally speaking, in summer and autumn, there are period and continues to develop after the microbial mucosa
many organism species and attachment amount. The is formed. It experienced the successive generation and
attachment is the minimum in winter and various species of death of the organisms, including the shellfish, algae,
organisms have their unique attachment peaks and troughs. amphipods, leeches, etc. The complicated community
Most mosses are found from December to May in next year, dominated by the purple mussels was formed on the annual
with the dominant species of multiroom lichen in winter and plates, but it has not reached the final stability phase.
spring. The genus moss and single-horned worms are There will be continuous organisms fixed on the cage
attached nearly all year round. The checkered barnacles, jade surfaces when the sea cage is immersed in the water. The
mussels, and short-toothed scorpion that are dominated in bacteria is fixed on the cages initially, which will generate the
the fouling organism community can be attached in four polysaccharide layer. The polysaccharide layer can protect
seasons in a year. The peak attachment period is in summer the bacteria from the harm on the fishing net surface. Some
and autumn. The hairy species, including the hydroides organisms can be reproduced or catch the prey when they are
elegans, are attached all year round, with the peak attach- attached to the particle surface, such as the Neoparamoeba
ment period from May to September. The sea squirts are pemaquidensis which can cause the amoeba gill disease.
722 B. Hou
A total of 7 species (6 orders) of fixed organisms and 23 the direct attachment of the microorganisms on the metal
species (3 orders) non-fixed organisms were found by Madin surfaces. In addition, the bactericide is added to significantly
and others [158], who carried out the survey on large-scale reduce the chances of bacterial fouling.
fouling organism on the floating cages in the dry seasons People have improved requirements for environmental
(August–October 2001) and wet seasons (December 2001– protection due to the development of the society. The toxic
February 2002) in the fish culture area at Ahab river estuary, antifouling coatings will be eliminated and it is the final goal
Malaysia. It was dominated by hydroid Plumularia to develop the nontoxic antifouling coatings meeting the
sp. regardless of the seasons and other species can appear antifouling coatings required by various ships. There are
after the immersion for 1–2 weeks. It mainly included the currently two aspects in developing the new nontoxic
large-scale algae Polysiphonia sp., polyps, barnacles antifouling coatings: on the one hand, to look for the
Balanusamphitrite, amphips Gammaropsis sp., Photis sp., antifouling polymer materials and make the resin in the
and tanaids Leptognathia sp. on the cages in dry seasons. It coatings have special properties so that the attachment of the
mainly included the water mites, hydroid Plumularia sp., and organisms is not firm. For example, the reduction of the free
nematode in wet seasons. There are obvious changes in energy on the coating surface, or changes of the physical and
terms of the large fouling organisms at different layers of the chemical properties on the coating surface; on the other
cages. The composition structure of the large fouling hand, to look for the nontoxic antifouling agents to avoid the
organisms, the colonization dynamics, and depth distribution attachment of the organisms under the premise of not
were all influenced by the salinity, water depth, substrate damaging the environment. Starting with the attachment
area, and the immersion time. mechanism of organisms, these researches try to prevent the
fouling in the “friendly” method through the imitation of the
organism world.
5.4.2 Prevention and Control Method
of Biocorrosion and Fouling (1) Low Surface Energy Antifouling Coating
in the Industry
Based on the research, the marine organism attachment in the
5.4.2.1 Bridge Terminals preliminary period is realized by secreting the mucus to wet
Once the risks of microbial corrosion occur on the surface of the attachment surface. If the energy on the antifouling
the metal materials, one of the most significant protective coating surface is <2.5 10−4 N/m, that is, the contact angle
principles is that “early intervention is key to cost effective of the coating with the liquid is >98°, it is not easy for the
repairs.” Observation by naked eyes is the most effective and casein and polysaccharides in the seawater to be attached on
most commonly used method for determining whether the the coating surface, so that the marine organism cannot be
microbial corrosion occurs in metal materials at the terminals attached or attached loosely. In addition, it is shown in other
and ports. Then the corrosion process should be confirmed researches that if the coating surface is lower than 1.2 10−4
by combining the thickness measurement of metal materials, N/m, the barnacles can be avoided from attachment. There-
the corrosion potential, and the laboratory testing of the fore, it is necessary to modify the matrix resin and reduce the
microbial corrosion. The relevant protective measures must free energy on the coating surface, so as to realize the goal of
be taken immediately once the microbial corrosion occurs. preventing the marine organisms from the attachment. These
Located in the open marine environment, the ports and ter- antifouling coatings exclude the toxic antifouling agents.
minals have the common control methods of microbial Environmentally, this method is the most ideal research
corrosion prevention and control methods including the direction. The matrix resin of the low surface energy
coating coverage and cathodic protection. antifouling coating mainly includes the silicon polymer, the
fluoropolymer, and the copolymer of both types, which have
1. Coating Coverage Technology been realized with practical progress so far.
At present, the serial compounds of organic silicone used
In general, there are two types of protective coatings, for the antifouling coatings include the silicone resins, sili-
namely, nonmetal coatings and metal coatings. The non- cone rubbers, and their modified substances. However,
metal coatings generally include the salt and acid-resistant compared with other types of coatings, there exist the
epoxy paints, epoxy coal pitches, etc.; the metal coatings problems of difficult application, over soft coating film,
generally include thermally sprayed zinc, aluminum or zinc– easily destroyed, attachment requiring to be raised, low
aluminum alloys. The coating coverage can be used to avoid strength, etc. Therefore, there is certain limitation.
(2) Biomimetic Antifouling Coating polarization level. There is another advantage in the cathodic
protection method, that is, the alkaline environment can be
As a new antifouling concept, the biomimetic antifouling generated on the metal material surface so as to inhibit the
coating refers to looking for the antifouling polymer mate- microbial activities. The cathodic protection technology is
rials from the attachment mechanism of marine organisms. divided into two types, namely, sacrificial anode cathodic
For example, the whales, sharks, dolphins, and other large protection and forced current (impressed current) cathodic
marine animals live in the seawater, but their skins are so protection.
smooth that the marine organisms cannot be attached. The sacrificial anode cathodic protection technology
Through the study on the epidermal structure of these refers to using the metal or alloy with the more negative
large-scale marine animals, the scientists from the USA and potential than that of the metal to be protected to connect
Germany found that there exist the microscopic grooves on with the metal electrical property protected, and protecting
the epidermal surface. Moreover, they can secrete the mucus. other metals by continuously corroding the generated current
This kind of special structure can prevent the attachment of from the metal with the more negative potential. The
marine organisms. advantages include the following:
(3) Antifouling Coatings with Natural and Synthetic (1) With low costs of one-time investment, the maintenance
Antifouling Agents fees are not necessary in the process of operation.
(2) With high utilization rate of the protection current, the
It is one of the effective ways to produce the environmentally excessive protection will not occur.
friendly antifouling coatings by extracting the natural (3) Without interference to the underground metal facilities
products with antifouling activity from marine animals, nearby, it is suitable for protecting the long-distance
plants, and microorganisms. A total of 52 species in the pipelines in the plant without the power supply and the
marine organisms with the antifouling activity had been small scattered pipelines.
found by 1993. These active substances include biguanide (4) With the functions of grounding and protection.
lipids isolated from corals, such as cemblene lactone and (5) With simple construction technology, it is not necessary
epoxidized benzoxanthene lactone; biguanide compounds to arrange the special professional maintenance man-
isolated from marine pansy, which can prevent the attach- agement. The cathodic protection technology specially
ment of barnacle larvae; the zostera marina is extracted from refers to the forced current cathodic protection system,
seaweed zostera marina. This is an aromatic compound also called the impressed current system, that is, a direct
which can prevent the attachment of marine bacteria, sea- current power source is connected in the circuit and
weed, and coilworm; the TBG (triamcinolone) extracted pass the direct current to the metal to be protected with
from bryozoans can prevent the attachment of larvae. the auxiliary anode, so that the metal to be protected
becomes the cathode implemented protection. The
2. Cathodic Protection Technology advantages include the following:
The surface of the cathodic polarization can attach the SRB (1) With high driving voltage, the cathode protection cur-
and other microorganisms through the cathodic protection rent output volume can be flexibly controlled in a wider
method. Therefore, the use of the cathodic protection method range. It is applicable to the occasions with a wider
should be within the corrosion area of the microorganisms to protection scope.
make the negative cathodic protection potential required for (2) It is also applicable to the harsh corrosive conditions or
corrosion inhibition larger. Otherwise, compared with the in the environments with high resistivity.
previous methods without the cathodic protection, the (3) When the insoluble or slightly soluble auxiliary anode
microorganism corrosion rate is much faster. is adopted, the long-term cathodic protection can be
Moreover, the capability of the microorganism corrosion performed.
to intensify the corrosion reaction has strengthened the (4) With relatively large protection scope of each auxiliary
cathodic protection current required for the grading level. In anode bed, the protection scope of a cathodic protection
addition, due to the continuous corrosion of microorganisms, station can reach tens of kilometers when the pipeline
the metal surface is gradually exposed. For this reason, it is anticorrosion layer is in good quality.
required to increase the cathodic protection current to control (5) For the pipelines exposed or with poor quality of anti-
the microorganism corrosion, that is, to inhibit the growth corrosion coatings, the cathodic protection can be
and corrosion of microorganisms by increasing the completely realized.
724 B. Hou
5.4.2.2 Offshore Platform The seawater has lots of salts dominated by the sodium
chloride, with the maximum content of sodium chloride about
1. Electrolytic Seawater Antifouling 2.7%, accounting for 77.8% of the salinity. It is followed by
the magnesium chloride, about 0.38%, accounting for 55% of
The seawater pipelines and seawater cooling systems on the the total ion content. The electrolysis seawater antifouling
offshore platforms were all suffered from the double harms refers to using the insoluble electrodes to electrolyze seawater
from the seawater corrosion and marine biofouling. There to produce effective chlorine, as the strong oxidant, which can
are lots of ways to prevent the marine organism attachment, stun or kill larvae and spores of marine organisms. In this way,
such as antifouling coating, liquid chlorine applied, elec- the antifouling purpose can be realized.
trolytic antifouling, manual elimination, heating method, and The electrolysis seawater antifouling is divided into two
ultrasonic methods. Based on the different antifouling kinds. On the one hand, the direct method refers to the direct
methods adopted, the antifouling effect and economical installation of the electrolytic anode on the pipeline and the
results are different. For example, the antifouling coating has seawater filter; on the other hand, the indirect method (that
the short antifouling period, with difficulty in the pipelines is, electrolytic cell type) is mainly used for the seawater
construction with small diameters as well as the environ- pipeline systems, etc.
mental pollution; the application of liquid chlorine has high The direct electrolysis seawater antifouling devices
operation costs, with toxic hazards to the human body as include rectifiers, electrolytic anodes, cables, etc. As is
well as unsafe operation, etc. shown in Fig. 5.108 of the schematic diagram of the device,
One of the most commonly used antifouling technologies the direct electrolysis refers to the indirect installation of the
is the electrolytic antifouling technology, which has the electrolytic anode on the seawater filter or seawater pipeline.
advantages of mature technology, safety and reliability, As the cathode, the seawater itself is connected with the
convenient management, low operation costs, etc. The direct current and the circuit is formed by the seawater. The
research and application of electrolytic seawater antifouling available chlorine generated by the electrolytic reaction is
technology have been used for several decades abroad. The mixed in the seawater to prevent the fouling of marine
electrolyzed seawater antifouling problem was started in organisms. Since the pipeline to be protected acts as the
Japan in 1962. In 1965, Japan Mitsubishi Heavy Industries cathode, to some extent, the steel pipeline can be protected.
Co., Ltd. developed the antifouling system to prevent the With simple structure, convenient management, and low
attachment of hull marine organisms, which was installed and costs, the device is a combined type with the functions of
used in many large-scale ships in 1971. So far, there have antifouling and anticorrosion.
been plenty of devices for preventing the marine organism The indirect electrolysis seawater antifouling device
attachment in the offshore platforms, ships, oil refineries, etc. mainly includes the electrolytic cell, the filter, the pressure
Later, a great number of electrolytic seawater antifouling controller or pressure gage, the flow meter, the nozzle, the
devices used for ships were produced by Nippon Nakagawa rectifier, the pipeline, valves, etc. Please refer to Fig. 5.109 for
Anti-corrosion Co., Ltd. and the seawater electrolysis devices the flowchart of the device. A branch pipe is drawn by the
produced by Japan Daji Rubber Co., Ltd. were applied in seawater from the outlet of the auxiliary machine seawater
large quantities on the offshore plants and other projects pump and the seawater is electrolyzed through the filter, the
[159]. The electrolytic antifouling technology is divided into pressure controller or the pressure gage and the flow meter and
two kinds, namely, to develop chlorine antifouling with enters the electrolytic cell. The electrolysis seawater with
electrolysis seawater and antifouling by electrolytic copper available chlorine is transported to the submarine valve box
and aluminum anode. At present, these two technologies through the pipelines and sprayed through the nozzle. The
have been widely applied in lots of countries. Both methods sprayed seawater with the available chlorine is absorbed from
can be applied at the same time in order to reach the better the submarine valve box through the main and auxiliary
antifouling effect by using the coordinative effects, such as seawater pumps. Then it is sent to the seawater cooling system
the antifouling with chlorine–copper combination. through the pipeline. In this way, the goal of preventing the
marine organism attachment and growth is realized.
(1) Electrolytic Seawater Antifouling System
(2) Electrolytic Copper–aluminum Antifouling
The so-called electrolytic antifouling technology refers to the
prevention of fouling through the electrolysis method by The electrolytic copper–aluminum antifouling in the sea-
adding the generated toxic substances into the seawater water refers to using the copper and aluminum alloys as
systems in the ships and offshore platforms, which can lead anodes, and the equipment system to be protected as the
to the environment not suitable for the attachment and cathode. The electrolytic copper anode and aluminum anode
growth of marine organisms. antifouling and anticorrosion device mainly includes the
Input
Cross current power supply
Output
Control box
Anode
Filter
Fig. 5.108 Schematic diagram of direct electrolysis seawater antifouling system
constant current meter, control box, copper anode, aluminum (3) Combination Antifouling of Chloride and Copper
anode, cathode grounding seat, etc. Please refer to Fig. 5.110
for the schematic diagram of the device. With the toxicity, Since 1965, the Cathelco system (copper–aluminum anode
the copper ions obtained by electrolytic copper anodes are antifouling and anticorrosion system) developed by the
mixed with the seawater to form the toxic environment. The Cathodic and Electrolytic Engineering Co., Ltd. in the UK
Al3+ generated by the electrolytic aluminum anode and the has been researched and used on the ships. In October 1967,
OH−generated by the cathode form the Al (OH)3, which can the system was installed on the submarines of the Royal
encapsulate the released copper ions and pass through the Navy. In 1987, the Control Microbial Fouling and Corrosion
protected system with the seawater flow. With high Co., Ltd. of the University of Sheffield of the UK researched
adsorption capacity, it can spread and enter the area with on the BFCC system, which is using two toxic materials of
slow seawater flow in which the marine organism may be chlorine and copper to kill the marine organisms. The effects
inhabited in order to prevent the growth of the marine of antifouling and anticorrosion were relatively ideal.
organisms. When the seawater is electrolyzed in the copper– The combination of antifouling and anticorrosion of
aluminum anode system, a dense coating layer of calcium electrolytic chlorine and copper in the seawater refers to
and magnesium is formed on the surface of the steel using the insoluble anodes and special copper and aluminum
pipelines as the cathode. In addition, a layer of protection alloys as anodes, and the equipment system to be protected
film can be formed inside the pipeline when the aluminum as the cathode. The system is constituted by the control box,
hydroxide colloid generated by the electrolysis flows with the lead–silver micro-platinum anode, the copper anode,
the seawater. The calcium–magnesium coating layer and the aluminum anode, the cathode grounding seat, etc. Please
aluminum hydroxide colloid film prevent the oxygen diffu- refer to Fig. 5.111 for the diagram of the device. The chlo-
sion, increase the concentration polarization, and slow down rine–copper and aluminum antifouling and anticorrosion
the corrosion rate, achieving the purposes of antifouling and device mainly uses the constant current meter and the elec-
anticorrosion. trolytic copper–aluminum anode to generate the copper ions
726 B. Hou
Seawater
Flow meter
Electrolytic cell
Rectifier
Seawater
Filter
Submarine valve box
Submarine valve box
Fig. 5.109 Schematic diagram of indirect electrolysis seawater antifouling system
and aluminum hydroxide flocculent precipitation. The action cooling systems for ships, offshore platforms, coastal
mechanism is the same with the antifouling of electrolytic power plants, and chemical plants. The antifouling effects
copper–aluminum anode. Meanwhile, the insoluble anodes are quite remarkable. The available chlorine required for
are used to electrolyze the seawater to produce chlorine. the electrolysis seawater chlorine has large concentration,
Both the available chlorine and copper ions are toxic sub- with great one-time investment and power consumption
stances, which can kill or inhibit the marine organisms. The volume; in addition, residual available chlorine can
antifouling effect is much better than that of the single use of produce chloroform, which will pollute the environment.
the chloride or copper. The combination antifouling of Moreover, the chlorine increases the corrosion rate of the
chloride and copper can be used in the seawater treatment metal structures. For this reason, it is required to improve
systems, fire protection systems, seawater cooling systems, the efficiency and service life of the electrolytic anode
cable protection pipelines, etc. on the oil platforms. continuously, improve the structure of the electrolytic
cell, and control the residual content of the chlorine.
(4) Characteristics Comparison of Three Antifouling
Technologies The electrolysis seawater chlorine technology includes
three main characteristics which are given below:
By referring to the domestic and foreign relevant literatures
and based on the experiments in large quantities, the fol- (1) With good antifouling effects of available chlorine,
lowing is the experimental result by comparing the effects of various species of marine organisms (shellfish, algae,
the three antifouling technologies. Please refer to Table 5.68 and mucus) can be effectively prevented and controlled.
for the details. The following is the specific instruction: (2) Due to the troublesome operation compared with other
methods, it is required to maintain the electrodes on a
a. Electrolysis seawater chlorine antifouling: With the rel- regular basis.
atively wide range of applications, the electrolysis sea- (3) The dosing concentration is directly proportional to
water chlorine antifouling is widely used in the seawater corrosion. The dosing concentration for the prevention of
Cross flow meter

Control box
Input
Output
Copper anode
Submarine gate
Aluminum anode
Filter
Seawater
Fig. 5.110 Schematic diagram of electrolytic copper–aluminum antifouling system
marine organism fouling by the electrolysis seawater However, it can only be applied to the ships and offshore
antifouling refers to controlling the residual chlorine platforms with relatively small amount of seawater as
concentration at the terminal outlet of the seawater sys- well as a high requirement for the water quality. With
tem on the offshore platform. In general, the requirements two substances of chlorine and copper as the toxic
can be met as long as it is larger than 0.03–0.05 ppm. The materials, the chlorine–copper combination antifouling
concentration of the available chlorine added in the sea- system has the concentration much smaller than that of
water system in the corresponding antifouling device the single use. With the simple structure and low
(that is, the dosing concentration) is generally between 1 one-time investment and operation costs, the device does
and 0.5 ppm. Although the available chlorine of 1– not cause pollution to the environment. It can be widely
0.5 ppm can cause corrosion on the seawater pipeline used on the ships, offshore platforms, coastal power
system made of the carbon steel, the seawater corrosion is plants, and coastal chemical plants, which is one of the
insignificant. In general, the excessive dosing concen- current antifouling technologies with the widest appli-
tration (1.5–3 ppm) is the main reason for the increase of cation worldwide.
seawater pipeline corrosion resulted from the platform c. Copper–chloride combination system: The copper–chlo-
electrolysis seawater antifouling. Therefore, it is very ride combination system has the main technical charac-
important for the seawater system of electrolyzed sea- teristics as follows:
water chlorine device to control the concentration of
available chlorine reasonably [160]. (1) With convenient operation and maintenance, it is only
required to replace the electrodes regularly.
b. Copper–aluminum system: With the functions of (2) With the poor antifouling effect, the copper cannot
antifouling and anticorrosion, the copper–aluminum effectively prevent the pollution of various marine
system has the advantages of simple structure, conve- organisms, especially the mucous organisms (the cop-
nient management, and low power consumption. per cannot kill the organisms because it fails to enter the
728 B. Hou
Cross flow meter

Control box
Input
Output
Copper anode
Submarine gate
Aluminum anode
Filter
Lead-silver
micro-latinum
anode
Seawater
Fig. 5.111 Schematic diagram of chlorine–copper and aluminum antifouling and anticorrosion device
Table 5.68 List of electrolytic antifouling technologies

System type Copper aluminum anode Electrolytic chlorine Chlorine–copper
combination
Functional Microorganisms Obvious Lethal Lethal
effect Macroscopic Nonobvious Lethal Lethal
biological
organisms
Lethal concentration Copper: not less than Available chlorine 2 10−6 Copper 5 10−9,
35 10−9, aluminum available chlorine
5 10−9 50 10−9
Annual 100 m3/h Copper 31 kg 1.8 t Copper 3.3 kg;
consumption chlorine 33 kg
250 m3/h Copper 77 kg 4.4 t Copper 8.3 kg;
chlorine 83 kg
500 m3/h Copper 154 kg 8.8 t Copper 16.5 kg;
chlorine 165 kg
1,000 m3/h Copper 307 kg 17.5 t Copper 33 kg;
chlorine 329 kg
5,000 m3/h Copper 1,500 kg 87.6 t Copper 165 kg;
chlorine 1646 kg
Corrosion situation This may lead to galvanic This may cause corrosion of pipes, None
corrosion pumps, valves, heat exchangers, etc.
body of the mucous organism) and the adults of (3) In consideration of the convenience for the use and
shellfish. operation, it is required to select the electrolytic chlo-
(3) In the process of operation, the low concentration of rine and copper–aluminum technology. All in all, it is
copper ions added (2–3 ppm) cannot satisfy the of great importance for the stable operation of the
requirements for marine organisms fouling. platform seawater system to reasonably select the
(4) In the process of operation, the copper and aluminum marine organism device. In particular, on the platforms
resources cause nonrenewable consumption. This is one required for seawater cooling with some main power
of the reasons why it is not recommended by some station systems, if the marine organism cannot be
developed countries. effectively inhibited, the main cooling system will be
caused unstable and the cooling circulatory system and
Therefore, it is of great importance for the operation of engine must be repaired or overhauled frequently. This
the electrolyzed chlorine and copper–aluminum device to will not only waste the time and money but also
control the concentration of copper ions. Moreover, the influence the safety production of the platform seri-
addition of the concentration of the copper ions means the ously. Therefore, it is required to comprehensively
increase rate of the anode consumption, and increases the consider various factors and select the most suitable
costs for maintenance. anti-marine organism devices when the device is
selected for the platform. Moreover, even though the
(5) Selection of Electrolytic Chlorine, Copper–aluminum platform is equipped with the anti-marine organism
Antifouling, and Electrolytic Seawater Antifouling devices, it is still required to examine the seawater
Technology system on a regular basis. Once the marine organism is
found in the seawater system, it is required to examine
The definite regulations on the selection of the tech- the anti-marine organism devices. It is necessary to
nologies when the platform equipment is selected have not prevent the failure of the anti-marine organism devices
been clarified yet so far. According to the feedback of the due to the problems of operation and maintenance.
effects of the platforms, it is required to consider in terms of
the following aspects for the design selection: 2. Antifouling Method by Coating the Copper-containing
Materials
(1) Based on the growth situation of the marine organisms
in the sea area applied, the electrolysis seawater The researcher puts forward that the copper-containing
antifouling is the first preferred choice when there are materials coated on the structural steel surface have the
plenty of marine organism reproduction, especially the antifouling effect because of the wide understanding of the
mucus, algae, and shellfish; otherwise, it is required to copper with the antifouling effects. However, when the
select the electrolysis chlorine and copper–aluminum copper contacts with the iron, the galvanic corrosion will
antifouling technology. occur. Therefore, it is infeasible to coat the copper-containing
(2) Based on the amount of seawater, the electrolysis sea- materials on the structural steel surface directly in the actual
water antifouling should be selected if the amount of applications. In the actual applications, a layer of high dense
seawater is greater (over 1,200–1,500 m3/h); this is artificial rubber should be added between them.
because of the large consumption of copper and Please refer to Figs. 5.112 and 5.113 for the specific
aluminum. coating technologies. With good insulation, the artificial
copper-nickel
Fig. 5.112 Schematic diagram of copper–nickel antifouling material coated on the structural steel surface [160]
730 B. Hou
applications. This is because it has the high strength, which

has been proved to have the good antifouling effects.
With the continuous progress of the research, the verifi-
cation on the antifouling effects of different materials was
carried out by the researchers for the purpose of providing
the guidance on the selection of materials. In general, among
the metal materials, the copper and copper alloy materials
are seldom fouled by the marine organisms, such as the
copper–zinc alloys, copper–tin alloys, and copper–nickel
alloys. The copper content of these copper alloy materials is
required to be greater than 64%. Please refer to Table 5.69
for some pure metals or alloy materials with different
antifouling effects presented by the USA LaQue laboratory.
This table is just the experimental data of the LaQue labo-
ratory. Since the species of the fouling organisms worldwide
Fig. 5.113 Steel pipes with the surface coated with copper-containing
antifouling material are different and the experiment carried out for different
periods of time, there will be differences in terms of the
antifouling capability of the copper-containing metals.
rubber can be attached to the engineering steel surface well,
which can effectively prevent the contact between the 3. High-pressure Water Jet Cleaning Technology
copper-containing materials coated and the substrate steel.
The CA706 materials (the main compositions are 90% The high-pressure water jet cleaning technology can be used
copper and 10% nickel) are used mainly in the early to avoid these disadvantages, which can initiate the
Table 5.69 Metal materials with antifouling effects [161]

Material name Main metal element contents Antifouling effect
Navy copper Cu 70%, Zn 29%, Sn 1% Very little fouling
Copper–nickel–tin alloy for condenser Cu 70%, Sn 1%, Ni 29% Very little fouling
Anbai copper Cu 75%, Zn 5%, Ni 20% Very little fouling
Arsenic copper Cu 99.5%, As 0.3% Very little fouling
Bronze Cu 97.4%, Ni 0.25%, Be 2.3% Very little fouling
Brass Cu > 65%, Zn < 35% Very little fouling
Brass–tin Cu > 80%, Sn 1–2.5%, the rest is Zn Very little fouling
Bronze–tin Cu > 80%, Sn < 20%, Very little fouling
Bronze–nickel Cu > 8%, Ni 1–10% Very little fouling
Commercial bronze Cu 90%, Zn 10% Very little fouling
Red copper Cu 99% Very little fouling
Copper–nickel alloy Cu > 70%, Ni < 30%, Fe < 0.15% Very little fouling
Special bronze (for containers) Cu 97%, Sn 2%, Si 1% Very little fouling
Copper silicon manganese alloy Cu 96%, Si 3% Very little fouling
Forged red copper Cu 85%, Zn 15% Very little fouling
Foundry red copper Cu 85%, Zn 5%, Sn 5%, Pb 5% Very little fouling
White copper (nickel silver) Cu 64%, Zn 18%, Ni 18% Very little fouling
Less than 65% brass Cu < 65%, the rest is Zn Different degrees of fouling
Cu < 65%, other Zn
Ordinary brass Cu 65%, Zn 35% Different degrees of fouling
Copper–nickel alloy Cu 60–70%, Ni 30–40% Different degrees of fouling
Wrought copper Cu 60%, Zn 40% Different degrees of fouling
Navy brass Cu 60%, Zn 39%, Sn 1% Different degrees of fouling
Liquid level switch

Electrical control
Motor start/stop
Fig. 5.114 SimplePara>Schematic diagram of high-pressure water jet device. 1. filter, 2. water tank, 3. liquid-level switch, 4. open the booster
pump, 5. pump low-pressure inlet pressure gage, 6. enter the motor, 7. high-pressure piston pump, 8. column high-pressure outlet pressure gage, 9.
outlet safety valve, 10. water and electric control panel, 11. three-way pressure-regulating valve, 12. water pressure gun
high-pressure water pump at any time. It is required for the equipment is operated for a long period of time with espe-
staff to carry the high-pressure hoses and hand gun to sub- cially impressive economic benefits. Please refer to
merge in the seawater in the cleaning process and eject the Fig. 5.114 for the simple structure of the high-pressure water
high-speed water flow through the handgun and nozzles. The jet device.
water jet with powerful strength can cause the actions of Plenty of spare parts are not necessary for the
scouring, division, grinding, and cavitation on the surface of high-pressure water jet equipment and only some simple
the hull bottom and the fouling bottom, which can break and wearing parts should be spared, such as the plunger packing,
peel off the scaling. Based on the hardness degree of the O-rings, nozzles, and filter bags. This reduces the inventory
scaling and the thickness of the scaling layer, the staff on the and the costs. The automatic protection control function is
ship can adjust the water pressure through the provided for the high-pressure water jet equipment. When
pressure-regulating valve, which can avoid the too slow the pressure exceeds the safe set value, the safety valve can
water jet pressure with low cleaning efficiency or the automatically relieve pressure and provide protection; when
excessive high water jet pressure, causing the damages to the the water level in the water tank is lower than the safety
hull bottom. The cleaning with high-pressure water jet can position, the equipment will automatically stop running;
be implemented in a timely manner. Compared with the when the pump is overloaded, the control system will
traditional methods, this can extend the service life of the automatically start the overload protection; when the elec-
ships effectively and reduce plenty of labor force and trical system is short circuited to the ground, the control
material resources. With the simple operation and control, it system will automatically start the disconnecting protection;
can be operated anytime and anywhere. With fast speed, when the equipment is working, the emergency stop button
high efficiency, and environmental protection, it can protect can also be directly pressed in case of abnormality found,
the hull from the accidental damages. and the equipment will automatically stop running.
In general, with the seawater as the medium, the
high-pressure water jet cleaning is environmentally friendly 5.4.2.3 Ships
with low costs and without any chemical agents. The fixed
equipment and standard appliances are used for the 1. Antifouling Measures of Organism Fouling for Under-
high-pressure water jet cleaning. Through the speed reduc- water Parts of Ships
tion mechanism, the motor directly drives the high-pressure
plunger pump and operates through the control box or the (1) Classification of Antifouling Technologies
remote control cabinet. With convenient operation, short
preparation time on the site, rapid operation speed, and short People have fought with the marine fouling organisms for
driving time, the efficiency is very high. In addition, as the nearly three thousand years. During this period, the pre-
one-time investment, the high-pressure water jet cleaning vention and removal of the fouling organism have been
732 B. Hou
reached by the methods or ways, including coating isolation, attach loosely and facilitates the removal. Without biocide or
antifouling agent killing, mechanical cleaning, micro-electric toxin, the low surface energy antifouling coating has a long
field killing, ultraviolet light irradiation, etc. It can be divi- validity period and is environmentally friendly. It mainly
ded into three classifications according to the different includes the fluororesin, silicone resin, and fluorosilicone
principles of antifouling technology, namely, physical resin materials. However, the low surface energy can cause
antifouling technology, chemical antifouling technology, the shortcomings, which include the insufficient adhesion of
and organism antifouling technology. The purpose of the antifouling coating of low surface energy to the anti-
antifouling can be realized by people with the coordinative corrosive primer, poor support, poor repeated coating, etc.
functions of one or several methods mentioned above. In spite of the advantages, including simple and conve-
nient operation, and strong timeliness, the physical
a. Physical antifouling technology: The physical antifouling antifouling method has the disadvantages, such as the long
method refers to the purpose of antifouling reached by cycle, the damages on the coating, and teratogenic organ-
reducing or preventing the attachment of fouling organisms. Therefore, the application is limited. In the modern
isms by the physical means, which mainly include the physical antifouling method, the low surface energy coating
mechanical cleaning method, cavitation water jet antifouling method has the advantages of nontoxic envi-
decontamination method, self-exfoliation coating, elec- ronmental protection, etc. In addition, it does not have the
tric field antifouling method, low surface energy coating shortcomings, such as the long cycle, damages on the
antifouling method, etc. The mechanical cleaning method coating, and teratogenic organisms. As the latest physical
refers to the cleaning and scraping on the surface of the antifouling method, it has important research significance
ship bottom or the underwater facilities with the help of and broad development prospects.
the mechanical equipment, so that the attachment of
organisms can be reduced or totally fallen off. With b. Chemical antifouling technology: One of the most
simple operation and low costs, the mechanical cleaning commonly used antifouling methods for ships is the
method is adopted with remarkable effects on the large coating protection method. A protection layer can be
invertebrates. This method has a great disadvantage, that formed by painting the antifouling coating on the surface
is, it cannot prevent the occurrence of the fouling process of the hull. The purpose of preventing the attachment of
and it only can remove after the fouling is attached. In fouling organism can be reached by the dissolution and
general, the operation can only be implemented during exudation of the antifouling agent in the coating. It can
the normal downtime period. The mechanical cleaning be specifically divided into base material soluble
method refers to either the manual removal or the antifouling coatings, base material insoluble antifouling
removal by underwater robots, which are adopted coatings, diffused antifouling coatings, and self-polishing
recently. The cavitation water jet decontamination antifouling coatings [163].
method refers to the fouling organisms removed with the
great local stress generated from the cavity from the The base material soluble antifouling coating refers to
high-pressure jet. It is shown in the study that the jet flow that the base materials in the coatings can be slowly dis-
with a pressure of 3.5 MPa has a good cleaning effect. solved in seawater and the toxicant particles are released by
However, only a small amount of damage can be gen- continuously contacting with the seawater. The purpose of
erated on the coating when the impact on the antifouling is realized by killing the fouling organisms. The
high-pressure water flow can reach as high as 21 MPa. base materials commonly used in this kind of coating are
However, with the complicated auxiliary equipment, the generally rosins and the toxic substance is cuprous oxide or
cavitation water jet decontamination method has high organotin. The disadvantage has a short period of antifoul-
removal costs. ing. The base material in the base material insoluble
antifouling coating is insoluble, but the toxic materials are
The self-exfoliation coating antifouling method refers to soluble. In this way, the purpose of antifouling is realized.
the purpose of antifouling realized by the coating with However, there are plenty of holes on the surface of the
self-exfoliation performance. The coating will automatically coating after the toxic materials are dissolved. The surface
fall off when the fouling organisms attached reaches a cer- becomes thick and the sailing resistance is increased sig-
tain amount, which prevents the attachment of fouling nificantly. In addition, the exudation rate of the toxic
organisms in large quantities. materials can be weakened as the time goes by. The
The low surface energy coating antifouling method refers antifouling effect in the later period is poor.
to the use of the low surface energy as the coating, which The base material insoluble antifouling coating refers to
makes the fouling organisms difficult to attach and grow or that the toxic materials have the honeycomb structure in the
coating after the dissolution and the seawater is penetrated The biological antifouling agents and antifouling coating
into the internal part, so that the internal toxic materials are refer to that the substances with the antifouling activity
in contact with the seawater and are continuously released extracted from the natural organisms are added to the coating
from these holes. The base material insoluble antifouling substrate, and the purpose of antifouling is realized when
coating has the main shortcoming, that is, the coating surface they are slowly released in the seawater. It has the advan-
becomes rough after the dissolution of the toxic materials, tage, that is, the antifouling effect is realized by changing the
which has increased the sailing resistance and reduced the surface features of the cells themselves, interfering with the
sailing speed of the ships. In addition, the exudation rate of nerve conduction of the fouling organism and the repelling
the toxic materials is weakened as time goes by and at least method, etc. It is friendly to the marine environment, without
30% of the residual toxic agents cannot be utilized. The the damages to the ecological balance. It also includes the
antifouling effect in the later period is poor and the failed disadvantage, that is, the source of natural antifouling agents
antifouling coating cannot be removed easily. In general, the is limited, which cannot be obtained in large quantities. In
acrylic resin and vinyl resin are taken as matrix resin and the addition, it is easily deactivated due to the factors in the
organotin compound is taken as the toxic material in the construction and the environment, and therefore it cannot be
diffuse-type antifouling coating. Among them, the organotin widely applied. There are problems in this method at present,
toxic materials are evenly distributed in the entire coating such as the limited amount of extraction, poor stability of
and the effects of antifouling can be realized by means of the activity, and insufficient broad spectrum of a single natural
diffusion and release of the toxic materials in the process of antifouling agent.
utilization. The coating material in the self-polishing The surface microstructure antifouling coating is the
antifouling coating is degraded in the marine environment method by imitating the micron-sized groove existing on the
gradually. The coating material at the external layer can be epidermis of large animals, such as the sharks. The surfaces
gradually fallen off under the scouring action of the water of various regulated sizes are designed and produced by
flow. In addition, the fouling organisms can fall off when it means of photolithography, electrospinning, microphase
is fallen off and form a new coating film, which can separation, nanotechnology, etc. It is found that these epi-
hydrolyze and release the toxic materials. This method can dermises have certain capability to inhibit the microorgan-
not only reduce the organism attachment but also decrease ism attachment in the laboratory conditions. It has the
the roughness of the surface of the substrate materials, with disadvantages, that is, the microstructure with large areas
good antifouling and drag reduction performance. The and regulated surfaces cannot be easily obtained. In addition,
effective period depends on the thickness of the paint film. the single structure has different inhibitory effects on dif-
At present, the chemical antifouling method is the most ferent organisms due to the diversity of organisms and the
mature one, with remarkable antifouling effect and the size of attachment points.
widest application. The antifouling mechanism is to poison The imitated infiltration antifouling coating refers to the
and kill the organisms by using the toxic materials and to antifouling effect can be realized by adding the oily sub-
realize the long-time antifouling effects in combination with stances so that the marine fouling organisms cannot be easily
the coating technologies. However, the toxic materials attached due to the characteristics, that is, the epidermis of
adopted can pollute the marine environment and cause dis- large animals can secrete the special mucus, such as the
tortions in marine life and great harm to the human beings. dolphins and whales.
As a newly emerging antifouling concept in recent years,
c. Biological antifouling technology: Based on the attach- the biomimetic antifouling coating belongs to one of the
ment mechanism, living habits, dominant species, and most active types in the new environmentally friendly
other data of fouling organisms completely mastered, the antifouling coatings. By replacing the traditional antifouling
biological antifouling technology is adopted to realize the materials that cause environmental hazards in the current
purpose of preventing the organism fouling by avoiding, applications, the application area should be expanded to a
disturbing, or preventing the attachment process. The great extent with broad development prospects. However,
mechanism of action includes the attachment inhibition, the research on the new natural antifouling agents in this
metamorphosis inhibition, interference with nerve con- type of antifouling coating materials and polymer materials
duction, repellent effects, etc. The current main resear- in the simulated epidermis state of marine organisms is still
ches in this aspect are concentrated on the aspects, in the stage of basic theories. Due to the over-high costs, few
including the biological antifouling agents, microstruc- antifouling examples and the actual ship experiments within
ture antifouling coatings, imitated infiltration antifouling a little scope in the laboratories, the application is greatly
coatings, etc. [164]. limited.
734 B. Hou
(2) Development Status of Antifouling Coatings consequences in terms of growth and heredity as well as the
genetic variation and deformity. In addition, the TBT in an
Four stages have been gone through in the research on extremely low concentration (parts per trillion) can kill some
antifouling coatings by the human beings so far: aquatic organisms in the seawater. In addition, with high
stability and indecomposable features in the TBT environ-
a. Primary stage of antifouling coatings ment, it can enter the human body through the food chain,
which can directly harm the health of the human beings.
The main antifouling agent in the antifouling coatings was Facing these serious consequences, France first banned
cuprous oxide till the 1970s. Other antifouling synergists and limited the utilization scope of the organotin antifouling
included oxidized mercury and organometallic compounds, coatings. Then, various countries continued to limit the use
such as the lead, mercury, arsenic, zinc, and tin. The of organotin antifouling coating by means of successive
antifouling coatings mainly include the dissolved and con- actions, including the UK, USA, Japan, Australia, etc. The
tact types. However, the use of compounds as the toxic work team established in 1998 by the Maritime Environ-
materials, such as the copper, arsenic, and mercury, causes mental Protection Committee (MEPC) of the International
huge consumption of the nonferrous metals and speeds up Maritime Organization (IMO) has passed the proposal of
the corrosion rate of the ship hull, which leads to huge stopping and completely banning the toxic organotin com-
economic waste. In addition, the great toxicity has brought pounds in the antifouling coating, that is, the antifouling
great hazards to the marine organism and human beings coating with the TBT or other organotin as the toxic material
[165]. has been banned for use since January 1, 2003 and these
products have been totally banned to be existed as the ship
b. Organotin antifouling coating antifouling coating from January 1, 2008 [167]. Therefore,
various countries worldwide have accelerated the pace of
In 1954, Van der kerk and Luijten found that a kind of toxic developing and researching on the low-toxic or nontoxic
material with the tributyltin (TBT) as the base could reach antifouling coatings without TBT. The technology of
the broad-spectrum and high-efficiency antifouling effect antifouling coating has entered a new development stage.
with the extremely low concentration. This has attracted the
wide attention of the relevant personnel [166]. It was shown c. Tin-free self-polishing antifouling coating
in the experiment that the antifouling ability of this type of
organotin compound was 10–20 times that of cuprous oxide. The tin-free self-polishing coating (TF-SPC) has the com-
Afterward, it was found in the research that the butyltin position and mechanism of action similar to those of the tin
acrylate polymer released TBT during the hydrolysis pro- self-polishing antifouling coating. With the acrylic or
cess. The hydrolyzed polyacrylate slowly dissolved in sea- methacrylic hydrolyzable resins as the base materials, it
water, and the surface in the polymer was continuously replaces the TBT to use the group with organic metals (such
updated and kept smooth. After that, the antifouling material as Zn, Cu, and Si.) as the antifouling agents. Combining the
has entered the era of “self-polishing coating” (SPC). This previous advantages of the antifouling coatings as well as
technology has been applied on a large scale since the 1970s. the low-toxic and self-polishing characteristics, the TF-SPC
The TBT-SPC can keep the slow polymer solubility with was rapidly developed and applied. However, since people
the effective date for 5 years, which can make the coating pay great attention on the environmental protection, the
surface smooth, maintain the sailing speed, and save the relevant research is gradually deepened and it was found that
fuels. Therefore, it was rapidly developed once it was the antifouling agents with the low concentration of copper
invented, with great social and economic benefits. The uni- and zinc can inhibit the growth of various algae. However,
versal antifouling coating used for various ships worldwide this kind of antifouling agents with a high concentration can
in the 1980s was the TBT-SPC, with the consumption vol- kill the seaweed and silicon algae, sarcophagus, and some
ume of up to more than 70% in the total amount of fish [168]. In addition, this kind of antifouling agents is
antifouling coatings. However, about 90% of the newly built collected in the ports, which causes great environmental
commercial ships were coated with the TBT-SPC antifouling pollution [169].
coating. However, the environmental pollution problems
were also caused by the TBT-SPC while it prevented and d. Development status of antifouling coatings
removed the fouling organisms. It was found through the
research for many years that the TBT interferes with the Although the copper-based antifouling coatings replacing
endocrine system of the organism strongly, and destroys the the TBT have been successfully researched, developed, and
reproductive function of the organism, leading to the adverse put into use at present, the copper elements can also be
accumulated in the ocean (especially at the seaport). Plenty 2. Protection measures of organism corrosion in the internal
of algae has been dead, which has destroyed the ecological structure of the hull
balance. Therefore, it is prohibited to use this coating [168].
In addition, the sufficient antifouling capability cannot be Due to the great losses caused from the serious harzards on
reached when the hydrolysis of the polymer itself causes the the ship safety because of the microbial corrosion, it is of
copper ions to exudate into the seawater. Therefore, it is great practical significance to research on the prevention
required to use the cuprous oxide as an antifouling agent in methods of the organism corrosion on the ships. Based on
the antifouling coating. Besides, it is required to get the the factors, including the physiological characteristics of
registration permission of the environmental protection microorganisms, the law of corrosion activity and the objects
bureaus of the countries worldwide for adding the auxiliary of action, the prevention methods of the microbial corrosion
biocides in the antifouling coatings. However, these auxil- in the internal structure of the hull can be divided into the
iary biocides can not only prevent the fouling but also inhibit methods, including the physical methods, chemical methods,
the photosynthesis of marine algae [170], such as Irgarol and biological methods [54, 61, 183, 184].
1051. The isothiazolone causes inflammation of the eyes and
makes human beings catch the contact dermatitis through the (1) Physical methods
food chain [171]; moreover, the diuron [172] inhibiting the
photosynthesis in plants can also lead to the strong car- The physical sterilization methods include aeration, ultravi-
cinogenic effect [173] as well as the deformity of juvenile olet sterilization, ionizing radiation sterilization, ultrasonic
fishes in the process of growth [174]. sterilization, mechanical cleaning, changing the medium
In addition, the antifouling coating with dithiocarbamate environment, etc.
(or ester) can cause fetal deformities of the juvenile fish and
rodents [175], increase the cancer rate of mice [176], and a. Aeration method
lead to the increased amount of absorption of heavy metals
by the microorganisms [177]; the dichlofluanid can lead to From the traditional perspective, it was believed that the
mutation and cancer of the nontarget organisms [178]; the SRB was a strict anaerobic bacterium. The free oxygen can
zinc pyrithione causes allergic contact dermatitis of the be used to kill the anaerobic corrosive microorganisms in the
human beings [179], which inhibits the development and internal structure of the hull, such as the opening system in
growth of mammalian cells [180] and leads to the distortion the cabins on the naval ships. However, it was found in the
of juvenile fish [181]. This will inhibit the normal operation practice that it was difficult to kill the SRB in the water with
of the membrane transport system of bacteria [182]. There- the short-time aeration method and SRB could tolerate
fore, it is of profound significance for the protection of the 4.5 mg/L of dissolved oxygen. Moreover, when the free
marine environment and the prevention of the recurrence of oxygen is used to kill the anaerobic bacteria, the corrosion
TBT to research and develop the new environmentally rate of metals will be greatly improved. The pitting corrosion
friendly marine antifouling technology. Now this is a stage is even more serious. Therefore, it is required to reevaluate
when the old antifouling coatings are replaced and the new the short-time aeration method [71].
products have not been emerged, which is the beginning of
the new round of competition for the scientific researchers b. Ultraviolet sterilization
worldwide to fight for the technological commanding
heights of antifouling coating technology again. This stage With the sterilization action, the ultraviolet has the same
represents the general trend of the development and research effect on the corrosive microorganisms on ships. In general,
of the new nontoxic environmentally friendly coatings. Two the ultraviolet lamps have strong radiation near the place
aspects are focused on the current researches: one is the with the wavelength of 254 nm, which can be absorbed by
natural antifouling compound with the degradation and nucleic acids. Therefore, the corrosive microorganisms can
biological toxicity separated from the natural products be killed for a period of irradiation [62]. The ultraviolet light
(preferably the marine organisms), which is added to the at a wavelength of 254–257 nm is used for radiation steril-
traditional coatings to make it release slowly and maintain ization, which can slow down the SRB corrosion in the bilge
the enough concentration; the second one is the change of and pipelines. Compared with the treatment without the
the material surface characteristics and the development of ultraviolet light, the corrosion rate of the carbon steel is
new antifouling coatings make it hard for the organisms to reduced by 25–50% [184]. However, special attention
be attached at the time of the interactive contact process with should be paid to that, compared with the relatively clear
the marine organisms. The problem of organism fouling can effective water system, the bactericidal effect on turbid water
be solved fundamentally. systems is greatly discounted. In addition, due to plenty of
736 B. Hou
wastewater and the complicated geometry of the bilge, the pipeline system, it is the key to control the microbial cor-
water environment at the bottom of the bilge can reduce the rosion of the pipeline in order to keep the water body clean
amount of the ultraviolet radiation and influence the bacte- while the water is treated by sterilization. One of the effec-
ricidal effect. The formation of the organism film cannot be tive methods was to increase the fluid velocity. It can reduce
totally controlled. In addition, it is required to maintain the the attachment time of the corrosive microorganism. How-
ultraviolet sterilization system, with regular maintenance. In ever, it should pay attention that the fluid velocity cannot be
terms of the ultraviolet sterilization, it is also necessary to too much in order to avoid the wear and corrosion. However,
consider the personnel protection issue of the crew in the it is extremely difficult to remove the organism film by the
cabins near the open bilge. Similarly, the ultraviolet steril- mechanical cleaning means at the bottom of the storage
ization can be used to kill the pathogenic bacteria and sus- tanks and the bilge. The mechanical cleaning can be
pended microorganisms in the bilge water, but with limited implemented on these parts with the sponge balls, brushes,
sterilization capability in the organism film at the bottom of washers, high-pressure water guns, etc. It is worth noting
storage tanks. The formation of the organism film cannot be that the organism film can be formed again if it is not
controlled. In this way, the microbial corrosion is inhibited completely removed [62].
[55].
f. Changing of the media environment sterilization
c. Ionizing radiation sterilization
The nutrients are required for the growth of the bacteria. One
With the strong penetrating power, the ionizing radiation can of the important methods to reduce the corrosion hazards is
bring about ionization of atoms and molecules, destroy the to restrict the nutrients for the growth of SRB around the
structure of molecules, and realize the purpose of sterilization. metal components. It is necessary for any microorganism to
The sensitivity of bacteria to the radioactive radiation is continuously obtain the nutrients for living from the external
determined by the environment, temperature, pH value, and environment. The nutrients refer to various substances that
oxygen content of the growth. The bactericidal effect is provide energy for the microorganism and the sources of
closely related to the amount of the radiation. A small protoplasts as well as the adjustment action in the metabo-
amount of radiation can change the morphology and phys- lism. It also includes various elements in addition to the
iological characteristics of the bacteria and inhibit the water, such as the carbon, ammonia, inorganic salts, and
increase and reproduction. A great amount of radiation can organic compounds [184].
kill all the bacteria [184]. In recent years, the scientists have paid more and more
attention to the promotion and application of the physical
d. Ultrasonic sterilization sterilization methods. This is because the pollution cannot be
caused to the biosphere due to the physical sterilization. In
It is allowed to use the ultrasonic waves to inhibit the growth addition, the sterilization effect is not less than any chemical
of the SRB. The SRB can be destroyed due to the serious sterilization agent. Therefore, the ballast water treatment
fluctuations when the acoustic wave frequency is in the devices in various forms are widely applied at present.
ultrasonic range of over 9–20 kHz/s, which can inhibit the However, it is very difficult to protect the hull and the
growth of SRB. However, it is difficult to use the ultrasonic pipelines due to the complicated equipment in the physical
method on the storage tanks in the large marine ships. sterilization methods.
Though the ultrasonic treatment can be adopted on the bal-
last water before the loading, it can only kill the pathogens in (2) Chemical methods
the water, which has nothing to do with the organism film
formed in the storage tank [55]. The chemical methods are the simplest and most effective
method of controlling microbial corrosion, which is widely
e. Mechanical removal method applied in the oil and cooling water systems at present. It is
through the primary methods to kill the corrosive microor-
After the detection on the internal structure of the ship, if it ganisms by adding fungicides, or inhibit the growth and
was found that the microbial corrosion was caused and the reproduction of corrosive microorganisms by adding inhi-
organism film was formed, it was allowed to use the bitors. At present, the domestic common fungicides include
mechanical removal method to remove the organism film. In the quaternary ammonium salts, aldehydes, heterocyclics,
addition, the water treatment was implemented to reduce the and their compounds, such as dodecyl dimethyl benzyl
amount of corrosive microorganisms and the nutrients, ammonium chloride and metronidazole [61]. The current
which could inhibit the microorganism corrosion. For the main problem in the fungicides added is the insecticide
resistance of the corrosive microorganisms, the corrosivity seawater pipelines is coordinated with the coating for joint
of the fungicides to substrate metals, and the dosing method anticorrosion. The electrolytic seawater anti-biological
of the fungicides. The uneven distribution of the bactericide devices have been applied in the domestic large ships.
in the environment makes the corrosive microorganisms in However, due to the high investment costs of the devices,
the local position locate in the antibacterial environment which are mainly imported equipment with great mainte-
with low concentration, which cannot be killed. Among nance costs, the devices are not widely applied. The DCF
them, some individuals form the insecticide resistance finally series electrolytic antifouling and anticorrosion devices
due to the mutation resistance of chromosomes or physio- developed and produced by the Shanghai Institute of Ship
logical adaptation methods. This makes the concentration of Transportation Science Research have been widely applied
the fungicides gradually increased, which has increased the on the ships, which have been installed and used on Huaxin
treatment costs substantially. To solve this problem, the Ship and Huayang Ship. After the use and observation for
compound and use problem of the fungicides have attracted one period, the device can effectively inhibit the growth of
more and more attention. Moreover, the fungicides have organisms and microorganisms, which has greatly improved
good killing effects on the suspended corrosive microor- the using conditions of the seawater cooling systems and
ganisms in water. However, for the corrosive microorgan- pipeline systems [184].
isms in the organism film, it is very difficult for the
fungicides to penetrate into the organism film and kill the (4) Microbial method
corrosive microorganisms. Therefore, the fungicides cannot
remove the organism film that has been formed, so there is The biological competitive elimination mechanism is intro-
limitation on the application of the fungicides [55]. duced by the microbial control method, which can change
Moreover, the fungicides can only be used in closed the harmful microorganisms into harmless microorganisms
systems. Without environmental friendliness, the use of the through the replacement of the microbial population. The
fungicides is subject to strict limitations in various countries mechanisms include the following:
worldwide, especially in the developed countries. The
standards in different countries are not consistent. It is not (1) The growth and reproduction of SRB are inhibited due
serious for the ships operated in China. However, it is a to the fight for the living space and nutritional substrate
question to be noted for the marine ships, which has also between the introduced and the SRB.
limited the application of the fungicides. (2) The consumption or conversion of the SRB metabolites
is carried out by the introduced organisms, which can
(3) Cathodic protection method reduce the corrosion capacity of SRB. The thiobacillus
denitrificans and SOB can transform the metabolite of
It is an effective means of preventing the SRB corrosion on SRB, namely, H2S.
the ships by using the cathodic protection method. With (3) The SRB can be killed directly by the substances sim-
cathodic protection, the rate at which the cathode provides ilar to the antibiotics of some bacteria, such as the
free hydrogen exceeds that of the hydrogen utilization in secretion of the bacillus brevis can kill the SRB after it
bacterial depolarization. In addition, the increased pH value is inoculated into SRB.
around the cathode can inhibit the growth and reproduction
of the SRB and it is seen from the perspective of the It is safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly to use
antimicrobial corrosion that the protective potential with the the microbial control methods to inhibit SRB corrosion,
pH > 10 is sufficient to rule out the corrosive effects of SRB which is the hotspot and focus of the researches on SRB
and other bacteria. In the seawater cooling system and the corrosion protection. However, there is a long way to go
pipeline system of the actual ships, the antifouling and from the practical applications due to the complicated
anticorrosion electrodes are installed at the seawater suction mechanism of this method [163].
area or submarine valve box. The antifouling system of the
seawater pipelines is primarily realized by the antifouling (5) Anticorrosion material method
electrode and anticorrosion electrode with the impressed
current. In general, the electrolytic copper used for the In view of the preparation and selection of materials, the
antifouling electrode materials can kill the SRB microor- materials resistant to SRB corrosion can avoid or reduce the
ganism in the seawater by the electrolyzed copper ion. The hazards of SRB corrosion. Since there are differences
pure iron or aluminum electrode is generally used or the pure between the corrosion sensitivity of the resistance to the
iron and aluminum electrode are jointly used for the anti- microorganism corrosion of various metals and their alloys
corrosion systems. Generally, the antifouling system of the or nonmetal metals, the SRB corrosion can be caused on the
738 B. Hou
iron, stainless steel, aluminum and its alloys, concrete, etc. microbial corrosion mechanism of the hull steel was ana-
However, the materials, including the copper, chromium, lyzed by Copenhagen in 1966. There were classified
titanium and its alloys, and high-molecular polymers, have understanding on the organism corrosion and fouling prob-
high resistance to the microorganism corrosion. At present, lems in different parts of the ships in the follow-up resear-
the 902 low-alloy steel used for ships have relatively low ches. It was proposed that the microorganism fouling
corrosion resistance to both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. corrosion could be caused due to the fuel oil and lubrication
The alloy with low phosphorus, sulfur, or sulfide inclusions oil in these systems in addition to the water environments,
have high resistance to SRB [61]. including the bilgewater and ballast water, which influenced
the safe, efficient operation of equipment. Moreover, the
(6) Coating protective layer and surface modification navies in various countries, including the USA, UK, Canada,
Australia, etc., have carried out systematic investigations on
The metal component to be protected and the environment the microbial corrosion of surface ships and submarines.
are separated by a layer of the protective material on the A number of public investigation reports have been formed
surface of the metal components. The purpose of controlling and target protective measures have been recommended.
the corrosion can be reached by preventing the penetration However, China has carried out the researches on the
for the ions and electrons between them. The protective layer problems of organism fouling in the underwater parts of the
materials and protection methods mainly include the galva- ships earlier, with relatively complete systems. Through the
nized, chrome-plated, water pipe internal wall coating and analysis of real sea hanging plates for many years, there are
epoxy coating, oxidation treatment, etc. [184]. corresponding antifouling measures to the law of the evo-
To prevent the microbial corrosion, it is always the focus lutions of the organism fouling communities in different sea
to set up the application of the nontoxic substances based on areas of China along with the changes of seasons and geo-
silicone, epoxy, and fluoride. The local corrosion can be graphical locations. However, it can be seen from the
caused due to the discontinuous membrane. All in all, the investigation results in the open literature that the research
membrane is a good protective measure. In addition, it is on the microbial corrosion of the internal structure of the
required to have the following conditions on the membrane: ships was started late. It was not until the twentieth century
it cannot be changed with the attack of the bacteria and the when the great destructive effects of the microbial corrosion
corrosive substances cannot be released when it is degraded. on the safe and effective operation of ship equipment were
The membrane can increase the resistance of the bacterial fully understood and the corresponding protective measures
attachment and reduce the attachment of the large organisms were recommended. However, there are still some gaps in
and microbial corrosion by reducing the surface tension of the emphasis imposed and the mechanism analysis between
the substrate. China and the foreign countries.
The purpose of preventing and controlling the SRB cor- Compared with foreign countries, the marine antifouling
rosion can be realized by carrying out the treatment on the research and development of China started late. In 1966, the
material surface or by adding the elements resistant to the national research team (cross-industrial, inter-regional,
microbial corrosion in the matrix materials or by coating the combination of scientific research, production, and applica-
nanometer oxide (such as TiO2) resistant to the microbial tion) was set up. The gas in terms of the organotin
corrosion on the metal surface. A kind of coating with antifouling coatings with the foreign technological level was
nanometer structure was developed successfully with the reduced after 15 years. However, China was still far behind
thermal spraying process coating technology by the USA by the foreign countries in terms of basic materials and key
adopting the nanometer pattern of structure of the traditional technologies. In general, the TBT and DDT antifouling
aluminum–titanium ceramic mixed materials, which has coatings were always used on the offshore ships nationwide
been widely used on the ships. However, this technology has in the past, which has seriously polluted the marine envi-
limitations in terms of the domestic large-scale applications ronment. Following the international conventions, China
due to the complicated manufacturing process and high costs banned the production and application of the organotin
[184]. antifouling coatings comprehensively in 2008 and stopped
all the production lines of the solvent chlorinated rubber in
3. Comparison of domestic and foreign current situation 2009, and banned the use of DDT-containing antifouling
coatings used for hull bottom in 2010. In addition, China
Compared with the status of the domestic and foreign included the antifouling coatings with cuprous oxide into the
researches, it can be seen that the foreign countries carried list of “with high risks of pollution and environmental
out the researches on the organism corrosion fouling for damages,” and specified that the use of cuprous oxide used
ships earlier, with deeper understanding. For example, the for the antifouling agent is a transitional measure. The
Table 5.70 Comparison of brands of anticorrosion and antifouling coatings of Jiangxia Tidal Power Station
Coating type Primer Intermediate paint Topcoat
Use before 1999 H-36 high-build epoxy A-16 chlorinated rubber paint 05 high-contact-type cuprous oxide
asphalt paint antifouling paint
Use after 2000 546 ultrathick epoxy 616 chlorinated rubber iron red thick paste 839 (L105-6) long-lasting effective thick
asphalt paint anti-rust paint antifouling paint
Use after 2005 ES301 solvent free epoxy TE06 epoxy tar coating AF21 vinyl self-polishing antifouling
coating coating
antifouling coatings will be banned on small-scale ships in applied by Jiangsha Tidal Power Station in 2007. Please
the North America by 2025. Therefore, it is urgent to refer to Table 5.70 [187]. As the electrolyte, as long as the
develop the environmentally friendly alternative antifouling appropriate electrodes and appropriate controlled electrode
technology. potential are used, the seawater can generate the chlorine and
The current marine antifouling coating market of China is sodium hypochlorite by electrolysis. In addition, as the
almost monopolized by foreign countries. In particular, the strong oxidants, the chlorine and sodium hypochlorite can
foreign coatings are adopted by nearly all the ocean-going decompose the enzymes necessary for biological life and
ships. The foreign countries occupy the dominant position in make the respiratory system attached to the organism caus-
terms of resin system, compounding technology, and market. ing strong chemical burns. Compared with antifouling
However, in terms of technological level, some domestic coatings, the electrolyzed seawater antifouling has good
antifouling coating technologies have reached the applicable safety and long-lasting effect without pollution generated. In
level. Since there are not enough engineering practice addition, there is no limitation to the shapes of the sub-
opportunities, the market promotion and technological stances to be protected. Therefore, the electrolysis seawater
advancement of the products have been influenced [185]. antipollution at the power generation stations is mainly used
for the protection of seawater cooling system with auxiliary
5.4.2.4 Clean Energy protection for the antifouling paint at the flow paths and the
gate groove.
1. Tidal power generation
2. Wind power generation
It is easy for the marine organisms in the seawater to attach
to the surface of metal structures, which influences the Since China started late in terms of the offshore wind power
overcurrent conditions and generator set output in the and there were not sound relevant regulations, we usually
overcurrent part and reduces the flexibility of moving parts. refer to the measures to prevent the attachment of marine
In addition, with strong attachment power, it is extremely organisms on the offshore oil platforms in consideration of
difficult to remove the marine organisms. For example, a the similar environments between the offshore oil drilling
total of about 1 ton attachment of the marine organisms is platforms and the offshore wind power generation sets. At
removed each year on the 24 units of Lance Power Station in present, three primary measures to prevent the attachment of
France, which costs 600,000 francs [186]. The tidal power marine organisms are adopted on the domestic oil drilling
generation stations mainly adopt two main methods for platforms, namely, the use of anti-marine organism devices
preventing the attachment of marine organism, one is the with the marine power, with the antifouling coating and the
coating and the other is the electrolysis seawater. electrolysis.
It is required to paint the primer before the antifouling The anti-marine organism device is made up of the
coatings is applied. There must be good attachment force engineering plastics with the performances of high elasticity,
between the primer and the surface of the stainless steel and high durability, superior UV resistance, and good fatigue
the concrete. The corrosion can be prevented by applying the resistance. The body of the device is surrounded around the
coating to the surfaces of the flow path and the generator set jacket components, that is, the place where it is easy for the
components in contact with the seawater and isolating the marine organism to attach and grow. The device is made to
surface to be protected and the seawater. In addition, the do the vertical, lateral, and rotational movement in the
coating can kill the marine organisms by releasing the toxic external part of the jacket components by using the natural
substances gradually. Therefore, the coatings play two forces as the power, such as the buoyancy of seawater,
functions, namely, anticorrosion and antifouling. A total of currents, and waves. The combined movement makes the
three sets of anticorrosion and antifouling coatings were impact wheel installed on the device continuously collide
740 B. Hou
with and contact the surface of the jacket components, so system. It includes the first filter at the seawater estuary, that
that the marine organisms cannot be attached. This method is, various fouling racks, grilles, and screens are used to
can be used to gradually remove the marine organisms that mainly prevent the marine organism and foreign substances
have been attached. The greatest advantage of the device from entering the seawater cooling system; the second filter
includes that there is no need of manually impressed external before entering the condenser, that is, try to set up the filter,
force and with the natural force in the seawater as the power, eddy filter, and other equipment at the inlet of the condenser,
it is simple, efficient, and pollution-free with low costs. The so that some marine organisms and foreign substances
disadvantage includes that the device will seriously collide cannot enter the condenser finally [188].
with the jacket components due to the joint actions of the For the antifouling coating, the main coating positions
waves and currents in case of high winds and typhoons in include the circulating water system (circulating water pipe,
the period of long-term application. In case of damages, it is seawater pipe, condensate water chamber, circulating water
extremely difficult to maintain and replace the device. pump, etc.) and the equipment around the water inlets (rotary
As a special coating applied to the jacket components, the screens, etc.). The antifouling mechanism of the antifouling
antifouling coating has the main function of releasing the coating method is reaching the purpose of preventing the
toxic substances through the exudation, diffusion, or marine organism fouling through the medicinal action of the
hydrolysis of the toxic materials in the coating membrane, antifouling agent in the membrane and the physical action of
which can reach the purpose of preventing the marine the surface of the membrane. For example, a domestic nuclear
organisms from attaching the substrate of the steel structure. power station adopted the phosphating primer Interprime539
There are lots of advantages in terms of the antifouling + antifouling connection paint VinyguardS’G88+light red
coating, for example, it meets the requirements of environ- tin-free self-polishing antifouling paint A/F Seaquan-
mental protection performance; with certain water perme- tumUltra. The marine organisms include the microorganisms,
ability, the membrane can ensure the toxin to be penetrated algae, and other large organisms. Among them, there are lots
continuously; with the good resistant to the seawater impact, of species of agents controlling the microorganism, but there
the coating membrane can be immersed in the seawater are very few species of agents controlling the large organisms.
without blistering or falling off. However, the antifouling There are two types of biocides controlling marine organisms,
coating also has deadly shortcomings, that is, it is required to namely, oxidized biocides (chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and
repaint the coating in 3–5 years because it can only prevent ozone) and non-oxidized biocides (new chlorhexidine,
the marine organisms from attaching to the jacket compo- cetylpyridinium chloride, isocyanurate, etc.). The slime bac-
nents within a certain period. tericides include rosin amines, rosin amines, ethylene oxide
The electrolysis anti-marine organism is the method by polymers, hydrogen peroxide, biguanide polymers, etc. The
using the electrolysis to generate the toxic substances and biocides mainly used in the seawater cooling system of China
forming the environment not suitable for the attachment and mainly include the chlorine gas. In general, as long as the
growth of marine organisms. There are two currently used concentration of the residual chlorine in the seawater can be
methods, namely, the hypochlorous acid generated from the maintained at about 0.5 mg/L, the growth and reproduction of
electrolysis of seawater to kill the marine organisms; with marine organisms can be inhibited. However, the toxic
the seawater as a conductor, the electrolytic copper and chlorocarbons can be generated by the seawater and the
aluminum electrodes electrolyze metal ions through the organic substances, which pollute the environment and
impressed current, so that the metal ions in seawater can endanger human health. Many countries have banned the use
reach a certain concentration and kill the marine organisms. of chlorine to kill the organisms. Certain breakthrough has
In spite of the advantages of safety, reliability, simple been achieved by some developed countries on the prevention
application, and low operation costs, the technology can and control research of the shellfish and other marine organ-
only be used to kill the marine organisms in the surrounding ism fouling in recent years. Among them, the non-oxidized
sea areas. preventive agent of marine organism with the fatty strontium
salt as the main ingredient have special inhibitory effect on
3. Nuclear power shellfish, which is more effective than the chlorine. In addi-
tion, the agent can degrade the organisms, which reduces the
The protective measures for organism corrosion in the sea- pollution of the water. The ozone-gamma ray method has
water system of the pressurized water reactor nuclear power been adopted by various countries, including the USA,
plant mainly include the setting of filtration devices, Canada, and western European countries. It has the advan-
antifouling coating, and the biocides added. The filtration is tages, including killing the organisms, decolorizing, deodor-
an effective method to prevent the marine organism and izing, reducing chemical oxygen consumption, biological
other pollutants from entering the circulating cooling water oxygen consumption, etc.
Table 5.71 Common non-oxidized fungicides [190]

Types Advantages Disadvantages
Quaternary With highly efficient and low toxicity, it is not susceptible to It is easy to foam and the bactericidal efficiency may be
ammonium salt changes of pH and easy to use. It is also famous for strong reduced in case of a high degree of mineralization. With loss
peeling effect on the mucus layer, stable property, as well as in adsorption, it is easy to produce resistance to chemicals
good corrosion inhibition of dispersant after long-term use
Organic It has good bactericidal effect Glutaraldehyde is expensive with strong stimulating
aldehydes
Heterocyclic Characterized by high bactericidal efficiency, it has good Its solubility is poor with loss in adsorption and high cost
compound compatibility with other water treatment agents with low
dosage
Quaternary It has excellent bactericidal performance and good slime It is expensive
phosphonium stripping
salt
Cyanide- It has high bactericidal efficiency with low cost With poor solubility and high toxicity, it is easy to
containing decompose under alkaline conditions
compound
Multifunctional By virtue of low dosage and high efficiency, it has no
fungicide chemicals resistance and can simplify water treatment
process
Compound A variety of fungicides are compounded with surfactants and
fungicide solvents with high bactericidal efficiency and good
application effect
5.4.2.5 Submarine Pipeline corrosion of microorganisms. For example, the growth of

One or more measures must be taken in the protection fungi will be strongly inhibited by increasing the pH to above
according to specific conditions due to a variety of metal nine and the temperature to above 50 °C. For another exam-
components involved in microbial corrosion with different ple, improving the ventilation conditions by strengthening the
environment and corrosive bacteria. In summary, the mea- drainage in the wet clay zone and backfilling the gravel around
sures to prevent microbial corrosion of metals mainly include the buried pipeline will also reduce the anaerobic corrosion
limit of nutrient sources, control of environmental conditions caused by the sulfate-reducing bacteria.
for microbial growth, adopt of chemical fungicides and
bacteriostatic agents, physical control, biological control, as (3) Adopt of chemical fungicides and bacteriostatic agents
well as external protective coating for metal materials [189].
The measure is designed mainly to use fungicides and
1. Protective measures for biofouling and corrosion of bacteriostatic agents in closed or semi-hermetic systems or
submarine pipelines blend in coatings. The fungicides should be characterized by
high efficiency, low toxicity, broad spectrum, low cost, and
(1) Limit of nutrient sources convenient source of raw materials. Attention should be
paid to the combination of fungicides, preservatives, and
As essential nutrients are required for the growth and detergents in this method. Fungicides are generally classi-
reproduction of microorganisms, it is an important method fied into two types: oxidized and non-oxidized [190]. Nor-
to reduce the risk of corrosion by limiting the nutrients for mally, oxidized fungicides include ozone, liquid chlorine,
the growth of microorganisms around metal components. chlorine compounds (bleaching powders NaClO and cal-
For example, the growth of the number and variety of cium hypochlorite), ClO2, chloramines, etc. Non-oxidized
microorganisms will be greatly reduced by controlling fungicides generally include aldehydes, phenols, quaternary
organics, ammonium salts, phosphorus, iron, ferrous iron, ammonium salts, quaternary salts, and compounded types.
sulfur, and sulfate in the environment as much as possible. See Tables 5.71 and 5.72 for the advantages and disad-
vantages of non-oxidized fungicides and oxidized fungi-
(2) Control of environmental conditions for microbial cides. Generally, the following issues should be taken into
growth account when choosing a fungicide:
A suitable environmental condition is required for microbial (1) Bactericidal effect: Ability to kill planktonic bacteria,
growth, so changing environmental conditions in an appro- ability to kill sessile bacteria, the minimum required
priate manner are also an important measure to reduce metallic concentration and control time.
742 B. Hou
Table 5.72 Common oxidized fungicides

Types Advantages Disadvantages
Chlorine With economic property, wide range of It is harmful to operators, which is not suitable for
applications, good effects, its dose and residuals are killing cell membrane
easy to monitored
Chlorine compound It is better than chlorine with respect to storage and There are problems of scale formation, high cost,
safety with the same effect as chlorine and high dosage comparing with chlorine
Chlorine dioxide With less influence of pH, it has strong chlorination Special equipment and toxic compounds are
to organisms allowing the presence of organics required for generation with high cost
with high concentrations and dissolving deposited
FeS
Chloramine Characterized by good bactericidal effect, it has Ammonia injection equipment is required, which is
good durability in long water delivery system with more expensive than chlorine
low corrosively and low toxicity
Bromine At high pH, it has better bactericidal effect than It is similar to the disadvantages of chlorine
chlorine and has a wide range of applications compounds with high cost
(2) Economic issue: Cost per liter, disposal cost per cubic resonance of various molecules and ions in the water, direct
meter of water, and annual cost. destruction against the cell wall of microorganisms such as
(3) Safety: Assessment of human hazards (e.g., toxic gas or SRB in the system, degeneration of bacterial proteins, and
physical contact), requirements on neutralization, reg- loss of enzyme activity. Meanwhile, such action of the
istration, efflux impact on the environment, and resi- alternating electromagnetic field is liable to accelerate the
dence time. entry of the chemical bactericides into the bacteria, which
(4) Applicability to fluid systems: Solubility, synergistic will greatly improve the bactericidal efficiency of the
effect, pH, existence of H2S, temperature, water hard- chemical bactericide with unit dose. Therefore, physical
ness, existence of metal ions or sulfides, and total sus- sterilizing equipment (Fig. 5.115) is designed to install on
pended solids levels. the reinjection water pipeline, achieving bactericidal effect
(5) Adaptability to other pharmaceutical agents: Oxygen when the reinjection water flows through the equipment. It
scavengers, preservatives, anticrustator, demulsifiers, will not only save cost but also reduce chemical pollution.
water scavengine agents, stimulation and potentiation Bactericidal effect of the original chemical agents will be
agents, and polymers. greatly strengthened when this technology is used in com-
(6) Usage: Corrosion of metal and synthetic rubber, freez- bination with chemical bactericides, reducing the microor-
ing point, thermal stability, precipitation of compo- ganisms in the reinjection water from 106–107 cfu/mL to 0–
nents, etc. 10 cfu/mL.
Based on the researches of Ma et al. [192], ClO2 can kill (5) External protective coating
SRB in oil recovery wastewater and iron bacteria and
saprophytic bacteria corroding oilfield injection wells, and Pipeline corrosion is related to media, environment, and
have good viscosity reduction property, gel-breaking prop- structure. The cause of corrosion should be first confirmed so
erty, and mutual sinkin property in treatment of oilfield as to make corresponding adjustments or modifications in
water. In addition, it also can improve the quality of drinking the control of pipeline corrosion. Niu Zhangbin et al. found
water contaminated by oil and the quality of oilfield injection that the pipeline can be interacted with the water in the pipe
water, etc. network [194] resulting in complicated physical, chemical,
and biological changes, which will cause unstable water
(4) Physical control quality in the pipe network and excessive content of bacteria,
turbidity, chroma, and iron comparing to the standard.
The physical control mainly refers to a method of killing Galvanized steel pipes tend to initiate corrosion and may
microorganisms by using ultraviolet rays, ultrasonic waves, cause pollutants of iron, zinc, calcium, and lead to the water
and other physical means. In accordance with the research of body in case of corrosion, so they are less used in indus-
Liu et al. [193], it was found that reinjection water flows can trialized countries [195]. Generally, steel pipes are prone to
generate a strong alternating electromagnetic field under the uniform corrosion, especially in water bodies with high
action of an alternating electromagnetic field with a fre- levels of dissolved oxygen and residual chlorine and poor
quency of 6–20 MHz and a power of 8–32 W, resulting in buffering capacity. It is likely to cause iron pollution to the
Fig. 5.115 Circuit configuration of controller
water body resulting in increased turbidity and “red water”. method of circulating grinding–dispersion–filtration grind-
In terms of cast iron or ductile iron pipes, they are suscep- ing to achieve functions such as emulsification, homoge-
tible to erosion in water bodies with strong corrodibility and nization, and grinding, reaching a fineness of 3–15 lm. The
tuberculation corrosion in water bodies with poor buffering adsorption of bacteria on the inner wall of pipelines is
capacity, introducing iron pollution to the water body and inhibited via the controlled release of agents, so as to inhibit
causing increased turbidity, chromaticity, and “red water”. the formation of biofilm for reducing the risk of microbial
By virtue of good corrosion resistance, copper pipes are corrosion and prolonging antiseptic properties.
widely used in foreign countries, but less in China due to the
expensive price. Stainless steel pipes also have good corro- (6) Bio-competitive exclusion method
sion resistance and are widely used in foreign countries, but
they are still less used in China as a result of high cost. There The reservoir system is a large, tunable natural bioreactor. It
are many techniques for anti-rust and anticorrosion, but has been proved that there are many types of native bacteria
corrosion protective coatings have an absolute advantage in oil and gas reservoirs and produced water systems.
among various measures. In corrosion protective measures, Generally, SRB will largely multiply and produce corrosive
coating materials have become an important corrosion pro- H2S acid gas if such systems are not changed effectively and
tective measure, accounting for 63%. Common corrosion water contains sulfate with suitable growth conditions.
protective coatings include polyurethane corrosion protec- Currently, a nitrate-based microbial treatment technology
tive coatings, epoxy coatings, stainless steel flake coatings, is carried out in the foreign petroleum industry, which can
and zinc-rich coatings [196]. As the development direction not only prevent the production of sulfides due to the action
of corrosion protective coatings, the main trend will be thick of SRB in oil and gas reservoirs, produced water, surface
film, high durability, no pollution or low pollution, low cost, facilities, pipelines, and gas reservoirs but also eliminate
and easy construction. existing sulfides therein with improving crude oil recovery
A protective coating layer will be formed once the efficiency [198]. With respect to this new reservoir treatment
pipeline is painted with a functional coating containing technology, it can strengthen beneficial microbial denitrify-
fungicides and bacteriostatic agents. In the application of this ing bacteria in the oil reservoirs by introducing an inorganic
technology, it has no chemicals resistance because of a short nitrate-based component. The denitrifying bacteria are a
contact time between SRB and pipe wall. Thus, the chemical group of bacteria that can reduce nitrates to nitrogen by the
fungicides may be saved and the cost may be reduced. use of volatile fatty acids under anaerobic and facultative
Modified epoxy resins and phenolic resins with good cor- anaerobic conditions. Oil-repellent substances, such as
rosion resistance and good bonding force are used as organic acids, biosurfactants, gases, and organic solvents,
film-forming materials and fungicides with bactericidal will be produced in the process of metabolism. Such deni-
function (inorganic organic hybrid nanomaterials) as fillers trifying bacteria may replace harmful SRB that can generate
by Yuan [197]. The sterilizing fillers are prepared by a sulfides. This new reservoir ecological treatment technology
744 B. Hou
is called as bio-competitive exclusion technology. Volatile eliminate and prevent H2S from natural oil and gas
fatty acids and hydrocarbons obtained from oil production resources with maintaining the value of sulfur-free oil
systems in different forms are mainly present in and gas.
water-soluble acetates, propionates, and butyrates. It has (5) The production, transportation, and use of toxic chem-
been shown that large amounts of fatty acids and carbon ical fungicides can be avoided.
oxides are used by microorganisms for growth, reproduc- (6) The blockage of iron sulfide in reservoirs and equip-
tion, and biochemical reactions. Lots of studies have verified ment can be removed.
that the reaction effect of denitrifying bacteria on the nitrate (7) The cost of corrosion protection for infrastructure and
mixture prepared as required in the oil and gas production ground production equipment can be reduced.
system is very obvious, and it is more effective for denitri- (8) It will improve the health and safety of operators.
fying bacteria in obtaining fatty acids than SRB. Therefore, (9) The environment will not be polluted by chemical
the denitrifying bacteria will compete for fatty acids to components. With the link and coordination of BCX
exclude SRB (fatty acids are the basic carbon source sulfide control and oil recovery mechanisms, the oil
required for SRB) [199]. With a nitrate mixture formulation, production can be increased and the reservoir can be
the microbial ecology in the reservoir can be changed. In desulfurized.
terms of energy, these inorganic nutrients will replace sulfate
as the final electron acceptor, which is conducive to deni- 2. Research status and development direction in China
trifying bacteria, rather than SRB [200]. The denitrifying
bacteria will consume and reduce the nutrient fatty acids There are a large number of harmful microorganisms in the
supplied continually and generate effective gases and oilfield system, such as SRB, saprophytic bacteria, and iron
chemicals. Such gases and chemicals are the by-products of bacteria. Corrosions of drilling equipment and water injec-
the denitrifying bacteria after metabolism, which contribute tion pipelines are almost caused by viscous substances
to oil-repellent chemical substances. The activity of the secreted during their growth and metabolism process, and
beneficial microbial denitrifying bacteria facilitates the can even block injection wells and pipelines resulting in the
mechanism of crude oil release to be identical to the rec- reduction of the pore permeability for oil layers, degradation
ognized chemical and physical effects. As far as common of other oilfield chemicals with lowing their use efficiency
enhance oil recovery method, it can reduce the viscosity of [202]. Great economic losses are caused to industry and
the crude oil via artificially injecting gases and solvents, or oilfield production operations by such hazards.
reduce the interfacial tension via injecting surfactants and
increase the fluidity of crude oil via changing the surface (1) Foreign research status of fungicides and bi-competitive
wettability of the oil–water–rock composite. However, exclusion methods
denitrifying bacteria will be used in terms of bio-competitive
exclusion technology to continuously produce gases, sol- In USA, Western Europe, and many other developed
vents, surfactants, as well as other chemicals to achieve countries and regions, the common measure used to control
enhanced oil recovery. These biometabols will interact at the bacteria in oilfield water injection systems is physical con-
same time, which are much more effective than common trol, including clearing water injection systems, adjusting
injectant as a result of the synergistic combination of all water injection processes, microbial controlling, radioactive
biochemicals and biogas allowing the flow of crude oil. irradiation, etc. However, there are many disadvantages,
As inevitable results of the growth and metabolism of such as high investment cost and cumbersome operation. By
denitrifying bacteria, these chemicals and gases include ① contrast, chemical treatment method is more economical,
gas: hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane; ② convenient, and effective among other advantages, which is
solvents: butanol, isopropanol, ethanol, and acetone; ③ the most popular treatment method for major oil fields at
organic acids: acetate, propionate, and butyrate; ④ surfac- present [203]. In recent years, the development directions for
tants [201]. This technology has the following advantages: oxidized biocides in foreign countries can be classified into
the following two types: green and high bactericidal effi-
(1) Low cost. ciency. With respect to the research of compound fungicides,
(2) The treatment formula can be compatible with the brine it is invested relatively less by the foreign experts, but in
in reservoir without any damage on reservoirs or pro- recent years, the law of compound has been continuously
duction systems. explored and studied by many researchers, especially the
(3) The mining method is practical and easy to operate. research and development of anionic and cationic surfactant
(4) It can eliminate H2S pollution of biological source, combinations. The compound fungicides will play an
emissions of toxic and dangerous H2S, and can important role. What is more, a new type of fungicide will be
obtained by some experts by loading certain biocide active and gas reservoirs to prevent further acidification of the oil
components on certain polymer materials according to the reservoirs, it is feasible to taken this technology as a remedial
recent foreign reports. Such loaded fungicides are charac- measure. At the same time, crude oil recovery can be
terized by insolubility, high efficiency, rapid broad spectrum, enhanced as well. It is reported that this technology has been
and renewability [204]. In addition, as an environment successfully applied in some oil fields in the North Sea where
friendly fungicide, this type of fungicide may reduce the the production amount of sulfide is reduced by up to 90% and
water pollution in the treatment process of oil field water, the corrosion rate of pipelines is reduced from 0.7 mm/a to
meeting the development requirements of new fungicides. 0.2 mm/a with an increment of crude oil production by 20%.
At present, there is no related report on the use of such American scientist Donald O. Hitzman et al. [199] have
fungicides in oilfield water treatment systems, but the studied the role of facultative anaerobic denitrifying bacteria
fungicide may be widely used in the future as it is devel- in anaerobic reservoirs and mining systems. The study
oping in the direction envisioned. shows that, nitrate-based inorganic chemicals, a green pro-
A lot of researches have been carried out in foreign duct with low cost can not only stimulate the activity of
countries on bio-competitive exclusion method and good denitrifying bacteria but also have profound and beneficial
application results have been achieved in many oil and gas effects on the entire production ecosystem, including rapid
fields using bio-competitive exclusion technology. Sturman control of SRB and sulfides, and the increment of oil pro-
and Goeres [198] of the Center for Biofilm Engineering and duction. According to the study, the addition of new for-
Montana State University in the United States proposed that mulation fixed with nitric acid/nitrous acid in a certain
the hydrogen sulfide in produced water and gas phase can be proportion into the reinjection water is more effective than
controlled if oil and gas wells are injected with nitrite. This the treatment with only nitrite based on the actual situation
technology has been successfully applied to a gas well in the of different oil fields. The production amount of sulfides is
San Juan Basin in New Mexico and an oil well in the Rijn up to 400 kg/d in the acidified oil layer. After nitrification,
field in Amoco, the Netherlands. In case of any nitrite in the the sulfides can be drastically reduced and the oil production
oil and gas well, the activity of SRB can be effectively of wells may increase to about 80,000 barrels per year. This
inhibited and H2S produced in the well can be removed with technology has been successful in oilfield applications. On
a long action. When injecting nitrite into the gas well for the one hand, the inhibition of sulfide production can
36 h, H2S in the produced gas can be controlled for increase oil recovery. For example, F1 oil field in California
7 months and the amount of SRB in produced water can be can produce 200,000 barrels oil, within 159 days after the
reduced with an inhibition period of 3 months. In the oil– treatment of its produced water by bio-competitive exclusion
water separator, the addition of nitrite under normal oper- technology, the production amount of H2S in the oil reser-
ating conditions can reduce the H2S content in the aqueous voir can be minimized continually and eventually removed
phase from 40 to 60 mg/L to less than 1 mg/L. The data of in a complete manner. A heavy oil field in Cohen County of
corrosion rate shows that the corrosion is significantly USA can produce 75% of the residual oil in the oil reservoir.
weaker during the addition of nitrite than before. In terms of On the other hand, the cost for this technology to improve oil
an oil well, the amount of H2S was reduced from 140 mg/L recovery is less than $1/barrel, which saves cost for oil.
to less than 1 mg/L for 60 days upon nitrification. By virtue
of the treatment of this technology, FeS precipitated around (2) Research status of fungicides in China
the well pipelines was dissolved and the oil output was
increased. It has been proved that this treatment method is an It is relatively late for the application of fungicides for water
effective method for controlling H2S in oil and gas wells. injection system of oil field in China, which began from
Anchliya [201] who is from the Indian University of 1960s and was widely used in the early 1980s [205]. Adding
Mining and Technology proposed preventive and remedial a fungicide to the water injection system is the fastest and
measures by analyzing the acidification, sulfide corrosion, most effective method to inhibit bacteria. Fungicides may
and iron sulfide blockage caused by SRB in oil reservoirs. effectively kill and inhibit harmful microorganisms since
The preventive measure is to inject nitrate-based agents into they can destroy the enzymes required for bacterial cell life.
oil reservoirs before the same is contaminated causing a Chlorine is the most common fungicide used for early water
nondominant advantage of SRB in oil reservoirs and pre- injection in various oil fields in China due to its advantages,
venting the generation of sulfide. However, many of the such as abundant source, low price, convenient use, fast
world’s largest reservoirs have been acidified, so only action, and short bactericidal time. However, as a result of
remedial measures can be taken. As the nitrate-based treat- the disadvantages of chlorine, such as short maintain time
ment technology can effectively prevent and remove sulfides for effect, poor stability, and easy to react with organics in
in reservoirs, produced water, surface facilities, pipelines, the environment, it is rarely used in oil field currently. At
746 B. Hou
present, some research institutions in China have focused on inverted cage measure. As long as the problem of wear on
the preparation of stable chlorine dioxide solution and the the netting can be resolved, it is no doubt that the mechanical
manufacturing of chlorine dioxide generator, but the main removal is a cheap, efficient, easy to operate, safe, and
fungicides used in China are nonoxidizing fungicides. effective method. Mechanical cleaning method is composed
With the increasing serious harm caused by SRB in the of washing with high-pressure water, washing with washing
oil field system, common physical, and chemical methods machine and net washing machine. Two main methods were
are unable to meet the demand due to their high cost and low introduced by Kong et al. [151] to remove fouling organisms
efficiency. More attention has been gradually taken to the in the aquaculture of Haliotis discus hannai: (1) feeding and
ecological inhibition method. In terms of SRB in the rein- mud cleaning should be carried out in daily production
jection wastewater of Daqing Oilfield, an experimental study management on an irregular basis. Through this method,
was conducted by Ao Lei Na Ri [206]. It was found that the fouling organisms with less adhesion amount (such as sea-
production of H2S can be effectively inhibited by denitrifi- weed and styela clava) can be removed to a limit extent, but
cation and the ratio of SO42−/NO3 is an important ecological the control effect is not thorough. (2) based on the charac-
impact factor. At the low COD level, the impact is most teristics of the aquaculture of Haliotis discus hannai as well
obvious and the inhibition rate can reach 100% when SO24/ as the rule for main adherent fouling organisms, all cages
NO3 is 1:1. Taking SRB22 and denitrifying bacteria DNB21 should be manually inverted in June, August, and October of
from the produced water in Daqing Oilfield as the subject each year. This method can thoroughly remove all kinds of
bacteria, Dong and others [207] investigated the competitive fouling organisms on the breeding equipment, and improve
inhibition relationship between them and studied the effect the exchange of water inside and outside the abalone cage on
on the amount of SRB22 and the activity production of H2S a regular basis so as to provide sufficient living space for the
in case of an addition of types and concentrations of nutri- abalone. However, lots of manpower and material resources
ents. According to the results, when the nitrate concentration will be taken. In the meantime, it will inevitably cause
in the system is 0.15 g/L or the nitrite concentration is 0.11– damages on a considerable amount of abalone impacting on
0.15 g/L, DNB21 can effectively reduce the activity of the subsequent growth and survival of abalone.
SRB22 for a period of more than 10 days and inhibit the
production of H2S reducing by more than 85%; when the (2) Solarization or dryness
nitrate concentration in the system is 0.11–0.125 g/L, within
10 days, DNB21 also has a good inhibitory effect on SRB22 In this method, culture cage or seed collection device will be
activity and production of H2S activity, which can reduce the lifted off the water for the exposure in air or sunlight to kill
production of H2S by about 65%. For the inhibition of adherent fouling organisms. Almost all the fouling organ-
SRB22 growth, nitrite is better than that nitrate. If the nitrite isms can be killed. This method is mostly used in the marine
and 1% DNB are added at the same time, the growth of SRB culture of shellfish. However, if the fouling organisms on the
can be inhibited and the removal rate of H2S is up to 95%. culture cage are required to be removed completely, manual
removal is required.
5.4.2.6 Marine Aquaculture
(3) Manual removal
1. Physical method
This method mainly used in the culture process of shellfish.
The physical control method aims to prevent or control To ensure the normal growth of cultured shellfish, the pro-
fouling organisms by the use of physical methods. With cedures of clearing shells, changing cages, and clearing
respect to the fouling organisms on shellfish culture cages, cages are required to be carried out manually. Scraping with
the physical control methods mainly include mechanical knife or brushing is a direct and early removal method after
removal, solarization or dryness, manual removal, freshwa- the culture cage is covered by lots of fouling organisms.
ter soaking or saltwater bath, and filtration. With this method, the fouling organisms adhered on the
culture cage can be effectively or thoroughly cleaned and
(1) Mechanical removal removed, but it requires cleaning on a regular basis, which
will not only consume lots of manpower but also reduce the
It means to scrub and scrap by machine and replace, convert service life of the culture cage with frequent scraping or
netting for solarization on the surface of water or the land for brushing causing economic burden. What is more serious is
killing adherent organisms on a regular basis. In terms of that the economic benefits of cultured shellfish will be
cages, adherent organisms are generally removed by reduced in case of frequent operation.
(4) Freshwater soaking or saltwater bath change netting and periodically maintain. Changing netting
is conductive to reduce the adhesion of fouling organisms
Both methods will all change osmotic pressure to kill some (such as moss, mussels, and sea squirts) ensuring the
fouling organisms. For example, transferring the sheds of exchange of cage water and improving the culture environ-
cultured oysters to the estuary area can effectively remove ment. What is more, it can help to remove corrupt residual
mussels, polychaetes, and other fouling organisms. For feeds adhered on netting as fouling and live eggs of trema-
soaking in saturated salt water, it has a good performance in tode entangled in the netting as egg strings. For scallop
the treatment of polychaetes on pearl shells. However, this cages and other smaller cages, this method is acceptable, but
method is more complicated to operate. it is very difficult for culture cages with large volume. In
addition, this method will consume lots of man power and
(5) Filtration materials with low work efficiency and frequent operation.
Meanwhile, the netting and cultured shellfish will be inevi-
In order to avoid fouling organisms in pond culture, it is tably damaged.
often to make use of sand, diatomaceous earth, gravel, and
other substances to filter the incoming seawater, so that 2. Chemical method
spawns, larvae, and spores of the fouling organisms can be
removed [208, 209]. Since most seawater used for shellfish Chemical method refers to a method that can kill or remove
culture on the land is filtered by gravel, there are few fouling adherent marine fouling organisms by chemicals, which is
organisms adhered on the culture cage. In this way, not only widely used in various fields except for aquaculture pro-
the harms caused by fouling organisms are effectively pre- duction [211].
vented but also the water quality is thoroughly purified with In the process of culture, chemical drugs (such as
reducing the number of pathogens and improving the quality antibiotics, therapeutic agents, disinfectants, anesthetics, and
and production amount of the culture. As the greatest preservatives) are often used in controlling diseases, elimi-
advantage, filtration can prevent the occurrence of fouling nating enemy organisms, disinfecting, and inhibiting fouling
organisms, while the methods above can only be carried out organisms [212]. In 1968, a new net enclosure culture farm
when the fouling organisms are adhered. was established near Takamatsu in Japan with an enclosure
area of 8 hm2. All nettings in seawater are made of
(6) Burning zinc-coated mesh, which is conducive to reduce marine
biofouling. According to the report of Guenther et al. [213],
In this method, culture rope will be lifted by winches to drain cuprous oxide can effectively reduce the adhesion of the
seawater on its surface, and then oil burner or torch will be water mites Ectopleura larynx as an antifouling coating.
used to roast culture rope for burning mussels, sea squirts, Studies showed that the adhesion of fouling organisms can
barnacles, and other fouling organisms. be delayed by at least 10 weeks if the copper-based coatings
are used in cage culture in Norwegian. Braithwaite et al.
(7) Low surface energy coating [214] reported that copper-containing antifouling agents play
an important role in the control of fouling organisms in terms
For the purpose of antifouling, this method will take of salmon cage culture. In the treatment group with
advantages of the characteristics of the materials, such as copper-containing antifouling agents, the abundance and
low free energy on the surface, and low adhesion of fouling composition of species are significantly affected.
organisms. As a current research hotspot in the field of Though copper is widely used in aquaculture, its usage is
antifouling, low surface energy coatings are concerned by disputable to a certain extend. Like many chemicals, such as
many countries. Shi et al. [210] applied low surface energy organotin (such as TBT, TPhT, and Irgarol-1051) [215],
antifouling coatings to the cages and netting of culture and organic aluminum, and organic arsenic in antifouling mate-
added polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and capsaicin as rials, cuprous oxide can effectively get rid of or kill tube-
additives into the resin matrix to prove excellent antifouling worms, barnacle, mussels, and some algae among other
properties of this new low surface energy antifouling coating fouling organisms, but they may be accumulated in inver-
by the synergistic effect of them. tebrates [216, 217]. As cuprous oxide is quite toxic, it may
be harm to cultured shellfish to an extent. What is more
(8) Manual change of netting serious is that the toxic substance may be accumulated in the
edible parts of the organisms entering into the food chain,
In the cage culture of fugu rubripes in seawater, it is an thus the health of other marine organisms or humans will be
extremely important management measure to regularly threatened. Additionally, it also has been reported that the
748 B. Hou
surface of the cage treated with copper-containing antifoul- the currently broad-spectrum antifouling methods is to add
ing agent can be detected more protozoa N. pemaquidensis the ozone.
that can cause amoeba gills disease to Atlantic salmon. The Antifouling coating method containing antifouling agent:
cage treated by copper-containing antifouling agent is unable The growth and attachment of the marine organisms are
to prevent N. pemaquidensis [218]. inhibited when the chemical toxic substances in the coating
At present, there is no antifouling coating without copper are released slowly and evenly in the seawater. Essentially,
[122]. It is necessary to continually explore an efficient and its role is to provide a coating surface without the attachment
green method for the control of fouling organisms in the of organisms or stable attachment within a specified effective
aquaculture production. There were also reports that polymer period. With the development of the industries, including the
compounds containing quaternary phosphonium salts and marine transport, development and utilization of marine
quaternary ammonium salts are expected to be the materials resources, and marine aquaculture, the organism fouling is
of fungicides. Such bactericidal polymer material is polymer becoming more and more serious. Therefore, it is urgent to
salt PSSAmC16 formed by polystyrene sulfonate anions and develop the marine antifouling coatings with more out-
cetyltrimethylammonium nitrate cations. Once the polymer standing antifouling effects. One of the most commonly used
is coated by coatings or polymer matrix, the cations of methods is the coating protection method. A protective layer
PSSAmC16 will gradually dissolve in the water around via can be formed by painting the antifouling coating on the
the ion exchange way to protect the surface as a fungicide. surface of the culture facilities, which can reach the purpose
of preventing the attachment of fouling organisms effectively
(1) Drug immersion method [221].
In recent years, the new environmentally friendly marine
Mainly used in the aquaculture industry, this method is antifouling coatings have been invented gradually. The main
immersing the netting into the drug with antifouling action types include the low surface free energy antifouling coat-
for a period of time and then take it out for air dry. In this ings with fluorine or silicon, the silicate antifouling coatings,
way, a layer of protective film can be formed on the surface the antifouling coatings with plant extracts, conductive
of the netting. Within a period of time, this layer of pro- antifouling coating, etc. The antifouling coating with the
tective film can effectively prevent the attachment of fouling capsaicin antifouling agent is a kind of environmentally
organisms [219]. friendly antifouling coating. Shi Hang and others developed
three kinds of antifouling coatings for marine aquaculture
(2) Chemical antifouling coating method netting materials (capsaicin antifouling coating,
capsaicin-PTFE antifouling coating, and capsaicin–silicate
The antifouling coatings are widely used on hull and fishing antifouling coating) with the capsaicin as the antifouling
nets in the aquaculture industry for the purpose of preventing additive. Additionally, the shallow sea netting hanging
the organism fouling, such as the growth and colonization of experiments are carried out by painting several kinds of
marine microorganisms [214, 220]. Serious impact on the antifouling coatings on the nylon meshes. It is proved in the
cage culture has been brought by the marine fouling practice that three kinds of capsaicin antifouling coatings
organisms. The antifouling coating method is the most have better antifouling effects on the netting materials. With
time-saving and labor-saving method among so many the bioactive substances extracted from natural peppers as
antifouling treatment methods. As one of the chemical repellents, the capsaicin antifouling coatings are not harmful
antifouling methods, the antifouling coating has good effects to the marine organism chains.
on the prevention and control of the marine fouling organ- With the alkaline silicate as the main antifouling agent,
isms, which is widely applied. With the use of the chemical Shi Hang and others [222] developed a seawater cage netting
substances, the chemical antifouling method is used to kill antifouling coating with long antifouling period, nontoxicity,
the marine fouling organisms and prevent the attachment. environmental protection, and high efficiency.
The chemical antifouling method can be divided into three The netting antifouling coating can substantially reduce
types according to the different addition methods of the the number of times of replacing and washing the nets,
chemical substances, namely, the direct addition method, which has saved the man power and material resources. For
electrochemical method, and the antifouling coating method this reason, it has become the important subject for the
containing the antifouling agent. production process of the large deep-sea cage culture to
Direct addition method: The fouling organisms can be develop the low-toxic and even nontoxic antifouling coat-
inhibited or killed by directly adding the chemical sub- ings meeting the requirements of marine environmental
stances with the antifouling effects in the seawater. One of protection [223].
The antifouling mechanism of antifouling coating for the Yuanyuan and others [226] designed and synthesized a new
culture cages is similar to the antifouling coating for ships. type of antifouling coating for culture cages. With the rosin
At present, the practical low-toxic, nontoxic antifouling as a film-forming material, VOC exempt solvent acetone as a
coatings for culture netting are mainly divided into the cat- solvent, this coating is added with the environmentally
egories as follows [224, 225]: friendly antifouling agent ME and phthalic acid vanillin
(PAV) and plasticizer for the antifouling coatings on the
(1) The antifouling coatings are made of the organic marine culture cages prepared. They discussed the influence
compounds as the antifouling agents, including the of the selection of plasticizer and the antifouling agents ME
copper, zinc oxide, cuprous oxide, copper or zinc, etc. It and PAV dosage and tested the acute toxicity of the
was found in the research that a certain amount of zinc membrane.
and copper is required for the fishes. The Cu and Zn It was shown in the offshore comparison experimental
interact in fish and interact with substances such as results of the antifouling effects that with the dioctyl
vitamins. To improve the biological lethality the tin phthalate and chlorinated paraffin composites as the plasti-
compound has the lethality of more than ten times that cizers (dioctyl phthalate: chlorinated paraffin = 1:1) and the
of Cu2O of Cu2O and ZnO, the compound antifouling PAV dosage of 5.0% (the mass fraction) (the total material)
agent and the organic acid copper or zinc salt are often and the ME dosage of 2.5% (the mass fraction) (the total
used to prepare the antifouling coatings. material), there was basically no increased weight in the
(2) Antifouling coating with low-toxic organic compound offshore hanging sample meshes in 3 months with the
antifouling agent antifouling period of more than 10 months. It was shown in
the acute toxicity detection that the antifouling coating on
The N-(Fluorine dichloromethyl sulfide) phthalimide and the cages prepared had not toxicity.
N,N-dimethyl-N′-phenyl-N′-(fluorine dichloromethyl sul- Organosilicone-modified polyurethanes: With excellent
fide) sulfonamide have the toxicity 10–20 times lower than elasticity, good water resistance, abrasion resistance, and
that of the tributyltin oxide. However, the antifouling effect chemical resistance of the polyurethane resins, with the
is very good. The antifouling coating with the non-fouling organosilicone-modified polyurethanes as the main
for 12 months can be prepared by adding 30–50% in the film-forming materials, the antifouling coating prepared is
base materials. suitable to be applied in the cage culture. Due to the good
flexibility, excellent antifouling performance, and low eco-
(3) The conductive antifouling coatings for antifouling with nomic costs, the waterborne silicate antifouling coatings
the use of electrolytic seawater have strong competitive advantages in terms of fishing net
antifouling.
This kind of antifouling coatings refers to painting the It was found that the better results existed in the Sea-Nine
conductive coating film on the contact surface of the sub- 211 (chemical name 4,5-dichloro-2-n-octyl-4-isothiazolin-
stances to be coated. With this as the anode, the conductive 3-one) (DCOI), Copper Omadine (copper thione, also
coating film can generate the hypochlorite ions (CIO) when known as omepramine), Irgarol 1051 [N-cyclopropyl-N′-
the micro-current passes. In this way, the purpose of pre- (1,1-dimethylethyl)-6-(methylthio)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-
venting the attachment of marine organism fouling can be diamine], etc. [227]. Among them, the Sea-Nine 211 has
reached. good inhibitory effect on diatoms, bacteria, algae plants, and
barnacles, with high efficiency. Additionally, it can be
(4) Biochemical type nontoxic antifouling paint decomposed by the hydrolysis, photodegradation, and
biodegradation, without cumulative effects. It can be seen
For example, the polypeptide coating for preventing the from this that it is very safe to the marine environment. Since
attachment of marine organisms and the antifouling coating 1999, various countries carried out the research work on the
prepared with enzyme, etc. use of Sea-Nine 211 to replace the TBT antifouling agents,
The deep researches and real sea experiments were con- including Sweden, Iceland, Denmark, and Norway. It has
ducted in Yuhuan according to the features of the fouling been proved that the Copper Omadine has no pollution to the
organisms in culture cages. It was shown in the results that fishes in the culture cages.
the capsaicin antifouling coatings have remarkable antifoul-
ing effects on the culture cages with the characteristics, such 3. Biological antifouling method
as difficult to fall off and long-lasting antifouling period.
Based on the short-time use of antifouling coatings for The biological antifouling method is relatively complicated.
cage culture and the special flexibility of netting ropes, Qu One kind is to master the living habits and attachment
750 B. Hou
mechanisms of fouling organisms to avoid the fouling peak fouling organisms on the culture cages and the shell on the
period or reduce the fouling by means of mixed culture [127, abalone, has promoted the growth of the abalone and
130, 150, 228]. The understanding and mastery of the reduced the death rate. The research on the raft-type mixed
development characteristics of various phases of the domi- culture of Sebastes schlegeli, Strongylocentrotus inter-
nant species of the fouling organism and the key periods, medius, Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus, and S. nudus was
attachment process, law of changes, and other information conducted by Kong and others [235]. It was shown in the
and the interference with it by the corresponding means can results that the mixed culture of S. nudus and wrinkled
not only protect the environment with high efficiency but abalone had the best effects.
also realize the purpose of preventing and removing the By using the omnivorous habits of the macaque basket
fouling organisms [229]. The research on the use of the fish, Li and others [236] conducted the ecological prevention
specific organisms to control the fouling organism on the and control experiments on the fouling organism. This has
shellfish cages was conducted. For example, Hidu and others reduced the attachment of the fouling organisms on the
[230] proposed that Nuclea lapillus could effectively inhibit netting and greatly improved the situation when the large
the growth of mussels during the breeding of oysters and amount of fouling organisms leads to the insufficient
scallops and increase their survival rate. Enright and others exchange of water bodies internal and external the cages. In
[231] put forward that the Littorina littorea could limit the this way, the good water environment can be maintained in
growth of algae in the culture tray for juvenile oysters. the cages. Moreover, to some extent, the number of times for
However, the reports on the prevention and removal of the replacing the netting has been reduced, avoiding the abra-
fouling organism in the aquaculture cages of abalone were sions and bruises caused by changing the netting. It is
few [138]. required to master the biological laws of fouling organisms
Since Cantharus cecillei, Thais clavigera, and Purpura and avoid the attachment of water layers and time. The
gradate Jonas are all carnivorous animals, they like to eat the purpose of controlling the reproduction and growth of the
shellfish, such as Ostrea gigas. With small size, they occupy fouling organisms can be realized by raising the natural
small culture species and the price of them is very low. enemies of the fouling organisms to catch the organisms or
The aquaculture method can be used in the aquaculture inhibit the attached organisms according to the positional
industry. This method refers to the mixed culture of several relationship of various organisms in the biological chain.
kinds of organisms according to the living habits, feeding The biological antifouling method includes several kinds
habits, and interspecific or intraspecific relationships of the of action mechanisms, including inhibition of attachment,
marine organisms, so that the fouling organisms on the inhabitation of metamorphosis, interference with nerve con-
meshes and cages are caught or the attachment of the larvae duction, repellent action, etc. It is mainly divided into
and spores is interfered or prevented. In this way, this can bio-antifoulant coatings and biomimetic antifouling coatings.
reduce the attachment of the marine organisms to some The bio-antifoulant coating is mainly used for inhibiting the
extent [130, 150, 151]. This is the means to prevent the attachment of marine fouling organisms with biological active
fouling organisms [232, 233]. This method cannot only substances. It was reported by Bazes and others [123] that the
inhibit the attachment of the fouling organism but also active extract of Ceramium botryocarpum can be used as an
improve the growth rate of the cultured shellfish. Addition- antifouling product in aquaculture industry. The Ceramium
ally, it can harvest other fouling organisms with economic botryocarpum in spring can inhibit the marine bacteria, phy-
values. With simple operation and low costs, this method is toplankton, and ulva spores with the concentration range of
environmentally friendly. Therefore, it has great develop- 25–150 lg/mL, which has no toxic substances. Human
ment potential, and high research value as well as the broad beings have begun to extract the active substances with the
application prospects [234]. There have been many reports antifouling performance from the marine organisms with
on successful researches at home and abroad so far. Some better effects. With the complicated mechanism of action, the
species of fouling organisms on the shellfish culture cages biological antifouling is still in the experimental stage and no
with high economic values have been explored, such as the reports have been made on large-scale application of finished
sea urchin, crab, snail, and sea cucumber can effectively products. It is the hotspot to develop the biological antifouling
prevent the fouling [229]. At present, the domestic abalone technology with sustained release or targeting actions in the
culture is mainly dominated by the raft-type culture in the future development [237].
sea area. The culture production volume occupies about 70%
of the total abalone production in China. However, the 4. Selection of the netting with the right size
fouling organism in the sea area is the key factor to restrict
the increase of the production volume of the aquaculture In consideration of the close relationship between the species
industry. The mixed culture process of abalone and snails, and amount of fouling organisms with the new or old texture
especially the cantharus cecillei can effectively remove the of the netting, the thickness of the netting wires, the size of
the meshes, and the water environment [107, 127, 238, 239], polyethylene or polypropylene wires should have good
it is required to take the structure, texture, size, and mooring attachment force; ④ immersed coating construction; with
materials of the cages into account [240]. Therefore, it is simple application and convenient maintenance, this method
another measure to select the netting with the right specifi- has the antifouling period of 12 months. At present, this is
cations to reduce the influence of the fouling organisms on the widely used antifouling method for the fishing nets. The
the cultured species. fishing net antifouling agents (also known as antifouling
Additionally, the following antifouling methods are also coatings) used on the synthetic mesh nets in seawater cages
adopted for the fishing nets: or scallop cages can effectively prevent the attachment and
growth of the marine fouling organisms. It can maintain the
(1) Conductive antifouling method of fishing nets cages or scallop cages clean and tidy, and ensure the water
exchanges internal and external the cages and the growth of
The fishing net is woven from the conductive carbon or the cultured species. The use of fishing net antifouling agents
graphite fibers and coated with the conductive metal coating. is wide and effective in the methods of preventing the
When it is used, the low-voltage current (10 V, 1 A/1 m fouling organisms on the synthetic mesh nets. The fishing
wide network) is necessary [235]. The method has the net antifouling agents are mainly composed of two parts,
antifouling period of 12 months. However, the algae are namely, the antifouling drug and film-forming agent. The
completely covered on the fishing nets in less than a month. research on the development of new environmentally
However, with high costs and inconvenient management, friendly fishing net antifouling agent was carried out by Shi
this method has limited applications. Jiangao and others [242]. The film-forming agent produced
with the compounded pure acrylic resin has the good cost
(2) Antifouling method of mixed fuse wire effectiveness. This can be used as the film-forming agent of
the new environmentally friendly fishing net antifouling
The antifouling agent is melted in the drawn masterbatch agent. With the good effects on killing bacteria, molds, and
(polyethylene, polypropylene), which is melted and drawn. algae, the pyrithione copper can be used as the main
The fishing net with the antifouling capability is woven. This antifouling agent for the new environmentally friendly
method can reach the antifouling period of 18 months. fishing net antifouling agents.
However, no reports have been made on the actual
applications. 5. Improve cage culture materials
Shi Jiangao and others [241] studied and compared the
tensile mechanical properties of warp-knitted mesh sheets of The deepwater cage box was improved by Shi Jiangao and
hexagonal mesh for fishing high-strength polyethylene others [243] with the ultrahigh-strength warp knitting net
(HSPE) and warp-knitted mesh of ordinary polyethylene (UHSPE warp knitting net). Compared with the ordinary
(PE) hexagons. It was shown in the same conditions, the 78-strand nylon warp knitting net (PA warp knitting net), the
HSPE hexagonal mesh warp mesh can reduce the weight and ultrahigh-strength warp knitting net is more economical.
the thickness of the meshes correspondingly, reduce the Additionally, the chemical results and high crystallinity
water resistance, impact strength of the cage meshes, and determine the netting and cage products with the excellent
decrease the attachment area of marine fouling organisms. In corrosion resistance, durability, wear resistance, cutting
this way, the volume retention rate of the cage is improved resistance, tensile fatigue, and bending fatigue resistance
and the production efficiency is elevated. after the formation of the UHSPE fiber. It was shown in the
relevant data that the service life of the UHSPE cages is
(3) Coating antifouling method twice or three times that of the normal PA or PE cages.
The UHSPE warp knitting net after the special resin
The antifouling coating is applied to the fishing net surface treatment is very convenient after being cleaned by the
in order to avoid the attachment of marine organisms. There knitting cages. The fouling organisms attached will fall off as
are special requirements of the antifouling coatings on the long as the netting is shaken gently after it is dried. This has
fishing nets: ① nontoxic: the fishing nets are required to be saved the maul costs for the regular examination of the warp
low toxic or even toxic-free since they are in direct contact knitting nets and cleaning. Therefore, the UHSPE warp
with the cultured edible marine organisms; ② the coatings knitting net with the high-strength physical properties have
should have the consistent elasticity with that of the fishing unique advantages in the field of aquaculture. This can
nets; ③ strength: the fishing nets woven with the facilitate the people to realize the goals of large-scale
752 B. Hou
deepwater cages, improving the efficiency of deepwater cage It was shown in the research conducted by Yu and others
culture and reducing the raw materials consumption volume. [247] that the serotonin and its derivatives might develop
It has been attracted with the attention of the people with the into nontoxic antifouling agents.
broad prospects of the production development and
application.
5.4.3 Suggestions on Corrosion and Fouling
6. Comparison of foreign research statuses Prevention in the Industry
(1) Community characteristics of fouling organisms in cage 5.4.3.1 Bridge Terminals

culture abroad
(1) Carry out the investigations on microbial corrosion and
The most common species include the Mytilus edulis, Ciona fouling at the domestic terminals. The port and terminal
intestinalis, Ectopleura larynx, Dendrobium, and the algae industry of China is in the industrial expansion period
Spirulina in the sea areas of Norway and other appropriate and the specialization degree of the ports, terminals and
areas [122]. berths is further improved in terms of large-scaleness
Bloecher and others [244] sampled the salmon farms in and specialization. There are obvious differences
Norwy from December 2009 to December 2010. There were between the corrosion status and protective means in
90 species obtained on 432 netting screens, including the various ports and terminals. With the continuously
Ciliates, Diatoms, Foraminiferans, Porifera, Bryozoans, increasing investment in the infrastructure construction
Cnidarians, Platyhelminthes, Nematodes Nemertheans, of the ports and terminals, it has become more and more
annelid Annelids, mollusk Molluscs, Echinoderm Echino- important to understand the microbial corrosion and
derms, Crustaceans, Ascidians and Chlorella, Red Algae, fouling status of the domestic terminals. Through the
Brown Algae, etc. This included 17 different orders and 14 systematic investigation, we got an accurate estimation
swimming species. on the losses caused by the microbial corrosion, which
facilitates the further seek for countermeasures and
(2) Foreign antifouling methods measures to control microbial corrosion and fouling.
(2) Carry out systematic research on the microbial corrosion
The copper antifouling coatings are used on the fishing nets and fouling mechanisms. It is inevitable that the
to reduce the fouling organism in the aquaculture of Norway. attachment of fouling organisms will change the action
However, due to the constant use of the meshes after the process of the organisms and the material surfaces. For
coating treatment and the leaching of copper, the protection example, the attachment and self-metabolism of the
period for the fouling prevention can only reach 6 months marine corrosive microorganisms, such as the SRB and
[122, 214]. Therefore, this method only combines with the iron bacteria, can cause the cathodic depolarization,
in situ cleaning [213]. However, more surface layers for destroy the metal surface protective layer, and lead to
colonization are created due to the untimely update of the local corrosion; the attachment of fouling organisms on
antifouling agents. The netting is usually cleaned once very the material surfaces, such as the steel, can accelerate the
eight weeks in winter and every 2 weeks in summer, and metal corrosion. Moreover, the fouling organism can
once each week in the high period of fouling organisms. The damage the coating on the metal surfaces and make the
most commonly used method in the fish seawater culture in metal exposed resulting in the metal corrosion; the
Europe is coating the cages and the underwater culture fouling organism with the lime shells covered on the
facilities with the antifouling coatings in order to inhibit or metal surface can change the local oxygen supply on the
delay the fouling. At present, the main effective ingredient of metal surface, form oxygen concentration cell and
the antifouling coatings is copper oxide, which can decom- accelerate the corrosion; some algae produce the oxygen
pose and release the copper harming the aquatic animals. due to the photosynthesis and increase the concentration
Therefore, the obvious stimulation and health threats may of dissolved oxygen in the water, accelerating the metal
be resulted from the copper released in the fish cage culture. corrosion. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the
It was reported by Cotou and others [245] that the cages with researches on the microbial corrosion and fouling
the copper antifouling agents were harmful to the salmon mechanisms and deepen the understanding of microor-
culture. ganism corrosion mechanisms, and adjust the anticor-
With the use of the chemical methods, the Rolheiser and rosion and antifouling measures properly.
others [246] reduced effectively the attachment volume of (3) Develop the early monitoring technology for microbial
the Didemnum vexillum and sea stars by using the lime and corrosion process. The corrosive monitoring technology
acetic acid to treat the Crassostrea gigas. is also one of the important means to research on the
metal corrosion rate and the mechanisms. At present, the support for the development and application of
the relatively mature corrosion monitoring methods fouling protection technology on the offshore platforms
include the resistance method, linear polarization in China. It is required to set up the database covering
method, potential method, and ultrasonic thickness the information of the fouling organism distribution and
measurement method. However, these methods have species of the typical sea areas in China and realize the
limitations in terms of the application of the microor- data sharing, which provides the basis for the selection
ganism corrosion monitoring. In addition, the organ- and application of the antifouling technology for off-
isms attached can cause interference influence on the shore platforms in different sea areas of China.
monitoring signals. The only method for the current (4) The corrosive and fouling organisms in large quantities
monitoring microorganism corrosion at the ports and live in the marine environment; however, the research
terminals is to observe by naked eyes. This method is on the current microorganism corrosion and fouling
limited due to the environmental conditions with seri- mechanisms only focus on the several typical corrosive
ous hysteresis characteristics. and fouling organisms. The corrosive and fouling
(4) Develop green and environmentally friendly antifouling mechanisms of other organisms have not been defined
coatings. Since the traditional toxic marine antifouling yet. Additionally, the current research is mainly focused
technology was banned for application, various coun- on the corrosive and fouling action of the fouling
tries worldwide have begun to focus on the organisms on the metal substrate. However, in some
high-efficient marine antifouling technology develop- actual environments, the corrosive and fouling organ-
ment. The first primary difficulty in terms of developing isms are directly attached on the coating surface and
one efficient antifouling technology is that the organism interact with the coating directly. However, the
fouling has the typical biological characteristics, that is, destructive effect of the microorganisms on the coating
the diversity of fouling organism species, the diversity has not been defined. Therefore, it is necessary to
of organism attachment behaviors, and the diversity of strengthen the researched on the corrosive and fouling
different organism attachment mechanisms. organism mechanisms of different species, the destruc-
tive effect of the fouling organisms on the coating,
5.4.3.2 Offshore Platform which provides the basis for the development of the
marine fouling and protective technologies.
(1) China has a vast sea area. There are different species of
corrosive and fouling organisms in different sea areas 5.4.3.3 Ships
and different locations. In the process of implementing
the organism fouling protection on the real marine (1) It is required to strive to develop the environmentally
platforms, it is required to consider the differences of friendly antifouling technology, improve the domestic
the dominant species of the fouling organisms in the technological level of the antifouling coatings, catch up
real service environments on the offshore platforms and with the international advanced level, increase the
select the targeted organism fouling protective engineering practice opportunities, and break the
technologies. monopoly of foreign technologies.
(2) China has a long coastline. There are obvious differ- (2) Based on the environmental protection, it is required to
ences of the fouling organism species in the northern explore the environmentally friendly control methods
and southern sea areas with the seasonable changes. on the basis of the physiological characteristics of
The southern sea area has serious fouling all year round microorganisms, and study on the regenerative polymer
while the northern sea area does not have fouling in biofilm produced by certain bacteria. For example, the
winter. In the protection process on the real offshore certain magnetic bacteria can be used to move the
platforms, the intermittent fouling protection can be floating, and the bacteria without the magnetic can
implemented in the northern sea areas according to the accelerate the corrosion. Another method is to use the
seasonable changes. For example, the electrolytic SOB and SRB to activate photoanodes, decompose the
antifouling technology can be terminated for use in the water to generate the hydrogen and oxygen, provide the
northern sea area, so that the energy consumption can energy required for the microbial cells, and reduce
be reduced. microbial corrosion.
(3) In spite of the relevant investigations and researches (3) Due to the different environmental conditions, the
carried out in the distribution of the fouling organism organism corrosion and fouling of the ships have the
species in the typical seawater in China, the data col- different control technologies. None of the methods can
lected currently are scattered. It is not easy to provide solve the organism corrosion and fouling protective
754 B. Hou
problems on all the ships yet. Based on the site condi- 5.4.3.4 Clean Energy
tions, environmental characteristics, and biological
population characteristics, the combined use of multiple (1) Compared with the bridges and terminals, offshore
protective measures is the most outstanding and the most platforms, terminals, and other industries, the clean
effective protective measures for organism corrosion and energy industries started late, including the tidal power
fouling on the ships. Moreover, the organism corrosion generation, wind power generation, nuclear power, etc.
and fouling on the ships involve not only the theories of There are few domestic and foreign reports on the
the corrosion but also the biology. The knowledge of the corrosion and pollution of the marine organisms in the
subjects is covered, including the materials science, industry. The marine organism corrosion and fouling in
electrochemistry, biology, surface chemistry, etc. the clean energy industry is similar to the bridges and
Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a lot of interdisci- terminals, such as the spatial distribution characteristics,
plinary studies in order to find the effective method of the seasons, and sea area. However, since various parts
controlling the organism corrosion and fouling on the of the industry are located in the strong electromagnetic
ships. It will be the focus of the future research work in field, new problems are faced in this industry, including
this filed in terms of developing the high-efficient whether the electromagnetic field has influence on the
low-polluted fungicides, cultivate the inexpensive and marine organism corrosion and fouling, whether there is
efficient competitive microorganisms, develop the new the influence on the spatial distribution of the corrosion
cathodic protection technologies, look for the organism and fouling organisms, whether there is species selec-
corrosion and fouling materials for the ships, etc. tion to the organisms attached, whether there is influ-
(4) First of all, on the basis of fully understanding the ence on the structure of the organism membrane, etc.
importance of the research on the organism corrosion Therefore, similar to the industries, such as the bridges
and fouling for the ships, completely learn from the and terminals, it is required to investigate the marine
successful experience of foreign countries and system- organism fouling and corrosion situations of the
atically analyze the possibility of organism fouling industry, which can provide the guidance to the use of
corrosion of different structures of ships in the marine the follow-up protective methods.
environment of China. It is required to carry out the (2) It is required to strengthen the research on the mecha-
in-depth analysis of the generation development mech- nism of marine microbial corrosion in the clean energy
anism of organism fouling and corrosion in the parts industry. Plenty of different types of materials are
with the obvious organism corrosion and fouling. Based involved in the construction of the tidal power, wind
on this, the corresponding protective measures are taken power, and nuclear electric plants. In addition, in con-
to control the organism corrosion and fouling, to ensure sideration of the safety and other problems, the stainless
the normal operation of the ships and equipment. steel, bronze, brass, titanium, etc. need to be involved.
(5) Sufficient emphasis has not been paid to the microor- Currently, the researches on most of the marine
ganism corrosion and fouling problem in the fuel oil microorganism corrosion mechanisms are dominated by
and lubrication system. It is required to strengthen the the carbon steel. However, there may be differences in
control on the microbial pollution in commercial fuel terms of the mechanism of action on the stainless steel
oil and lubricating oil in this aspect. It is necessary to of the marine microorganism with the carbon steel. In
prevent the microorganism fouling and corrosion from the actual industrial environment, there are many
the source and develop the relevant industrial standards questions, including what the changes on the corrosion
and specifications as soon as possible. behaviors of these materials under the microorganism
(6) Use the methods of combining the site experiments and action, what the differences of the corrosion and safety
laboratory selection, fully know about the microbial service life with the carbon steel, whether it is necessary
corrosion mechanism of water environment in different to adopt the high-cost materials. Only these questions
parts of the cabin and evaluate the microbial corrosion are solved through the researches, can the safe and rapid
resistance of the material. development of the industry be promoted.
(7) Use the advanced science and technology, and (3) Use the economic and environmentally friendly anti-
strengthen the research on the organism membrane corrosion and antifouling technology. Currently, the
structural components and the microorganisms under the marine organism corrosion and fouling protective
growth and metabolism mechanism of microorganisms measures in the clean energy industry are referred from
under the biofilm. In addition, the methods of thermo- the industries, such as the bridges and terminals.
dynamic theory, diffusion theory, fuzzy logic, etc. are Therefore, similar to these industries, there exist
applied to introduce or set up the mathematical models demands for the economical, high-efficiency and envi-
and deepen the understanding of microbial corrosion. ronmentally friendly protective measures.
5.4.3.5 Submarine Pipeline required to have the capabilities of scaling separation

Since the oil resources worldwide are constantly exploited, and penetration. In this way, the complete removal of
the storage volume of the oil has become less and less. the bacteria should be done well, so that the bactericidal
However, in order to improve the oil recovery efficiency, it is effect can be improved and the effective date of the
required to propose higher requirements for the sterilization fungicides should be extended.
technology on the oilfield in the future. (4) Develop new products: Currently, there are many dis-
advantages in the widely used fungicides, such as the
(1) Strengthen the research on mechanisms: The environ- chlorine, bromine, and quaternary ammonium salts.
ment inside the pipeline changes with the changes of Researchers should develop some low-foam new mul-
the transmission medium within the pipeline due to the tifunctional fungicides with good water solubility and
specialty. This leads to the complicated microorganism compatibility including the organic sulfur-containing
population inside the pipeline. If the microorganism and multifunctional groups (including nitrogen, phos-
corrosion and fouling problem within the submarine phorus, sulfur, and heterocyclic rings). The application
pipeline are fully and completely solved, first, it is scope of fungicides can be increased, the application
required to disclose the attachment and corrosion results of the fungicides can be elevated, and the
mechanisms of the microorganisms in the submarine environmental pollution of the fungicides can be
pipeline and provide the sufficient theoretical basis for reduced.
the appropriate sterilization techniques. For example, (5) Strengthen the combination of various technologies.
the understanding of the fungicide mechanism accord- Each sterilization technology has its advantages and
ing to the research materials has two aspects: on the one disadvantages. Through the combination of various
hand, the groups existing in the microorganism cell sterilization technologies, the effect of complementing
walls are generally negatively charged, which can have each other can be realized.
affinity action with the positively charged surfactant.
The purpose of sterilization can be reached by attaching 5.4.3.6 Marine Aquaculture
the microorganisms to the surfactant surface; on the The fouling organisms in the domestic coastal culture areas
other hand, the surfactant can penetrate into the surface are dominated by the crustaceans, mollusks, polychaetes,
layer of the adsorbed microbial cells, destroy the bac- leeches, algae, etc. Among them, the algae are mainly gen-
terial protein, and lead to the deterioration. It is required erated near the waterline while the checkered barnacles
to understand the corresponding theoretical knowledge occupy an absolute advantage in the coastal fouling organ-
of the fungicides and understand the sterilization ism communities in the South China; the dominant species
mechanism for the research and development of more in the culture sea areas of the South China Sea and the East
fungicides in the future. In this way, the development of China Sea include the anthopleura pacifica, Polylocular
the fungicides can be forcefully promoted. lichen, Hydroides elegans, perna viridis, etc.; the dominant
(2) Environmentally friendly: It is essential to be environ- species of fouling organisms in the Yellow China Sea and
mentally friendly, whatever kind of sterilization tech- the Bohai Sea are similar. The occurrence frequency of the
nology. It is the hotspot of the currently new fungicides species, including the tube mites, purple mussels, and sea
to develop the green water treatment chemical agents. scabbards, is very high with large organism amount; the
Since the conventional fungicides have different broad-temperature species are the common species in the
degrees of toxicity to humans and aquatic organisms, four sea areas and occupy the advantages, such as the canola
and can accumulate in the environment, which have the and stalk worm. In consideration of the hazard degree of the
long-term hazards to the environment. In addition to hard fouling organisms larger than other species, including
that the chemical components of the water treatment the sessile vines (barnacles) and bivalves (mussels, oysters),
agent should be required not to cause threat to the they should be the focused objects for prevention and
environment, it is also required to consider the envi- removal.
ronmentally friendliness of the water treatment agents, It is required to explore and compare from multiple
including the raw materials, reaction modes, reaction aspects and select the economically feasible optimized pre-
conditions, etc. vention and controlling means and controlling strategies in
(3) One agent with multiple effects: It is required to order to effectively avoid the attachment of the fouling
research and develop the new multipurpose oilfield organisms, reduce the hazards, and promote the develop-
fungicides and antifouling and anticorrosion coatings, ment of the relevant marine industry. It is the premise to
etc. In addition to the bactericidal effect of the fungi- research and develop the high-efficient environmentally
cides or the antifouling and anticorrosive coatings, it is friendly antifouling route by mastering the structural
756 B. Hou
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Strategies in Manufacturing and Public 6
Utilities Field in China
Xiaogang Li
chemical wastes can’t be incomparable to that of other

industries.
in the Chemical Industry
In recent years, it has become a hot spot in the chemical
industry to use non-metallic materials as corrosion-resistant
6.1.1 Overview of Chemical Industry
lining of metal equipment or for directly replacing metallic
materials to manufacture equipment for storage and trans-
In the chemical industry, the corrosion of materials and
portation of chemical media. It solves the serious chemical
equipment is especially serious due to various strong cor-
corrosion problem to a certain extent. However, non-metallic
rosive media, such as acid, alkali, salt, and organic solvent.
equipment also has corrosion problems due to immature
The corrosion problem in chemical industry will lead to
production process, non-standard management, and impro-
equipment damage and even cause accidents and disasters.
per material selection, resulting in corrosion loss.
According to statistics, about 60% of the destruction of
The chemical industry covers a wide range of areas. It can
chemical equipment is caused by corrosion. The corrosion
be divided into several subindustries such as basic inorganic
investigation in Japan in 1997 showed that the corrosion loss
chemical industry, chemical mine industry, chemical fertil-
in the chemical sector accounted for 20.3% of the total
izer and pesticide industry, synthetic resin and plastic
corrosion loss. According to the statistics of 1997 in China,
industry, chemical fiber industry, daily chemical industry,
the total corrosion loss was RMB 280 billion, among which
chemical additive industry, coating, and dyeing industry.
the loss in chemical system was RMB 30 billion, accounting
This section will introduce three key areas of chemical
for about 11% of the total corrosion loss [1–9].
industry, such as sulfuric acid industry, chlor-alkali industry
In addition to causing significant economic losses, the
(chlorine, hydrochloric acid, caustic soda), and chemical
chemical production process also involves high-temperature,
fertilizer industry (synthetic ammonia) with the most serious
high-pressure environment and a large number of flammable
corrosion, which causes largest economic losses.
and explosive chemicals. The leakage caused by the corro-
sion of chemical equipment is likely to cause serious acci-
dents such as explosion and fire, resulting in personal injury
6.1.2 Current Situation of Manufacturing
and death [10, 11]. In addition, the environmental pollution
in the Industry
caused by corrosion in chemical industry production can’t be
neglected because the environmental pollution caused by
6.1.2.1 Sulfuric Acid Industry
running, spilling, dripping, leaking, and discharging waste
Sulfuric acid is widely used in various industrial sectors,
gas and waste liquid is serious. For example, the corrosion of
which is an indispensable raw material in fertilizer, metal-
a sulfuric acid unit may cause sulfide leakage, the corrosion
lurgy, oil, machinery, medicine, and other industries. In
of a chlor-alkali unit may cause the leakage of chlorine gas
addition, sulfuric acid is also commonly used in the pro-
and hydrochloric acid, and the corrosion of a nitric acid unit
duction of fuels, agriculture, chemical fiber, plastics, coat-
may cause nitrogen oxide leakage. The harmfulness to the
ings, and various basic organic and inorganic chemical
ecological environment caused by improper disposal of
products. In the past decade, with the rapid development of
non-ferrous metal metallurgy and phosphorus compound
X. Li (&) fertilizer industry, China’s sulfuric acid industry is in a
University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China high-speed development stage. According to the National

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9354-0_6
766 X. Li
Bureau of Statistics, the national sulphuric acid production 2.13 million tons, and 1.53 million tons was withdrawn. The
in 2014 was 88.46 million tons; the average annual growth net increase capacity of caustic soda reached 600,000 tons.
rate of sulphuric acid production from 2004 to 2014 was From 2000 to 2012, the average annual growth rate of
10.74%; and the annual growth rate of sulphuric acid pro- caustic soda production capacity was 13.7%, that of 2013
duction was 8.27%. Since the “12th Five-Year Plan”, was 3%, and that of 2014 was 1.56%.
domestic enterprises have built, rebuilt, and expanded sul- According to the statistics of China Chlor-Alkali Industry
phuric acid units in succession, making the sulphuric acid Association, at the end of 2014, there were 88 PVC manu-
enterprises go toward large-scale and scale development. facturing enterprises in China with a capacity of 23.89
Yunnan Yuntianhua Group, Tongling Nonferrous Metals million tons, a year-on-year negative growth of 3.51% for
Group, Jiangxi Copper Corporation, Jinchuan Group, the first time. The capacity of calcium carbide method was
Shuangshi (Zhangjiagang) Fine Chemical Industry, Yanggu 198.9 million tons, accounting for 83%; that of ethylene
Xiangguang Copper Co., Ltd., Kailin Group, Hubei method was 4 million tons, accounting for 17%. According
Xinyangfeng Fertilizer, and other leading enterprises have a to the National Bureau of Statistics, the output of PVC was
sulphuric acid capacity of more than 2 million tons per year. 16.3 million tons of in the country in 2014, a year-on-year
In 2014, there were 17 enterprises whose sulphuric acid increase of 6.5%. In 2014, the capacity of PVC was 660,000
output exceeded one million tons, with the total output tons and 1.53 million tons was withdrawn, including 1.03
reaching over 40% of the total sulphuric acid output of the million tons of PVC by calcium carbide method and 500,000
country. Since the “12th Five-Year Plan”, the single series tons of PVC by ethylene method. Net increase capacity of
scale of sulphuric acid units in China has been increasing PVC was −870,000 tons. From 2000 to 2012, the average
thanks to the progress of high-concentration SO2 flue gas annual growth rate of PVC production capacity was 18%,
conversion technology, high-efficiency washing and purifi- that of 2013 was 5.8%, and that of 2014 was 3.51%.
cation technology, and high-efficiency heat exchange tech-
nology. The large-scale and scale acid units have developed 6.1.2.3 Fertilizer Industry
rapidly. At present, compared with the 5300 t/d sulphuric The chemical fertilizer industry mainly includes nitrogen
acid unit of the world’s largest single scale Russian copper fertilizer, phosphate fertilizer, potash fertilizer, and com-
industry, the scale gap of China’s acid unit has obviously pound fertilizer, among which nitrogen fertilizer and phos-
narrowed [12–28]. phate fertilizer have many prominent corrosion problems in
the production system. In recent years, China’s fertilizer
6.1.2.2 Chlor-Alkali Industry manufacturing industry has developed rapidly, and the
In recent years, the chlor-alkali industry has developed market scale has increased at an annual rate of about 20%.
steadily in spite of a series of severe difficulties and chal- Since 2013, due to the impact of market saturation, the
lenges, with overcapacity of leading products, increasing growth rate of the market scale of fertilizer manufacturing
constraints on resources and energy, and increasing industry has declined, but the growth rate of over 10% has
requirements for safety, environmental protection, and been maintained, with the industrial scale exceeding RMB
energy efficiency. However, the overall benefit of the 900 billion. Taking the synthetic ammonia industry as an
industry is still at a low level, and the pattern of the industry example, there are 34 sets of large-scale synthetic ammonia
is constantly changing in the fierce competition. units in China at present, with a production capacity of about
According to the statistics of China Chlor-Alkali Industry 10 million tons per year, and the downstream products are all
Association, at the end of 2014, there were 175 caustic soda urea except for the production of nitric phosphate in one set
manufacturing enterprises with capacity of 39.1 million tons, of unit. There are 55 medium-sized ammonia units with a
a year-on-year increase of 1.56%. The capacity of production capacity of about 5 million tons per year. Their
ion-exchange membrane caustic soda was 37.42 million downstream products are mainly urea and ammonium
tons, accounting for 96%, and that of diaphragm caustic soda nitrate. At present, there are more than 700 small synthetic
was 1.68 million tons, accounting for 4%. According to the ammonia units with a production capacity of about 30 mil-
National Bureau of Statistics, the national output of caustic lion tons per year and their downstream products was orig-
soda in 2014 was 31.8 million tons, a year-on-year increase inally mainly ammonium bicarbonate, but the existing 112
of 7.9%. In 2014, the capacity of caustic soda increased by sets were reformed to manufacture urea.
6.1.3 Corrosion and Protection in the Chemical sulfuric acid will form a dense passivation film on the metal
Industry surface, slowing down the corrosion. Compared with dilute
sulfuric acid, the strong oxidizability of concentrated sulfuric
6.1.3.1 Corrosion and Protection in the Sulfuric acid will cause serious corrosion to common non-metallic
Acid Industry materials. If reductive ions such as chloride ions and fluorine
ions are present in the sulfuric acid, the corrosiveness is
1. Major types of corrosion in the sulphuric acid enhanced. However, the existence of oxidizing impurity
industry (such as nitric acid, copper sulfate, chromium trioxide) can
inhibit the corrosion to varying degrees.
Several kinds of acidic materials commonly used in chem- In addition, turbulent corrosion can occur in the container
ical industry are the main causes for corrosion of chemical of the sulfuric acid production unit, and the turbulent cor-
equipment. As one of the most active inorganic strong acids, rosion is mainly related to the flow rate of sulfuric acid and
sulfuric acid is an indispensable raw material in the pro- the solid particles of impurities contained in the sulfuric acid.
duction of fertilizer, metallurgy, petroleum, machinery, The effect of sulfuric acid flow rate on the corrosion of
medicine, and other industries. Several important types of metallic materials is essentially the strength of the erosion
corrosion occurring in the sulphuric acid industrial envi- resistance or wear resistance of the surface protective film.
ronment will be described in the following [29–37]. The influence of flow rate on the corrosion rate is not
obvious before the surface film is damaged. However, when
(1) Corrosion of SO2, SO3, and sulfuric acid the flow rate is so large that the surface film is damaged, the
corrosion rate increases linearly with the increase of the flow
The completely dry SO2 is hardly corrosive. With the rate, and even cavitation corrosion occurs. In addition, the
increase of environment humidity, SO2 forms acidic elec- sulfuric acid flow may also cause corrosion of the
trolyte, and its corrosiveness is enhanced. The severity of non-metallic materials or liner used in the sulfuric acid
SO2 corrosion of sulfuric acid production equipment is also production unit. Under the erosion of high-speed sulfuric
related to temperature. For example, the gas temperature at acid, if the anti-corrosion layer has insufficient resistance to
the inlet of the heat exchanger is low and corrosion is severe. penetration, impact and deficient adhesive force, local or
On the inner wall of the pipe, the corrosion is very slight due total peeling may occur.
to the effect of the high-temperature reforming gas.
Likewise, the dry SO3 is hardly corrosive. When a small (2) Atmospheric corrosion
amount of water enters into the furnace gas, SO3 is easily
converted into sulfuric acid mist. Around or below the dew Most of the equipment in the sulphuric acid production
point temperature of the flue gas, the acid mist condenses on system is exposed to the atmosphere. A large amount of
the metal surface into sulfuric acid solution to corrode the unabsorbed tail gas will be discharged in sulphuric acid
metal, known as dew point corrosion. In the sulfuric acid production, so the corrosiveness of atmospheric environment
plant, the locations where dew point corrosion is most likely in sulphuric acid industry is much higher than that of general
to occur are the low-temperature gas heat exchanger, econ- atmospheric environment. When sulfide and dust in the
omizer, and gas pipelines in front of the intermediate and atmospheric environment are dissolved in the water film
final absorption tower. adsorbed on the surface of the equipment, an acidic thin
Sulfuric acid corrosion is affected by its concentration, liquid film environment with a large concentration can be
temperature, flow rate, and impurities. When the concen- formed, and a strong corrosion effect can be produced on the
tration is the same, the higher the temperature is, the more metal surface. Atmospheric corrosion occurs uniformly on
corrosive the sulfuric acid is. Sulfuric acid corrosion can the surface of equipment and pipeline. The whole corrosion
show different redox quality varying with temperature and process must be carried out under the water film, which is
concentration. Dilute sulfuric acid (concentration is less than affected by the depolarization process of hydrogen and
65%) shows reducibility at all temperatures. The main cor- oxygen. Corrosion under such a thin liquid film is also
rosion effect is depolarization of hydrogen, and the corro- related to the surface temperature of the equipment. The
siveness increases with the increase of concentration. When surface of the equipment at a lower temperature is more
the concentration is 65–85%, the sulfuric acid shows likely to form a thin liquid film, so the degree of corrosion is
reducibility at a low temperature and oxidability at a high larger. When the equipment pipe surface is alternately in the
temperature. When the concentration is more than 85%, wet or dry state, the degree of corrosion is increased. In
sulfuric acid shows oxidability at any temperature. For the addition, dust particles in the atmosphere can be deposited
passivated materials such as iron and steel, concentrated on the metal surface. On the one hand, this leads to an
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increase in the conductivity of the corrosive medium of the The first four factors are limited by the production process,
thin liquid film. On the other hand, the unevenness of the and the last two factors are the key to reduce the
surface is increased, thereby causing more severe corrosion. high-temperature sulfur corrosion. High-temperature sulfur
In addition to production unit, the corrosive atmosphere in corrosion generally occurs in the roasting and conversion
the sulphuric acid industry can also cause serious damage to process of sulfuric acid production units, such as the air caps
building structures, floors, platform railings, etc. and cool tube bundles of the fluidized bed in the fluidized
bed roaster, the serpentine tubes in the waste heat boiler, and
(3) Water environment corrosion the inlet of the converter.
The water solution environment involved in sulfuric acid 2. Corrosion protection technology of sulfuric acid
production mainly includes circulating cooling water of heat industry
exchanger and purifying sewage. The quality of circulating
cooling water is the primary factor affecting the heat The corrosion mechanism and influence factors of sulfuric
exchange system of sulphuric acid unit. For example, the acid are very complex. On the basis of comprehensive
open circulation cooling system may cause water loss due to analysis and study of specific working conditions and vari-
evaporation and pollution discharge, thus resulting in an ous influence factors, proper and reasonable selection of
increase in salt content in the water and aggravation of materials should be made.
system fouling and corrosion. In addition, the circulating A large amount of carbon steel, such as Q235B, 16MnR,
water can dissolve bacteria and nutrients contained in the and 20G, is used in 80–100% sulfuric acid at a temperature
heat exchange air into the water, thereby causing problems of 60–80 °C, which is not suitable for 100–102% sulfuric
such as microbial corrosion. The purification process of acid. However, it is applicable in the environment of over
sulfuric acid production will produce a large amount of 102% fuming sulfuric acid, and the temperature limit is
industrial sewage. For each ton of sulphuric acid production, about 60 °C. Dilute sulfuric acid is very corrosive to carbon
6–15 tons of wastewater is produced. The wastewater con- steel. When the acid concentration is about 50%, the cor-
tains not only sulfuric acid, sulfurous acid, and a large rosion rate reaches the highest value. When the flow rate of
amount of mineral dust, but also arsenic, fluorine, lead, iron, sulfuric acid is more than 0.5 m/s, the protective film on the
mercury, copper, zinc, and other salts, which are extremely surface of carbon steel may be damaged, and its corrosion
corrosive. If improper material selection causes corrosion resistance is remarkably reduced.
and leakage, it will cause serious harm to the ecological The acid resistance of cast iron is strong, but the common
environment. gray cast iron may crack when it encounters fuming sulfuric
acid, and SO3 will oxidize the cast iron and cause local
(4) High-temperature sulfur corrosion expansion and crack. Low chromium cast iron such as RTCr
and RTCr2 can be selected under the environment of fuming
Iron and steel in high-temperature SO2 and SO3 flue gas will sulfuric acid. The stable complex carbide of low chromium
appear sulfurization reaction and oxidation reaction, mainly cast iron can prevent graphitization at high temperature and
belonging to chemical corrosion. The corrosion form is can be used in sulfuric acid medium with high temperature
uniform thinning. However, since the iron sulfide produced and high concentration. Compared with gray cast iron and
by the sulfurization reaction is less protective than iron low chromium cast iron, aluminum chromium cast iron and
oxide, the reaction rate of high-temperature sulfur corrosion high chromium cast iron have higher heat resistance and are
is much higher than that in air at the same temperature. For more stable in fuming sulfuric acid environment. STSi15R
example, when the temperature is as high as 800 °C, the high-silicon cast iron has good corrosion resistance to sul-
sulfurization corrosion rate is 1–2 order of magnitudes furic acid at various temperatures and concentrations, and to
higher than the oxidation corrosion under the same condi- high flow rate scouring, but its shock resistance is weak. It is
tions. However, SO3 and dust contained in SO2 may form not resistant to mechanical shock and large temperature
highly corrosive molten sulfate on the surface of carbon steel change, and its processability is poor. Compared with
at high temperature, and destroy the protective oxidation STSi15Cu7, the mechanical properties and processability of
film on the surface of carbon steel. In addition, the erosion of STSi15Cu7 are improved.
solid particles such as slag dust and the scouring action of Ordinary austenitic stainless steel such as 304 and 316
airflow also aggravate the corrosion. The corrosion rate of series have better corrosion resistance to dilute sulfuric acid
high-temperature sulfur corrosion depends on several factors of less than 5% and concentrated sulfuric acid of more than
such as air temperature, air speed, impurity content, solid 90% at room temperature. Compared with carbon steel, the
particle size, equipment structure arrangement, and material. corrosion resistance and high-temperature oxidation
resistance of stainless steel are much better than that of car- sulphuric acid units, some or all of the non-metallic materials
bon steel in less than 20% of concentration of fuming acid. At are often used for replacement. Non-metallic materials can
present, the converters of many large-scale sulphuric acid be used for lining inner layer, outer insulation layer, and full
production units use 304H materials to make shells and plastic equipment. For example, multilayer lining firebricks
internals, which are resistant to oxidation and deformation and insulation bricks shall be used in the incinerator to
under high-temperature conditions, with little maintenance reduce the shell temperature and reduce high-temperature
work. Medium concentration of sulfuric acid and fuming acid oxidation corrosion. The dry absorption tower is lined with
are highly corrosive to stainless steel. In comparison with the acid-proof bricks to prevent sulfuric acid corrosion. When
ordinary austenitic stainless steel, the high alloy stainless fluorine is contained in the medium, lead-lined graphite
steel and the nickel–molybdenum–chromium alloy can be bricks or carbon bricks are often used for purification
kept passive in different concentration of sulfuric acid envi- equipment. However, the lining structure is easy to form
ronment and fuming sulfuric acid, and have superior corro- cracks due to scouring or thermal expansion and cold con-
sion resistance. However, their performance is poor at high traction during production or shutdown, resulting in medium
temperature and price is high, so they are generally used only leakage. Therefore, the rationality of manufacturing process
on important occasions where corrosion is more severe. In and design is highly required. For example, epoxy resin,
sulphuric acid unit, foreign materials such as Hastelloy are PVC and other high molecular materials are only resistant to
often used. It is mainly used in some important equipment about less than 70% concentration of sulfuric acid and are
and important parts such as acid separator of dry absorption less resistant in high temperature. Corrosion is very serious
tower, but it is difficult to be widely used because of high in concentrated sulfuric acid and fuming sulfuric acid. Nat-
price. The distribution unit of this questionnaire includes the ural and synthetic rubber can be used for less than 60% of
factories of some large foreign chemical enterprises in China. dilute sulfuric acid, and the maximum use temperature is
The proportion of high corrosion resistance materials such as about 60–65 °C. A few varieties can withstand high con-
Hastelloy in these enterprises is obviously higher than that of centration and high temperature. For example, butyl rubber
domestic enterprises. Although the initial investment is large, can withstand 70 °C and 70–75% of sulfuric acid. GFRP or
the depreciation rate is low, so that the cost of maintenance composites filled with graphite or asbestos are resistant to
replacement and shutdown is significantly reduced, and the sulfuric acid at moderate concentration and temperature.
corrosion cost is reduced, basically less than 1% of the pro- A few varieties, such as fluoroplastics or fluororubber, can
duction cost, which is far less than the proportion of the withstand high temperature and high concentration of sul-
corrosion cost of the entire industry. furic acid.
Lead is a good sulfuric acid-resistant material and it can In the anode protection technology, a passivation film
stand the temperature as high as 200 °C in less than 75% of with high corrosion resistance is formed on the surface of the
sulfuric acid corrosion and in less than 80% of sulfuric acid. metal by applying appropriate anode current to the metal by
The corrosion rate of lead is low for dilute sulfuric acid utilizing the anode passivation property of the passivation
even if the temperature reaches the boiling point. system, and the passivation is maintained by a certain cur-
Antimony-containing lead alloy (hard lead) has higher rent. Corrosion of the metal is prevented by the generated
strength and can be used in pumps, valves, pipes, etc., but passivation film. The concentrated sulfuric acid produced by
has lower corrosion resistance. Pure lead is soft and is the sulfuric acid unit and the fuming acid at various con-
suitable only for liner of grooves. Lead plate is resistant to centration are strongly oxidizing media and can form and
sulfuric acid. Much equipment of early sulphuric acid plants maintain a dense protective film on the metal surface, so that
uses lead plate as corrosion-resistant layer, but the disad- the sulfuric acid unit can use anodic protection for corrosion
vantage of lead is poor mechanical strength with environ- control. Anode protection technology is characterized by
mental pollution. Now most of the lead plates are replaced low cost and high efficiency, and is widely used in sulfuric
by non-metallic materials. acid industry. Typical examples are that most acid coolers,
A thin aluminizing layer is formed on the surface of dry absorption tower acid distributors, and other equipment
carbon steel by high-temperature vapor diffusion with alu- with strong medium corrosion all use anode protection unit.
minum powder or hot-dip coating of molten aluminum after The dispersive capacity of anode protection must be con-
high-temperature diffusion heat treatment. For example, the sidered according to factors such as acid concentration, acid
heat exchange tube of the heat exchanger is to penetrate temperature, acid speed, water temperature, and water speed.
aluminum into the surface of the steel tube for heat pene- In addition, the area ratio of anode to cathode and the
tration plating, thereby improving its high-temperature oxi- location and number of cathode arrangement need to be
dation resistance and corrosion resistance. taken into consideration. The service life of some sulphuric
Because of the large variation of acid concentration, high acid units, acid heat exchangers, storage tanks, and sulfur
temperature, and serious corrosion of metal equipment in the trioxide evaporators at home and abroad can be extended
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more than 12 times with constant potential anode protection. intensified, leading to failure. Stress corrosion is also a
Cathodic protection technology is rarely used in sulfuric acid common corrosion type of pump equipment. The defects in
industry. the manufacturing process easily induce stress corrosion in
corrosive medium, which is characterized by intergranular or
3. Typical corrosion cases in sulfuric acid industry transgranular corrosion, which greatly reduces the mechan-
ical strength of the equipment and even breaks. Pump
The heat exchanger for sulphuric acid conversion in Jin- impeller produces alternating stress in the rotation process
chang Smelter of Tongling Nonferrous Metals Group, which and will produce corrosion fatigue in the corrosive media,
was put into operation in July 2006, was found to be invalid greatly reducing the service life of the material. In general,
shortly after the start-up. It is found that dirty and blackened the failure of the pump equipment is not a single corrosion
concentrated sulfuric acid and acid mud are deposited on the failure, but a combination of various corrosion forms, which
bottom of the cold end of the upper half of the heat pipe heat accelerates the corrosion of the pump and causes great loss
exchanger with the thickness up to 500 mm. A section of to the production.
heat pipe immersed in dirty acid mud and buried in acid mud The WSA acid production unit of HBIS Group Hansteel
is corroded seriously and the outer wall of the pipe is Company was put into operation in February 2010. The
obviously thinned. Only a few root residues remain in the designed capacity of acid gas treatment is 750 m3/h, and the
spiral sheet with enhanced heat transfer outside the tube production capacity of concentrated sulfuric acid with con-
wall, and the liquid refrigerant inside the pipe leaks. The centration of 98% is 18,000 tons per year. However, since
analysis shows that the demister at the top of the absorption the unit was used, shutdown accidents have occurred several
tower doesn’t completely gather the dirty acid particles times due to corrosion of the pipeline. The problems mainly
entrained in the flue gas, so that the cold end of the heat focus on three aspects, which are leakage of process gas
exchanger works in the process gas with dirty acid mist. The cooler, corrosion of sulfuric acid pipeline and impeller of
spiral sheet structure of the heat pipe makes large and heavy product acid pump, and deposition of ferrous sulfate on
dust-containing acid particles deposit on the bottom of the process gas cooler heat exchange tubes and sheets, affecting
cold end of the tank when concentrated sulfuric acid is heat transfer effect and increasing system resistance. The
deposited on the bottom of the tank, resulting in a severe main failure reasons are as follows. First, poor insulation
corrosive environment. effect causes that the temperature of the partial shell wall of
The WSA system is a low concentration flue gas acid the process gas cooler is lower than the dew point of sulfuric
production technology system imported from abroad. The acid, which results in corrosion and leakage accident. Sec-
system mainly produces sulfuric acid by converting the SO2 ond, the fluid at the welding place is washed seriously,
in the mixed flue gas of the lead sintering machine and the which leads to the corrosion and perforation of the welding
fluidized bed boiler, so as to achieve the environmental seam area and accidents. Third, due to improper operation
benefit of flue gas desulfurization and the production of and frequent shutdown, SO2, SO3, water vapor concentration
sulfuric acid products. However, the pump equipment of the and temperature in the system change greatly, and the bot-
system is constantly broken down. All the pump materials of tom dew point corrosion sensitivity of the reformer is
Zhuzhou Smelter Group Company Limited are mainly enhanced.
acid-resistant stainless steel, and its impeller, impeller nut, Red Phosphorus Branch of Yunnan Yuntianhua Interna-
shaft sleeve, and other components in contact with the tional Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. put a sulfur-based sul-
medium are often corroded. In particular, the corrosion of phuric acid plant with annual output of 800,000 tons into
the impeller is the most prominent. Generally, a new stain- operation in September 2009 and introduced the MECS HRS
less steel pump has a service life of only a few days, and process to recover heat energy. However, the HRS circu-
some even appear corrosion failure within a few hours. After lating acid pump was damaged in January 2010. After the
disassembly, the entire impeller is found to be completely equipment stops working, the coupling is disassembled, and
corroded, resulting in a high failure rate of the pump. The the pump shaft obviously sinks. After the bearing box is
high maintenance cost has caused great economic losses and disassembled, it is found that the bearing nut thread is
seriously affected the stable and continuous production of seriously worn and the pump shaft becomes thinner. Dry gas
the system. Through analysis, the corrosion forms are mainly seal dynamic and static seal ring is seriously worn, the
pore corrosion, stress corrosion, and corrosion fatigue. After original ring inner hole seal groove is seriously worn to be
the alloy is destroyed locally in a passive state, corrosion almost flat, and the mating surface has been worn off about
pores are easy to occur, and the pores rapidly develop deep, 5 mm. The fitting surface of the pump shaft sleeve and the
resulting in penetration corrosion. In particular, when chlo- bush is seriously worn and the groove of the most serious
ride ions are contained in the medium, the corrosion is wear can reach 5 mm. The clearance of more than 30 mm is
formed between the shaft sleeve and the bush, the low cover
plate of the impeller of the pump is abraded by 40–50 mm,
and wear of lower seal ring is very serious.
After the chemical plant of Jinchuan Group Co., Ltd. was
built and put into operation in August 2008, the shell side
and tube side of the heat exchanger of gas collusion of the
smelter gas acid plant with an annual output of 700,000 tons
began to leak after used for 3 years. In particular, at the
bottom of the tube side, acid leakage is serious. As can be
seen from Figs. 6.1 and 6.2, sulfuric acid seeps out from all
four walls of the lower space of the tube side, so that the heat
exchange efficiency of the system is greatly reduced.
Through analysis, the corrosion problem is mainly caused
by the following reasons. One is that the efficiency of foam
collecting screen (candle type) of a suction tower is too low.
The flange connected with the bottom plate is plain carbon Fig. 6.1 Bottom acid permeation of tube side of heat exchanger III
steel and the bolt is 316L stainless steel, so corrosion is easy
to occur. High temperature can accelerate the corrosion of
the carbon steel flange and increase the diameter of the bolt
hole, so that the fastening property of the foam collecting
screen is low. When the flue gas is introduced, the foam
collecting screen element decreases in tightening property,
so a large amount of acid mist and acid mist enter the shell
side of the heat exchanger III from the space between the
foam collecting screen element and the bottom plate flange,
resulting in acid deposition on the shell side and corrosion at
the bottom of the column tube. The other is the action of acid
mist and water, both of which cause corrosion and damage
to the equipment. Generally, the higher the water vapor
content is, the higher the converted SO3 dew point is. The
converted SO3 gas is cooled while passing through the heat
exchanger to form condensate acid at the bottom, thereby
accelerating equipment corrosion and causing leakage
accident. Fig. 6.2 Leakage of tube side of heat exchanger
Wylton (China) Chemical Co., Ltd. has constructed two
carbon steel vertical cylinder atmospheric tank liquid sulfur
storage tanks with an effective volume of 3000 m3 for its
two sets of sulfur-based sulphuric acid equipment with
annual output of 400,000 tons (Fig. 6.3). In October 2009
and June 2013, a leakage accident occurred in the liquid
sulfur storage tank, and liquid sulfur was leaked from the
tank top and the upper middle insulation layer of the barrel,
respectively (Figs. 6.3 and 6.4). Corrosion is serious within
30–60 cm around the leakage of two tanks, the cylinder is
already very thin, and black corrosion products are accu-
mulated around the corrosion pit.
The corrosion of liquid sulfur storage tanks is mainly
caused by its internal corrosion, and the corrosion rate is
much faster than that of external surface corrosion due to
sulfur. In the internal corrosion, water is contacted with
sulfur, and sulfur is hydrolyzed to produce an acidic Fig. 6.3 Leakage of phase II liquid sulfur storage tanks
medium:
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heat of the flue gas, thereby reducing the boiler flue gas to
40 °C and jointly reducing the volume and quality of the flue
gas system facilities and pipelines. In comparison with the
traditional industrial design, the investment can be reduced
by about 20%, and the system operation energy consumption
can be reduced by about 5%.
6.1.3.2 Corrosion and Protection in Chlor-Alkali

Industry
1. Main corrosive environment in the chlor-alkali

industry
In industry, sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas and hydrogen

Fig. 6.4 Leakage of phase I liquid sulfur storage tanks
gas are prepared by electrolytic saturated sodium chloride
aqueous solution, and a series of chemical products are
produced by using them as raw materials, which is called
S8 ðsÞ þ 8H2 OðlÞ ! 6H2 S þ 2H2 SO4 ð6:1Þ chlor-alkali industry. Chlor-alkali industry has always suf-
The iron and sulfur undergo an electrochemical reaction fered from the most serious corrosion problems in the
in a suitable environment: chemical industry. The various environments involved in its
various processes are highly corrosive [38–43].
ðx1ÞFe þ Sy1 S2 þ 2H ! ðx1ÞFeS þ H2 S þ Syx
ð6:2Þ (1) Brine process
Experiments show that when the temperature exceeds The brine process is an umbrella term for the steps including
80 °C, the sulfur hydrolysis reaction is accelerated, and the dissolution, purification, clarification, filtration, neutraliza-
reaction between iron and sulfur plays a major role in the tion and the like for obtaining electrolytic solution of sodium
presence of electrolyte. In Fig. 6.3, sulfur mainly comes chloride. The main corrosive medium in this process is
from sulfur vapor at the central vent of the top cover. Sulfur sodium chloride aqueous solution. In order to save invest-
vapor accumulates and drips down, flows to the top edge of ment cost, the vessels and pipes used in the brine process are
the tank and accumulates, resulting in corrosion damage. As mainly carbon steel, and the corrosion process is controlled
rainwater seeps in when it rains, both act together, leading to by the depolarization of oxygen. Because of the sufficient
corrosion perforation and leakage of liquid sulfur. Corrosion oxygen in the vapor in the brine vessel, the walls in contact
in Fig. 6.4 leads to leakage mainly due to water entering the with it are corroded much more severely than the walls
tank, leading to sulfur hydrolysis, producing electrolytes below the surface of the liquid. During production, the brine
such as sulfuric acid, which promotes corrosion reaction is at a higher temperature and its flow and agitation process
between sulfur and steel surface at the inner wall and can accelerate oxygen replenishment, leading to more severe
accelerates damage of the inner surface. corrosion. Compared with carbon steel, stainless steel and
In 2011, through the inspection of coal-fired boiler by titanium alloy can greatly improve the corrosion resistance
Shanxi Yangmei Fengxi Fertilizer Industry Group Co., Ltd., of brine production equipment. However, at a higher tem-
it was found that the dew point corrosion of flue gas and the perature, the pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and stress
corrosion of desulfurizer and desulfurization products exis- corrosion may occur.
ted in the flue gas desulfurization system. In the process of
reforming the boiler flue gas desulfurization system, the new (2) Electrolysis process
anti-corrosion design is updated. The polypropylene material
is used to replace the carbon steel material as the lined glass In the electrolysis process, the saturated sodium chloride
flake, and the polyethylene lined plastic pump is used to solution is electrolyzed to produce chlorine gas, hydrogen
replace the traditional 2605 material to solve the problem of gas, and sodium hydroxide solution. Besides chlorine gas
dew point corrosion of flue gas. In addition, after the and sodium hydroxide, corrosion problems caused by stray
improvement is realized, the area of partial heat exchange current are also involved in the electrolysis process.
equipment such as the soft water heater and the air preheater Electrolysis process can be divided into diaphragm elec-
inside the boiler is increased to realize more recovery of the trolysis, mercury electrolysis, and ion-exchange membrane
method. Among them, mercury electrolysis has high effi- temperature. In addition, carbon steel in the hot-concentrated
ciency and good product quality, but it has been gradually lye is likely to occur in the alkali embrittlement phe-
reduced in use due to serious pollution and other problems. nomenon. At this time, Monel alloy or stainless steel can be
The key equipment of diaphragm electrolysis is diaphragm chosen. Nickel is a traditional alkali-resistant material, often
electrolytic cell, which mainly consists of anode assembly, used in the lye concentration process. Nickel can be used in
cathode assembly, and cell cover. The most easily corroded the concentration of 10–99% NaOH. The corrosion of nickel
parts are anode plate and cell cover. The corrosive envi- in NaOH is mainly the effect of chlorate. In the NaOH
ronment that the anode plate contacts is mainly hydrochloric solution of 160–200 °C, obvious decomposition occurs and
acid, hypochlorous acid, and chlorate produced by chlorine is oxidized to NiO, and more serious corrosion occurs with
gas, sodium chloride, and side reaction. The ambient tem- the increase of temperature.
perature can reach 90–100 °C and has strong acidity and
strong oxidizing property. The corrosion of diaphragm cell (4) Chlorine treatment process
cover is always a difficult problem in chlor-alkali industry.
The contact environments of the electrolytic cell are extre- The chemical property of chlorine gas is very active. The
mely harsh which contain liquid-phase corrosive media such corrosion of most metals by dry chlorine gas at normal
as sodium chloride, chlorate, sodium hydroxide, and wet temperature is relatively light, and the corrosion increases
chlorine gas of very high concentration. with the increase of temperature. It is worth mentioning that
The iron exchange membrane method uses selective iron although titanium exhibits good corrosion resistance in most
exchange membrane to separate the anode and cathode solution environments, the titanium surface doesn’t form an
chambers to form high-purity caustic soda and chlorine, oxidation film in dry chlorine, and thus the surface is
respectively. It has the advantages of low energy con- severely corroded. Chlorine is sparingly soluble in water and
sumption and less pollution, and is recognized as the future produces highly corrosive hydrochloric acid and highly
development direction of chlor-alkali industry. The anode of oxidizing hypochlorous acid.
ion-exchange membrane is in contact with saturated sodium Metals are generally less resistant to corrosion in
chloride solution and wet chlorine gas at the same time, and hydrochloric acid. The corrosion of carbon steel in
the corrosion problem is very serious. Although non-metallic hydrochloric acid increases as the concentration of
corrosion-resistant materials are used for ion-exchange hydrochloric acid increases. Most metals have a low corro-
membranes, they are also susceptible to mechanical dam- sion rate in dilute sodium hypochlorite solution at room
age and chemical corrosion, resulting in a decrease in elec- temperature. Many non-metallic materials also have good
trolysis efficiency. corrosion resistance to sodium hypochlorite. In the chlorine
In the operation of the electrolytic cell, part of the current alkali absorption tower, if the alkali excess is not maintained
leaks out due to some reasons, which may cause stray cur- at the time of absorption, sodium hypochlorite will decom-
rent corrosion to the electrolytic cell and its surrounding pose and generate a large amount of heat locally on the
equipment and pipeline. In the electrolytic process, stray surface of the material, so that many non-metallic structural
current corrosion mostly occurs at the inlet of brine, the foot materials are rapidly destroyed. The corrosion effect of
of electrolyze cell, and the copper row pillar. The local area chlorine on metals is closely related to water content and
of corrosion destruction is small, the corrosion current temperature. The corrosion law of different metals in wet
density is large, and the corrosion rate is fast. chlorine gas is different. Generally speaking, the corrosion
degree becomes more serious with the increase of humidity
(3) Alkali concentration process and temperature. Compared with dry chlorine gas, titanium
material shows excellent corrosion resistance in wet chlorine
The alkali concentration vaporizes the water in the elec- gas. In 95% wet chlorine gas, the corrosion rate of titanium
trolyte solution by heating to increase the concentration of is only 0.00096 mm per year at normal temperature. How-
the alkali solution, and also recovers the remaining NaCl in ever, in the practical use process, we should pay attention to
the electrolyte solution, and improves the quality of the the crevice corrosion of titanium joint. In May 2010, a
alkali solution. Carbon steel can form an insoluble and dense company built two sets of ionic membrane caustic soda
corrosion product protective film in NaOH solution at low electrolytic wet chlorine gas coolers with an annual output of
temperature and concentration <30%, so the corrosion is 100,000 tons to reduce the wet chlorine gas temperature and
light. When NaOH exceeds 30%, the passivation protective raise the brine preheating temperature. After 2 years of use,
film on the surface of carbon steel tends to break and there is chlorine gas leakage between the upper pipe box
gradually dissolve. The corrosion rate of carbon steel in equipment flange and the upper pipe plate flange sealing
NaOH solution will increase with the increase of surface, and there is salt around the sealing surface. Upon
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inspection, all the titanium materials of the upper pipe box shielding, low shrinkage, low expansion coefficient, and
equipment flange and the upper pipe plate flange sealing high impact strength. The superlong corrosion resistance of
surface have crevice corrosion. Titanium crevice corrosion is the glass flake coating is determined by the factors such as
affected by many factors, such as concentration of chloride overlapping, parallel arrangement, uniform dispersion, and
medium, temperature, pH value, gap length, width, surface thickness of the glass flake in the coating, so the formulation
area ratio inside and outside the gap, and type of sealing design, preparation method and brushing technology of the
gasket. glass flake coating should be strengthened to ensure the high
quality of the coating.
2. Corrosion protection technology of chlor-alkali In the brine electrolysis process, the brine preheater is
industry usually made of carbon steel and stainless steel. The envi-
ronment where the electrolytic cell and cover are located is
The production environment of chlor-alkali industry is very very corrosive. Corrosion-resistant materials include stain-
complex, and the brine, caustic soda, hydrochloric acid and less steel, titanium, GFRP, rubber, fluoroplastics, and con-
hypochlorite involved in each production link are highly crete often used for protection, but their service life is
corrosive. In the chlor-alkali industry, the alkali concentra- generally less than 5 years, and they still need to be replaced
tion process is mainly controlled by reasonably selecting frequently. The control of stray current corrosion should also
corrosion-resistant metal materials. Carbon steel and cast be considered in the electrolysis process. The most effective
iron are suitable for equipment, pipelines and liquid chlorine and economical method is electrochemical method. For
storage for storage and transportation of dry chlorine in example, an insulation device may be applied to increase the
manufacturing plants, and are not suitable for wet chlorine resistance of the leakage circuit. For example, an insulation
environments. In contrast, high-silicon iron has good cor- bottle is provided at the location where the electrolytic cell is
rosion resistance to dry and wet chlorine gas and chlorine connected, or a non-metallic material or liner is used in the
water, but it is not suitable only for mixtures of hot wet pipeline connected to the electrolytic cell. In addition, the
chlorine and steam. Stainless steel has adequate corrosion power-off unit can also be used to reduce the conductive
resistance to dry chlorine at room temperature and also ability of the material or the equipment itself to suppress the
resists mixtures of dry chlorine and dry air, or wet chlorine at transmission of stray current, or a drainage device is used to
temperatures above the dew point. However, stainless steel guide the stray current to the earth to prevent the stray
is not resistant to dry chlorine at high temperature, chro- current from flowing from the metal surface to the medium
mium–nickel stainless steel is not resistant to dry and wet so as to realize the protection of the metal equipment.
chlorine above 300 °C, and all types of stainless steel are not
resistant to wet chlorine below dew point. High alloy 3. Typical corrosion cases in chlor-alkali industry
stainless steel is resistant to dry chlorine at room tempera-
ture, but is not suitable for wet chlorine. In November 1999, during the feed production and operation
Non-metallic materials are widely used in brine process, of caustic soda unit in the chlor-alkali plant of Qilu Co., Ltd.,
electrolysis process, and chlorine treatment process. For Sinopec, the equipment and pipelines were corroded seri-
example, rubber is often used as lining to protect carbon ously and leaked frequently, which caused the unit to stop
steel equipment and pipelines. Traditional rubber lining uses for many times and affected the stable operation of the unit.
direct pressurization to perform vulcanization operation in a In June 2002, the inner wall and inner parts of the anode
vulcanizing tank or the body of the lining, thus the use of gas–liquid separator were corroded, and the wall thickness
rubber lining for large atmospheric equipment is limited. In of the corrosion-resistant layer of the cylinder CPVC was
recent years, with the need of large-scale atmospheric reduced from 5 to 2 mm. The pipes and weld joints were
equipment, rubber lining technology has been further also severely corroded and even broken. The inner wall is
developed, including hot water vulcanizing liner, atmo- light yellow, brittle, and the strength decreases. About 1/4 of
spheric steam low-temperature vulcanizing liner, and the pipe breaks from the root, resulting in poor separation of
pre-vulcanized butyl rubber natural vulcanizing liner. the anode gas and liquid, leakage of the separator, leading to
Glass flake coating and lining is a new corrosion pro- the removal and maintenance of a single electrolytic cell.
tection technology with excellent corrosion resistance and The chlorate decomposition tank is made by mechanical
wear resistance widely used in recent years. The glass flake winding. After 1 year of operation, the bottom of the tank,
coating can be applied to saltwater environment with low the tank wall, and the pipe appear leakage in many places.
temperature, such as saltwater barrel, saltwater tank, and After 3 years of use, it is found that the resin of the
filter. Compared with other non-metallic materials, glass corrosion-resistant layer inside the tank is dissolved,
flake coating has many advantages such as low cost, good delaminated, and the strength of the tank body is weakened.
Since the first half of 2002, there has been frequent leakage
of the nozzle weld of the header pipe and corrosion of glass
fiber reinforced plastic reinforced by the outer layer of the
header pipe. The chlorine main pipe is made of GFRP pipe.
After 2 years of use, there were more leakage points. GFRP
(5 mm thick) was wound around the whole pipeline. After
1 year, leakage occurred frequently, and the resin inside the
pipe corroded the remaining glass fiber cloth, forming a
large resistance and swinging along with the flow of chlorine
gas, which results in poor flow of chlorine gas. The main
pipe pressure fluctuates, and the anode chamber of the
electrolytic cell assumes a positive pressure state, thereby
shortening the service life of the ion-exchange membrane.
The research shows that the high-temperature wet chlorine
gas generated in the anode chamber of the ion-exchange Fig. 6.5 Corrosion of plate
membrane electrolytic cell contains a large amount of water
vapor, and the chlorine gas is hydrolyzed to form highly
where the corrosion is most serious, as shown in Fig. 6.6.
corrosive hydrochloric acid and oxidizing hypochlorous acid
Through analysis, it is found that stray current corrosion
which can further decompose and release oxygen, resulting
mainly occurs. The leakage current in the electrolytic cell
in severe corrosion of equipment and pipelines.
can’t be led away in time due to the lack of effective
In 2009, Shanxi Yangmei Chlor-alkali Chemical Co.,
grounding treatment of the anode four-way pipe. When stray
Ltd. started to build a set of ion-exchange membrane caustic
current leaves the metal surface and enters the medium, the
soda evaporation unit with an annual output of 60,000 tons,
region of metal components will form an anode current. The
producing 45% lye. Since the operation started in December,
stray current has a large potential difference between the
corrosion and perforation of the I-effect evaporator contin-
metal and the medium surface, and the probability of cor-
ued to occur, resulting in the shutdown of the unit. In less
rosion is greatest, thereby accelerating the corrosion.
than half a year, two sets of equipment were replaced,
Xinjiang Zhongtai Chemical Co., Ltd. put an
resulting in economic loss of up to RMB 3 million. When
ion-exchange membrane caustic soda project with an annual
the evaporator is removed and inspected, corrosion perfo-
output of 600,000 tons into operation in September 2012.
ration can be clearly seen on the plates of the I-effect
There are four production lines, each of which is equipped
evaporator. In particular, corrosion is particularly serious
with six parallel n-BiTAC-865 electrolytic cells. In July
near the bottom of the evaporator where the steam con-
2013, it was found that hydrogen gas leakage occurred at the
denses, as shown in Fig. 6.5. At the same time, a large
first weld joint of the carbon steel pipeline at the cathode
amount of green powdery solid adheres to the inner wall of
vapor outlet of some electrolytic cells, accompanied by
the steam inlet pipe and the surface of the evaporator sheet,
alkali liquid leakage. The leakage amount increased
and the solid is determined to be a complex of nickel car-
bonate through an assay. The steam quality in the boiler is
relatively low, and the CO2 dissolves in the condensate
water of the saturated steam, causing the condensed water to
be acidic. H+ and the dissolved oxygen act as the cathode
depolarizer in the corrosion cell, causing electrochemical
corrosion of the evaporator sheet. Hydrogen evolution cor-
rosion occupies the main position.
In 2009 and 2012, Hubei Xingrui Chemical Co., Ltd.
built ion-exchange membrane caustic soda units that use
chlorine engineering n-BiTAC electrolytic cell. Since July
2014, inspectors have begun to detect varying degrees of
corrosion around the cell, resulting in leakage of chlorine
gas. After the equipment is stopped, the anode outlet pipe-
line of the circuit is disassembled and inspected, and it is
found that corrosion occurs at the side of the negative half
zone of the six anode four-way pipe connected to the CPVC
short circuit. A gap of 5 mm has appeared in the weld joint Fig. 6.6 Corrosion of titanium tube
776 X. Li
Fig. 6.7 Schematic diagram of

inner and outer wall of leak point
pipeline
continuously, and leakage occurred in multiple electrolytic straight edge of the small radius arc. The reasons for the
cells. The leakage points are all at the same position. analysis are as follows. First, 304/304L heads are formed by
Figure 6.7 is a schematic diagram of the inside and outside cold stamping without solution treatment. Second, the
walls of the leakage point pipeline. hardness at the crack location is much higher than the
In the early stage of leakage, a small amount of hydrogen standard requirement of 235HB. Third, the head is magnetic
is observed to flow out with alkali liquor, and the volume and the ferrite content at the crack is 20–40%, which exceeds
fraction of hydrogen is detected to be more than 0.5%. As the standard requirements.
the leakage phenomenon becomes more and more obvious, The circulating water heat exchanger of the company is
the leakage point becomes larger and larger, and it is easy to mainly made of carbon steel. After opening the heat
cause hydrogen explosion accident due to its connection exchanger, it is found that the internal corrosion is serious,
with the hydrogen main pipe. Through analysis, it is judged especially on the shell side of the circulating water, which is
that electrochemical corrosion of chromium, manganese, and more serious due to the low flow rate. For the equipment on
other metals in stainless steel pipeline and weld joint occurs the shell side of the circulating water, there are relatively
at the weld joint, and the uneven distribution of chromium thick corrosion products and large-scale deposits on the tube
causes pinhole corrosion. In addition, in the plate. It is difficult to clean the water gun thoroughly due to
high-temperature environment, the participation of alkali the obvious adhesion of large rust nodules in the heat
vapor and the uneven environment of the weld area all exchanger tubes, as shown in Fig. 6.10. The reasons are as
promote the corrosion reaction. In the reaction, follows: under-deposit corrosion caused by sediment depo-
high-temperature hydrogen gas mixed with alkali vapor acts sition, microbial corrosion in circulating water, and the
as an electrolyte while the carbon steel connection flange and content of Cl− in circulating water exceeds the standard.
the line serve as a wire for connecting the two stages. Four methane chloride units were put into operation at a
The acid corrosion of heat exchanger, stress corrosion chemical plant in October 2013 and April 2014. Corrosion
cracking of 304 head and corrosion under the scale of cir- accidents occur in two sets, resulting in huge losses. The
culating water heat exchanger were investigated and ana- material of the equipment is S30408 stainless steel, heat
lyzed in 2014 by a chemical group company. The main exchange tube material is S347 (0Cr18Ni11Nb), reaction gas
material of the heat exchanger is 316L stainless steel. The (methane chloride) enters in the tube side, and
internal medium of the heat exchanger is mainly HCl and high-temperature water passes on the shell side. After the
phosgene. A large number of pitting pits can be found on the accident of 3MC B E2213 equipment, the technicians
inner wall surface of the heat exchange tube by endoscopy, inspect the equipment for pressure test, disassembly, pipe
as shown in Fig. 6.8. drawing and coloring, finding that two heat exchange tubes
The analysis shows that the main reasons of pitting cor- connected to each other at the upper pipe on the waterside of
rosion are that a little water vapor enters the inside of the the shell side of the equipment are corroded and perforated,
heat exchanger and absorbs HCl and phosgene to condense and the upper tube plate in the vicinity is seriously corroded.
to form acidic liquid on the tube wall, causing pitting cor- The other heat exchange tubes have more elongated cracks
rosion. The 304 head is mainly in the medium containing at the upper and lower nozzles and in the inner region
HCl and Cl2. As can be seen in Fig. 6.9, there are many adjacent to the nozzle, as shown in Fig. 6.11.
cracks in the head, which are similar in shape, concentrated When the four sets of equipment are disassembled and
in the area from the heat-affected zone of the weld to the inspected, it can be seen that there is a large amount of
Fig. 6.8 Pitting corrosion on

inner wall surface of heat
exchange tube
Fig. 6.9 304 Corrosion of head
carbon black on the head and tube plate, and the heat high-boiling matter to accumulate here and concentrate
exchange tube has been deposited with one layer, the harmful ions, resulting in corrosion due to high concentra-
diameter is reduced and the depth is about 220 mm (tube tion and enrichment of Cl− and SO42− at the scale to form a
plate thickness is 130 mm). Besides, there are obvious pits corrosive environment of SO2— 4 Cl–H2O. In the presence of
on the inner wall of 4MCE5213 and E6213 upper end pipe. the carbon scale, under-deposit corrosion is caused mainly
According to the analysis, the main reason is under-deposit by low load, high-boiling products, large amount of carbon
corrosion. The presence of carbon scale will cause black, and deviation of the ratio of the carbon scale.
778 X. Li
Fig. 6.10 Interior corrosion of heat exchange tube (upper tube side and lower shell side)
Fig. 6.11 Corrosion of accident equipment
In addition, that the converter temperature is not con- condenses, and the HCl in the material condenses to form
trolled to meet the standard will also cause internal corro- chloride ion corrosion.
sion. According to the anatomical results of the two units,
cracks occur in the tube plate and the heat exchange tube, 6.1.3.3 Corrosion and Protection in Chemical
and the cracks in the heat exchange tube develop from the Fertilizer Industry
inside to the outside, indicating that internal corrosion occurs Chemical fertilizer industry is a very important sector in the
in the material. The internal corrosion mainly results from chemical industry. Fertilizer industry mainly produces
the corrosion caused by low-temperature dew condensation. nitrogen fertilizer, phosphate fertilizer, potash fertilizer,
When the wall temperature of the heat exchanger wall is compound fertilizer, and so on. This section describes the
lower than the dew point of the material, the material corrosion and protection of synthetic ammonia processes in
the nitrogenous fertilizer industry [26–28].
1. Major corrosion systems in the fertilizer industry be faced with corrosive media such as hydrogen sulfide,
carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane and nitrogen with
Ammonia synthesis refers to the direct synthesis of ammonia prominent corrosion problem. High-temperature hydrogen
from hydrogen and nitrogen over a high-temperature and corrosion is one of the major hazards to safety in production.
high-pressure catalyst. Ammonia synthesis process, as a very The ammonia synthesis tower, high-temperature shift con-
important inorganic chemical process, provides the fertilizer verter, secondary reformer, reforming waste heat boiler,
industry and basic organic chemical industry with the most methane reformer, synthesis gas superheater, and synthesis
basic raw material—ammonia. Ammonia is the main raw gas waste heat boiler in an ammonia synthesis plant are
material of fertilizer industry and basic organic chemical typical equipment prone to high-temperature hydrogen cor-
industry. Ammonia synthesis process can be generally rosion. High-temperature hydrogen corrosion generally
divided into four processes: ① gas production, namely, the occurs when the working temperature is 250–600 °C and the
preparation of feed gas with a certain proportion of nitrogen; pressure is 1–73.5 MPa. Below 200 °C, hydrogen corrosion
② purifying, namely, removing the harmful impurity gas does not occur in carbon steel even if the hydrogen con-
such as hydrogen sulfide, organic sulfur, carbon monoxide, centration is high.
carbon dioxide and oxygen in the raw material gas; ③
refining, namely, removing residual carbon monoxide, carbon (3) CO2 corrosion
dioxide, oxygen, methane and excess nitrogen in the feed gas
to ensure the activity of the ammonia synthesis catalyst and When CO2 dissolves in water, it has strong corrosion effect
the economic operation of the ammonia synthesis process; ④ on some metals. The corrosion of CO2 is characterized by
synthesis, synthesizing ammonia gas with qualified hydro- local pitting corrosion. The corrosion failure behavior of
gen–nitrogen mixture gas under the action of high-pressure CO2 is different at the cathode and anode, and the continu-
catalyst. The above process involves various kinds of ous dissolution of iron at the anode leads to uniform cor-
high-temperature and high-pressure strong corrosive envi- rosion or local corrosion. At the cathode, CO2 dissolves in
ronment, so the corrosion problem of the ammonia synthesis water to form carbonic acid, releasing hydrogen ions.
process is quite serious. Several typical corrosion systems in Hydrogen ions are strong depolarized agent, and it is easy to
the ammonia synthesis process are briefly described below. take away electrons, promoting anodic dissolution and
leading to corrosion. Evolved hydrogen enters into steel,
(1) Carbon steel–liquid nitrogen system which may cause problems such as hydrogen-induced
cracking. CO2 corrosion may occur in the CO2 absorption
Such corrosion systems are commonly found in liquid tower of the purification and refining process. The corrosion
ammonia storage tanks and transfer lines. For example, of carbon steel is very serious when the humidity of CO2 gas
liquid ammonia can promote stress corrosion cracking of in the absorber is above 60 °C. In addition, carbonate
carbon steel after exposure to air pollution. Most of the solution can also produce strong corrosion effect on metal
storage and transportation of liquid ammonia are pressure materials. In the synthesis process, if the synthesis gas
vessels made of carbon steel or low alloy steel. In recent contains a little CO2 and once CO2 contacts with ammonia
years, most of the rupture and explosion accidents of liquid in the recycle gas, highly corrosive ammonium carbamate
ammonia storage tanks at home and abroad are caused by the can be formed, corroding or plugging downstream
stress corrosion of carbon steel–liquid nitrogen system. Most equipment.
of these stress corrosion cracks are distributed on the cir-
cumferential weld between the south pole plate and the (4) Corrosion of the circulating water system
lower temperate zone group, which is located at the bottom
of the liquid surface for a long time. The higher the strength The circulating water system in the ammonia synthesis
of steel used in liquid ammonia spherical tank is, the greater production process is one of the most unstable systems in all
the tendency of stress corrosion is. In addition, the higher the industrial circulating cooling water with serious corrosion
vessel operating temperature is, the higher the oxygen con- problem. The circulating water contains high concentration
tent is in the liquid ammonia and the more severe the stress of ammonia due to leakage of liquid ammonia or dissolution
corrosion is. of ammonia in the air. This ammonia-rich water environment
provides adequate nutrients for the growth of bacteria. For
(2) Hydrogen corrosion example, nitrite bacteria take ammonia molecules as nutri-
ents and convert the ammonia molecules into nitrites with
During the production and operation of ammonia synthesis reducing properties, causing corrosion to metal units. Under
plant, it should bear high temperature and high pressure, and the action of microorganism growth and environment, a
780 X. Li
Overflow port
Coil
Inlet
Vapor tube
Inlet of dilute magnesium
Steam inlet
Steam outlet
Support
Discharge pipe
Fig. 6.12 Schematic diagram of magnesium nitrate heater pipeline
large amount of slime can be produced in the circulating corrosion resistance to ammonia at various temperatures, but
water system, which causes serious fouling of the cooler is less used because of the higher price. In addition, as the
pipeline and microbial corrosion under the scale. strength of the material used increases, the problem of stress
corrosion should be paid attention to, and a reasonable
2. Corrosion protection technology of synthetic ammonia welding process shall be adopted.
industry
3. Typical corrosion cases of chemical fertilizer industry
Liquid ammonia is widely used in the field of ammonia
synthesis and refrigeration. There are many factors affecting In 2004, corrosion often occurred in the process of pro-
the corrosion of liquid ammonia, among which the structure ducing concentrated nitric acid in magnesium nitrate heater
and performance of material components, the heat treatment of Luguang Chemical Plant, resulting in high consumption
process of liquid ammonia and the use temperature of in production process. Figure 6.12 is a schematic diagram of
equipment are the most important. In the synthetic ammonia the structure of a magnesium nitrate heater. The location
industry, corrosion control is mainly carried out through the where the heater corrodes is mainly the coil, the material of
use of metallic materials. the heater coil is austenitic stainless steel, and the tube and
Carbon steel and cast iron are widely used in production tube plate are fixed by welding. The corrosion of coil mainly
and storage equipment of ammonia. The corrosion rate of includes uniform corrosion, stress corrosion, and intergran-
carbon steel and cast iron is less than 0.1 mm per year. The ular corrosion. The uniform corrosion mainly occurs near the
corrosion rate in wet ammonia and aqueous ammonia solu- inlet of dilute magnesium nitrate. The stress corrosion
tion is about 1 mm per year. Stainless steel has good cor- mainly occurs at the U-type crook of the coil, the weld joint,
rosion resistance to both dry and wet ammonia at ammonia and the weak part of the straight pipe. Intergranular corro-
decomposition temperature and metal nitridation tempera- sion occurs mainly in the vicinity of weld joint and in tube
ture. The chromium-containing stainless steel has excellent plate holes. High wall temperature of that heat and low mass
resistance to the corrosion of impurity carbon dioxide gas, fraction of nitric acid in dilute magnesium nitrate result in
and the corrosion rate decreases with the increase of chro- uniform corrosion of stainless steel. Cl− in water for
mium content. High alloy stainless steel has excellent preparing nitric acid can’t be completely treated, thus
Fig. 6.13 Inner wall pitting

corrosion of urea synthesis tower
leading to stress corrosion. The effect of temperature during cooling process, which forms erosion and corrosion of the
welding leads to grain boundary chromium depletion and tube bundle under the high-speed airflow, and easily causes
intergranular corrosion. damage of the weak parts of the heat exchange tube.
In 2009, a science and technology company in Nanjing On June 3, 2013, “Jilin 6.3 ammonia gas leakage fire
overhauled urea high-pressure equipment of Zhonghai accident” took place in Jilin Baoyuanfeng Poultry Co., Ltd.,
Chemistry and Chemical Fertilizer, and found that the in Dehui, Changchun City, Jilin Province, which killed 121
internal corrosion, especially the pitting corrosion of the people and injured 76 people. The main workshop of
high-pressure equipment was serious. Through investigation 17,234 m2 and the production equipment in the main plant
and analysis, the main reason for this problem is that the were damaged, and the direct economic loss reached RMB
environment in which the equipment is in service is mainly 182 million. Afterward, the investigation report published by
high temperature (170–185 °C) and high pressure (13.5– the investigation group of the State Council shows that the
14.5 MPa), and the methylammonium solution in urea has a main cause of the accident is that the ammonium ions in the
very strong corrosion effect. The pinhole corrosion in the liquid ammonia and carbon steel system promote the stress
urea synthesis tower is shown in Fig. 6.13. By controlling corrosion cracking of the carbon steel, resulting in the
the chloride ion content in the steam condensate and cracking of the liquid ammonia circulating pump under the
replacing the original 304 stainless steel used in the synthesis No. 1 horizontal low-pressure circulating drum and leakage
tower with 316L stainless steel during welding or welding of liquid ammonia in the barrel. A large amount of ammonia
repair, using 25-22-2 duplex stainless steel elsewhere, the leakage is not found in time. The leakage point is close to the
inner wall of the equipment has more excellent corrosion ignition point and the workshop, and the fire is rapidly
resistance in the production process. Finally, after a targeted spread from the fire site to the ammonia synthesis equipment
overhaul of the equipment, the 2011 inspection report and the ammonia pipeline area. The high temperature gen-
showed that although pitting corrosion was still found in the erated by the combustion causes physical explosion of
equipment, there was a significant improvement over 2009. ammonia equipment and ammonia pipeline, causing a large
The results show that the replacement of materials and the amount of ammonia gas leakage to support combustion and
prevention of chloride ion have a good effect on controlling igniting the rest of combustible materials inside the work-
the development of pitting corrosion. shop. Most of the employees were killed. The huge fire
In May 2010, the nitric acid plant of Hangzhou Longshan accident not only causes huge economic losses but also
Chemical Co., Ltd. was put into use. After 2 years of forms a serious negative impact on enterprises, leaving lin-
operation, the heat exchange tube (304L stainless steel) of its gering psychological trauma to the masses. Figure 6.14
low-pressure reaction water cooler leaks for several times shows the fire scene.
due to the long-term erosion of high-temperature dilute nitric On October 22, 2012, “10.22” ammonia gas leakage
acid, and the leakage of dilute nitric acid enters the shell side accident occurred in the ammonia refrigeration workshop of
and accelerates the corrosion of carbon steel equipment and Deyan Aquatic Products Co., Ltd., in Xindi Avenue, Hon-
pipeline. The analysis shows that the heat exchange tube and ghu City, Hubei Province. 479 people were hospitalized due
the tube plate of the low-pressure reaction water cooler adopt to poisoning. More than 670 employees were evacuated and
the form of bond strength welding, so the tube wall of the the factory was shut down for 5 days. This not only seri-
expansion tube is thinned and the welding is easy to generate ously endangers personal safety, but also causes huge eco-
residual stress. The large temperature difference between the nomic losses. According to the accident expert investigation
inlet of the equipment and the circulating cooling water leads group, it is preliminarily determined that the ammonia
to the continuous generation of condensate acid in the leakage is caused by the aging and fracture of the cooler
782 X. Li
Fig. 6.14 Fire scene
spiral coil of the ammonia compressor. The spiral coil is result shows that the new anti-corrosion design of CO2
made of iron-based material and is used in liquid ammonia absorption tower has achieved good effect and prolonged the
environment for a long time. It is inevitably corroded by service life of the equipment.
ammonium ion, which leads to anodic dissolution type stress
corrosion cracking and eventually leads to ammonia gas 6.1.3.4 Application of Non-metallic Materials
leakage accident. in Chemical Industry
The purification system of ammonia plant in the first
workshop of Qinghai Salt Lake Industrial Co., Ltd. has been
running steadily since it was put into operation. Since June 1. Corrosion resistance of non-metallic materials
20, 2014, the iron ion content of hot potassium alkali solu-
tion in the system has started to rise obviously. The inves- In addition to the traditional metal materials, non-metallic
tigation by experts finds that the reason lies in the corrosion materials are widely used in chemical industry. Non-metallic
phenomenon of CO2 absorption tower. The condensate of materials have the advantages of excellent corrosion resis-
gas in CO2 absorption tower is easy to produce acid corro- tance, low cost, and easy replacement. In some applications,
sion to carbon steel, and the presence of carbonate ion and it has a tendency to replace metal materials. Non-metallic
hydrogen carbonate ion can also produce alkaline corrosion. materials can be used to make integral chemical equipment,
Although the corrosion inhibitor inside the solution can help such as fans, purification equipment, tanks, containers,
to form passivation film on the surface of carbon steel during pipelines, heat exchangers, and pumps. Non-metallic mate-
equipment operation, the passivation film is damaged due to rials are also commonly used as the lining material of steel
the unique gas flow inside the absorption tower which may shell, which not only makes use of the mechanical properties
cause erosion and corrosion of the for gas flow. In view of of steel but also brings into play the corrosion resistance of
this situation, the salt lake industrial fertilizer plant has non-metallic materials. Common corrosion-resistant
formulated the corresponding main countermeasures. The non-metallic materials include corrosion-resistant brick,
seriously corroded area in the diameter change area of the glass lining, rubber, plastics, GFRP, graphite, ceramics, and
CO2 absorption tower is partially excavated and repaired, so on.
and other areas are grinded and polished or welded. The
direction of airflow flushing is changed so as to reduce the (1) Plastic
scouring force of airflow to the inner wall, and HCM-1
ethylene flake cement is sprayed as a protective layer in the Plastic is the most widely used. Plastic is divided into
severe scouring area. After overhaul, the monitoring shows polymer thermoplastic plastic, thermosetting plastic (GFRP),
that the decarburization system is running normally and the mainly including polypropylene, polyethylene, polyamide,
iron ion content is greatly reduced. During the repair in ABS resin, fluororesin, and other materials. They are used
August 2015, it was found that the protective layer of for equipment in the chemical production process under
ethylene flake cement on the inner wall was intact. The final severe corrosion resistance conditions. The pipe materials
cover almost all engineering plastics. PE is a kind of (2) Graphite

non-polar thermoplastic resin with high crystallinity. PE
pipes have excellent corrosion resistance to most industrial Graphite is a high-temperature-resistant lightweight material
chemicals. However, in the oxidant (concentrated nitric with excellent chemical stability. At room temperature,
acid), aromatic hydrocarbon and halogenated hydrocarbon, graphite is stable in all chemical media except strong oxi-
problems such as oxidation and swelling are liable to occur, dizing agents and some halogens. Graphite is divided into
resulting in failure. PE pipes also have good water resis- natural graphite and artificial graphite. Natural graphite has
tance, insulation, and impact resistance. Commonly used low purity and loose tissue, and is seldom used alone in
plastic pipes also include rigid polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U) industry. Artificial graphite is made of coke and asphalt by
pipes. PVC-U pipe is usually manufactured by extrusion mixing, pressing and roasting. In the roasting process, the
molding method, and its application is developing in the artificial graphite is easy to form pores that disadvanta-
direction of large caliber with special specifications. PVC-U geously block the penetration of the medium. The chemical
is a brittle material and is prone to rapid cracking. Its cracks industry typically uses a caulked and impermeable graphite
grow at the speed of hundreds of meters per second, material. Impermeable graphite is a composite of synthetic
instantaneously causing damage of tens of meters or even graphite and synthetic resin (or other organic and inorganic)
kilometers of pipelines. In view of the poor toughness of made of organic non-metallic and inorganic non-metallic
PVC-U pipe, much work has been done on the toughening material. It has excellent corrosion resistance and thermal
and modification of PVC pipe at home and abroad in recent conductivity. Except for being not resistant to strong oxi-
years. dizing media (such as nitric acid, chromic acid, concentrated
Fluoroplastic is a kind of thermoplastic with special sulfuric and acid) and alkali, phenolic type impermeable
properties. It has excellent properties of chemical resistance, graphite can resist most of inorganic acid, organic acid, salt,
heat resistance, weathering resistance, and lubricity, and has organic compound and solvent, etc. Water glass impregnated
attracted more and more attention. The fluoroplastic can be graphite is almost stable to various organic acids, inorganic
used as the lining of the equipment such as the tank in the acids, and organic solvents except that it is not resistant to
anti-corrosion of the chemical equipment. The lining joint is hydrofluoric acid, hot phosphoric acid, and alkali. Imper-
welded with the fusible fluoroplastic welding belt, or the meable graphite is mainly used as a structural material of a
connection is pressurized with the electric hot plate. However, heat exchanger, such as plate graphite preheater, hydro-
it must be noted that fluorine lining and equipment are diffi- formylation liquid heater for vinylon production, and also as
cult to bond to each other due to the low surface energy of the a mechanical sealing ring and a rotary joint sealing element.
fluoroplastic and the differences in their coefficient of thermal
expansion with the metal. Polytetrafluoroethylene and per- (3) GFRP
fluoroethylene propylene can be made into continuous long
pipes of various diameters. The large-diameter fluoroplastic Based on synthetic resin, GFRP is a composite material
pipes can be lined in the steel pipe while medium and taking glass fiber and its products as reinforcing materials
small-diameter thin-walled pipes can be reinforced with wire according to a certain molding process. Glass fiber can be
braided sleeves. In addition, the fluoroplastic can also be classified into two types according to their chemical com-
made into bellows with the characteristics of expansion and positions. One is alkali-free glass fiber with an alkali content
contraction and bending. Fluoroplastic is also a good sealing of less than 0.5%, and the other is alkali-containing glass
material. Fluoroplastic gaskets have been widely used in fiber with an alkali content of 8–15%. The properties of glass
chemical equipment. Polytetrafluoroethylene raw material fiber are different because of its different chemical compo-
belt is an excellent sealing agent for thread connection, which sition. Alkali-free glass fiber has good weathering resistance,
is heat-resistant, corrosion-resistant and non-polluting. The water resistance, and mechanical strength, but the price is
polytetrafluoroethylene elastic belt is resistant to corrosion high. Alkali-containing glass fiber is cheap with good acid
and high temperature, and has the advantages of high strength resistance, but its water resistance, electrical insulation, and
and good elasticity compared with the polyte- mechanical strength are low. In addition, the properties of
trafluoroethylene raw material belt. Polytetrafluoroethylene GFRP are also closely related to the arrangement of glass
emulsion impregnated filler products can be used for acid fiber in the resin. Compared with most plastic products,
pump end sealing and is an ideal dynamic sealing material. GFRP material’s temperature resistance, mechanical
784 X. Li
strength, and oxidation resistance have been significantly polyethylene particles impact the cylinder wall at a certain
improved. speed for a long time so that the stress of the glass lining
changes, causing the glass lining of the cylinder wall to fall
(4) Glass lining off. In addition, polyethylene dissolution is a gradual pro-
cess. In the dissolution process, caking will inevitably form.
Glass lining equipment is made by spraying about 65% silicon Once the caking forms, the energy caused by impact on the
content of glaze on the metal surface and fired in 880–950 °C. cylinder wall will increase sharply, causing significant
It has properties similar to glass and metal. The glass lining damage to the glass lining layer, as shown in Fig. 6.16.
equipment has very strong corrosion resistance to various On April 7, 2013, an ammonia gas leakage accident
concentrations of inorganic acid, organic acid, organic sol- occurred at a chemical fertilizer plant in Xuxiang, Xiamen
vent, and weak base, but is not resistant to the media of strong City, Fujian Province. After nearly 40 min of emergency
alkali, hydrofluoric acid, and fluorine-containing ions. When treatment by the local fire squadron, the dangerous situation
contacting strong alkali liquor, it is difficult to form protective was eliminated, and there were no casualties on the scene.
silica film on the surface of glass lining, which causes the alkali After investigation, the leakage equipment is the ammonia
liquor to erode to the depth of glass layer all the time. The gas storage tank inside the building. Since the polymer
higher the concentration of lye is, the higher the temperature is, material is used as the gasket for sealing liquid ammonia at
and the greater the corrosion degree is. Glass lining equipment the bottom of the tank, the corrosion effect of the liquid
can be widely used in the chemical industry reaction, evapo- ammonia body is combined with the internal pressure of the
ration, synthesis, extraction, polymerization, saponification, storage tank, and the aging rate of the polymer material is
chlorination, nitration, and other production processes, and accelerated. Therefore, the tightness between the sealing
can partially replace expensive stainless steel and non-ferrous gasket and the storage tank is weakened, and a crack is
metal materials. generated, leading to the occurrence of an ammonia leakage
accident.
2. Application of non-metallic materials in equipment Guangxi Luzhai Chemical Fertilizer Co., Ltd. has been
using the process of amino acid process to produce com-
Table 6.1 shows the typical application of non-metallic pound fertilizer, and using glass lining reaction kettle to
materials in chemical equipment. intermittently dilute concentrated sulfuric acid to the
required concentration of dilute sulfuric acid. Although the
3. Corrosion failure cases of non-metallic materials glass lining has excellent anti-corrosion performance, the
lining glass of reaction kettle is easily damaged during ser-
Glass lining stirred tank chlorosulfonated polyethylene unit vice. When the glass lining layer has fine cracks or minimal
R-201A dissolving pre-chlorine tank is glass lining stirred leakage, the metal bottom will be subjected to the strong
tank, as shown in Fig. 6.15. The equipment is found to be corrosion action of dilute sulfuric acid, resulting in corrosion
damaged when checking the inside of the reaction kettle and perforation and affecting the service life of the reaction
during shutdown and overhaul of the unit. The glaze surface kettle. In 2011, Luzhai Chemical Fertilizer Plant carried out
of the main shaft of the stirrer and the three layers of stir technical transformation to replace glass lining reaction
blade enamel are damaged in many places, and the damaged kettle with graphite cooler. Compared with glass lining,
part is the more precise part of the interference fit between impenetrable impregnated graphite not only has good cor-
the blade and the main shaft. Porcelain exposure occurs in rosion resistance but also has excellent properties of fast heat
15 points of enamel glaze inside the wall of dissolving transfer, high structural strength, and compact internal
pre-chlorine tank and leakage is found by electric spark. It is structure. Through the transformation, the equipment runs
found that the surface of enamel surface is good in the stably and reliably, and the spare parts cost is saved more
dissolving pre-chlorine tank, but the electric leakage area is than RMB 40,000 every year, the electric energy is saved
found by electric spark. more than 118,800 kWh, the electricity charge is saved by
The damage of porcelain layer of glass lining equipment RMB 47,500 each year, and the water quantity is saved by
is closely related to the properties of glass lining glaze. Glass 13,200 tons per year.
lining glaze is similar to glass and its greatest weakness In the sulfuric acid tank area of an enterprise in Guang-
contains great brittleness, very low elongation, poor elas- dong Province, the concrete in this area is seriously corroded
ticity, and small tensile strength. At the arc, the porcelain due to inevitable dripping and splashing caused by sulfuric
layer is subjected to compressive stress while receiving an acid storage or transportation. The appearance of concrete
outward force. Therefore, the stability of the porcelain layer after being corroded is shown in Fig. 6.17. The base material
at the outer arc is worse than that on the plane. The of concrete is corroded by sulfuric acid, so it seriously affects
Table 6.1 Typical application of non-metallic materials in chemical equipment
Type of equipment Structure Form Note
PVC pipeline is
mostly used for
chemical pipeline
Pipeline PE gas pipeline is

mostly used for
buried pipeline
GFRP pipeline is
lined with plastic
pipeline
Tank GFRP tank
Lined with
Kettle fluoroplastic and
glass lining kettles
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Ware Graphite
materials, ceramic
materials
Groove Plastics,
ceramics, glass
steel, glass -lined
graphite
Tower GFRP
its appearance and bearing structure, which brings hidden acid. The tank area of the enterprise has been in operation for
trouble for safe production and transportation of sulfuric 6 years since the repair, and the concrete has a good
acid. In early 2010, the enterprise used special formula glass appearance due to the protective effect of the coating.
fiber cloth reinforced epoxy phenolic resin coating to repair Inner Mongolia Yihua Chemical Co., Ltd. has used the
the corroded area for the strong corrosion of sulfuric acid. carbon steel lining rubber plate for the maintenance of the
The repairing effect is shown in Fig. 6.18. The repaired part brine storage tank. However, the rubber lining is in a com-
has good corrosion resistance to 98% concentrated sulfuric plicated environment and the maintenance is very difficult
6.1.4 Problems Existing in Corrosion Protection
The corrosion problem in China’s chemical industry is com-

mon, and the overall level of corrosion control is relatively
low. The corrosion problem brings many hidden troubles to
the safety production of chemical industry and has great
influence. In addition to solving the corrosion problem in the
chemical industry from the technical level, sufficient attention
should be paid to the anti-corrosion work in the management
of chemical production. Large-scale enterprises attach great
importance to corrosion control and protection, and basically
have a complete corrosion monitoring system, equipped with
special anti-corrosion personnel. Small- and medium-sized
enterprises are relatively deficient in the construction of
full-time anti-corrosion team. At the same time, the investment
proportion of anti-corrosion funds is relatively low and
anti-corrosion awareness is not strong. In recent years, many
chemical safety accidents have occurred continuously, and
relevant government departments also pay attention to them.
However, only by perfecting the supervision mechanism of
chemical safety from the overall situation and the future can
we solve the public’s safety concerns in the heavy chemical
industry era.
First of all, we should strengthen the publicity and edu-
Fig. 6.15 Schematic diagram of glass lining stirred tank cation on the harmfulness of corrosion and the importance of
anti-corrosion work. In daily safety education, we should
when the leakage occurs, resulting in high maintenance cost. actively popularize the basic knowledge of anti-corrosion so
As of 2011, Yihua Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. has replaced that all the staff pay attention and understand. We should
the lining of 20 sets of equipment and gradually replaced the depict the anti-corrosion awareness in the daily under-
rubber lining with glass flake lining. As the thermal standing of all staff, focus on the whole while noticing every
expansion coefficients of steel and glass flake lining are small detail. Early discovery of small corrosion hidden
similar, the adhesive strength is relatively high, bubbling danger could eradicate corrosion that may cause accidents in
phenomenon is not easy to occur, and the glass flake lining the bud. Second, the implementation of the policy of
of this batch of equipment has good repairability, the service “comprehensive corrosion control” in production manage-
life of this batch of glass flake lining is as long as ment can transform the anti-corrosion work from a passive
6 years, which has brought good economic benefits to the and temporary situation to a positive and radical active sit-
company. uation. At present, most enterprises often pay attention to the
Fig. 6.16 Failure diagram of

stirrer and inserted tube in kettle
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Fig. 6.17 Corrosion of concrete by 98% sulfuric acid
reasonably utilized to prevent and avoid accidents caused by

corrosion. Third, the corrosion factors shall be incorporated
into the safety production management system of the
enterprise, which shall be implemented jointly by all
employees. Finally, we should pay attention to the
anti-corrosion work and increase the anti-corrosion man-
power and material resources input. The anti-corrosion work
must not be confined to words, but must be guaranteed in
manpower, material, and financial resources, as well as in
the system. And its economic benefits are far greater than
our early anti-corrosion investment.
6.1.5 Analysis of Investigation Data and Results
6.1.5.1 Brief Introduction of Analysis Method

Fig. 6.18 Surface repairing effect drawing of concentrated sulfuric
acid cofferdam area of Corrosion Loss
In order to find out the corrosion loss status of chemical
industry in China and obtain the data of corrosion cost and
anti-corrosion equipment and the anti-corrosion construction anti-corrosion strategy of the industry, more than 200
links, but neglect other links such as design, installation, use, enterprises in the chemical industry are investigated by
maintenance, and so on. It is precisely the link neglected by questionnaires. To protect the privacy of the enterprises, the
them that leads to a corrosion hazard intentionally or unin- enterprise situation is not described in detail herein. From the
tentionally, resulting in the occurrence of corrosion. There- collected questionnaires, we select 15 typical enterprises to
fore, the modern corrosion management system is not an carry out data statistics and calculate the total corrosion loss
independent process, but runs through the whole industrial of the whole industry according to the corrosion loss data of
production process that mainly includes the following these enterprises. These enterprises cover the large-, med-
aspects. First, corrosion factors should be taken into con- ium-, and small-scale enterprises in all key fields of the
sideration in the preliminary preparation work of the project. chemical industry and conform to the current situation of the
For example, when planning the project, we shall carry out industry pattern. The questionnaire data are complete and
safety assessment on the possible corrosion problems, pre- have reference value, and can reflect corrosion loss status of
pare the expected corrosion protection scheme, and select the chemical industry. The results of the questionnaires show
the relevant materials. Second, corrosion should be regarded that the total output value of the 15 typical enterprises in
as one of the most important factors of production accidents. 2014 was RMB 252.928 billion, and the annual output value
Periodic inspection of corrosion potential shall be included of the chemical industry in 2014 was RMB 8.8 trillion. The
in each link of equipment repair, maintenance, and produc- ratio of output value of typical enterprises to total output
tion. Corrosion protection technology and products shall be value of chemical industry is
RMB 252:928 billion=RMB 8:8 trillion ¼ 2:87% are not the same, so we need to estimate an average to
calculate. According to the Report on Corrosion
Investigation in China published by Ke Wei, the average
6.1.5.2 Assessment of Direct Corrosion Loss coating cost in China is RMB 20,000–30,000/ton. We
in Chemical Industry by Uhlig Method estimate the coating cost by RMB 20,000, and the coating
According to the characteristics of the chemical industry and work cost is twice of coating cost. The consumption of
the results of the collected questionnaires, the direct corro- anti-corrosion coatings in this industry is RMB 44.94 billion.
sion loss is mainly divided into the following aspects: ① It is found that there is little difference between the coating
coating and coating cost; ② cost of corrosion-resistant cost estimated by the enterprise questionnaire and the
materials; ③ electrochemical protection cost and medica- coating cost estimated by the industry data. Therefore, we
ment cost; and ④ cost for input of anti-corrosion personnel believe that the cost of corrosion protection estimated by the
and other anti-corrosion engineering. enterprise questionnaire is credible.
(1) Coating and coating cost. In the chemical industry, the (2) Cost of corrosion-resistant materials. The corrosion-
production environment is abominable and corrosive resistant materials used in the chemical industry are
media exist for a long time. Anti-corrosion coating can stainless steel, titanium alloy, aluminum alloy, galva-
isolate the surface of equipment material from the nized sheet, tinplate, and non-metallic materials such as
corrosive environment through the shielding action, GFRP, graphite, and fluoroplastic. In order to avoid
which is one of the important means of corrosion pro- repeated calculation, carbon steel and cast iron materials
tection. The result of the questionnaire shows that the widely used in the chemical industry are also classified as
cost invested by these 15 typical enterprises in coating corrosion-resistant materials for calculation.
in 2014 was RMB 1.18 billion, and the total cost In 2014, the consumption of corrosion-resistant materials
invested in coating by the chemical industry is of typical enterprises in the questionnaire survey was
RMB 1.79 billion, and the consumption of corrosion-
RMB 1:18 billion=2:87% ¼ RMB 41:11 billion resistant materials in the chemical industry was
In addition, according to the latest statistics released by the
RMB 1:79 billion=2:87% ¼ RMB 62:369 billion
National Bureau of Statistics, China’s coating output
reached 16.4819 million tons in 2014, an increase of (3) Electrochemical protection cost and medicament cost.
26.5% compared with the same period in 2013 (Fig. 6.19). In the chemical industry, in addition to the corrosion
According to the Main Characteristics of Coating protection measures of coatings and corrosion-resistant
Enterprises in China published by Zhou Fugen, the usage materials, electrochemical protection and chemicals are
proportion of anti-corrosion coatings in chemical industry also used for corrosion protection. Since the
accounts for about 5% of the total coating consumption. anti-corrosion measures used by various enterprises are
Calculated by 16.4819 million tons of coating output in different, we combine the electrochemical protection
2014, the consumption of coating in this industry was and the medicament cost to estimate.
824,000 tons in 2014. Because of the wide variety of The result of the questionnaire shows that in 2014, the
coatings, the prices of different brands of the same coating cost of the typical enterprises in the questionnaire
Coating output/10,000 tons

Year
Fig. 6.19 Statistical distribution of coating output in China from 2010 to 2014
790 X. Li
survey on electrochemical protection was RMB 92 the different characteristics of various enterprises in the
million, and the total cost of the chemical industry in chemical industry. Some enterprises have more indirect
the electrochemical protection and chemicals is corrosion loss than direct corrosion loss, and some enter-
prises have less indirect corrosion loss than direct corrosion
RMB 92 million=2:87% ¼ RMB 3:206 billion loss. We can only evaluate the industry’s corrosion loss with
(4) Input of anti-corrosion personnel and other anti- as much data as possible. In addition, the estimation of
corrosion projects. In fact, the direct economic losses corrosion loss may be omitted in the investigation or the
include the cost of corrosion monitoring and testing, statistics of corrosion loss of some enterprises is too con-
personnel investment in anti-corrosion posts, and other servative, so the actual corrosion loss should be larger. Ke
anti-corrosion engineering investment costs in addition Wei points out that the ratio of indirect corrosion loss to
to the abovementioned common corrosion protection direct corrosion loss in chemical industry is 6–8 in Report on
measures. The result of the questionnaire shows that the Corrosion Investigation in China. Therefore, the actual
direct loss of typical enterprises caused by other factors corrosion loss in the chemical industry may be greater.
in 2014 was RMB 1.16 billion. The direct economic It can be seen that corrosion has caused huge economic
loss caused by other factors in the chemical industry is losses to chemical industry. We urgently need to develop
anti-corrosion technology so as to reduce corrosion loss and
RMB 1:16 billion=2:87% ¼ RMB 40:418 billion promote resource saving. Comprehensive corrosion control
is the guarantee for the safe operation of national economy,
To sum up, the direct corrosion loss of chemical industry is
national defense equipment and infrastructure, as well as an
about RMB 147.103 billion.
indispensable and important component in the process of
national modernization. Besides, it is also a complex system
6.1.5.3 Discussion of Corrosion Loss Results
engineering which needs the joint maintenance and devel-
In order to calculate the corrosion loss (including direct
opment of relevant departments and enterprises and colleges.
corrosion loss and indirect corrosion loss) in China’s
chemical industry, indirect corrosion loss must be evaluated.
6.1.5.4 Analysis of the Result of Investigation
The evaluation of indirect corrosion loss can be obtained by
Data
the ratio of indirect corrosion to direct corrosion by col-
We have also carried out an investigation to the enterprises’
lecting the data of enterprises, and then the total corrosion
views on the corrosion problem and their current corrosion
loss of chemical industry can be deduced. As for the cal-
protection work condition. According to the collected ques-
culation of the annual corrosion cost of the industry, we
tionnaire, the main equipment or structure suffering from
assume that the “indirect corrosion loss/direct corrosion
corrosion are mainly concentrated in steel structure workshop
loss” of the industry is consistent with the national propor-
or equipment, fastener, heat exchanger, boiler, water con-
tion by the questionnaire survey, and the value of the
veyance system, pipeline, etc. For these places where cor-
industry corrosion cost can be calculated.
rosion is liable to occur, the anti-corrosion strategies of
According to the field investigation of the enterprises and
enterprises are mainly to use corrosion-resistant materials or
the statistical results of the collected questionnaire, we
coatings for corrosion prevention. In addition to these two
obtain that the indirect corrosion loss of the chemical
methods, metal coating and cladding coating are used in a
industry is about two to four times the direct corrosion loss.
small amount, and cathodic protection is rarely used.
According to the Uhlig method, the direct economic loss of
In addition to technical applications, effective knowledge
corrosion in chemical industry is RMB 147.103 billion.
and management of corrosion is also the key to reduce cor-
Calculated by the fact that indirect corrosion is twice higher
rosion loss. We ask the enterprises to evaluate their corrosion.
than direct corrosion, the indirect corrosion loss of the
The results show that 41.67% of enterprises think it is very
chemical industry is RMB 294.206 billion, and the corrosion
serious, 33.33% of enterprises think it is relatively serious,
economic loss of the whole chemical industry is RMB
16.67% of enterprises think it is general, and 8.33% of
441.309 billion.
enterprises consider that the corrosion is slight (Fig. 6.20).
According to the National Bureau of Statistics, the total
As can be seen from the figure, most chemical enterprises are
output value of China’s chemical industry in 2014 was RMB
aware of the severity of the corrosion problem, which is a
8.8 trillion, and the ratio of the chemical industry’s corrosion
good basis for the subsequent work of corrosion protection.
loss to the total industrial output value is
Although the enterprises are aware of the severity of the
RMB 441:309 billion=RMB 8:8 trillion ¼ 5:01% corrosion problem, only 8.3% of the enterprises have com-
plete corrosion protection specifications for whether the
What should be noted is that each enterprise has a large enterprises have the requirements for corrosion protection,
difference in the evaluation of indirect corrosion loss due to and most of the enterprises have incomplete requirements for
Serious
Relatively serious
General
Relatively slight
Cost price of anti-corrosion technology
Advance of anti-corrosion technology and
long-term anti-corrosion
Directly determined by senior level leader
Fig. 6.20 Cognition of corrosion loss by enterprises
Serious
Relatively serious
General
Relatively slight
Fig. 6.21 Implementation strength of enterprise corrosion protection work
corrosion protection standards. Some enterprises still have difficult to carry out reasonably and effectively in the
no standard requirements for corrosion protection at all. The absence of professional corrosion protection personnel.
standardization of anti-corrosion work is still one of the most According to the investigation, most enterprises have
important aspects for chemical enterprises. The implemen- already taken the corrosion into account when formulating
tation strength of enterprise corrosion protection work is the overall design plan. As shown in Fig. 6.22, when
shown in Fig. 6.21. It can be seen that 85.72% of enterprises selecting corrosion protection countermeasures, 63.3% of
still have not carried out strong corrosion protection work. enterprises still choose to give priority to the cost price of
The main staff participating in corrosion protection work anti-corrosion technology. It is understood that some enter-
doesn’t have the certification of relevant qualifications, and prises with large scale and strict management have used
more than half of the enterprises don’t have professional materials with excellent corrosion resistance such as Hastel-
corrosion protection technical training. During the investi- loy alloy from the beginning of building the plant. Although
gation, many enterprises reflect that anti-corrosion work is the initial investment is large, it greatly reduces the direct
792 X. Li

Fig. 6.22 Top-priority factors in selection of anti-corrosion countermeasures
Lack of attention
Fund problem
Management adjustment leads to that it can’t be
carried out in the long term
There’s no proper anti-corrosion technology
Other
Fig. 6.23 The greatest difficulty in corrosion protection
corrosion loss caused by frequent maintenance replacement contrary, a large number of corrosion problems lead to seri-
and the loss caused by the shutdown in the operation process ous material and equipment losses, resulting in a corrosion
from a long-term perspective. Some enterprises can even loss of more than 20% of the total cost.
limit the cost of corrosion to less than 1%. Some small-cost As shown in Fig. 6.23, it can be seen from the collected
companies still reduce the cost in production and construc- questionnaire that most enterprises already have a certain
tion due to capital problems and insufficient attention. On the degree of understanding of the economic losses caused by
corrosion. However, insufficient attention and lack of rele- level. The Palace Museum has a collection of 1.8 million pieces,
vant talents are still the most important factors leading to making it the largest museum in the country [44].
economic losses caused by corrosion. It will be the most However, after thousands of years of vicissitudes and
important to reduce the corrosion protection in the chemical tribulations, most cultural relics have been corroded and dam-
industry to carry out the scientific popularization of corro- aged in varying degrees due to the erosion of the natural envi-
sion and to train the specialized talents of chemical corro- ronment and man-made destruction. Some of them have been
sion. Each chemical enterprise shall correct its attitude, lost, some are in danger and need to be repaired and protected.
actively strengthen the implementation of corrosion protec- In addition to sudden disasters, natural factors include corro-
tion measures, actively carry out the exchange and cooper- sion, weathering, decay and fading of cultural relics caused by
ation on corrosion protection technology, standards and climate change, environmental pollution, sunlight radiation,
management of the whole industrial chain, and strive to and mold propagation, such as corrosion and perforation of
minimize the economic losses caused by corrosion. metallic cultural relics; shrinkage and cracking, distortion,
deformation moth-eaten mildew, and decay of bamboo lac-
querware; fading, discoloration, mildew, brittle cracking, and
6.2 Investigation Report on the Corrosion even ashing of silk and cotton wool relics; yellowing, brittle-
Cost of Cultural Relics ness, mildew, and degumming of paintings and paper relics;
deliquescence, salting, nail lifting, flaking, and discoloration of
6.2.1 Importance of Cultural Relics Protection fresco cultural relics; and weathering and cracking of stone
relics, etc. The corrosion is devouring these precious cultural
China boasts a long history of civilization and the Chinese heritages at an astonishing speed so that the artistic value, social
nation has created a brilliant human civilization in the long value, and economic value of cultural relics are losing rapidly,
years, leaving countless cultural treasures. Cultural relics are causing the huge loss of state-owned assets.
an important physical witness to the development of human The protection of cultural relics is to study the character
society and history, reflect the development level of politics, and corrosion mechanism of cultural relics by various sci-
economy, culture, art, and military affairs in the past entific and technological means, and to explore the materials
dynasties, and are also vital and valuable material informa- and techniques of cultural relics protection so as to achieve
tion for later generations to study history, culture, and art; to the aesthetic effect of “repairing it to be as old as what it
study the development course and education of ancient sci- was”. At the same time, this can reduce and delay the cor-
ence and technology; and to enlighten the latecomers. rosion of cultural relics. The corrosion and protection of
As a famous cultural relics country in the world, China is cultural relics is a kind of interdisciplinary subject which
rich in cultural heritage. According to statistics in 2011, involves politics, economy, history, archaeology, art, and
there are 41 world heritage sites on the World Heritage List other humanities and social sciences, materials, physics,
in China, including 26 cultural heritage sites, 7 natural chemistry, biology, environment, and other natural sciences.
heritage sites, and 4 mixed cultural and natural heritage sites. Cultural relics are an important part of China’s precious
China ranks third in number in the world (after Spain and historical and cultural heritage, an important resource for the
Italy). There are also a number of important heritage sites development of cultural relics and museums, and an
listed in the World Cultural Heritage Preparation List, important carrier for inheriting and carrying forward the
including 101 state-level historical and cultural cities, and 22 spirit of the Chinese nation. To protect cultural relics is to
historical and cultural towns and famous villages. protect the precious historical and cultural heritage of China,
According to statistics from the administration of cultural to support the cause of cultural relics and museums, and to
relics in China, there are nearly 800,000 unmovable cultural inherit and carry forward the spirit of the Chinese nation.
relics discovered in China (up to 2010), including 2,351 key However, the changes of various social conditions and nat-
cultural relics protection units in the country, more than 8,800 ural environment have caused irreparable damage to a large
provincial-level key cultural relics protection units, and 60,413 number of cultural relics preserved up to now. The
municipal-level and county-level cultural relics protection increasingly serious corrosion diseases have aggravated the
units. At present, the number of museums in China has reached damage of cultural relics and caused huge loss to
3,500, and continues to grow at a rate of about 100 per year, state-owned assets. Therefore, in order to avoid further
which is rare in the history of museum development in the corrosion of cultural relics and recover the loss of
world. There are 26.16 million cultural relics in the collection, state-owned assets, the protection of cultural relics has
of which there are more than 60,000 cultural relics at the first become the primary work of cultural relics collection units.
794 X. Li
6.2.2 Corrosion and Protection of Cultural Relics There are many reasons for the serious corrosion of cultural
relics in the collection. First of all, the protection of the cultural
6.2.2.1 Overview relics in the collection lacks scientific and technological sup-
During the “10th Five-Year Plan” period, the National Cul- port and scientific research results can’t meet the needs of the
tural Heritage Administration has organized and implemented protection of the cultural relics in the collection, resulting in
the National Cultural Relics Corrosion Loss Investigation the imperfect establishment of the conservation and restora-
Project, which is the first time since the founding of People’s tion institutions, the lack of guiding works on the preservation
Republic of China to carry out the scientific and technological and restoration of the collection, and the backwardness of the
investigation and evaluation of state-owned cultural relics. research and restoration materials. Second, there is a serious
The project lasts for three years and costs over RMB 100,000. shortage of funds and lack of financial support for the preser-
With the joint efforts of nearly 5,000 professional and tech- vation of cultural relics, resulting in a generally poor envi-
nical personnel, we have basically mastered the current situ- ronment for the preservation of cultural relics, which is unable
ation of cultural relics in the national collections. The to provide a safe environment for the preservation of cultural
investigation results show that due to the restriction of various relics. Finally, there is a serious shortage of professionals in
factors such as protection conditions, protection facilities, and the field of corrosion protection of cultural relics, and the
protection techniques, cultural relics of various kinds of distribution of cultural relics protection staff is unreasonable in
materials in China generally suffer from natural diseases of terms of specialty and age. To sum up, the corrosion protection
different degrees. More than half of the collections are dam- of cultural relics is a long-term project.
aged by various degrees of natural corrosion. Only 49.34% of
the cultural relics in the collection are well preserved, and 6.2.2.2 Corrosion of Cultural Relics
nearly 7.45 million cultural relics in the collection suffer from
corrosion damage in varying degrees. Among them, there are
more than 295,000 pieces (groups) of cultural relics of 1. Types of corrosion of cultural relics
endangered corrosion degree, 2.13 million pieces of cultural
relics of severe corrosion degree, and more than 50.17 million In a broad sense, the corrosion damage of cultural relics,
pieces (groups) of cultural relics of moderate corrosion degree, called “cultural relics disease”, refers to a series of changes
accounting for 2.01%, 14.52% and 34.13% of the total col- in material composition and structure that are not conducive
lection of cultural relics in China, respectively. On February to the safety of cultural relics or to the appearance of cultural
20, 2014, at the press conference of The State Council Infor- relics due to environmental changes, stress erosion,
mation Office of the People’s Republic of China, Li Xiaojie, man-made destruction and other factors. Different cultural
Vice Minister of the Ministry of Culture and Director General relics have different forms and degrees of diseases. There are
of National Cultural Heritage Administration, introduced that various types of corrosion of cultural relics. For example, for
the number of cultural relics severely corroded was 2.3 mil- metal cultural relics, the main types of corrosion include: ①
lion, accounting for 16.5% of the total collection of cultural hard deposits on the surface: hard appendages on the surface
relics. Taking Gansu Province and Qinghai Province as an of cultural relics; ② tumor-like substance: corrosion prod-
example, there are 34 cultural museum units in Qinghai Pro- ucts or environmental media locally accumulate on the
vince, and there are 97,903 pieces of cultural relics in stock, surface and bulge; ③ layer stacking: corrosion products and
among which l1,683 pieces of metal relics are collected, the environmental media are stacked on the surface in a
accounting for 14% of the total. From 1999 to 2003, the smooth manner according to different colors; ④ pitting pits:
number of corrosion loss of cultural relics caused by human pitting pits of certain density and depth of metal surface
factors and natural causes was about 8,205 pieces. Among caused by pitting corrosion; ⑤ powder-like rust: common
them, 7,612 pieces of cultural relics suffered from damp and rust products in bronze, which are classified as harmful rust
pulverization due to poor production condition of warehouse and harmless rust. Among them, harmful rust contains active
and leakage of rain and wind. There are about 96 state-owned chloride ion which will cause serious corrosion damage to
cultural relics collection units in Gansu Province. Through the bronzes and iron cultural relics; ⑥ harmless rust: stable rust
investigation of seven kinds of cultural relics such as metals, product that does not have obvious influence on cultural
ceramics, and fresco, the census and statistics of more than relics; ⑦ corrosion layer covers the inscription: corrosion
410,000 cultural relics in the collection have been completed. product covers the inscription or pattern on the utensil; ⑧
Among them, about 10% of the cultural relics in the collection metal relics are fully mineralized under the action of harmful
suffer from different degrees of corrosion loss. Cultural and rust for a long time; ⑨ crack, deformation, cracking and
economic losses caused by the corrosion of cultural relics are damage of the body: damage caused by mechanical action
extremely heavy. (collision, extrusion), stress corrosion, etc.; and ⑩
Table 6.2 Classification of Category Specific cultural relics

cultural relics by material
composition Organic cultural (1) Paper cultural relics (ancient books, calligraphy and paintings, inscriptions,
relics archives, etc.)
(2) Cultural relics of textile articles (silk, wool, cotton, linen fabric, etc.)
(3) Bamboo and wood lacquered cultural relics (ancient lacquer, wood, bamboo,
ancient building wood components, etc.)
(4) Cultural relics of leather (leather products, sheepskin books, etc.)
(5) Cadaver-like cultural relics (dried corpse, wax corpse, wet corpse, tanned
corpse, etc.)
(6) Ancient horn cultural relics (oracle bone, tooth carving, ancient horn, etc.)
(7) Cultural relics of audiovisual category (magnetic tape, magnetic disk, film,
videotape, etc.)
Inorganic cultural (1) Metal cultural relics (gold, silver, copper, iron, tinware, etc.)
relics (2) Stone cultural relics (stone carvings, stone tablets, gemstones, jade, etc.)
(3) Ceramic tile brick cultural relics (ancient pottery, porcelain, glass, enamel,
brick, tile, etc.)
(4) Painted murals (grottoes, tombs, temples, etc.)
man-made damage trace: man-made scratches and notches copper to make a variety of appliances. The material of
on the surface of articles. copper is not hard enough, so people added a proper amount
Similar to the corrosion of other materials, the corrosion of of tin or lead to copper to form a copper–tin alloy or copper–
cultural relics also involves three aspects: materials of cultural lead alloy, namely, bronze. The appearance of bronze not
relics, their environment and the interaction between materials only changed people’s production and living conditions,
and environment. Corrosion of metal relics [45] refers to the promoted the progress of human social civilization, and
phenomenon that metal relics are damaged by chemical and made human society complete the transformation from Stone
electrochemical action with the environment. The corrosive Age to Bronze Age, but also brought a lot of artistic value.
environment of underground cultural relics is mainly soil, Figure 6.24 shows the famous Sanxingdui bronze mask.
water content, oxygen content, pH value, salt substance con- Although it has been protected to some extent, obvious
tent, temperature, redox potential, etc., which will affect the corrosion can be seen on its surface. Figure 6.25 shows the
corrosion of cultural relics. For the cultural relics in collection bronze dagger-axe of Song Dynasty in the Spring and
and outdoor display, the atmosphere is their main environ- Autumn Period. Similarly, despite careful protection, the
ment, and the influence factors are temperature, humidity, surface of Gogh has suffered a certain degree of corrosion.
light radiation, air pollutants, pests, and the role of microor- These bronzes represent the political and military power of
ganisms. For the relics in the sunken ship, water is their main the rulers. Therefore, the study of bronze will certainly give
environment, and the dissolved oxygen content, pH value, us a lot of clues to reveal the history of early human society.
temperature, flow rate, salinity, and microorganism in the
water environment are all the main factors affecting the cor-
rosion of cultural relics in the water environment.
2. Corrosion of cultural relics of different materials
If the cultural relics are classified according to the materials,

the cultural relics may be classified into organic cultural
relics and inorganic cultural relics, as shown in Table 6.2.
Among the corrosion of these cultural relics, the most
serious and most likely to lose their value are metal cultural
relics, while paper cultural relics, wooden cultural relics,
stone cultural relics, textile cultural relics, and bone cultural
relics also require attention.
(1) Metal cultural relics
A. Bronze ware
In early human activities, copper is the earliest metal to be

used. In the late Neolithic Age, ancestors began to use Fig. 6.24 Sanxingdui bronze mask unearthed in Sichuan
796 X. Li
Fig. 6.26 Qianmiao iron voucher in Tang Dynasty
Fig. 6.25 Bronze dagger-axe of Song Dynasty in the Spring and

Autumn Period
Copper, tin, lead, and bronze have high chemical stability,

and their corrosion is carried out slowly under certain con-
ditions. Bronze corrosion in wet environment will accelerate,
forming two kinds of corrosion products, copper oxide and
cuprous oxide, which can protect the bronze surface and
prevent the copper matrix from further oxidation. Although
moist gas forms a protective layer against corrosion of
bronze, the presence of chloride ions is a destroyer of bronze
because corrosion reaction can be repeatedly carried out in
the copper base body. If the bronze ware is contaminated by
chloride, it will appear the powdery rust of light green color.
With the corrosion and diffusion of chloride ion, the bronze
ware will be deformed, flaked off, the inscription is blurred,
Fig. 6.27 Sanbao iron spear in Ming Dynasty
the wall is perforated, powdered and broken, and destroyed.
Therefore, for the corrosion protection of bronze, the most
important thing is to exclude the effect of chloride [46, 47].
The corrosion mechanism of iron is very complex. Gen-
B. Iron cultural relics erally speaking, it is a comprehensive result of electro-
chemical, chemical, and bacterial corrosion. Iron vessels in
The application of iron smelting technology makes mankind soil are affected by acid, alkali, and salt, especially by the
complete the transformation from Bronze Age to Iron Age, hydration and oxidation of water and oxygen in humid
and accelerates the historical process of human society from environments, causing chemical reactions on the surface,
slave society to feudal society. Many areas of China preserve which in turn leads to corrosion:
ancient large-scale iron relics, such as Cangzhou Iron Lion
and Guangzhou Humen Gate Cannons. Because of the active Fe þ O2 þ H2 O ! FeðOHÞ2 ð6:3Þ
chemical nature of iron, most iron relics have been corroded
The corrosion products of Fe(OH)2 also produce other
to varying degrees. Figure 6.26 shows the iron voucher in
different iron oxides due to the different environments and
Tang Dynasty, from which we can see that the corrosion on
the corrosion time. For example, chlorides and iron vessels
the surface of the iron voucher is very serious. Figure 6.27
can form chlorinated corrosion products:
shows the iron spear of the Ming Dynasty with a large
degree of corrosion on its surface. Fe þ 3Cl ! FeCl3 þ 3e ðunder the action of waterÞ ð6:4Þ
FeCl3 will further react with water to form iron hydroxide Therefore, for the cultural relics of pure gold products, there
and hydrochloric acid: is generally no need for special anti-corrosion protection, as
long as the chloride ion environment can be well controlled.
FeCl3 þ H2 O ! FeðOHÞ3 þ HCl ð6:5Þ The corrosion of gold products mainly comes from the
Hydrochloric acid, in turn, will continue to react with iron alloys of gold and other metals. If copper and iron are incor-
to form new iron trichloride: porated into pure gold, many corrosion problems will arise.
When copper is added, green thin rust appears, and when iron
Fe þ HCl ! FeCl3 þ H2 ð6:6Þ is added, red rust appears. In addition, the gold alloy in jewelry
Similar to bronze ware, the chloride ions in this system can cause dull and tarnish due to perspiration, which is caused
circulate the corrosion of iron in an acidic environment, by elemental sulfur and hydrogen sulfide in the perspiration.
resulting in complete damage to the iron. Therefore, in the protection of gold alloy relics, it is necessary
In addition, if the iron encounters sulfate and sulfide in to control the sulfur elements in the environment.
humid environment, it will also suffer serious corrosion For gold gilt wares, the corrosion mainly comes from the
damage, producing iron sulfide, iron sulfate, and other cor- metal as the foundation of the base. For example, for the
rosion products. gold gilt wares on the base of bronze, the gold gilt layer will
float on the surface because of the occurrence of patina, and
C. Gold- and silverwares the gold gilt layer will fall off, which will bring great loss to
the protection of gold gilt wares.
Gold- and silverwares possess an important position in Although silver is also a very chemically stable metal,
China’s ancient metals and are a monetary measurement there is also a certain degree of corrosion. The silver cultural
instrument, most of which are used by the aristocracy. relics shown in Fig. 6.29 and Fig. 6.30 have different
Goldware can be divided into pure goldware and gold gilt degrees of corrosion on their surfaces. The main reasons for
ware in cultural relics. Figure 6.28 shows the gold gilt cul- the corrosion of silverware are as follows: ① the nature of
tural relics. The chemical properties of pure gold are very silver itself. For example, the silver is doped with Cu, Hg,
inert, very stable in the air, not easy to be corroded. Gold is Cl, and Si due to processing and smelting to form a
only dissolved when reacting with halogen and aqua regia. microbattery effect with the silver; ② change of ambient
Fig. 6.28 Gold guilt Buddha in Yuan Dynasty Fig. 6.29 “Ganyou” silver basin in the Warring States Period
798 X. Li
Fig. 6.31 Agriculture collection in Ming Dynasty
Fig. 6.30 Silver medal in Yuan Dynasty
temperature. The increase of temperature and humidity will

accelerate the corrosion of silverware; ③ the role of light.
Silver absorbs ultraviolet rays and generates silver ions. At
the same time, ultraviolet rays decompose oxygen molecules
to form oxygen in an activated state. If there is sulfur in the
environment at this time, it will aggravate the corrosion of
silverware; and ④ the effect of microorganisms and pollu-
tants in the air.
(2) Paper cultural relics

Fig. 6.32 A poem presented by a friend of North Korea in Ming
Dynasty
Paper cultural relics in the form of books, paintings, docu-
ments, precious works of art, inherit the civilization of the
Chinese nation for thousands of years. Over time, the effect paper cultural relics are listed in the investigation report, as
of acids, the dramatic changes in temperature and humidity, shown in Fig. 6.33. As can be seen from the figure, we still
the exposure of light, the erosion of harmful gases, and the have many problems with respect to the preservation of
effect of microorganisms corrode paper cultural relics and paper cultural relics.
destroy these cultural heritages. The paper book shown in At present, there is no industry standard on the packing
Fig. 6.31 has some corrosion damage, and the surface of the bags or packing boxes for the preservation of cultural relics
poem in Fig. 6.32 also has a certain degree of corrosion. in China. Compared with the United States, there is still a
However, the protection of paper cultural relics is wor- big gap. In the United States, collection boxes and cabinets
rying. During the “10th Five-Year Plan” period, National for the preservation of cultural relics must be selected from
Cultural Heritage Administration has carried out the materials that do not emit harmful gas, and also have
National Investigation on the Corrosion Loss of Cultural non-combustion and non-corrosive functions. It is not
Relics. Among them, the statistics of various diseases of advisable to use wooden materials in the preservation of
Insect pest
Mildew
Embrittlement
Pulverization
Mildew and rot
Adhesion
Scratch marks
Fig. 6.33 Proportion statistics of various diseases of national paper cultural relics
paper cultural relics in many parts of China because wood

materials contain lignin, peroxides, and vegetable oils. When
these components decompose, the released gas can cause
serious corrosion of paper cultural relics [48].
(3) Wooden cultural relics
Wooden cultural relics are a large category of cultural relics

collected and kept by museums and cultural relics safe-
keeping units, such as common living utensils, production
tools, and works of art. Figure 6.34 shows a Brief Book of
the Emissary of the King of Kangju in the Western Han
Dynasty written with wooden slips. Wooden cultural relic is
a kind of organic material which is not easy to be preserved.
It is easy to be destroyed by many factors such as environ-
ment, biology, physics, and chemistry.
There are three types of damage to wooden cultural relics:
(1) Moth hole and decay: wood is a polysaccharide organic

matter, easy to be decomposed by biological enzymes
and become the food for insects and bacteria. The decay
of wood components is often caused by the growth of
fungi such as wood rot fungi. Its mycelium can
decompose the cell wall for nourishment, resulting in
the mesh or powder shape of wood tissue.
(2) Surface crisp pulverization: in addition to the factors of Fig. 6.34 Brief Book of the Emissary of the King of Kangju in the
biological destruction, it is mainly the destruction of Western Han Dynasty written with wooden slips
800 X. Li
environmental acidic substances and light. The acid gas

such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides in the air
combine with the water vapor in the air to form highly
corrosive acids, leading to acidic hydrolysis of com-
ponents such as cellulose of the wood, thereby causing
the surface of the wood material to be disintegrated.
Radiation from light can also break the molecular
chains of cellulose. The light in the ultraviolet region
has high photon energy, which can break the chemical
bond of organic molecules, break the molecular chain
of wood fiber, lignin, and other components, and cause
photodegradation, thus reducing the mechanical
strength of wood.
(3) Deformation cracking: wood is a hygroscopic substance
that has an affinity for both liquid and gaseous water. In
a high-humidity environment, wood will absorb mois-
ture, but in the dry low-moisture time, it will discharge
moisture. Due to the structural anisotropy of the wood,
the water desorption in all directions is not uniform, and
the moisture distribution inside and outside of the wood
is not uniform. Therefore, the wood components are
often subjected to abrupt changes in dry weather sea-
sons or environmental humidity so that various surface
and end surface cracks and multiple forms of twisting
and warping occur.
To sum up, in the protection of wooden cultural relics, we Fig. 6.35 Stone lion of Lugou Bridge
should not only strictly control the content of corrosive gas
in the environment but also control the temperature,
humidity, and light. At the same time, regular sterilization
treatment shall be conducted to prevent the corrosion effect
of microorganisms on wood [49].
(4) Stone cultural relics
In the long course of history, stone relics have become

important legacies left to us by our ancestors, such as the
stone tablets of the Imperial College, the sundial in front of
Tiananmen Square, the stone lions in front of Gongwangfu,
and the Mogao grottoes with Buddhist flavor. These pre-
cious cultural heritages suffer from natural damage in the
long history, as well as different levels of man-made dam-
age. Thus, most of them are subjected to very serious
weathering and some have threatened the long-term preser-
vation of cultural relics. As shown in Fig. 6.35, the surface
of the stone lion on Lugou Bridge has been seriously cor-
roded, while the stone classics in Fig. 6.36 also have serious
corrosion on the surface.
Weathering is an important factor leading to the corrosion
of stone cultural relics. Take the Palace Museum as an
example, the decorative patterns of the white marble boards
in Taihe Palace have been blurred, and the surface of the Fig. 6.36 Stone classics of late Shu Period unearthed in Sichuan
Province
stone members have formed powdery weathering products,

even flaking layers, and the mechanical strength is very low.
The main reasons for the weathering of stone cultural relics
are as follows:
(1) Physical weathering. The variation of the temperature

or the periodic temperature difference in the external
environment leads to the uneven distribution of the
temperature between the stone surface and the interior
(gradient change of the temperature), which causes the
difference of the expansion and contraction of the stone,
thus producing the mesh cracks with different shapes
and crisscross. In addition, the phase transformation
caused by the water contained in the stone and the
volume expansion effect caused by the soluble salt will
accelerate the weathering speed and degree of the stone. Fig. 6.37 Printed color-coated yarn in the Western Han Dynasty
(2) Chemical weathering. Severe air pollution and a large
influx of tourists (the instantaneous concentration of
human breath of CO2 is about 200 times the normal
concentration) will accelerate the weathering of stone
relics. Corrosive gas such as carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrogen oxides makes precipitation acid-
ized. In the long-term effect, stone cultural relics surface
suffer from weathering and then peel off.
(3) Effect of soluble salt. Because of the long-term action of
the groundwater, the sulfate and nitrate contained in the
groundwater are absorbed by the capillary action of the
rock. When the stone surface is dry, accompanied by
the salting-out effect of soluble salt, granular crystal salt
will be generated on the stone surface, and salt frost
(thick layer in white needle) will be formed. Periodic
fluctuations in temperature and humidity result in the
Fig. 6.38 Small bunchy cotton in Tang Dynasty
dissolution and recrystallization of soluble salt, which
are repeated to cause cracking of the rock.
(4) Microbial action. In the study of weathering of stone Silk fabrics are processed from silk. Silk is a kind of
relics, the role of lichens, mosses, and other microor- natural protein fiber, which is solidified by silk liquid
ganisms is discovered. Microorganisms release a large secreted by silk gland in silkworm body and mainly contains
amount of carbon dioxide by photosynthesis in their silk fibroin, sericin, and a small amount of other substances.
growth process, and carbon dioxide in water will form The main amino acids in silk fibroin and sericin proteins are
carbonic acid, resulting in the dissolution of stone [50]. glycine, alanine, serine, and tyrosine.
The development of silk technology in ancient China not
(5) Textile cultural relics only promoted the prosperity of textile industry but also
constructed the Silk Road, the bridge between East and West
China is the hometown of silkworm and the first ancient civilization. Through the onshore silk road and offshore silk
country in the world to make use of silkworm technology. road, Chinese textiles continue to be transported to the
Archaeologists found that in the Yin and Shang period, we western world, injecting many Chinese elements into west-
have a dark flower silk, and color jacquard silk products ern civilization.
appeared in the Zhou Dynasty. Figure 6.37 shows the Silk was popular in ancient Rome. In the Battle of Carrey
printed color-coated yarn unearthed in Western Han in 53 BC, the armies of the kingdom of Parthias attacked the
Dynasty, and Fig. 6.38 shows the small bunchy cotton in invading Roman legions with flags made of colorful Chinese
Tang Dynasty. silk. Crassus and his son and tens of thousands of Roman
802 X. Li
soldiers were killed in the war. The historian Frollus believes

that “the gold-embroidered and colorful flags that dazzle the
Roman legions are the first batch of silk products ever seen
by the Romans”. Soon, the silk was favored by the upper
classes of Rome. In 48 BC, Julius Caesar wore silk garments
at the ceremony, which made Chinese silk popular
throughout the Roman Empire and aristocrats in various
provinces. There was a market for Chinese silk in Rome.
During the Nervan-Antonian dynasty (41–31 BC), silk was
as popular in London as it was in Luoyang. Cleopatra
(69–30 BC), the Egyptian queen, also liked to wear silk from
China.
According to the nature of the materials, textile cultural
relics can be divided into five categories: silk fabrics, hemp
fabrics, cotton fabrics, fan fabrics, and other cultural relics of
grass-woven fabrics. If divided according to the archaeo-
logical and research direction of cultural relics, textile cul-
tural relics can be divided into two categories: ① existing
physical cultural relics and common textile cultural relics in
museums and other places belong to this category of cultural
relics; ② imprinted relics with marks left on other objects.
For example, fragments adhering to the bronze ware of Shang
Dynasty in Imperial Palace are imprinted relics [51–56].
(6) Bone cultural relics

Fig. 6.39 Longhu Tomb on the Xishui Slope of the National Museum
of China
Bone cultural relics mainly include human remains and
animal bones, such as the skulls of Beijing People.
Figure 6.39 shows the site of the Longhu Tomb on the in collection and outdoor display, the atmosphere is their
Xishui Slope of the National Museum of China. main environment and the influence factors are temperature,
The bone cultural relics have great archaeological value. relative humidity, light, air pollutants, pests, and microbial
Human remains can help us to study the early human body action. For the relics inside the sunken ship, water is their
structure and way of life, and various animal bones help us main environment, and the dissolved oxygen content, pH
to study the evolution of living things, the origin of life, and value, temperature, flow rate, salinity, and microorganism in
so on. the water environment are all the main factors influencing
Because of the characteristics of bone itself, it is easily the corrosion of the relics in the water environment [58].
damaged by the changes of temperature and humidity, acid,
alkali, salt, and other chemicals and bacteria in the natural (1) Atmospheric environment
environment. Sometimes, although the surface of the
unearthed bone or bone ware looks intact, it can’t afford to There are many factors affecting the corrosion of cultural
touch. And it is broken once it is touched. If appropriate relics in the atmosphere, such as temperature, humidity,
protection measures aren’t taken, it is difficult to recover sunlight, and pollutant gas.
once broken. Therefore, it is necessary to take scientific
protection measures for it [57]. A. Temperature
3. Corrosive environment The corrosion of cultural relics, especially metallic ones, in

the atmosphere is mainly an electrochemical process.
Different cultural relics are exposed to different corrosive According to Arrhenius equation k = A exp−Ea/RT, the
environments. For buried cultural relics, the corrosive reaction rate increases by two to four times for every 10 °C
environment is mainly soil. Moisture, oxygen content, pH, increase in temperature. Generally speaking, a relatively low
salt content, temperature, and redox potential in the soil will ambient temperature is required for the protection of the
affect the corrosion of cultural relics. For the cultural relics cultural relics in the collection.
B. Relative humidity “powdery rust”. What’s worse, when different kinds of

pollution gas coexist, it is easy to produce synergistic effect.
It is a factor affecting atmospheric corrosion of cultural In addition, with the development of social economy and the
relics. In the case of metal cultural relics, humidity can be use of new materials, the production of organic acids,
directly related to the formation of water film in metal cul- organic aldehydes and other pollutants, and increase of
tural relics, and the water film on the surface of cultural concentration make cultural relics face new threats.
relics will form an effective ion transport system, thus
causing electrochemical corrosion. F. Dust
C. Sunlight The effect of dust on the corrosion of cultural relics is as

follows: dust will absorb moisture in the air and form a layer
The influence of sunlight on the cultural relics is that the of dust with a higher relative humidity than air on the surface
metal materials are damaged by the thermal effect and of cultural relics, thus providing a convenient environment
photochemical reaction of infrared radiation. After the metal for the dissolution and corrosion of harmful gas.
cultural relics are exposed to the light radiation for a long
time, the surface temperature will rise and the aging speed is (2) Soil environment
correspondingly accelerated. Tarnish of metal surface
appears and surface even cracks so that cultural relics lose Taking metal relics as an example, the corrosion properties
ornamental and research value. of metals in soil are the same as those in electrolyte. The
factors affecting the corrosion of metal relics in soil are as
D. Oxygen follows: ① porosity (air permeability); ② soil temperature;
③ water; ④ pH value; ⑤ soluble ions (salt); ⑥ redox
Corrosion is a redox process, and oxygen is the main oxidant potential; ⑦ microorganisms; and ⑧ stray current.
source for the corrosion of cultural relics in atmospheric
environment. (3) Water environment
E. Pollutant in the atmosphere The cultural relics in the water environment mainly come
from sunken ships and ancient relics. Among them, com-
Compared with the physical factors in the environment, pared with the freshwater environment, the seawater envi-
various kinds of pollution gas in the atmosphere have more ronment has a higher degree of influence on the corrosion of
remarkable effect on the corrosion or degradation of cultural cultural relics. Table 6.3 lists the similarities and differences
relics, and the pollution gas with greater hazards to cultural of the influence factors of the freshwater environment and
relics materials mainly includes SOx, NOx, O3, chloride, the seawater environment on the corrosion of cultural relics.
suspended particulate matter, organic acids, and formalde-
hyde. They will cause damage to different types of cultural 6.2.2.3 Anti-corrosion Measures for Cultural
relics in the museum to varying degrees. For example, SOx Relics
and NOx are the main sources of forming acid rain which has The anti-corrosion measures for cultural relics are mainly
a strong corrosion effect on metal relics, and O3 has so divided into four categories: preventive and active protection
strong oxidizing property that it can oxidize most metallic or of cultural relics, surface treatment of metallic cultural relics,
non-metallic cultural relics materials. Chloride ion corrosion surface treatment of non-metallic cultural relics, and corro-
of copper and copper alloy relics can form destructive sion inhibitor protection of metallic cultural relics [59, 60].
Table 6.3 Similarities and Freshwater environment Seawater environment

differences of the influence
factors of the freshwater Factors affecting corrosion in water environment pH value pH value
environment and the seawater Oxygen content Oxygen content
environment
Water temperature Water temperature
Salt content in water Carbonate saturation
Flow rate Flow rate
Salinity
Biological factors
804 X. Li
1. Preventive and active protection of cultural relics and microorganisms. Cultural relics preserved outdoors will
leave signs of rain erosion or animal excrement, which will
The corrosion control of cultural relics is divided into pre- accelerate the corrosion of cultural relics. Therefore, in the
ventive protection and active protection. Preventive protec- protection of cultural relics, the surface treatment of cultural
tion refers to the use of various measures to control the relics is very important.
corrosion of cultural relics starting from the periphery of the
cultural relics. The main means are temperature and (1) Mechanical treatment of the surface of cultural relics
humidity control, air pollution prevention, natural disaster
prevention, and so on. Active protection means the direct Most of the commonly used mechanical processing tools for
protection and restoration of cultural relics. Generally, it is cultural relics are used as household tools. For example,
necessary to clean up the corroded parts of cultural relics, angle mills are commonly used for cutting and polishing
repair cultural relics, and then add corrosion inhibitor or cultural relics, engraving machines are often used for the
sealing protection. There is a complete set of protection restoration and reproduction of cultural relics characters, and
procedures. other basic tools such as small electric drills, hammers,
Most cultural relics, such as metal cultural relics, stone hammers, chisels, shovels, wire brushes, and pliers are also
cultural relics, and wooden cultural relics, mainly rely on commonly used in the treatment of metal surfaces.
active protection, including surface treatment of cultural In addition to the use of household tools, medical and
relics, addition of coatings, and corrosion inhibitors. Paper, industrial equipment are often used for the mechanical
textile, and other cultural relics mainly rely on preventive treatment of cultural relics. The commonly used large-scale
protection after cleaning treatment. equipment include ultrasonic cleaning machines commonly
Affected by light, humidity, temperature, harmful gas, used in laboratories, dental cleaning machines in medical
and mold, paper cultural relics are easy to be destroyed. industry, industrial sandblasting machines and steam clean-
Some precious calligraphy and paintings tend to lose their ing equipment for car cleaning, etc. In the protection of
original color, the seals will fade and lead to blurring, and cultural relics, the necessary improvement of the equipment
the paper is prone to yellowing, acidifying, and causing can make it become a special tool for surface treatment of
mildew and rust. Thus, paper relics often need to be pro- cultural relics.
tected and wrapped in paper bags and concentrated in an The sandblasting technology also has an extremely high
airtight cabinet. The storage boxes and cabinets for the application value in the surface treatment of cultural relics.
preservation of cultural relics shall have strict requirements, The surface treatment of cultural relics is usually carried out
meet the national or international standards, and control the by laboratory closed sandblasting machine. In the rust
humidity, temperature, harmful gas and dust, etc. removal of cultural relics, it is necessary to select the abra-
The textile cultural relics need to be dried, dehumidified, sive material according to the material quality and specific
and preserved in an environment that can avoid mildew after corrosion degree of the cultural relics. The main abrasive
being repaired by means of moisture recovery and other materials used are quartz sand, corundum sand, plastic sand,
treatment methods. Textile relics are organic cultural relics, glass beads, walnut powder, and so on with particle size
so the focus is to prevent the occurrence of mildew. ranging from coarseness to fineness. In the process of cul-
Humidity, temperature, pH, air environment, and strong light tural relics, the sandblasting pressure and size are relatively
all activate mold. Therefore, strict requirements of textile small to avoid wear on the cultural relics.
cultural relics are needed to protect the environment, and
regular inspection is the focus of textile heritage conserva- (2) Physical cleaning of the surface of cultural relics
tion [51, 61, 62].
The surface cleaning methods of cultural relics mainly
2. Surface treatment of metallic cultural relics include soaking, dry cleaning, dry wipe, ultrasonic cleaning,
steam cleaning, laser cleaning, mechanical dust removal, etc.
Under different environments, the surface of cultural relics The cultural relics, with solid texture and no fear of water-
will produce a lot of attachment or mottled rust. Most logging, can be washed by soaking. Dry cleaning is com-
unearthed artifacts have hard soil dirt and soil contains a monly used for textiles. Unearthed cultural relics afraid of
large number of electrolyte salts and microorganisms that liquid can be dry wipe.
attach to the surface of cultural relics for a long time, which In ultrasonic cleaning, ultrasonic generator is used to
will accelerate the corrosion of cultural relics. Most of the generate ultrasonic wave. Under the action of ultrasonic
cultural relics from water are attached with thick coagulants wave, liquid molecules form tiny cavities, the so-called air
which are porous and loose and rich in electrolyte solution bubbles. The internal and external pressures of the air
bubbles are greatly different. When the air bubbles are complex. Cultural relic experts add thiourea (CH4N2S)
broken, the local liquid will vibrate. This vibration can in citric acid solution. Thiourea has strong coordination
remove all kinds of dirt on the metal surface. ability with cuprous. Citric acid can also complex the
The basic principle of steam cleaning is that water is harmful rust in rust product-basic copper chloride, and
heated by a completely sealed steam engine to form steam, the reaction equation is as follows:
and the injected saturated steam can remove dirt on the
surface of the relics by utilizing its high pressure of vapor- Cu þ nCH4 N2 S ! CuðCH4 N2 SÞn þ ðn ¼ 13Þ ð6:9Þ
ization and high adsorption capacity. The stain and rust
products on the surface and seam of the Western Zhou Cu2 ðOHÞ3 Cl þ 2C6 H8 O7 ! 2CuðC6 H5 O7 Þ þ 3H2 O þ 3H þ þ Cl
Dayuding and Simuwuding in the National Museum of ð6:10Þ
China are cleaned by this method.
(3) Other methods include alkaline glycerol treatment,
Laser technology is also used in the cleaning of cultural
ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) treatment and
relics. In recent years, laser technology has been popularized
acetic acid hydrate treatment.
for surface treatment of cultural relics and works of art. The
advantages of laser cleaning the surface of cultural relics are
The surface chemical treatment methods for iron cultural
mainly low aggressiveness, high accuracy, high selectivity,
relics include:
and high environmental protection. For example, foreign
scientists have tried to use CO2 and Nd lasers to treat
(1) Chemical rust removal. Commonly used rust remover is
excavated ironwares. Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage
citric acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, phosphoric acid and
has also begun to pay attention to and devote to the appli-
other weak acids, and EDTA disodium salt and other
cation of this research work. China has its own laser cleaning
complex agents.
equipment for the protection of cultural relics.
(2) Chelating agent method. EDTA and acetic acid can
dissolve calcium carbonate much more than oxalic acid,
(3) Chemical cleaning of the surface of cultural relics
citric acid, tartaric acid, etc. The calcium salt on the iron
surface is removed by means of coordination reaction of
In addition to physical treatment methods, the application of
EDTA or acetic acid solution with metal ions.
chemical methods to surface treatment of cultural relics is
(3) Chemical dechlorination salt. Chlorine exists widely in
also very wide. Chemical methods are mainly applied to the
the rust product of ironware and has very strong cor-
cleaning of bronze, iron, silver, and other metal cultural
rosiveness. Among the methods of chemical desalting
relics and stone cultural relics. The chemical method is more
of iron cultural relics, lye immersion method and
thorough than the physical method, but it is difficult to
alkaline sulfite reduction method are widely used.
restore the cultural relics to the state before the cultural relics
are treated.
Silver surface is easy to be attacked by sulfide and
For different materials of cultural relics, the anti-corrosion
chloride in atmospheric environment to form silver sulfide
treatment methods are different.
and silver chloride, which makes silver color dull and lus-
The main methods for chemical treatment of bronzes are:
terless. If the corrosion product on the silver surface is
removed to brighten the object, it may be wiped with a soft
(1) Sodium sesquicarbonate to remove “harmful rust”:
brush or cloth dipped in toothpaste or soap, or washed with
weigh 27.9 g of sodium carbonate and pour it into
sodium thiosulfate solution. In general, a thin layer of cor-
960 mL of deionized water, slowly dissolve the sodium
rosion product on the surface of silverware can be left
carbonate, put in sodium bicarbonate, and stir the
because it has the function of preventing further corrosion of
solution uniformly until the solution is completely
the silverware.
dissolved. The reaction equation for soaking the cor-
The chemical cleaning of stone cultural relics mainly
roded bronze with the dissolved solution is as follows:
includes electrolyte neutralization method, chelating agent
4CuCl þ 2H2 O þ 2Na2 CO3 þ O2 method, redox method, ion exchange resin method, organic
! 2Cu2 CO3 ðOHÞ2 þ 4Cl ð6:7Þ solvent method, etc.
Cu2 ClðOH)3 þ HCO

3 ! Cu2 ðOHÞ2 CO3 þ Cl þ H2 O (1) The electrolyte neutralization method mainly utilizes
ð6:8Þ H+ or OH− in aqueous solution and acid or base in
corrosion product to neutralize each other so as to
(2) Thiourea–citric acid method for rust removal: Citric decompose or detach the pollutants. The acid cleaning
acid and cupric in bronze rust product can form a stable solution of stone has hydrofluoric acid, ammonium
806 X. Li
fluoride, etc. Strong acid will often cause partial dam- cultural relics. Epoxy resin is widely used in the reinforce-
age to cultural relics. The common alkaline cleaning ment of buildings and stone relics. The famous Longmen
agent is mainly ammonium carbonate, ammonia water, Grottoes, Yungang Grottoes, Dazu Stone Carvings, and
small molecular phosphate and silicate, etc. Foreign many other grottoes are reinforced with epoxy resin. With
stone ancient buildings are often used cleaned by the limitation of organic solvent emission, waterborne epoxy
alkaline solution. resin has been widely used as new surface protection agent
(2) Chelating agent can react with the metal ions in the for stone cultural relics protection. The waterborne epoxy
contaminants to convert the contaminants into easily resin has better waterproof property, hydrolytic resistance,
soluble chelate. The most common chelating cleaning anti-ion aging property, and shielding property, and has
agent for stone relics is aminocarboxylic acid, such as obvious protection effect on stone cultural relics.
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and aminotri-
acetic acid (NTA). (2) Organosilicon
(3) The redox method mainly uses oxidizing agent or
reducing agent to oxidize or reduce the pollutants, and Organosilicon protective agent mainly refers to alkyl silicate,
the corrosion product of the cultural relics is dissolved ethyl silicate, silane, siloxane, and silicate. The alkyl group
in the solution, thereby removing the pollutants on the and the silica bond in the molecule have water resistance and
surface of the cultural relics. The commonly used oxi- permeability to air. In addition, good physical bond can be
dizing cleaning agent for stone cultural relics is mainly carried out with the surface of the cultural relics, and new
halogen compounds and peroxides, and the reducing chemical bond is sometimes formed, thereby forming stable
cleaning agent is mainly oxalic acid and thiourea silicide for reinforcing. Some reports show that it has been
dioxide. applied to the protection of the pottery figurines in the early
(4) Ion exchange resin mainly utilizes the interaction of period of the Western Han Dynasty and the protection of the
active chemical groups with the molecules of contam- ancient ivory in the Jinsha site of Chengdu. The silicone
inants to dissolve certain specific pollutants. The fine- material used in the reinforcement of stone cultural relics is
ness of the resin is in the range of 100–200, and the mainly alkoxysilane monomer, and the biggest difference
effect is relatively slow, which can avoid the invasion of from silicone resin is that the oligomer is a partially
chemical penetration. hydrolyzed polymer with the ability of further hydrolysis and
(5) The organic solvent method uses the principle of polycondensation, and high elasticity while silicone resin is
“similar compatibility” of the solvent, and has a good product of complete hydrolysis.
treatment effect on oil spots, dust, and smoke dirt on the
surface of stone cultural relics, and can remove the (3) Polyurethanes
organic dirt and biological dirt on the surface of the
cultural relics. It is the abbreviation of polyaminomethyl ester coating,
which is a coating with polyurethane resin as the main
3. Surface treatment of non-metallic cultural relics film-forming substance, and is a polyurethane resin formed
by polymerizing a polyisocyanate and a polyhydroxy com-
The surface protection and treatment of non-metallic cultural pound. Due to the presence of isocyanic group (–NCO) and
relics is mainly used for the protection and research of amide group (–NH–CO–) in the molecular chain, it shows
weathered and damaged objects by using synthetic polymers high activity and polarity and has high binding property to
and modern technology and modern materials. It includes various materials. Hydrogen bond can be formed between
epoxy resin, silicone, polyurethane, acrylic resin, polyvinyl macromolecular chains so that the strength is high and the
acetate and modified composite materials, and so on. solvent corrosion resistance is strong. The isocyanate has a
flexible molecular bond, so it has high elasticity, vibration
(1) Epoxy resin resistance, impact resistance, fatigue resistance, and partic-
ularly excellent low-temperature resistance. This material is
Epoxy resin structure contains benzene ring and ether bond dry under natural conditions and the film itself has good
with strong anti-chemical solvent ability and a certain mechanical properties and weathering resistance,
resistance to acid, alkali, organic solvent. At the same time, anti-corrosion, salt fog resistance, and anti-mold character-
it contains hydroxyl, amino, and other polar groups with istics. Due to its excellent properties, polyurethane polymers
high adhesive force to the rock. Since the 1960s, epoxy resin have been applied and developed in many fields such as
has become an important means of protection for stone coatings and adhesives. For example, in the field of cultural
relics protection such as painting of terracotta warriors and good mechanical strength. The surface is clean without
horses, polyurethane emulsion and polyethylene glycol adhesion, the film is light-transmitting, and the solubility is
mixed solution are used for field reinforcement and good. Polyvinyl alcohol aqueous solution is stable at normal
protection. temperature and is hardly affected by weak acid, weak base
or organic solvent, and has high oil resistance. PVAc and
(4) Acrylic resin polyvinyl alcohol were used in the protection of Dunhuang
frescoes more than 10 years ago.
The acrylic resin has excellent light stability, good water
resistance, excellent color retention and adhesive force, (6) Modified composite material
alkali resistance, and chemical resistance, so it is widely
used in many aspects in the field of cultural relics protection. Along with the continuous development of material science,
There are researches on the use of acrylic resin to protect people have higher and higher requirements for cultural relics
wooden cultural relics at home and abroad. For example, in protection materials, and often a single material can’t meet
1970s, China Institute of Cultural Relics cooperated with the requirements. Thus, it is necessary to develop more
Department of Chemistry of Beijing Normal University and excellent materials. In the practical work, several materials
used acrylate monomers for water-saturated wooden bucket can be used for compound so as to achieve the best protection
dehydration research. Grattan and Goven think that methyl effect. For example, the polyester type polyurethane emul-
methacrylate, butyl acrylate, and methacrylic acid are more sion is modified as an iron cultural relic composite sealing
suitable for infiltration and reinforcing agent for porous agent by adding a corrosion inhibitor and a nanomaterial. The
(wood) cultural relics through a lot of experiments of cul- results show that the addition of the corrosion inhibitor and
tural relics restoration and protection. the nanocomposite sealing agent obviously improves
In addition to the use of acrylic resin non-aqueous dis- anti-corrosion, ultraviolet ray resistance, acid resistance, and
persion material for the extraction and protection of trace of alkali resistance. The non-aqueous dispersion material of
ancient elephant feet in Nihe Bay, B72, which is mainly organosilicon modified acrylic resin is prepared by conver-
composed of polyethyl methacrylate, is also widely used for sion method through using silicone modified acrylic resin
the protection of mural and colored paintings. PrimalAc33, emulsion as raw material for protection of soil site. Silicone
which is mainly composed of polymethyl acrylate and modified acrylic emulsion is a material with better weather-
polymethyl methacrylate, is also being used in the protection ing resistance, which is better than acrylic resin emulsion. Its
experiment of Qin terracotta paintings. development has entered a mature stage and will have better
performance than acrylic resin emulsion. Besides, an acrylic
(5) Polyvinyl acetate (PVAc) and polyvinyl alcohol resin or an epoxy resin is used to modify the organosilicone,
and the obtained resin has better stability, heat resistance, and
PVAc emulsion is an important kind of synthetic resin weather resistance than the pure silicone resin, and compat-
emulsion. The emulsion is prepared by emulsion polymer- ibility with other solvents is improved, and the cost is
ization with water as the dispersion medium; has the char- reduced. The polyacrylate emulsion coating modified by
acteristics of non-toxic, tasteless, and no environmental organosiloxane has also become an ideal protective material
pollution; and is considered as a green and for cliff stone carvings because of its low viscosity, strong
environment-friendly adhesive. It has good adhesive prop- permeability, good permeability, and permeability.
erties for wood, fiber, paper, and concrete. However, PVAc
emulsion has the disadvantage of poor freeze-thaw stability, 4. Corrosion inhibitor protection on metal cultural relics
that is, it is easy to lose the use value due to gel deterioration
in low-temperature environment, which affects the use of (1) Corrosion inhibitor protection of bronze wares
PVAc emulsion. Polyvinyl alcohol is made from vinyl
acetate (VAc) by alcoholysis polymerization. It is a kind of The research on the protection of bronze cultural relics
water-soluble and environment-friendly polymer. Polyvinyl focuses on the analysis of the composition and structure of
alcohol softens when heated, and doesn’t change obviously the bronze substrate, the surface classical rust layer and the
below 40 °C. When heated above 160 °C for a long time, it “powdery rust”, the influence of atmospheric pollutants on
gradually changes color, and decomposes at above 220 °C to the corrosion of the bronze wares and monitoring, the
form water, acetic acid, acetaldehyde, and butenal. Due to mechanism of the “powdery rust”, and ways to control
the high adhesion between the polyvinyl alcohol molecules, corrosion of bronze. Many research results have played a
it is easy to form a film that is colorless and transparent with great role in the preservation of bronze relics.
808 X. Li
The main way to control the corrosion of bronze is to

prevent the powdery rust. The early methods are soaking
sodium sesquicarbonate to remove chloride on the surface,
local blocking chloride ion method with silver oxide, and
local electroerosion method to remove chloride ion in the
active area. Glow discharge is a new method of conservation
and restoration in foreign countries, which uses glow dis-
charge in the mixture of hydrogen and other gases to reduce
the rust layer and remove the chloride ion in the corrosion
layer. Ian Donald MacLeod summarizes and compares var-
ious methods of removing chloride ions on the surface of
corroded alloy copper, and puts forward the principles of
selection of methods for removing chloride ions, control of
cleaning liquid corrosion, testing of bronze disease, etc.
(2) Corrosion inhibitor protection of iron cultural relics Fig. 6.40 Ancient iron bell Treated with corrosion inhibitor
It is a common problem that the unearthed iron relics are not (3) Corrosion inhibitor protection of silver cultural relics
well preserved. Iron is a relatively active metal, the corrosion
rate in the atmospheric environment is relatively high, and The artistic appreciation value of silver cultural relics is very
the principle of “not changing the original state of cultural high. Ancient money, decorations, and many kinds of uten-
relics” must be strictly observed, which makes it more dif- sils are made of this precious metal. The main problem of its
ficult to preserve iron cultural relics. In recent years, with the preservation is discoloration and blackness, affecting the
emphasis on the protection of modern industrial cultural clarity and appearance of inscriptions and pictures. This is
relics, the research on the protection of iron cultural relics also the focus of conservation researchers. Silver anti-tarnish
has begun to be active, and some important progress has protection work is more focused on the development of
been made on the basis of the analysis of the corrosion anti-tarnish technology and mechanism research, such as
process and the protection mechanism of iron cultural relics. coating polymer protective layer, chemical conversion film—
East China University of Science and Technology and chromate passivation, electrochemical passivation, and so on.
Shanghai Museum have developed a new systematic method Earlier silver corrosion inhibitors such as nonyl polyethoxy
for corrosion protection of iron cultural relics. The iron sulfide, dihexadecane disulfide, and tetravalent tin sulfide
cultural relics are systematically treated by techniques such (C4H9)2Sn(SCH2COOC8H17)2 have been proposed in United
as desalting cleaning ! stable transformation of rust States Patent. Many literatures have reported the anti-
layers ! passivation sealing ! surface hydrophobicity tarnishing effect of vapor corrosion inhibitor on silver mate-
anti-rust preservation. The atmospheric corrosion of iron rials in atmospheric environment containing hydrogen sulfide.
relics is obviously suppressed. The iron cultural relics treated At home and abroad, literatures on BTA and PMTA as silver
with this system are shown in Fig. 6.40. corrosion inhibitors have been published. For example, Fang
Chinese Academy of Cultural Heritage undertakes the Jingli et al. think that PMTA can improve the anti-ultraviolet
task of National Science and Technology Support Program radiation ability of silver layer more effectively. In comparison
of the “11th Five-Year Plan”—Research on Comprehensive with BTA in combination with silver to form a dual-ligand
Protection of Iron Cultural Relics summarizes the materials film, PMTA has a better complex effect, which combines with
and manufacturing techniques of large-scale iron cultural silver to form a dense film with a full ligand structure on the
relics in ancient China, and studies the relationship between surface, thereby more effectively preventing corrosion of the
corrosion products of iron cultural relics and environment. silver surface. Other nitrogen-containing heterocyclic silver
New materials and new technologies for rust removal, corrosion inhibitors have been reported, such as sodium
desalination, corrosion inhibition, and sealing of iron cul- dimercaptosuccinate, sulfathiazolyl acetic acid plus a small
tural relics have been developed, and a series of research amount of polymer, 2-mercaptoalanine, thiourea, pyrazoles,
results with independent intellectual property rights have imidazoles, and pyridines.
been obtained. Comprehensive techniques for the protection Through a lot of experimental research work, Shanghai
of outdoor iron cultural relics have been formed and Museum and East China University of Science and Tech-
demonstrated. A conceptual scheme for the protection of nology have basically found out the causes of discoloration
large outdoor iron relics has been put forward. of silver cultural relics in the atmospheric environment, and
Fig. 6.41 Comparison of gold knife after protection treatment Fig. 6.42 Gold-plated silver plate after protection treatment
scientifically and systematically studied the mechanism of and can be used as a protective film. However, it is unstable
anti-discoloration of heterocyclic compounds against silver. under long-term sunlight and easily degrades. Through
Several compound corrosion inhibitors of oxazole series modification, organosilicon materials, such as ethyl silicate
(MBO, MBI, PMTA) are applied to the protection and and polysiloxane, have strong surface binding force with
treatment of silver cultural relics. The compound corrosion stone cultural relic and have relatively good performance of
inhibitors show excellent synergistic effect, and the protec- resisting ultraviolet ray aging, thus overcoming the short-
tive film formed with silver surface is thin and dense. coming of the traditional organic protective film. Inorganic
Therefore, it can effectively prevent the silver cultural relics protective substances are mainly fluorine silicon compounds,
from discoloring, and basically solve the problem of the basic silicate, basic oxide, and so on. Figure 6.43 is the
preservation of silver relics under the condition of the protected stone cultural relics.
storehouse. Figures 6.41 and 6.42 show protected gold and Adding corrosion inhibitor to the surface of cultural relics
silver cultural relics, respectively. is an irreversible treatment, which is likely to bring a certain
No further corrosion phenomenon is found in the store- risk to stone cultural relics. With the increase of time of
house of all kinds of silver cultural relics protected and corrosion inhibitor on the surface of stone cultural relics, the
treated by compound formula corrosion inhibitor, so the elements in the corrosion inhibitor will penetrate into the
comprehensive protection and treatment effect is ideal. surface of stone cultural relics, bringing risk of weathering to
the cultural relics. However, with the study of protective film
(4) Corrosion inhibitor protection for stone cultural relics modification and filler addition, the risk of corrosion inhi-
bitor to stone relics will be lower and lower.
In addition to being applied to metal surfaces in cultural
relics protection, corrosion inhibitors may be added to stone 6.2.2.4 Typical Cases
surfaces. The main protection of corrosion inhibitor on the
surface of stone cultural relics is to add a waterproof and
transparent protective film on the surface of the cultural 1. Terracotta Warriors and Horses of Qin Shihuang
relics, which can often protect the surface of the stone cul- Mausoleum
tural relics while reinforcing the stone cultural relics.
There are two kinds of corrosion inhibitors for stone As a great discovery of Chinese archaeology, the Terracotta
cultural relics protection: organic and inorganic one. The Warriors and Horses of Qin Shihuang Mausoleum is a
inorganic protective materials mainly include fluorosilicic treasure left by the splendid civilization in ancient China.
compounds, basic silicates, and basic oxides. However, with The terracotta warriors are shaped on the basis of the life
the development of organic materials, the application of form of the people of Qin Dynasty, with exquisite and bright
inorganic protective films in the protection of stone cultural techniques, and each terracotta army’s attire and manner are
relics is less and less. The organic protective materials mainly also different. The terracotta warriors and horses can be
include acrylic polymer and copolymer, polyethylene, and judged by their costumes, gestures, and looks. The formation
epoxy resin. The organic polymer has a strong adhesive force of terracotta warriors and horses reflects the advanced
810 X. Li
Fig. 6.43 Stone cultural relics after protection treatment
development of ancient Chinese terracotta army technology,

and the shape of terracotta warriors can also provide an
important reference for the study of people’s living culture in
the Qin period.
Although the terracotta warriors and horses vary in their
shapes, the dull gray and brown color wipes out their
heroism. The reason is that at the time of excavation, we
don’t have the corresponding protection technology, so that
colorful terracotta army will fade in the excavated air within
a few minutes. Figures 6.44 and 6.45 compare the shape of
the terracotta warriors after fading and before fading (please
scan the QR code on the back cover to see the color picture).
The erosion of cultural relics caused by unfavorable
protection measures gradually erodes the cultural achieve-
ments left by our ancestors. Cultural relics are an important
carrier and witness to the heritage of history and culture of a Fig. 6.44 Faded terracotta warriors
country and a nation. If damaged cultural relics can’t be
effectively protected, many cultural relics will be corroded
and gradually lose their inherent value. The historical culture discharged, the environment may change, and the intrinsic
contained in the cultural relics will also turn into smoke. characteristics are also greatly changed. Some of them are
favorable factors for the protection of cultural relics, while the
2. Marine cultural relics rest may have some effects on the cultural relics. In addition to
corrosion of ceramic relics in the water, wooden cultural relics
After being buried in the sea, a large amount of cultural relics in the water will have certain corrosion. Figures 6.46 and 6.47
in the marine environment suffer from the comprehensive show corrosion of wooden and ceramic cultural relics in the
effects of biological, physical, and chemical changes. After a water. Wood cultural relics in the sea will appear more serious
series of long-term changes, the internal physical and chemical corrosion and ceramic cultural relics can restore the original
properties have reached equilibrium. After the water is appearance of cultural relics after treatment.
certain environment with humidity and corrosive gas, the

critical relative humidity of cultural relics will become very
low and corrosion is very easy to occur. Although the pol-
lution gas content in the atmosphere is relatively low, the gas
will be dissolved into the water film on the surface of the
cultural relics, and the concentration may become very high,
or the passivation film may be destroyed or the critical rel-
ative humidity of the metal may be lowered, causing the
cultural relics to be damaged. Figure 6.48 shows the phe-
nomenon of spot corrosion and layer corrosion caused by
acid rain, marine salt fog, and humid climate in the atmo-
spheric environment.
In April 2008, the Humen Opium War Museum launched
the Iron Cannon Protection Project. Protection is mainly
divided into rust removal, desalting and chlorine removal,
corrosion inhibition, and sealing and protection. The rust
layer of ancient iron cannon reaches 5–10 cm. It takes more
than 1 year to only remove rust, desalt, and remove chlorine.
After the protection treatment, the rust on the surface of the
iron cannon has been substantially removed, as shown in
Fig. 6.49.
4. Cangzhou Iron Lion in Hebei
Fig. 6.45 Rebuilt terracotta warriors model from archaeological data Cangzhou Iron Lion, also known as “Zhenhai Hou” that is
famous for “Lion King”, is located in 16.5 km away from
the Cangzhou municipal government in the southeast and
3. Humen fortress
0.5 km in the west of Dongguan Village. Iron lion is 5.78 m
tall, 5.34 m long, and 3.17 m wide, weighing about 50 tons.
More than 170 ancient iron cannons of the Opium War were
It was cast in the year 953 AD and is China’s largest cast
left behind at the Humen fortress groups. These ancient iron
iron art. Cangzhou Iron Lion has a huge basin on the back.
cannons have very important historical significance. Some of
According to legend, it is Manjusri Bodhisattva’s lotus seat
the ancient cannons are preserved in the museum of the
with the lion body facing south, head facing southwest, two
Opium War in Humen, and some in the atmosphere. In a
left feet in front, and two right feet in the back. The lifelike
Fig. 6.46 Wood cultural relics

in the sea
812 X. Li
Fig. 6.49 The ancient iron cannon after rust removal
Administration built an octagonal pavilion for the iron lion.

However, the low pavilion prevented the evaporation of the
surrounding moisture, which made the environment become
more corrosive in this semi-closed environment so that the
iron lion was rusted all around. The pavilion was torn down
Fig. 6.47 Ceramic cultural relics unearthed from the sea by the authorities in 1974. In 1984, because the lion foot was
trapped in the soil for a long time, the people’s government
of Cangzhou City reported to the Cultural Relics Bureau of
the Ministry of Culture for approval to shift the iron lion 8 m
toward north and elevate on a 2-m-high stone platform. This
will not only protect the iron lion from the rain but also make
it easy for visitors to see. However, it was this elevation that
laid the seeds of disaster for the iron lion. In 1984, when the
iron lion was displaced, the construction unit filled the iron
lion leg with sulfur mixture for the convenience of hoisting.
When the project was completed, the construction unit
should have taken out the sulfur mixture, but in fact, they
hadn’t. After the constant heat expansion and cold contrac-
tion in winter and summer, lion leg eventually cracks. In
1995, the staff of the management office found a large crack
in the leg of the iron lion. After taking out the sulfur mixture,
the constructors poured sand, cement, and white ash into the
Fig. 6.48 Workers are de-rusting the ancient iron cannon
iron lion’s legs, and sealed it with asphalt to avoid water for
considering the problem of internal support. In order to
iron lion fully shows the wisdom and artistic talent of the lighten the burden of iron lion, the workers changed the white
working people in ancient China. Cangzhou Iron Lion is the ash into furnace ash. This kind of compound expanded more
world’s oldest and largest iron-cast lion art treasure, and has seriously than sulfur mixture when exposed to water, and the
a decisive value in the history of the world cast iron. In May crack in the leg of iron lion developed very rapidly. Since
1961, the iron lion was listed as one of the first “National 1995, a protective steel pipe support has been installed on the
Key Cultural Relics Protection Units”. outside of the iron lion, and the broken legs have been
According to historical records, in the 8th year of Jiaqing repaired. However, there are many concrete blocks difficult to
in Qing Danasty, the iron lion was blown down by the take out, so that the surface of the iron lion has dozens of
hurricane. After lying on the ground for 90 years, Cangzhou cracks and residual holes. Now the iron lion body under the
governor Gong Yu asked craftsman to lift up the iron lion in support is full of crisscross iron and steel support and serious
the 19th year of Guangxu. In 1956, in order to protect the defect on back. The iron lion is silent, but his eyes are full of
iron lion from the wind and rain, the Cangzhou sorrow. Scientific protection is necessary (Fig. 6.50).
Fig. 6.50 Past (a) and present

(b) situation of Cangzhou Iron
Lion in Hebei
Fig. 6.51 Before (a) and after

(b) protection of Iron Bell in
Beijing
In 2007, the Institute of Chinese Cultural Relics installed decorative room and the inner wall of the bell have thick and
a “micro-observation system” for Iron Lion. Monitoring loose rust (Fig. 6.51).
points connected by wires were installed in ten important The protection of iron bell in Hongsi Village has under-
parts of the iron lion. The instrument can sensitively sense gone a comprehensive scientific protection process, such as
the temperature, humidity, and light of all parts of the iron investigation of current situation, analysis of materials and
lion; and record and store data without interruption. This is corrosion, three-dimensional laser scanning, X-ray flaw
the first time to use high-tech means of comprehensive and detection analysis, preservation of environment, and so on.
subtle environmental monitoring of iron lion since the In the whole scientific protection process, three-dimensional
founding of Republic of China. The protection of iron lion is laser scan and X-ray flaw detection analysis are applied to
increasingly scientific and rigorous. the iron cultural relics, and the developed compound tannic
acid corrosion inhibitor, the compound silicate corrosion
5. Yanqing Iron Bell in Beijing inhibitor, and the fluorocarbon seal furnace material are
applied to the protection of the iron bell. Good protection
The iron bell in Hongsi Village was originally set up in the effect has been obtained, laying a foundation for further
Shunyan Temple of Hongsi. The bell is very famous for scientific formulation of comprehensive protection treatment
saying that “the bell strikes Zhao Village (Boji Camp) far scheme. It is very important to carry out research work of the
away”. The bell is basically well preserved, the skirt has comprehensive protection of the outdoor iron cultural relics
more than 10 cm long thin cracks, and the outer wall in China, and it is a model of the research results of the
814 X. Li
comprehensive protection of the outdoor iron cultural relics relics protection. Compared with other industries in China
in China. and foreign countries, the overall development level of sci-
ence and technology for cultural relics protection in China is
6. Pujindu iron cattle in Shanxi Province still relatively backward, and the effective support and
leading role of science and technology are still insufficient.
The Pujindu site in the Tang Dynasty is the first large-scale For example, in the desalting treatment of rust layer on the
ferry site unearthed in China. Complete iron cattle surface of iron relics, the Soxh1et extraction desalting
(Fig. 6.52), iron column, iron man, iron mountain, and other method under the nitrogen-filled condition has been devel-
large-scale iron relics have been unearthed from this site. oped abroad, and the evaluation method for the stability of
This batch of iron cultural relics experienced from the the desalted iron relics has been established. In the aspect of
underground to the ground, flood and soil, and other envi- the stabilization treatment of ironwares, J. B. Pehkan put
ronmental mutation process. The whole group of iron is very forward the method of using tannin compound to transform
seriously corroded. For the first time, modern cathodic the ironware relics and dealt with the actual relics. The
protection technology has been applied to the field protec- National Institute of Cultural Property of Japan has studied
tion of ancient iron cultural relics, and the laboratory the changes and stabilization methods of the unearthed
research and field construction application research on cor- ironwares in Japan during the preservation and treatment
rosion causes, influencing factors, selection of sacrificial process. After de-rusting and desalting, the ironware is fully
anode protection materials for iron cultural relics in the soil immersed in the resin to strengthen the body and promote
environment and impressed current protection have been the surface of the ironware to form a thin film. The air is
completed. The results show that the corrosion of the iron isolated to suppress corrosion, but the shiny resin layer is
cultural relics is caused by soil, atmosphere, and water. It is very discordant with the original appearance of the cultural
suggested that the impressed current cathodic protection relics.
method should be adopted in the area where the heteroge- In China, there are many researches and practical appli-
nous iron cultural relics are relatively concentrated (the cations on the protection of ironwares. For example, the
method of local distributed current control is innovatively research on the nitrogen-filled seal environment for iron
adopted). The sacrificial anode cathodic protection method sealing in the Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology in
should be adopted for the relatively dispersed areas of iron Anhui Province finds that this method has good protection
cultural relics. For the gas-phase environment, the traditional effect. However, the daily maintenance and monitoring
process + corrosion inhibitor and sealing treatment process technology of sealed containers can’t meet the long-term
should be adopted. preservation of large cultural relics. The rustproof
wax-sealed iron protection has a protective effect, but the
6.2.2.5 Main Problems in Corrosion surface of the iron device protected by the treatment is
and Protection of Cultural Relics greasy and easy to absorb dust, so the appearance of the
If the cultural heritages represent a country’s history, then treated cultural relic can’t be satisfactory. The phosphate
the protection and use of these cultural heritages not only tannin is used to remove rust and passivate in Shaanxi
reflect a country’s current situation but also reflect the Provincial Museum, but the surface color of iron after
national temperament of the country. To protect cultural treatment changes so much that it can’t meet the appearance
relics is to inherit Chinese culture. Therefore, it is very requirement of cultural relics protection. The application of
important to introduce science and technology into cultural vapor corrosion inhibitor in the protection of iron relics has
Fig. 6.52 Before (a) and after

(b) protection of Pujindu iron
cattle in Shanxi Province
also been reported in many literatures, such as the corrosion employees, collections, the total expenditure, total assets and
inhibition treatment of ironwares with benzotriazole studied total construction area of the cultural relics in the whole
by Fudan University. Although the appearance doesn’t country show an increasing trend year by year. The increase
change, the anti-corrosion effect may not meet the require- in the number of cultural relics institutions and collections
ments of environmental changes. reflects the prosperity of the cultural relics industry in China,
For a long time, China’s cultural relics protection work is while increasing the pressure of investment in funds and
basically still in the state that treatment is carried only in personnel. Whether the annual investment of funds and
accordance with the corrosion or disease appearance in order personnel can adapt to the increasing number of cultural
to solve the urgent situation because of historical reasons and relics is the key to the improvement of cultural relics
many factors such as people, wealth, material constraints, protection.
and so on. For example, there are 498 stone lions on the By analyzing Table 6.4, the annual growth rate of the
Lugou Bridge. They have different expressions and forms cultural relics industry is obtained in Table 6.5 and the
and they are very precious stone relics. However, after annual growth rate of the cultural relics industry is shown in
long-term weathering, some lion heads have cracks and need Fig. 6.53.
to be bonded. If the adhesive is not selected properly, or if According to Table 6.5 and Fig. 6.53, it can be basically
foreign protective materials are blindly used, the lion head concluded that the investment in all aspects of the cultural
will be removed due to the difference in thermal expansion relics industry is increasing year by year. On the whole, the
coefficient between the adhesive and the stone after filling growth rate of cultural relics institutions is higher than that
the cracks. Good intentions do bad things. Therefore, it is of the employees. The growth rate of the employees is higher
necessary to find out the mechanism of corrosion and than that of the collection of cultural relics, which indicates
destruction of cultural relics, master the properties of pro- that the growth rate of the cultural relics institutions and the
tective materials, and take appropriate measures in order to employees can basically meet the growth rate of the col-
obtain satisfactory results. We should study the protection lection of cultural relics.
methods suitable for the current situation of Chinese cultural In order to further analyze the intensity of cultural relics
relics, and should not blindly use foreign protective mate- protection of the cultural relics industry, the annual average
rials and technologies. value of input in each item of the cultural relics industry is
In addition, we should also establish a mechanism that calculated (Table 6.6 and Fig. 6.53).
conforms to the laws of scientific research on cultural relics According to Table 6.6 and Fig. 6.54, it can be seen that
protection, and gradually change the closed model, which is from 2010 to 2014, the number of cultural relics maintained
limited to the self-service of various cultural relics institu- by per employee is basically unchanged; the average number
tions. We should open laboratories conditionally, highlight of cultural relics collected by cultural relics institutions
advantages, and attract talents by ways of guest, special decreases, indicating that the work pressure on the preser-
employment, signing up, and other flexible ways. We should vation and protection of cultural relics by cultural relics
strengthen the absorption and utilization of advanced institutions is decreasing; the average maintenance cost of
high-tech achievements, and select appropriate technologies cultural relics is increasing, indicating that the investment in
from new materials and new technologies. Besides, we cultural relics protection has been increasing.
should strengthen international exchanges and cooperation, According to the data of the cultural relics industry
especially the collection and processing of information. We published in the Statistical Yearbook of China, it can be seen
have a world-class collection of cultural relics, it is necessary that the annual investment in funds and personnel of the
to have commensurate scientific and technological protec- cultural relics industry can basically adapt to the annual
tion teams and corresponding conservation and restoration growth of the collected cultural relics, and the protection of
techniques. cultural relics by the cultural relics industry has been
enhanced year by year. The protection of cultural relics in
China is improving year by year.
6.2.3 Analysis of Investigation Data and Results
6.2.3.2 Annual Expenditure Budget Statistics
6.2.3.1 Annual Statistics of Chinese Cultural of National Cultural Heritage
Relics Industry1 Administration2
Table 6.4 shows that from 2010 to 2014, in the cultural As the central department ministering the work of cultural
relics industry, the number of cultural relics institutions, relics throughout the country, the National Cultural Heritage
1 2
Source: China Statistical Yearbook. Source: Official website of National Cultural Heritage Administration.
816 X. Li
Table 6.4 Annual statistics of Chinese cultural relics

Industry composition Year
2014 2013 2012 2011 2010
Cultural relics institutions 8421 7737 6124 5728 5207
Employees 148,095 137,173 125,155 111,338 102,471
Collection of cultural relics/(pieces/sets) 40,635,827 38,408,146 35,054,763 30,185,365 28,642,200
Expenditure on the year/RMB 10,000 3,643,551 3,415,825 2,609,311 – –
Total assets/RMB10,000 10,177,757 7,674,904 5,971,229 4,627,565 –
Construction area/10,000 m2 2535 2115 2411 2208 –
Note “–” means that this data is not available
Table 6.5 Annual growth rate of cultural relics industry

Industry composition Year
2014–2013 (%) 2013–2012 (%) 2012–2011 (%) 2011–2010 (%)
Cultural relics institutions 8.8 26.3 6.9 10.0
Employees 8.0 9.6 12.4 8.7
Collection of cultural relics 5.8 9.6 16.1 5.4
Expenditure on the year 6.7 30.9 – –
Year
Cultural relics institutions
Employees
Collection of cultural relics
Fig. 6.53 Annual growth rate of the cultural relics industry
Administration has an annual total expenditure of about protection, the expenditure on museums, the expenditure on
RMB 400 million, of which the total expenditure on cultural other cultural relics, and expenditure on exhibition and daily
relics is mostly over RMB 200 million. The total expenditure operation of cultural relics. From Table 6.7 and Fig. 6.55, it
of cultural relics includes the expenditure on cultural relics can be seen that the total expenditure budget of the National
Table 6.6 Annual average value of cultural relics industry

Year 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010
Number of cultural relics maintained by per employee (piece/person) 274.39 280.00 280.09 271.11 279.52
Average maintenance cost of cultural relics (RMB/piece) 4825.53 4964.22 5724.16 5269.79 5500.71
Average number of cultural relics collected by cultural relics institutions 896.64 889.35 744.35 – –
(piece/unit)
Year
Number of cultural relics mainta ined by per
employee (piece / person )
Average maintenance cost of cultural relics
(RMB / piece)
Average number of cultural relics collected by
cultural relics institutions (piece / unit)
Fig. 6.54 Annual average value of cultural relics industry
Table 6.7 Statistics of annual expenditure budget of National Cultural Heritage Administration
Year Total expenditure Expenditure budget for cultural relics/RMB 10,000
budget/RMB 10,000 Total Expenditure on cultural Expenditure on Expenditure on other
expenditure relics protection museums cultural relics
2015 46621.00 31045.06 6078.00 2680.01 18253.52
2014 43900.14 29983.14 6351.52 2260.28 16556.20
2013 40124.69 28553.05 6731.53 2550.35 14783.26
2011 38073.09 18729.49 7700.00 1828.80 5417.96
2010 44135.65 21369.58 7050.00 2804.22 8775.00
2009 49428.12 27010.40 8250.00 4156.82 12100.00
2008 40052.44 23016.49 6920.00 2762.73 9520.00
2007 38397.15 19784.08 5200.00 1564.38 9871.00
Average 42591.54 24936.41 6785.13 2575.95 95276.94
818 X. Li
Unit: RMB 10,000

Year
Average
Total expenditure
Total expenditure on cultural relics
Expenditure on cultural relics protection
Expenditure on museums
Expenditure on other cultural relics
Fig. 6.55 Statistics of annual expenditure of National Cultural Heritage Administration
Table 6.8 Proportion of expenditure on cultural relics of National Cultural Heritage Administration
Year Proportion of total expenditure on Proportion of expenditure on cultural Proportion of expenditure on cultural
cultural relics to total expenditure (%) relics protection to total expenditure (%) relics maintenance to total expenditure (%)
2015 66.6 13.0 57.9
2014 68.3 14.5 57.3
2013 71.2 16.8 60.0
2011 49.2 20.2 39.3
2010 48.4 16.0 42.2
2009 54.6 16.7 49.6
2008 57.5 17.3 47.9
2007 51.5 13.5 43.3
Average 58.4 16.0 49.7
Note Budget for cultural relics maintenance = budget for cultural relics protection + budget for museum + budget for other cultural relics
Cultural Heritage Administration has basically changed As can be seen from Table 6.8 and Fig. 6.56, the pro-
steadily. Since 2011, the total expenditure budget and the portion of expenditure specially used for cultural relics
total expenditure budget for cultural relics have been protection basically ranges from 10% to 20%, and there is a
increasing year by year. Table 6.8 and Fig. 6.56 show the tendency to decrease year by year in recent years. The
proportion of the expenditure of various cultural relics of the proportion of total expenditure on cultural relics and the
National Cultural Heritage Administration to the total proportion of expenditure on cultural relics maintenance
expenditure. decreased in 2010 and 2011, but generally showed an
Year
Proportion of total expenditure on cultural relics to
total expenditure
Proportion of expenditure on cultural relics
protection to total expenditure
Proportion of expenditure on cultural relics
maintenance to total expenditure
Fig. 6.56 Proportion of cultural relics expenditure of National Cultural Heritage Administration
upward trend. Although the investment of National Cultural 6.2.3.4 Annual Expenditure Budget of Henan
Heritage Administration in cultural relics has been increas- Cultural Heritage Administration4
ing year by year, the expenditure specially used for cultural As can be seen from Table 6.10 and Fig. 6.58, the annual
relics protection has not increased accordingly. expenditure budget of Henan Cultural Heritage Adminis-
tration and the expenditure budget for cultural relics and the
6.2.3.3 Annual Expenditure Budget proportion of expenditure on cultural relics show an
of Guangdong Provincial Department increasing trend year by year as a whole, but there was a
of Culture3 decline in all data in 2016.
As can be seen from Table 6.9 and Fig. 6.57, the annual It should be noted that the data in the table is not the total
expenditure budget and the expenditure budget for cultural expenditure budget, but only the budget of the expenditure
relics of Guangdong Provincial Department of Culture show for financial allocation, so that the balance and other income
an increasing trend year by year, and the proportion of of the previous year are not included, and the statistical
expenditure on cultural relics is also increasing as a whole. results are only partial data.
The cultural relics work of Guangdong Provincial Depart-
ment of Culture is being strengthened year by year. 6.2.3.5 Annual Expenditure Budget of Shanxi
It should be noted that Guangdong Cultural Heritage Cultural Heritage Administration
Administration is the internal organization of the Guangdong As can be seen from Table 6.11 and Fig. 6.59, the annual
Provincial Department of Culture. The Department of Cul- expenditure budget of Shanxi Cultural Heritage Adminis-
ture is responsible for the cultural work of Guangdong tration and the expenditure budget for cultural relics and the
Province. Cultural relics work is only part of cultural work, proportion of expenditure on cultural relics show an
so the proportion of total expenditure on cultural relics is increasing trend year by year as a whole. Cultural relics with
relatively small. over RMB 200 million of investment top the list in the
province every year.
3
Source: Official website of Guangdong Provincial Department
4
of Culture. Source: Official website of Henan Cultural Heritage Administration.
820 X. Li
Table 6.9 Annual expenditure budget of Guangdong Provincial Department of Culture

Year Total Cultural relics budget/RMB 10,000 Proportion of expenditure
expenditure/RMB Total expenditure Cultural Museum Expenditure on on cultural relics (%)
10,000 on cultural relics relics other cultural relics
protection
2012 27235.31 3555.63 – – – 13.1
2013 41993.14 5761.70 – – – 13.7
2014 47637.19 7914.20 – – – 16.6
2015 55836.28 9152.04 616.70 6824.46 1710.88 16.4
2016 60596.71 10266.66 343.03 6481.63 3442 16.9
Average 46659.73 7330.05 343.03 6653.05 2576.44 15.3
Year
Total expenditure
Expenditure on cultural relics
Proportion of total expenditure on cultural relics
Fig. 6.57 Annual expenditure budget of Guangdong Provincial Department of Culture
Table 6.10 Annual expenditure budget of Henan Cultural Heritage Administration

Year Total Cultural relics budget/RMB 10,000 Proportion of expenditure on
expenditure/RMB Total expenditure on Expenditure on Expenditure on other cultural relics (%)
10,000 cultural relics museums cultural relics
2013 4961.5 2264.6 2209.4 55.2 45.6
2014 5074.3 3436.8 2377.3 1059.5 67.7
2015 6642.4 4891.6 4826.5 65.1 73.6
2016 4523.1 2766.8 2635.9 130.9 61.2
Average 5300.3 3340.0 3012.3 327.7 62.0
Year
Total expenditure
Fig. 6.58 Annual expenditure budget of Henan Cultural Heritage Administration
Table 6.11 Annual expenditure budget of Shanxi Cultural Heritage Administration

Year Total expenditure/RMB Total expenditure on cultural relics/RMB Proportion of expenditure on cultural relics
10,000 10,000 (%)
2014 18824.92 18205.25 96.7
2015 23006.63 22367.90 97.2
2016 26751.42 26404.94 98.7
Average 22860.99 22326.03 97.5
Year
Total expenditure
Fig. 6.59 Annual expenditure budget of Shanxi Cultural Heritage Administration

822 X. Li
6.2.4 Conclusions economic loss was about RMB 12.2 billion. Cultural and
economic losses caused by the corrosion of cultural relics are
At present, the protection of cultural relics in China is in the extremely heavy.
charge of cultural relics units at all levels, the National Through the analysis of the data published by China
Cultural Heritage Administration is responsible for the pro- Statistical Yearbook, National Cultural Heritage Adminis-
tection of cultural relics throughout the country. The cultural tration, Henan Cultural Heritage Administration, Shanxi
heritage administration or the department of culture at all Cultural Heritage Administration, and Guangdong Provin-
levels should be responsible for the protection of cultural cial Department of Culture, although the significance and
relics at all levels and shall have special funds and personnel calculation of the data are different, it is still found that the
to carry out relevant cultural relics protection work. investment of various cultural relics units in the work of
According to the Statistical Yearbook of China, there were cultural relics has increased year by year, and the expendi-
more than 8,000 cultural relic units in China in 2014, with ture on cultural relics protection also occupies a larger and
148,000 employees and total assets of more than RMB 100 larger proportion. Although the corrosion of cultural relics in
billion. China is still serious, with the increase of investment in the
The annual funds of cultural relics units mainly come work of cultural relics, especially in the protection of cultural
from the financial appropriation and partly come from the relics, it is believed that the corrosion of cultural relics in
balance of the previous year and other income. As the work China will be gradually improved in the coming years.
of cultural relics is non-profit, the annual financial appro-
priation of National Cultural Heritage Administration deci-
des whether the work of cultural relics can be carried out 6.3 Report on Corrosion Investigation
smoothly. According to the financial budget data released by in the Paper Industry
the National Cultural Heritage Administration, the financial
revenue of the National Cultural Heritage Administration 6.3.1 Basic Situation of the Paper Industry
has been about RMB 450 million in recent years and has
been increasing year by year, accounting for more than 50% Modern paper industry is an important industry closely
of the financial appropriation. According to the China Sta- related to the development of national economy and the
tistical Yearbook, the total assets of China’s cultural relics construction of social civilization. It is an efficient manu-
industry exceeded RMB 100 billion in 2014. facturing industry that provides commodity materials for
In line with the principle of “balance of payments”, the packaging, printing, and information industry with intensive
annual expenditure of cultural relics units is roughly equal to technology and capital and significant economies of scale. In
the fiscal revenue. The financial expenditure includes the the manufacturing industry in the world, it follows after the
salary and welfare expenditure of the staff, the administrative telecommunications manufacturing industry and automotive
operation expenditure of the cultural relic units, the project industry, and ranks before the steel industry and aerospace
expenditure, expenditure on the museum, and the cultural industry. Modern paper industry has become one of the top
relics, of which the expenditure directly related to the cul- ten manufacturing industries of the national economy in
tural relics protection work is expenditure on the museum United States, Canada, Japan, the Nordic countries, and
and cultural relics protection and other cultural relics work. other developed countries, and has been recognized by
The annual expenditure of the National Cultural Heritage experts as “everlasting” industry with food industry in the
Administration is about RMB 450 million, of which the international community. In developed countries, the growth
expenditure of cultural relics accounts for more than 60%. rate of consumption of paper and paperboard is synchro-
According to the Statistical Yearbook of China, the expen- nized with the growth rate of GDP, so the world has taken
diture of China’s cultural relics industry exceeded RMB 36.4 the production and consumption level of paper and paper-
billion in 2014. According to rough statistics, the expendi- board as one of the important indexes to measure the level of
ture on cultural relics protection accounts for a large pro- modernization and civilization of a country [63].
portion of the total expenditure of cultural relics units. China’s paper industry has developed rapidly, and China
According to the Investigation Report on Corrosion Loss has become a major producer and consumer of paper prod-
of Cultural Relics in Collection issued by Chinese Research ucts in the world, as well as a major importer of paper
Institute of Cultural Relics in December 2005, the collection products in the world with a self-sufficiency rate of 88.7%.
of cultural relics of all kinds of materials in China generally Paper industry basically meets the consumption needs of
has natural diseases of different degrees. More than half of domestic press and publication, printing, and commodity
the total collection was damaged by various degrees of packaging and other related industries [64]. With the rapid
natural corrosion, and the estimated annual average direct development, the technical level of pulp and paper
equipment has been rapidly upgraded and entered a new machinery manufacturing, and has become a new growth
period of modernization. The paper machines with the point for the development of national economy. Paper
widest width, the highest speed, and the most advanced industry is an important industry with the characteristics of
automation level in the world are basically in China. Many sustainable development in national economy, with regener-
internationally well-known multinational companies such as ated fiber such as primary plant fiber and waste paper as the
paper equipment, chemicals, paper fabrics, and trade ser- raw material, which can partly replace non-renewable
vices have set up business organizations in China, and some resources such as plastics, steel, non-ferrous metals, and so
have set up their own production bases and technology R&D on. The industry growth and profitability of the paper industry
centers. China has become the center of the development of are cyclical. On the one hand, as the basic raw material
paper industry in the world and occupies a more and more industry, the development speed and degree of paper industry
important economic position in the world. In China, the are usually highly related to the macro-economy, and the
number of paper and paperboard production enterprises has fluctuation cycle of demand is consistent with the
been reduced from 3,400 in 2013 to 3,000 in 2014, and the macro-economic cycle, so the growth of the paper industry is
level of technical equipment, production technology, and generally relatively steady. On the other hand, the paper
product quality have been steadily improved. Considerable industry is a capital-intensive industry with significant scale
progress has been made in pollution control, environmental effect. The construction of new capacity often requires a large
protection, and sustainable development. amount of investment, and the construction of its projects
takes a certain amount of time (usually about 12 months). The
6.3.1.1 Basic Situation of Paper Industry release of paper capacity is characterized by short term and
and Materials Used in Paper Industry concentration. Therefore, under the dual effect of steady
demand growth and short-term concentrated release of
capacity, the operating efficiency of the paper industry also
1. Basic situation of paper industry presents a certain periodicity.
In recent years, the technology of the world paper
(1) Status quo of paper industry industry has developed rapidly. Due to restriction of
resources and environment, the paper enterprises have
Paper industry is an important basic raw material industry enhanced their effort in energy conservation, environmental
closely related to the development of national economy and protection, product quality improvement, and economic
social cause. The consumption level of paper is a symbol to efficiency. It is developing continuously in the direction of
measure the level of modernization and civilization of a high efficiency, high quality, high benefit, low consumption,
country. The paper industry is characterized by intensive and low emission modern industry, showing enterprise scale,
capital and technology, remarkable economies of scale, technology integration, product diversification and func-
strong industrial relevance, and large market capacity. It is an tionalization, clean production and resource saving, forest–
important force for promoting the development of industries paper integration, and industrial globalization. The paper
such as forestry, agriculture, printing, packaging, and industry shows a rapid increase in consumption. Figure 6.60
Production and consumption / 10,000 tons

Production
Consumption
Fig. 6.60 Production and consumption of paper and paperboard from 2005 to 2014 [65]
824 X. Li
shows the production and consumption of paper and 2. Production technology of paper industry
paperboard from 2005 to 2014.
China’s paper industry implements scientific outlook on
(2) Development prospect of paper industry development, develops circular economy, adjusts raw
material structure, industrial scale and product structure
In the medium and long term, the implementation of the through independent innovation, and implements integration
paper industry policy and the new environmental protection project of forestry, pulp, and paper. In the past decade,
standards will make the entry threshold of the industry China’s paper industry has made great progress and has
higher and higher; the backward production capacity and the made many new achievements in pulping and papermaking
elimination of small- and medium-scale enterprises will be technology and equipment, such as improving product
increased. The environment-friendly large-scale intensive quality, creating famous brand products, developing
enterprises will become the market main body. Paper domestic and foreign markets, saving raw materials, reduc-
industry has become an important industry of China’s ing consumption of water, electricity and gas, improving
national economy. In 2014, there were about 3,000 paper recycling of wastewater and waste paper, and reducing
and paperboard production enterprises, with the national pollution. It has brought up a number of resource-saving and
paper and paperboard production output of 104.7 million environment-friendly pulp and paper enterprises.
tons, an increase of 3.56% over the previous year. In 2014, The technical progress in the production of paper
there were 17 enterprises producing more than 1 million tons machines include [66]: ① a highly efficient and compact
of paper and paperboard, and 3 enterprises producing more pulp flow system; ② hydraulic headbox with quantitative
than 1 million tons of wood pulp. In October 2007, Paper control of dilution water banner [67]; ③ vertical wire-pinch
Industry Policy increased the initial scale of new construc- former with vacuum forming roller combined with pressing
tion projects: the initial scale of chemical mechanical pulp and dewatering; ④ three-press compound press composed
construction and expansion project is 100,000 tons, the of single shoe press so that the paper locomotive speed
initial scale of chemical wood pulp is 300,000 tons; the exceeds 1,500 m/min, and the open paper feed is provided,
initial scale of the newly built or expanded box paperboard, the dry degree of the paper is increased by more than 3%
white paperboard, and newsprint project is 300,000 tons, and when the paper is fed into the dryer, and the loose thickness
the initial scale of cultural paper is 100,000 tons. At the same of the paper sheet is improved; ⑤ the drying technology of
time, with the introduction of national policies on the paper is developed from double-row cylinder drying tech-
elimination of backward paper capacity and the gradual nology to single-row cylinder drying technology, which
increase of policy implementation, some small backward improves the drying ability; and ⑥ online production of
paper enterprises will be eliminated. The relevant leading coating and calendering of coated paper is realized. In order
enterprises in the paper industry will gain the market share to realize the whole process of light coating machine, the
left by these enterprises, which will greatly contribute to the technologies of sizing press, film coating and soft calen-
promotion of the overall competitiveness of the domestic dering are applied. Soft roller supercalender has been suc-
paper industry. cessfully developed, and curtain coating and spray coating
Paper industry has become an important industry of technology have been developed and applied in in-machine
China’s national economy. During the “12th Five-Year coating. At present, newsprint width can reach 11 m at a
Plan” period, China’s paper industry entered the period of speed of 2,000 m/min. Paper machine is fully enclosed
overall industrial structure adjustment when efforts should operation with automatic paper feeding and automatic curl-
be made to solve the three outstanding problems of resour- ing. The width of the printing paper production line is
ces, environment, and structure so as to promote industrial 9.77 m wide and the speed is 2,000 m/min. The width of
upgrading. The general guiding ideology is to build a green coated sheet production line is 8.1 m, and the speed reaches
paper industry. This includes adhering to six basic princi- 900 m/min. The production line of kraft, kraft paperboard,
ples: principle of circular development, principle of envi- and high-strength corrugated base paper has a width of 7 m
ronmental protection, principle of technological innovation, and a speed of 1,300 m/min. The width of toilet paper
principle of opening to the outside world, principle of uti- production line is 5.6 m, and the speed reaches
lizing global resources, and principle of meeting domestic 2,100 m/min. The production line of kraft bleached wood
demand. In a whole, the paper industry still has development pulp reaches the scale of 1 million t/a. Its automation level
space on the basis of stable development. and production efficiency all reach the international
advanced level. Many enterprises reach the scale and mod- medium concentration technology, pulping concentration is
ernization request and the product quality improves obvi- 6–12%, physical strength of paper is increased by 10–50%,
ously. Many paper and board products not only replace the pulping power consumption is reduced by 25–50%, and
import products but also can gradually increase the product water consumption is reduced by 50–65%. Figure 6.61 is a
export quantity. The water consumption of newsprint pro- papermaking process using a commercial pulp plate as a raw
duction has been reduced to 10–20 m3/t paper, and the steam material. The following is a brief introduction to several
consumption and power consumption have also decreased processes in the paper industry.
greatly. The water consumption of the writing and printing
paper is reduced to 10.73 m3/t paper. The water consump- (1) Pulping
tion of paper board produced by waste paper is 4.7 m3/t
paper board, and the lower one is 2.8–3 m3/t paper board. Pulping refers to the production process of decomposing
The water consumption of toilet paper is 6.5 m3/t paper. plant fiber into color pulp or bleached pulp by chemical
Pulping technology is advanced from low concentration to method or mechanical method or a combination of both.
Fig. 6.61 Papermaking process

raw materials
flow by using pulp board as raw
material [68]
pulping
beating
blending
mixing pool 8m3 thickener
mixing pool
third-stage slag Internal white water

discharger tower pool
second-stage slag first-stage slag

discharger discharger
pressure screen white water pump
calcium carbonate high-level box
head box
net section flushing pool
pressing section external white water

tower pool
group I and II dryer

100m3 secondary water distribution tank
water
surface glue surface sizing machine
storage tank
group III dryer
calender
coiler
paper loss hydraulics paper cutting and

selecting
warehousing
826 X. Li
Chemical pulping is to treat the plant fiber raw material at a 6.3.1.2 Summary of Main Materials in Paper
certain temperature and pressure by using aqueous solution Industry
of chemicals, which can dissolve out lignin, non-fiber car- The correct selection of materials is the most important and
bohydrate, fat, and resin in the raw material, and the cellu- the most widely used anti-corrosion method. The purpose of
lose is retained as much as possible and the hemicellulose is material selection is to ensure the normal operation of
retained to varying degrees to separate the raw fiber from equipment or pipe fittings, reasonable service life, and
each other into pulp. The mechanical method generally uses minimum economic expenditure. Therefore, in any “mate-
a refiner to separate the plant fiber material into pulp under rial–environment” system, the requirements for materials are
the action of mechanical force. as follows: ① the chemical properties or corrosion resistance
can meet the production requirements; ② physical,
(2) Pulp mixing mechanical, and processing performance can meet the
design requirements; ③ the overall economic effect is
Pulp after cooking or mechanical grinding, washing, superior. The main materials used in the paper industry are
screening, and bleaching can’t be used directly for paper- summarized as follows according to the investigation and
making because the fiber in the pulp lacks necessary flexi- reference data.
bility and the fiber-to-fiber connection performance is not
good. If it is used for papermaking, the paper will be loose, 1. Carbon steel
porous, rough in surface, low in strength, and can’t meet the
requirements of use. Beating is that the fibers in the pulp are Ordinary iron and steel should be considered first in the
treated mechanically so as to be brushed and moderately cut, selection of materials for the low price, excellent mechanical
and the hydrogen bonding between the fibers can be processing performance, and rich resources. At the same
increased. More importantly, the fibers absorb water and time, through investigation, carbon steel is the main metal
swell during beating, so that the fibers have higher elasticity material in paper industry, and it is proved that [69] when the
and plasticity, which meets the production requirements of reuse rate of water is maintained at 70–75%, the corrosion
the paper machine so that the paper can reach the desired rate is 0.139–0.17689 m2/h, namely, 0.1565–0.1975 mm/a,
quality index. which is within the corrosion inhibition range of 0.1–
In order to improve the quality of paper products, 0.2 mm/a for carbon steel. Therefore, the main body of the
papermaking efficiency, and the use and postprocessing equipment can be made of carbon steel.
performance of paper, it is necessary to further remove the
residual impurities in the paper material. Before the paper 2. Stainless steel
material is meshed, purification and screening is the last
check. At the same time, in order to meet the different paper In a small paper mill under investigation, the main
performance, it is also necessary to add various additives in material of the old paper machine is carbon steel and the new
the paper. In addition, paper for writing or printing needs paper machine is imported from abroad with fuselage sup-
sizing material. Some filler materials (mineral fillers, such as port mainly made of stainless steel, as shown in Fig. 6.62.
calcium carbonate and talcum powder) can improve the
smoothness and opacity of the paper. Other chemicals can 3. PVC
alter the nature of the paper to provide certain special uses of
the paper. PVC is a thermoplastic plastic with certain strength and good
processing and molding performance. It can be welded in hot
(3) Papermaking process air. Its price is low and it is one of the most used plastics in
the field of corrosion protection. PVC has excellent corro-
The main work of the papermaking department is to inter- sion resistance to acid, alkali, salt, gas, water, and other
weave and dehydrate the dilute paper evenly, and then dry, corrosion. Its use temperature is 60–65 °C, suitable for plain
calender, roll, cut, select, and package the paper, so the boiled water of about 30 °C. The experiment shows that the
general flow is as follows: paper meshing, paper forming, corrosion rate is 0.7771 mm/a [70] when the recycling rate
compression and dehydration, paper drying, paper industry of plain boiled water is 96%. It is found that the ordinary
calendering, paper industry take-up, paper industry com- carbon steel doesn’t meet the requirements and PVC can be
pletion, and finishing [69]. used for tubes.
refrigerate transportation and storage restrictions because the

storage period does not exceed 3–6 months, which brings a
great difficulty to the site construction. After repeated
demonstration and comparison experiments, the standard
bisphenol-A epoxy vinyl ester FUCHEM854 of Shanghai
Fuchen Chemical Industry Co., Ltd. is selected to replace
some foreign brand resin as the matrix material. According
to the evaluation standard, both resins can be used as
anti-corrosion materials in the anti-corrosion area of this
section. On the basis of technical and economic evaluation,
FUCHEM854 vinyl ester resin cement is selected as the
main material for lining the lining of C/D and D carbon steel
bleaching towers.
In the wastewater treatment tank, because the wastewater
contains a large amount of corrosive medium, such as waste
Fig. 6.62 Photo of paper machine acid, and oxidizing chemicals, it is more corrosive to the
concrete-based treatment tank. For the concrete treatment
tank without anti-corrosion treatment, generally, the surface
4. Resin and GFRP of the tank will be damaged within 2–3 months, and the
strength will obviously decrease. Therefore, the
Since the twentieth century, with the development of plastic concrete-based treatment pool must be protected against
resin industry, a new composite material—GFRP, which corrosion. For the pulp industry, the integral GFRP lining
combines thermosetting resin and glass fiber, has appeared. and vinyl ester resin scale (VEGF) lining can be selected.
It not only maintains the excellent properties of the resin but GFRP lining [73] is the most common anti-corrosion treat-
also has the characteristics of high strength of glass fiber. ment method, which is to use GFRP structure on the con-
The following are its applications in China’s paper mill crete foundation to form a layer of protection. GFRP lining
equipment including bleaching tower, wastewater tank, pulp, has integrity, good anti-seepage, and reasonable cost. At the
and paper machine. same time, appropriate anti-corrosion resin can achieve a
As a kind of important equipment of bleaching system, good anti-corrosion effect. In the anti-corrosion method of
the anti-corrosion treatment method and effect of bleaching GFRP lining, the composite structure of the glass fiber plus
tower will directly affect the service life of the equipment the glass fiber short cut mat or the surface mat is generally
and the normal operation of production [71]. At present, adopted, and the thickness is 1–3 mm. Epoxy resin is sel-
C1O2 bleaching is the first choice to improve the whiteness dom used in the manufacture of anti-corrosion engineering
of pulp in developed countries [72]. However, ClO2 is a kind abroad. In general, vinyl ester resin modified by epoxy resin
of explosive, toxic and highly corrosive bleaching agent, so is used. Vinyl ester resin is becoming the first choice of
the anti-corrosion treatment of bleaching system equipment anti-corrosion material [74]. Vinyl ester resin has better
is extremely important. In the project of Guangdong Ding- process characteristics, corrosion resistance, and weather-
feng, the technicians of Shanghai Fuchen Chemical Industry ability than epoxy resin. The shrinkage rate of low shrinkage
Co., Ltd. and the relevant designers of the design institute FUCHEM891 vinyl ester resin selected at present is <1%,
and the owner unit find that bisphenol-A type epoxy vinyl which is lower than that of epoxy resin. This resin has high
ester resin GFRP is used to make the reaction tank and corrosion resistance and good wettability with filler. It is
absorption tower of ClO2, and filtrate tank of bleaching especially suitable for making cement or GFRP lining. At
section D class, C/D class [72] after consulting a large present, there are some successful application cases in some
number of materials and documents. The corrosion-resistant domestic pulp factories (such as Jinguang Paper Industry).
cement prepared by bisphenol-A epoxy vinyl ester resin is The so-called vinyl ester resin scale lining is that glass scales
used to stick acid-resistant brick board to carry out with a certain sheet diameter and thickness are mixed with
anti-corrosion lining treatment on D class, C/D class various kinds of corrosion-resistant resins, respectively,
bleaching equipment in bleaching section. In the 1990s, the prepared into mortar (coating) by special machinery, and
introduction of corrosion-resistant material together with then applied on the concrete surface after construction. After
imported equipment will increase investment. Besides, curing at room temperature, an anti-corrosion lining is
introduced corrosion-resistant resins and pastes require obtained.
828 X. Li
In the process of pulping and papermaking, the links such 6. Copper–nickel alloy
as cooking, coating and processing are also involved, in
which a large amount of substance is also highly corrosive, Fluid not only corrodes the metal surface but also wears the
so some equipment and conveying links involving these surface, which is called wear corrosion. It is a kind of local
processes need strict anti-corrosion treatment, At present, corrosion and is much more harmful than uniform corrosion.
there are many successful application cases of GFRP Local corrosion is often sudden and disastrous, which may
equipment in the pulp industry. Anti-corrosion resin can be cause all kinds of accidents. Therefore, in material selection,
selected according to different parts of the resin, but the main operation, and maintenance, local corrosion shall be highly
anti-corrosion parts are pipelines for transmission of guarded against equipment exposed to moving fluid, such as
high-temperature and wet chlorine gas which mainly use pipeline, tee, valve, and impeller where wear corrosion can
GFRP structure. The anti-corrosion resin in the equipment occur. At the same time, at tee and elbow where fluid
can be HET acid resin or phenolic epoxy vinyl ester resin. changes direction, impact corrosion is also prone to occur.
In terms of pulping equipment such as rough pulp The production practice of a medium-sized paper mill also
washing equipment [75], vacuum washer in bleaching sec- shows that these places are prone to corrosion and damage
tion, exhaust hoods for thickener of pulp machine system parts affect production. Copper–nickel alloy is applied to the
and high-frequency skip screen for rough selection, used to easily damaged pump wheel because copper–nickel alloy
be made of metal plates. Although they are coated with has excellent corrosion resistance. Copper is more positive
corrosion-resistant coatings, they are still vulnerable to cor- in potential than hydrogen and hydrogen evolution reaction
rosion damage. Some paper mills now use exhaust hoods is unlikely to occur in non-oxidizing acids, so corrosion
made of GFRP that are both corrosion-resistant and resistance to dilute sulfuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid
lightweight. is good. However, when the acid is saturated with air
GFRP is applied in papermaking equipment, such as the (containing oxygen), and is not resistant to corrosion by
wire groove of a circular paper machine and the headbox of oxidizing acids (concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid),
a low-speed fourdrinier paper machine. Traditionally, they corrosion is serious. Therefore, copper–nickel alloy (Ni 10–
are made from superior wood. Even though the paint is well 30%), or alloy of 70% nickel and 30% copper (foreign trade
protected, corrosion can’t be avoided for the use of a long name Monnier) and cast material containing 40% silicon are
time. Some of the above problems have now been solved generally selected for their high wear resistance. However,
after the use of GFRP materials. For example, some paper the price is relatively high, so they are often used in the form
mills in Tianjin now use the plain boiled water tray made of of thin layer lining or bimetallic application.
GFRP material, which is light, rigid, and easy to clean. The
roll surface made of GFRP material is now used for the roller 7. Titanium alloy
surface of domestic fourdrinier paper machine, such as table
roller, mesh roller, woven roller, canvas roller, and so on. In the past, the use of titanium has been greatly limited due
After finishing processing, the roller surface is coated with to its complicated smelting process, high price, and difficult
resin glue and the roller surface is very smooth. In place of processing. In recent years, China has mastered smelting and
the rubber roll surface and the copper roll surface, the weight processing technology, and now a lot of civil industries have
is greatly reduced, and the power consumption is also used titanium. With the development of paper industry,
reduced. For example, the paper machine of Tianjin Xinhua titanium consumption in China’s paper industry has been
Paper Mill has been used for 12 years to replace the further increased. For example, chlorine water heating
copper-coated or copper-plated blanket roller with fiberglass equipment, liquor mixer of ClO2 bleaching tower, the high
material. No problems and defects have been found up to underflow pump of ClO2 bleaching tower, the agitator at the
now [75]. top of the ClO2 bleaching tower are made of titanium alloys.
In addition, the wet part of the ClO2 generator, which is
5. Cast iron produced by various methods, is lined with a titanium alloy
(for example, the imported ClO2 manufacture device in
The drying cylinder is the core part of the drying section. As Guangxi Hexian Paper Mill uses potassium chlorate under
the main heat transfer part, the dryer occupies a large pro- strong acid solution to produce ClO2). Circulation pumps,
portion in the papermaking machinery. The dryer made of pipes, and valves outside the generator shall be made of
cast iron material occupies almost the whole market of paper titanium alloy [76].
machine dryer. Cast iron materials have good casting and In addition, the investigated pulp tank of a small paper
machining properties, good thermal conductivity, and peel- mill and the wastewater treatment tank of most paper mills
ing properties on the surface of paper. are based on concrete.
6.3.2 Current Status of Corrosion types, the most common types of corrosion encountered in
and Protection in the Paper Industry the paper industry include uniform corrosion, local corrosion
(stress corrosion cracking, wear corrosion interaction) [77].
This papermaking industry corrosion investigation is con- According to the location of corrosion of different equipment
ducted according to the method of visiting and investigating in paper industry, corrosion includes corrosion of paper
literature. Based on the annual production and geographical machine, corrosion of vacuum pump, corrosion of roller
location of paper mills, several representative companies are shaft and corrosion of steam ball, etc.
selected for the investigation of corrosion in the paper
industry. According to the production situation of different 6.3.2.1 Main Corrosion Problems Faced by Paper
areas, four representative areas are selected for the investi- Industry
gation, which are East China, North China, Central South, According to the investigation of paper mills of different
and Northeast China, respectively. The corrosion of large-, sizes in different regions, it is found that the corrosion of the
medium-, and small-sized papermaking units in different new equipment introduced in the paper industry is slight
areas are investigated and counted. Table 6.12 shows the while the corrosion problem of the old equipment is rela-
enterprises with paper and paperboard output of more than 1 tively serious, and the corrosion phenomenon of different
million tons in 16 provinces (cities and autonomous degrees can be seen everywhere. The following is a brief
regions). Figure 6.63 shows the proportion of paper and introduction to the corrosion in the paper industry according
paperboard output in each province (city, autonomous to different corrosion types.
region) in 2014.
In the papermaking production process, the equipment 1. Uniform corrosion
often comes into contact with corrosive media such as acid,
alkali, salt, corrosive gas or microorganism with corrosion Figure 6.64 shows the corrosion of a corner of a pulp pool in
effect, so the equipment is damaged by the corrosion effect, a small papermaking enterprise. It can be seen from the
and brings a lot of adverse effect on the production, such as figure that corrosion occurs on the whole concrete surface,
increase of raw material consumption and deterioration of showing a uniform corrosion appearance. The corrosion
the production environment. The equipment even can’t be reasons may be as follows: the important components of
used before reaching the expected service life, and the concrete are Ca(OH)2, hydrated calcium silicate and hydra-
equipment has to be updated in advance, which will greatly ted calcium aluminate, and the water in the pulp pool has a
increase the cost of the paper industry and seriously affect certain flow rate under the mechanical action. Under the
the economic benefit of the enterprise. In terms of corrosion action of flowing water under a certain pressure, hydrate
Table 6.12 Provinces (cities and autonomous regions) with paper and paperboard output of more than 1 million tons in 2014 [65] (unit: 10,000
tons)
Provinces (cities and autonomous regions) 2013 2014 An increase over the previous year (%)
Guangdong Province 1641 1760 7.25
Shandong Province 1730 1750 1.16
Zhejiang Province 1561 1590 1.86
Jiangsu Province 1210 1280 5.79
Fujian Province 525 650 23.81
Henan Province 700 630 –10.00
Hebei Province 344 320 –6.89
Hunan Province 320 300 –6.25
Chongqing Municipality 240 300 25.00
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 275 240 –12.73
Tianjin 220 235 6.82
Anhui Province 195 230 17.95
Sichuan Province 202 210 3.96
Hubei Province 190 200 5.26
Hainan Province 140 155 10.71
Jiangxi Province 160 145 –9.38
Total 9653 9995 3.54
830 X. Li
Fig. 6.66 has the same corrosion. The corrosion degree is

unimaginable, and the surface of the beater is completely
covered with thick corrosion products and pulp. One of
beaters can’t work because of corrosion. The reason for such
serious corrosion is first that the pulp contains water, and the
water often contains a variety of residual papermaking
chemicals, which can be regarded as electrolyte solution that
constitutes the conditions for electrochemical corrosion.
Under the combined action of the medium and the envi-
ronment, the anode metal iron loses electrons and becomes
iron ion Fe ! Fe2+ + 2e. The electrons flow from the anode
to the cathode. The cathode is mainly depolarized by oxy-
Fig. 6.63 Output proportion of paper and paperboard in major
provinces (cities and autonomous regions) in 2014 [65] gen, and the reaction is O2 + H2O + 4e ! 4OH−. The
equipment in this environment for a long time forms a thick
rust layer as shown in Figs. 6.65a and 6.66. In addition to
the effect of corrosive medium in pulp, the abrasive disk is
also constantly subjected to the friction effect of pulp,
resulting in wear and corrosion.
2. Local corrosion
(1) Crevice corrosion–galvanic corrosion
In Fig. 6.65a, crevice corrosion occurs at three flange joints.

The cause of crevice corrosion is the formation of oxygen
concentration difference inside and outside the crevice. The
existence of Cl− in the macrobattery and pulp will aggravate
the crevice corrosion. In a large papermaking group, there is
Fig. 6.64 Photo of pulp pool corrosion the same corrosion phenomenon at the flange joint. As shown
in Fig. 6.67, it can also be found that the surface of the nut
product Ca(OH)2 will continuously dissolve out and flow indicated by the arrow is rusty where the nut is in close
out, which causes hydrate calcium silicate and calcium contact with the flange. However, metallic luster can still be
aluminate hydrate in solution to lose stability and hydrolyze, seen on the flange surface, where galvanic corrosion occurs,
precipitate CaO to form non-binding product, resulting in a which is local corrosion. This is mainly due to the negative
continuous decrease in the strength of the concrete until the potential of the nut, which preferentially occurs in the gal-
concrete is destroyed [78]. In order to improve the whiteness vanic corrosion. However, the metal potential of the flange is
of pulp, ClO2 bleaching technology is adopted in the process relatively positive, and corrosion is not easy to occur.
of producing pulp (pulp plate) at home and abroad [79], so
that a large amount of chlorine element and other corrosive (2) Stress corrosion
substances remain in the pulp plate. Therefore, the water in
the pulp pool is corrosive to some extent, which will destroy According to the investigation, more than 70% of the cor-
the concrete structure and cause uniform corrosion. rosion of structural parts occurs in the welding site, and there
In the same papermaking enterprise, Fig. 6.65 is a photo is no exception in the paper industry. Figure 6.68 is a photo
of the corroded part of double disk refiner and the corroded of corrosion at the weld joint of equipment in a large
abrasive disk, and 1 in Fig. 6.65a is the bending pipe part papermaking group. The pipe in Fig. 6.68b is very short in
connecting the pipe and the refiner, where corrosion occurs service, but the rust at the weld joint is clearly visible. The
and corrosion degree is serious. Part of the rust layer has easy corrosion of weld joint is affected by its processing
been separated from the substrate. The arrow of 2 in technology. First, there are higher residual stress and residual
Fig. 6.65a points to the flange where uniform corrosion also strain in the component due to fast heating and cooling rate
occurs. In addition, serious uniform corrosion has occurred during the welding process and the maximum residual stress
in the abrasive disk in the puling machine. Figure 6.65b is generally higher than the yield strength of the material.
shows discarded abrasive disk due to corrosion. Beater in Thus, in the absence of applied stress, SCC may also occur in
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.65 Corroded part of double disk refiner and the corroded abrasive disk
Fig. 6.66 Corroded beater
welded structural materials. In addition, because of the dis-

continuity of the shape and the slowdown of the medium flow
speed of the weld defect parts, these parts are also referred to
as areas where the medium concentration is concentrated, and
the corrosion tendency of the material is improved. The
welded joint is a heterogeneous material. The composition of
each micro-zone is different and its potential is different, so
galvanic corrosion is easy to occur. Therefore, the stress
concentration at the weld joint, the existence of technological
defects, and the non-uniformity of the welded joint structure
aggravate the process of stress corrosion damage of the
welded structure and affect the service life, safety, and reli-
Fig. 6.67 Corrosion at flange joint ability of the welded structure.
832 X. Li
Fig. 6.68 Corrosion photo at weld joint
The corrosion types existing in the paper industry are many factors affecting the corrosion of the equipment. First of
briefly introduced above. The following mainly analyzes all, with the development of industry and agriculture, people
according to the corrosion problems existing in different pay more and more attention to the problem of water reuse
papermaking equipment to explain the corrosion phe- because of the increase of water demand and decrease of water
nomenon and the reasons for corrosion. supply. In recent years, in addition to the scientific manage-
ment of water use, the paper industry has mainly promoted the
(1) Corrosion problems existing in paper machine closed circulation of plain boiled water, saved water use,
reduced sewage discharge, recovered fiber, and filler, which
In the corrosion investigation of the paper industry, there is a produces obvious economic and environmental benefits.
small papermaking unit that is in production, where the hot However, the accumulation of soluble solid is formed because
air is diffusing, the sight is blurred and the smell is sharp, the plain boiled water is circulated for a long time, so that the pH
production environment is very bad, and the equipment value is gradually lowered, and the dissolved oxygen is
corrosion phenomenon is serious. Almost all of the two increased, resulting in corrosion of equipment and pipelines.
paper machines have been covered by the rust layer and the In particular, in paper mills using commercial pulp with high
pulp. Figure 6.69 is a photo of corrosion at a typical location plain boiled water reuse rate, corrosion problem is prominent.
of a paper machine. The point of arrow in Fig. 6.69a is the Literature [80] also shows that carbon steel is not resistant to
pipeline of the plain boiled water circulation system and it corrosion in papermaking plain boiled water through experi-
can be seen that serious overall corrosion has occurred in ment. In addition, the literature has carried out qualitative
this section of pipeline. Figure 6.69b shows the machine analysis on the types of organic pollutants in papermaking
body of the paper machine and the corrosion type is local wastewater and waste gas in the production process of a paper
corrosion. The component weld marked in Fig. 6.69c suffers mill, and 48 kinds of organic pollutants, including aromatic
from local corrosion. The nut of the fixed platen roller and derivative, resin acid and derivatives, fatty acid glyceride,
marked in Fig. 6.69d has uniform corrosion and may be and alcohol are detected. Through analysis of components of
accompanied by crevice corrosion. air pollutants, benzene, toluene, and other organic pollutants
In the investigation of large and medium-sized paper are detected. At the same time, most of the paper mills in China
mills, it is found that the imported equipment of large paper are still in the condition of low speed, and the residence time of
mills is relatively advanced and the corrosion degree is the pulp in the equipment is relatively long, which leads to the
slight, but the old equipment is still seriously corroded. As formation of sediment and rotten pulp. As can be seen from
shown in Fig. 6.70, uniform corrosion takes place in the Fig. 6.69, the paper machine body is full of rotten pulp. The
pipeline of the support and water circulation system of the existence of organic matters and rotten pulp in large quantities
papermaking equipment. The unit is conducting overhaul creates a favorable environment for the survival of microor-
and cleaning of the equipment, and some pits can be clearly ganisms. Therefore, according to its working characteristics,
seen in some places. Serious local corrosion occurs, which the reasons for equipment corrosion mainly include two
may be due to the accumulation of other pollutants such as aspects: chemical corrosion reason and microbial corrosion
pulp so that chemical and microbial corrosion occurs. The reason. As explained above, the reason for the chemical cor-
specific causes are as follows. rosion is that the circulating water contains dissolved salt ions
The paper machine is in a humid working environment and and belongs to electrolyte solution, and the circulating water
there are many kinds of environmental media, and there are contains a large amount of oxygen, so there are numerous
Fig. 6.69 Corrosion photos of

different parts of paper machine
Fig. 6.70 Corrosion photo of (a) (b)

papermaking equipment
(c) (d)
834 X. Li
corrosion cells in the drainage pipelines in Figs. 6.69 and 6.70 The sulfate-reducing bacteria can reduce the sulfate to
and the papermaking machine body where corrosion occurs all sulfide, such as hydrogen sulfide, and the electrochemical
the time. In Fig. 6.70b, some locations of the steel frame are reaction caused by the sulfate-reducing bacteria is as fol-
covered with rotten pulp while some locations are still exposed lows. The dissolution of the anode polarizes the steel, and
to the air, forming oxygen concentration cells, so that local the neutralization of H+ depolarizes the steel.
corrosion occurs. In Fig. 6.70c, the corrosion of the welded
part is much more serious than that of the non-welded part of HOH H þ þ OH ; 2e þ 2H þ H2 ð6:11Þ
the same steel frame, and the cause of the corrosion is com-
plicated. This is mainly due to the different structure of the Fe Fe2 þ þ 2e ð6:12Þ
welded part, which results in the galvanic corrosion of large Sulfate is reduced to sulfide by absorption of hydrogen on
cathode and small anode. Second, there may be residual stress steel surface.
in the welded part, and there is a high possibility of stress
corrosion micro-cracks under certain conditions. In addition, 4H2 þ SO2
4 S2 þ 4H2 O ð6:13Þ
the circulation water contains a large amount of chlorine gas. 2+ −
Fe is a relatively active metal as analyzed from the chemical Fe in solution reacts with OH to form Fe(OH)2 to
properties of Cl2. Fe doesn’t significantly react with precipitate.
non-metallic elementary substance such as Cl2 in the absence
3Fe2 þ þ 6OH ! 3FeðOHÞ2 # ð6:14Þ
of water vapor at room temperature. At high temperature, Fe
reacts violently with Cl2 and water vapor to form a-Fe2O3 and S2− reacts with iron to form ferrous sulfide to precipitate.
Fe3O4, i.e., rust. The composition of rust is relatively complex
and is generally expressed briefly as Fe2O3 • x H2O. It is a Fe2 þ þ S2 ! FeS # ð6:15Þ
brittle, porous substance that doesn’t protect the iron in the
Microbial corrosion is very difficult to exist alone and
inner layer from corrosion [81]. At the same time, the com-
often occurs with electrochemical corrosion, it is difficult to
bination of high temperature, high concentration, and high
separate the two completely [70].
flow rate prevents the formation of corrosion protection film
on the metal surface and makes the equipment easier to be
(2) Corrosion of steam ball
corroded. Microorganisms can survive with papermaking raw
materials and production environment. In the life metabolism
In paper industry, the corrosion problem of steam ball is also
activity of the microorganism, various chemical substances
very serious. In the pulping and papermaking process, the
are produced, among which inorganic acid and organic acid
steam ball, which is a pressure vessel for pulping the plant
are very corrosive to the metal. For example, a sulfur bac-
fiber raw material into pulp, is analyzed in the literature [84].
terium can oxidize sulfur or other sulfuric acid compounds
During use, the cooking pressure of the paper mill is usually
under the condition of oxygen, eventually producing sulfuric
0.5–0.8 MPa and operating temperature is 175 °C. The
acid which causes corrosion of the metal. At the same time, the
working media contained in the spherical cooking vessel
secretions produced by bacterial metabolism promote the
contains NH4HSO3, (NH4)2SO3, SO2, H2SO4, (NH4)2SO4 or
deposition of fiber, fillers or inorganic salts on the surface of
high concentration of NaOH solution and various kinds of
the device. As a result, the surface of the device below the
organic acid decomposed from the straw pulp, and the entire
deposit becoming a cathode due to lack of oxygen, which
spherical cooking vessel still continuously rotates. There may
forms a concentration cell, so that corrosion begins to take
be welding defects in the spherical cooking vessel. The
place. In the papermaking production system, the common
contact media of the outer wall of the steam ball are mainly
microorganisms that can cause corrosion to the equipment are
pulp, water, and air. Special working conditions and humid
sulfate-reducing bacteria, filamentous iron bacteria, and sulfur
workshop air keep the outer wall of the hot ball in a wet state
bacteria [82]. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are the main cause of
(with a thin layer of aqueous solution), i.e., in a state where
iron corrosion. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are most active when
corrosion may occur. Where there are impurities such as
pH is in the range of 5.0–9.0 and temperature of 25–60 °C. In
pulp, oxygen concentration difference corrosion conditions
papermaking environment, microbial fouling, fibrous fillers
are formed. The surface of steel contacted with the solution
and deposits of organic or inorganic salts as well as carbo-
with low oxygen content is covered with impurities, and the
hydrates (starch sugars, cellulose), dissolved oxygen, pro-
electrode potential is negative for the anode, and corrosion
teins, sulfates, pH values, and temperatures in plain boiled
occurs [85]. The high temperature inside the ball dries the
water are suitable for their growth [83]. The pits in Fig. 6.70a
outer wall during the evaporation, and oxygen is enriched
may have been caused by microbial corrosion. The irregular
when the impurities and corrosion products are dried, and the
pits appearing at 2 in Fig. 6.70d are likely to be caused by local
divalent iron ions in the rust layer are oxidized to trivalent
corrosion due to local mechanical damage to the coating.
iron ions. After rewetting, when the passage of oxygen is

restricted, the rust layer can act as a strong oxidant for the
cathodic depolarization reaction. In such a dry–wet alternat-
ing environment, the corrosion of the steam ball is acceler-
ated. The wall thickness of welded spherical cooking vessel
made of carbon steel eroded by corrosive medium decreases
rapidly, which seriously affects the safe operation of spherical
cooking vessel. Hyperpressure causes hidden trouble of
production accident, shortens the service life of the spherical
cook container, and increases the production cost. However,
the reduction of thickness by corrosion of spherical cooking
vessel is very harmful. As a low-pressure container, the
working pressure of papermaking steam ball is relatively low,
but the quantity is large with many congenital defects. The
accident hidden danger is large, and the bad result of
explosion accident is quite serious. Accidents are caused by Fig. 6.71 Wear and corrosion of pressing roller
improper operation and neglect of corrosion protection. If the
steam ball does not have the wall thickness examination which may constantly peel off corrosion products on the
regularly [86a], the equipment may run beyond the age. metal surface or provide a protective surface film, allowing
Many steam ball explosion accidents have occurred in the metal to continue to dissolve into the solution in the form
domestic paper mills. A paper mill with a volume of 14 m3 of metal ions [88].
and an operating pressure of 0.7 MPa was tested for [86b]
corrosion and metal fatigue after 2 years of use. However, the (4) Corrosion of roller shaft
mill didn’t reduce pressure, resulting in an explosion in
operation and a vicious accident, so that the enterprise was There are a large number of roller shafts in a paper machine,
fatally hit. On the early morning of November 3, 2005, a which plays the role of conveying and pressing. They are
steaming ball explosion accident took place in Xingtai Linxi subjected to different corrosion conditions. Figure 6.71 shows
County Xingao Industrial Co., Ltd. (a private enterprise). The that the pressing roller is subjected to wear and corrosion.
steam ball of a capacity of 25 m3 has been completely broken, In addition, it is reported that [87] the paper guide roller
with half of it flying to the opposite second-story building and of the traction pressing section is prone to fatigue fracture,
the other half falling through the blast wall into nearby and the shaft head fracture occurs on the operation side.
farmland. The inspection of explosive debris on the site by A schematic diagram of a broken paper guide roller is shown
the quality supervision department found that the ball should in Fig. 6.72.
have been 16 mm thick and but is less than 3 mm in the As shown in Fig. 6.72, the fracture surface occurs at the
thinnest area due to severe acid corrosion, eventually causing step section A between / 40 mm and / 45 mm at the shaft
an explosion accident. head on the operating side. The / 40 mm position on the
shaft head is used to install the paper guide rope pulley.
(3) Corrosion problem of vacuum pump Under the normal start-up condition, the force F绳 of the
paper guide rope applied on the paper guide roller through
During the investigation, the main material of paper machine the paper guide rope pulley mainly acts on this position. This
in a large papermaking group imported from the Netherlands position is also the place where the entire paper guide roller
is stainless steel. Its running time is short and no obvious is under greater force.
corrosion phenomenon is found. However, when commu- The wrapping angle of the paper guide rope to the paper
nicating with the staff, we learn that the most corroded part guide rope pulley in this position is up to 90°. In the case of
of these two imported paper machines is the vacuum pump normal start-up, the tension F绳 of the paper guide rope and
connected to the paper machines, and their impellers will the tension F纸 of the paper are substantially constant and
rust every 2 weeks, so they will be stopped and pickled. don’t vary with time. These forces are static loads. For a
According to the introduction, this vacuum pump is pur- rotating paper guide roller, however, the stress at a point on
chased in China and the impeller is made of cast iron. In the shaft alternates cyclically with each rotation of the roller.
addition to the chemical reasons mentioned above, erosion In each cycle, the variable stress in which the average stress,
corrosion is also one of the factors leading to its serious the stress amplitude, and the period don’t change with time
corrosion. When the corrosive fluid is moving at a high is called stable variable stress. If one of them changes with
speed, additional shear stress is created on the metal surface, time, it is called unstable variable stress.
836 X. Li
Drive side
Fracture surface
Operating side
Fig. 6.72 Schematic diagram of a paper guide roller [87]
Fatigue fracture is one of the main failure modes of parts papermaking equipment should also be paid attention to, such
under alternating stress. Stress concentration can promote as severe corrosion of the equipment of the steam drying
the formation and development of surface cracks. The fati- system. The schematic diagram of the dryer is shown in
gue fracture process of metal materials without defects on Fig. 6.73.
the surface is divided into three stages. The first stage is Literature [88] describes the corrosion at this site: ①
shear slip of the material where the stress on the surface is serious corrosion occurs at the inlet of the guide seat of the
large occurs, and initial crack and fatigue source are formed. dryer siphon with obvious erosion marks; ② the symmetric
The number of fatigue source may be one or more. The siphon fixed base and fixed pipe of dryer and guide base are
second stage is the repeated plastic deformation of the crack seriously corroded; ③ the tube wall of the fin heat exchanger
tip under shear stress, which causes the crack to propagate. is not uniformly thinned, a large amount of corrosion prod-
In the third stage, when the residual cross section decreases ucts are deposited on the inner wall of the tube, and the gas–
to a certain extent after the crack propagates to a certain liquid interface is corroded and perforated; ④ the elbow
extent, the stress on the cross section reaches the ultimate section of the steam condensate pipe is more corrosive than
strength of the material, i.e., sudden brittle fracture occurs. In that of the straight section, with obvious erosion marks; ⑤
fact, it is possible to produce initial cracks by inclusion of local corrosion occurs on the inner surface of the dryer; and
slag, micropores, scratch, and crack on the surface of the ⑥ there is a pile of corrosion products under the boiler.
material. Therefore, generally speaking, the fatigue process The corrosion causes are analyzed in detail. The steam
of the part starts from the second stage. Generally, the fati- system is a direct exhaust system without oxygen removal
gue fracture surface is composed of a smooth fatigue equipment. The dissolved oxygen in the water comes from
development zone on the outer ring surface and a brittle the atmosphere and maintains a stable concentration range.
fracture zone with a rough center, and the size of the section Through water quality analysis, the feedwater oxygen con-
is related to the load. When the load is large, the rough tent of the boiler is over 3 mg/L, which is more than 30
section is also large. Through observing the broken section times the specified value of the low-pressure boiler water
of the head of the paper guide roller, it is found that the outer quality standard. The oxygen content exceeds the standard
circle is a smooth area and the middle area is rough. This much. The results of phase analysis of corrosion product in
indicates that the paper guide roller is fatigue fracture. boiler and heat exchanger tubes show that the corrosion
product is ferric oxide, and it can be proved that the corro-
(5) Corrosion of equipment in steam drying system sion type of the system is mainly oxygen-consuming cor-
rosion. From the result of water quality analysis, the pH
Besides the corrosion problems found in the investigation, the value of raw water, water supply, and condensate water is
potential corrosion problems in other parts of the less than 7, and the solution is acidic, indicating that part of
Roller shell
Ring surfaceroller race
Condensation joint
Flow indicator
Clean-out cover
Turbulence bar
Syphon
Roll shell end cover
Carbon ring and counter flange
Steam joint
Spherical surfaceroller race
Fig. 6.73 Schematic diagram of dryer
free carbon dioxide is dissolved in the solution. The free equipment generally belongs to oxygen-consuming corro-
carbon dioxide in the feedwater is mainly brought in by the sion, accompanied by hydrogen evolution corrosion of car-
raw water. Besides, carbon dioxide generated by the bonic acid, but the corrosion occurring in each part of the
decomposition of bicarbonate in the raw water in the boiler equipment has different characteristics. Therefore, the cor-
enters the condensate system with the steam. In water con- rosion characteristics and causes of the main equipment of
taining oxygen and carbon dioxide, electrochemical corro- the steam drying system are further analyzed in order to take
sion occurs due to the electrochemical heterogeneity of the correct protective measures.
steel surface. The former uses oxygen as the depolarizer and
the latter takes hydrogen ion as the depolarizer. Because of (1) Corrosion of drainage and liquid guide outlet and elbow
the acidity of the water, the metal forms loose secondary section. Because of the sudden reduction of the cross
products due to the corrosion of dissolved oxygen, without section of the liquid passage, there may be turbulence in
protection. Once the corrosion point is formed on the local the condensate outlet of the dryer, so that the turbulent
surface of the metal, it can’t be prevented from further corrosion may occur under the action of the corrosive
corrosion. When both oxygen and carbon dioxide are present media such as oxygen and carbon dioxide in the con-
in the solution and the pH of the solution is less than 7, the densate, which is one type of wear corrosion. In the
metal surface can’t form a dense protective film to prevent process of turbulent corrosion, due to the breakdown of
further corrosion, so the corrosion is more severe than in the the boundary film close to the metal surface at high rate,
presence of single oxygen or carbon dioxide. In addition, the the supply of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the
existence of Cl−, SO42− is not conducive to the formation of migration of cathodic and anodic corrosion products are
protective oxidation films. The corrosion of steam system accelerated. In addition, the high-speed turbulence
838 X. Li
Cathode
Strong anode
Heat exchange
tube
Saturated steam
Wetting surface
(oxygen-rich
zone)
Oxygen-poor
zone
Condensate
Fig. 6.74 Schematic diagram of oxygen concentration corrosion on inner wall of fin tube [87]
creates additional shear stress on the metal surface, this is typical oxygen concentration corrosion, also
which may continuously peel off the corrosion products known as waterline corrosion. The oxygen concentra-
of the metal surface, causing the metal to continuously tion corrosion inside the fin tube is shown in Fig. 6.74.
dissolve into the solution in the form of metal ions, so As can be seen from Fig. 6.74, at the gas–liquid inter-
that the outlet of the guide seat is quickly abraded. face, there is a wetting surface between the condensate
There are similar wear corrosion phenomena in the and the pipe wall, the liquid film is thin, and oxygen in
condensate pipe, and the elbow pipe section is exposed the steam easily enters, making it become an
to wear corrosion, which is more prominent than that of oxygen-rich zone. The tube wall potential at the solution
the straight pipe section. Especially, when the liquid wetting surface (oxygen-rich zone) is high, so it is used
flow speed is very high, the tube wall of the pipe is as the cathode of the corrosion battery. The partial tube
rapidly thinned or even perforated due to the erosion of wall potential of the solution in the oxygen-poor zone is
high-speed corrosion fluid. The smaller the radius of low, so it is the anode of the corrosion battery. In
curvature is, the more severe the wear corrosion is. addition, the corrosion current distribution in the anode
(2) Corrosion of fin heat exchange tube. In the vertical fin region is not uniform, the corrosion current is small at a
heat exchange tube, the saturated steam preheats the distance from the wetting surface, and the corrosion
cold air outside the tube through the fin tube wall and is current is almost zero at a certain distance, so the vicinity
cooled to become condensate. Because the installation of the wetting surface becomes a strong anode. The
position of the steam–water separator is relatively high, corrosion is serious, and the corrosion products are
the condensate can’t be exhausted in the vertical pipe. loose, porous, and non-protective. Corrosion continues
After using for a period of time, it is found that the tube to develop deep enough to cause the tube wall to become
wall is perforated at the air–liquid interface. Obviously, thinner and perforated. Fluctuation of process
parameters causes fluctuation of liquid level and feasible anti-corrosion measures. In the following, effective
enlargement of corrosion site. anti-corrosion methods will be proposed for different
(3) Corrosion of inner surface of dryer. When manufac- equipment in the industry.
turing the dryer, the inner surface of the dryer has been
treated with paint for anti-corrosion. However, after (1) Reasonable material selection
1 year of use, corrosion zone with a certain width is
generated along the axial direction of the inner surface In view of the corrosion problem in paper industry, reason-
of the dryer, and hard spots are uniformly distributed in able material selection can be adopted to reduce the corrosion
the corrosion zone. It is estimated that the quality degree. At present, many of the newly built papermaking
control during coating construction is not strict, and the equipment use stainless steel instead of ordinary carbon steel
coating has pinhole and other defects, thus causing and cast iron. As shown in Fig. 6.75, the pipeline in
pinhole corrosion. Irregular corrosion pits around the Fig. 6.75a uses stainless steel to mitigate corrosion of the
fixed pipe and the support of the siphon pipe in the equipment. For pipeline, tee, valve, impeller where the local
dryer are likely to be local corrosion caused by local corrosion of papermaking equipment is serious, and tee and
mechanical damage of the coating when the internal elbow that are also prone to impact corrosion, copper and
parts are installed. nickel and other corrosion-resistant alloys or metals can be
(4) Corrosion in boiler. Corrosion also occurs frequently in adopted. The chlorine water heating device, the chemical
the boiler. In the boiler water, bubble of the boiler and liquid mixer into the ClO2 bleaching tower, the high-density
corrosion of the inner wall of the downcomer are pulp pump of the ClO2 bleaching tower, and the stirrer at the
caused, whereas in the rising tube (boiling tube) of the top of the ClO2 flow bleaching tower, are all made of titanium
boiler, oxygen corrosion usually does not occur because alloys. In addition, anti-corrosive lining is also used in paper
oxygen is concentrated in bubbles and the metal surface mills, such as bleaching tower and wastewater treatment tank.
is not easily reached. During installation and shutdown Vinyl ester resin mastic is used as the main material of C/D
of the boiler, if proper protective measures are not section and D section carbon steel bleaching tower lining
taken, the boiler comes into contact with the atmo- brick lining. The concrete-based wastewater treatment tank is
sphere, and oxygen corrosion may occur in the water usually treated with integral GFRP lining and vinyl ester
accumulated in the boiler and at the wet inner wall. resin scale (VEGF) lining for anti-corrosion treatment.
Because the temperature under this condition is not too In addition to the use of corrosion-resistant materials to
high (<200 °C), the corrosion product mainly exists in mitigate corrosion, corrosion protection means such as
the form of Fe2O3. The iron oxide, which is not firmly coating, corrosion inhibitor, or control from process pro-
bonded to the matrix and has larger particle size, des- duction can also be used.
cends to the lower drum with the water of the furnace,
and gradually accumulates into a rust pile. (2) Reasonable use of anti-corrosion means
6.3.2.2 Anti-corrosion Measures in Paper Metal surface coating protection has been widely used, For
Industry example, structural steel can use suitable protective coating,
Through the above investigation and analysis, it can be such as polychlorinated ester, vinyl, epoxy, zinc-rich primer.
concluded that the corrosion problems faced by the paper The surface of the equipment in Fig. 6.75b is protected by a
industry are quite serious, so it is urgent to take correct and coating. The coating can act as a shielding effect, the
Fig. 6.75 Photo of stainless

steel pipeline and surface coating
protection equipment
840 X. Li
mechanism of which is to isolate the protected substrate they have been used little or no longer. Organic corrosion
from direct contact with the corrosive medium. To prevent inhibitor is widely used in the production of paper industry
the metal surface from being corroded, the paint film layer because of its good inhibition effect and low toxicity.
must be required to prevent the external environment from
coming into contact with the metal surface so as to achieve (3) Optimizing the production process
the anti-corrosion effect. In addition, the coating can also
play the role of corrosion inhibition and passivation. By Measures to mitigate corrosion in the paper industry can also
means of the anti-rust pigment contained in the coating, the be considered in terms of optimizing the production process.
corrosion inhibition ions can be dissociated in the solution, Optimizing the production process can start from raising the
so that the surface of the substrate can be passivated, and the pH value of the production water. Properly adjusting the pH
corrosion process can be suppressed. When the oxygen value of the production water can reduce the corrosion of the
concentration of the metal surface exceeds a certain amount, metal equipment. From the viewpoint of the quality of the
Fe2+ generated by the oxidation reaction of the metal surface papermaking product, rising pH value can also improve the
can be oxidized to Fe3+, and the Fe3+ will react with OH− flexibility of the paper and resistance to yellowing. It should
obtained by the reduction reaction of the metal surface to be noted that raising the pH value should be controlled within
form Fe(OH)3 that is deposited on the metal surface to form a certain range. Otherwise, an excessively high pH value will
a dense layer, preventing further corrosion. accelerate the occurrence of sedimentation. Second, the
In the paper industry, in addition to coating metal sur- development and proper application of controlled deposition
faces to mitigate corrosion, corrosion inhibitor is also the schemes can greatly reduce the opportunity for chemical
most commonly used method of corrosion protection. It is deposits and microbial communities to deposit and grow on
widely used in preventing the corrosion of circulating water. papermaking equipment. The common control schemes
Corrosion inhibitor is a chemical substance or a mixture of include: ① adding dispersant to reduce the gravitation
several chemical substances present in the environment between particles in water and prevent the particles from
(medium) in an appropriate concentration and form to pre- aggregation and deposition; ② reducing the adsorption force
vent or slow down corrosion. Corrosion inhibitor is a generic of the equipment metal surface to prevent the corrosive
term of inorganic substance and organic substance with the substances from being adsorbed on the metal surface; ③
property of inhibiting metal corrosion. Some organic sub- anti-corrosion and anti-deposition pretreatment of paper-
stances are efficiently adsorbed on the surface of the metal, making water and additives; and ④ keeping the equipment
thereby significantly affecting the electrochemical behavior surface clean and free of deposits, and timely removing the
of the surface. The mechanism of action includes inhibition formed deposits. Water or cleaning agent shall be applied to
of anodic reaction on surface and inhibition of cathodic clean the equipment during each shutdown, so as to keep the
reaction. As a result, corrosion current is reduced. Adding a equipment surface clean to reduce corrosion. In particular, in
small amount of corrosion inhibitor to the corrosion medium multistage bleaching lines, it is necessary to clean pulp to
can have a good anti-corrosion effect on the protected metal prevent chemical residue in each process. The most common
equipment. Common corrosion inhibitors are [82] inorganic decolorizer is chlorine, which causes local corrosion of
corrosion inhibitors (such as nitrite, silicate, and chromate) stainless steel cleaning drum and cleaning pipeline. This
and organic corrosion inhibitors (such as phosphate and corrosion is particularly severe at crevices, under pulp
mercaptobenzothiazole). Nitrite can be used as a corrosion deposits, and at weld joints. In addition, microbial method
inhibitor for iron and steel in alkaline medium, but it has no can be controlled to slow down corrosion. Appropriate bac-
effect on copper and copper alloys. Silicate can effectively tericide can be selected to inhibit or kill the corrosion of
protect non-ferrous metals such as copper and copper alloys equipment caused by microorganisms and to reduce the
by producing a protective film containing SiO2 in water. number of attached microorganisms by reducing the total
Chromate can inhibit the corrosion of iron, copper, and their amount of microorganisms. The chances of biological film
alloys, and it is an effective corrosion inhibitor. Organic formation on the surface of the equipment will be greatly
compounds such as phosphates can form complex protective reduced to reduce the corrosion of the equipment by
films with metal ions in solution. Mercaptobenzothiazole has microorganisms. Common fungicides include organometallic
a good corrosion inhibition effect on copper and its alloy in compounds (phenylmercuric acetate, tributyl zinc oxide),
particular. It can form a thin film with high strength and chlorophenol derivatives (pentachlorophenol, p-chloromethyl
toughness on the surface of copper and its alloy, which phenol), oxidation type and reduction type compounds
becomes an obstacle of corrosion medium. Most of the (hypochlorite, chloramine, hydrogen peroxide, sodium sul-
inorganic corrosion inhibitors have the disadvantage of high fite), organic compounds (brominated fatty alcohol and
toxicity. For the sake of environmental protection and safety, brominated olefin), nitrogen-containing and sulfur-containing
isothiazolinones heterocyclic organic compounds, and so on.

In the above various type of fungicides, the isothiazolinones
heterocyclic organic compounds have high efficiency, broad
spectrum, wide adaptation range of pH value, long activity
period, small addition amount, quick effect, strong bacterici-
dal ability, low price, green environmental protection, and
other advantages, so that they have become widely used at
home and abroad.
(4) Improving the equipment management level
The equipment management personnel shall be trained to

improve the overall equipment management level. Fig. 6.77 Percentage of corrosion input in a paper mill in 2014
6.3.3 Evaluation of Corrosion Cost in the Paper indirect cost. Corrosion can also cause product quality
Industry problems, thereby affecting the benefits, and this part is also
an indirect corrosion cost. In addition, in the papermaking
6.3.3.1 Analysis of Corrosion Investigation Result process, wastewater and waste liquid can be discharged to
in Typical Paper Mill affect environmental, and this part of the cost is also an
The anti-corrosion input mainly includes the reconstruction indirect cost of corrosion.
at the initial stage of construction and in use, maintenance In addition to the investigation of the abovementioned
investment, depreciation cost of anti-corrosion equipment, corrosion cost, the questionnaire also includes some inves-
anti-corrosion material cost, coating and coating cost, sur- tigation on the importance of corrosion and the objective
face treatment cost (including anti-corrosion lining cost), evaluation of corrosion. In the paper industry, 60% of the
corrosion inhibitor cost, etc. Taking several paper mills in enterprises think the corrosion is slight, 10% of the enter-
the investigation as examples, the percentage of each cor- prises think that corrosion is general, and only 10% of the
rosion protection input is calculated. Figure 6.76 and enterprises think that corrosion is relatively heavy. Accord-
Fig. 6.77 show the percentages of corrosion input in the ing to the collected questionnaire, the main equipment or
paper mill in 2013 and 2014, respectively. It can be seen structure suffering from corrosion is mainly concentrated in
from the figures that the indirect loss cost of corrosion loss in the steel structure workshop or equipment, such as contin-
the paper industry occupies a large proportion, about twice uous digester, chemical recovery furnace tube, equipment of
the direct cost loss. In the direct loss cost, the cost of bleaching and washing process, vacuum pressing roller,
maintenance, renovation, and depreciation of anti-corrosion water conveyance system, and pipeline. For these areas
equipment in the process of service of the corrosion equip- prone to corrosion, most of the remedial measures taken by
ment in the paper industry is more than that of coating and the enterprise are the use of anti-corrosion coating or
corrosion inhibitor, and the paper mill is almost repaired corrosion-resistant materials, corrosion-resistant lining,
once a year. Some of these are caused by corrosion. Main- plating, and corrosion inhibitors while rustproof oil and
tenance due to corrosion will be shut down, resulting in cathodic protection are seldom used. The corrosion problem
in the paper industry has not been paid enough attention to
by the enterprises. Most of the enterprises have not complete
standards for corrosion protection, no standard requirements
for corrosion protection or no special technical training for
corrosion protection.
In the paper industry, corrosion loss includes both direct
and indirect loss. Up to now, no unified corrosion loss
analysis method has been determined, and Uhlig method has
been adopted at present, that is, the cost of corrosion pro-
tection is estimated from the aspect of production and man-
ufacture. Hoar method refers to calculation from the sum of
the corrosion loss and the corrosion prevention cost of each
use area. Battelle method uses the input/output matrix
Fig. 6.76 Percentage of corrosion input in a paper mill in 2013 method to make statistics according to the production relation
842 X. Li
table of the enterprise [89]. In order to find out the corrosion sheet, tinplate, and small- and medium-sized plating
status of paper industry in China and obtain corrosion cost plant plating parts as well as aluminum and alu-
and corrosion protection strategy data in various fields, cor- minum alloy surface treatment. The surface treat-
rosion investigation of typical enterprises in paper industry is ment is seldom used in paper industry, and each
conducted in this project. Questionnaires are distributed to enterprise may use only one of the surface treatment
100 enterprises in the paper industry and the following is data means, or may not even use any of the surface
statistics and explanation of collected questionnaires. treatment means. According to the collected ques-
tionnaires, this part of the cost of paper and paper-
6.3.3.2 Corrosion Cost of Paper Industry board enterprises in the paper industry is about
According to the characteristics of the paper industry and the RMB 500 million.
results of the collected questionnaire, the direct corrosion (4) Cost of corrosion-resistant materials: Corrosion-
loss is mainly divided into the following aspects: ① cost for resistant materials mainly include three types [89]:
renewal of anti-corrosion equipment, renovation and main- stainless steel, titanium, glass fiber. According to
tenance and depreciation; ② coating and coating cost; ③ previous investigations and interviews, the newly
surface treatment fee; ④ cost of corrosion-resistant materi- introduced equipment is mostly stainless steel and
als; and ⑤ cost of corrosion inhibitor. titanium steel equipment in the current paper
industry. Stainless steel and titanium steel materials
1. Direct cost of corrosion in the paper industry play a great role in corrosion protection. In addition,
(1) Cost of renewal, renovation, and maintenance of in the paper industry, anti-corrosion lining is also a
anti-corrosion equipment and depreciation. The new more widely used anti-corrosion means. According
equipment needs a large amount of funds to be built to the results of the questionnaire, the cost of
before it is put into use. However, the new equip- corrosion-resistant materials is about RMB 2.048
ment will suffer from corrosion and aging during million. In 2014, the annual output value of the
use, and equipment with severe corrosion and aging paper mill was RMB 810 million. Therefore, it is
needs to be renewed, modified, and repaired. This estimated that the total cost of corrosion protection
part will spend a lot, which is of great significance to of paper and paperboard enterprises in the whole
the statistics of the direct cost of corrosion in the paper industry is RMB 1.99 billion.
paper industry. According to the collected ques- (5) Cost of corrosion inhibitor: The corrosion inhibitor is
tionnaires, the cost of renewal, renovation, and widely used in the paper industry. The corrosion
maintenance of the anti-corrosion equipment of the inhibitor is used in the strong acid and strong alkali
paper and paperboard enterprises in the whole paper environment and the wastewater treatment room in
industry is RMB 3.5 billion. The depreciation cost the paper industry. According to the investigation,
of anti-corrosion equipment is RMB 1.42 billion. the gross output value of paper and paperboard
(2) Surface coating cost: The corrosion media exist in enterprises in the paper industry in 2014 was RMB
the production environment of paper and paperboard 787.9 billion. Similarly, according to the collected
enterprises in the paper industry for a long time. questionnaires, the cost of corrosion inhibitor for
Anti-corrosion coatings can prevent corrosion of paper and paperboard enterprises in the paper
materials during service. The use of anti-corrosive industry was estimated to be about RMB 650 million.
coatings is one of the important means for corrosion
protection [90]. According to the results of the 2. Indirect cost of corrosion in paper industry
questionnaire, the output value of the abovemen-
tioned typical enterprises in 2013 and 2014 was The corrosion cost is divided into direct corrosion cost and
RMB 720 million and RMB 810 million, respec- indirect corrosion cost. The direct corrosion cost includes the
tively. The cost of coating is about RMB 1.422 abovementioned surface coating cost, surface treatment fee,
million and RMB 1.507 million. In 2014, the total cost of corrosion-resistant materials, and corrosion inhibi-
output value of paper and paperboard enterprises in tors. The indirect corrosion cost includes cost of environ-
the paper industry was RMB 787.9 billion, so the mental pollution compensation and repair caused by
coating cost of paper and paperboard enterprises corrosion, compensation for casualties caused by corrosion,
was estimated to be RMB 1.47 billion. shutdown loss caused by corrosion, product quality loss
(3) Surface treatment fee: Metal surface treatment fee is caused by corrosion, etc. According to the statistics of the
mainly calculated from steel and aluminum materi- paper mills visited by the investigation, the indirect loss of
als [89]. Surface treatment means include galvanized the paper and paperboard enterprises visited in the paper
industry was RMB 650 million and the annual output value corrosion protection inspection and evaluation on the
was RMB 24.99 billion. Indirect corrosion loss accounts for equipment, and non-anti-corrosion personnel only rely
about 2.60% of the current output value. According to on experience and observation, which may cause
statistics, in 2014, the output value of paper and paperboard potential safety hazards.
enterprises in the paper industry was RMB 787.9 billion, so
the indirect loss cost of paper and paperboard enterprises in 6.3.4.2 Recommendations for Anti-corrosion
the whole paper industry was RMB 20.46 billion. Strategies in the Paper Industry
In the light of the existing problems mentioned above, the
3. Corrosion cost in the paper industry following recommendations are made:
In summary, according to the Uhlig method, the direct (1) Strengthening the design of corrosion protection system
corrosion cost of paper and paperboard enterprises in the in the paper industry such as construction technology,
paper industry is estimated to be about RMB 9.53 billion, material selection requirements, and protection tech-
the indirect corrosion cost is about RMB 20.46 billion and nology of different equipment (the most important thing
the total cost of corrosion loss is RMB 29.99 billion. In is to solve the outstanding problems reflected in the
2014, the total output value of paper and paperboard enter- investigation). We should gradually move from sporadic
prises in the paper industry was RMB 787.9 billion, and cost planning to systematic research, accumulate corrosion
caused by corrosion accounted for about 3.81% of the total data, gradually establish a corrosion protection infor-
cost in the paper and paperboard industry. The corrosion cost mation system of the paper industry, establish the cor-
is high, so the paper industry should pay more attention to it. rosion protection database of the industry, and perfect
According to the 2015 annual report of China’s paper the corrosion protection standard specifications and the
industry, the total output value of paper and paperboard was overall systematic corrosion protection design standards,
RMB 800.3 billion. Calculated as 3.81% of the total cost of so that the corrosion protection design of papermaking
the abovementioned paper and cardboard industry due to equipment has rules to follow and basis to be referred to.
corrosion, the cost of paper and paperboard caused by cor- (2) Formulating standards for corrosion protection moni-
rosion was RMB 30.49 billion in 2015. toring and evaluation in the paper industry. We should
establish monitoring and evaluation standards for some
equipment that may cause production accidents due to
6.3.4 Existing Problems and Suggestions corrosion, so as to prevent the accidents in the early
on Corrosion Protection Strategies days. Besides, we should regularly evaluate the quality
in the Paper Industry and safety of papermaking equipment, timely take
protective measures, evaluate the economic losses
6.3.4.1 Problems in Corrosion and Protection caused by corrosion, and gradually establish the “eco-
in the Paper Industry nomic model of investment return for corrosion
After investigation, there are many problems in corrosion protection”.
and protection in the paper industry, which are summarized (3) Setting up professional anti-corrosion personnel. The
as follows: concept of employees is changed and the importance of
corrosion protection is raised through the data of cor-
(1) Lack of systematic design for corrosion protection. The rosion investigation. Professional knowledge training
industry doesn’t pay enough attention to corrosion should be provided to employees so that they can
protection work, has no upper level guiding ideology, master various protection methods and carry out sys-
doesn’t have systematic design for corrosion protection tematic design of corrosion protection work.
of equipment, doesn’t know much about professional
protection measures, and lacks relevant professional
knowledge.
(2) No corrosion-related standard specification. When car- 6.4 Report on Corrosion Investigation
rying out corrosion protection measures, no relevant of Construction Machinery
standard specification can be referred to. Many are done
according to experience, so that the protective effect of 6.4.1 Review on the Development
corrosion protection measures can’t be quantitatively of Construction Machinery Industry
described.
(3) Lack of professional anti-corrosion personnel. No rel- After a long period of development, China’s construction
evant professional anti-corrosion personnel carry out machinery industry has a considerable scale and technology
844 X. Li
level, can produce products close to and reaching the inter- Large-scale infrastructure construction and the development
national leading level, and boast brands with certain inter- of national strategic emerging industries will directly drive
national reputation. The industry has basically formed a the continued development of the construction machinery
complete system. Except for special large-scale construction market. During the “13th Five-Year Plan” period, the steady
machinery, it can produce 20 major products, more than 280 and upward development of China’s economy will provide
series, more than 1700 varieties, more than 4,000 specifi- an important and sustained impetus for the development of
cations needed for domestic project construction. In 2012, the construction machinery industry. Besides, with the
the total output value of China’s construction machinery enterprise innovation ability and the comprehensive com-
industry was RMB 601.834 billion, a year-on-year increase petition ability improved continuously, China’s construction
of 0.59%; the sales output value was RMB 591.571 billion, a machinery industry will continue to maintain the high level
year-on-year increase of 1.85%; the production and sale rate to run. In 2015, the sales scale of this industry reached RMB
was 98.29%. In 2013, the export of construction machinery 900 billion. Along with the rapid development of China’s
got smooth development, greatly boosting the confidence of economy, the construction engineering industry also devel-
the industry. The internationalization process of XCMG, a ops very rapidly, the construction mechanization degree is
leading enterprise, has been accelerated, and the export higher and higher, and each kind of construction machinery
volume has reached $ 4.22 billion over the past 5 years. The has been widely used in the modern engineering construc-
export scale has remained the first in the domestic industry tion. The market demand of construction machinery in China
and has become the benchmark for “go out” of products is increasing day by day, and the position of construction
made in China. According to the current situation investi- machinery in construction engineering is becoming more
gation and analysis and development trend forecast report of and more important. Especially in recent years, the state has
China construction machinery industry (2016 edition) pub- invested a large amount of funds in infrastructure construc-
lished by China Industry Research and Research Network, it tion, the development of construction machinery is also very
is concluded that in 2014, the output of products of con- rapid, and the production and sales of all kinds of con-
struction machinery industry increased year on year. Except struction machinery have greatly increased [91–93].
for the double-digit growth rate of the production of the Construction machinery is a kind of outdoor working
compactor, the output of other products is negative. machinery, which is exposed to outdoor atmosphere for a
By the end of 2014, the number of major construction long time. Many engineering machinery must work in the
machinery products in China was 6.5 million–7.04 million. extremely harsh environment such as damp, dusty, and cor-
It is expected that 1.2 million of construction machinery will rosive environment. After being used for a certain period of
be scrapped every year by 2020. The inventory of each time, there will usually appear different degrees of corrosion.
product type is shown in Table 6.13. There are various reasons for the scrapping of construction
China has surpassed the United States, Japan, and Europe machinery: improper operation, accidents, over-service life,
as the world’s largest construction machinery market, which failure of parts, and components. Failure of parts and com-
means good investment opportunities for investors. ponents includes failure of structural components, failure of
hydraulic parts, failure of transmission parts, and failure of
Table 6.13 Current main types and inventory of construction electric parts. From the perspective of the most likely cor-
machinery
rosion failure of construction machinery parts, the proportion
Type of product Inventory/10,000 of structural components and hydraulic components is large.
Hydraulic excavator 148.4–160.8 Basically, every kind of construction machinery has a large
Bulldozers over 100 horsepower 7.4–8.0 number of structural components and hydraulic parts. For
Loader 174.6–189.2 example, each trolley comprises three large structural parts of
Grader 3.7–3.9
a frame, a turntable and a boom, and three hydraulic cylinders
including a boom cylinder, a luffing cylinder, and a bucket
Paver 1.9–2.0
cylinder. We analyze and investigate the corrosion status of
Roller 11.8–12.8
structural components and hydraulic cylinders according to
Wheeled crane 22.2–24.1 the annual scrap volume of 1 million units.
Tower crane 41.9–45.4
Forklift 192.5–208.5
Concrete mixing and conveying vehicle 29.2–31.6 6.4.2 Investigation on Corrosion
Concrete pump truck 5.9–6.3
Most construction machinery works in the outdoor atmo-
Concrete pump 6.3–6.8
sphere (including the marine atmosphere, industrial atmo-
Concrete batching plant 4.7–5.2
sphere, urban atmosphere, and rural atmosphere) and
different water quality (seawater, river water) and other harsh corrosion-sensitive areas of metals, resulting in long and thin
environments, where corrosion exists. Some construction cracks which propagate quickly and can cause serious dam-
machinery exported from abroad is seriously corroded in the age in a short period of time. SCC is the most common type of
course of shipping, resulting in rejection by the other party. corrosion failure in petroleum and chemical industry (50%).
Coating anti-corrosion is the main anti-corrosion technology There are two basic conditions for the occurrence of
applied in this field, and special anti-corrosion design has not stress corrosion. First, the material has a certain suscepti-
been made according to the requirements of material, shape, bility to SCC of the medium. Second, there is a sufficiently
structure, decoration, and so on. The main corrosion failure high tensile stress. The stress causing SCC may come from
forms of construction machinery include pitting corrosion, the working stress or from the residual stress generated
SCC, and uniform corrosion. during the manufacturing process. According to statistics, in
Pitting corrosion is also called pinhole corrosion. In gen- SCC accidents, more than 80% are caused by residual stress
eral, the depth of pitting corrosion is much greater than its while less than 20% are caused by working stress.
diameter. Due to the presence of defects, impurities, and Generally, the stress corrosion process can be divided
solutes in metallic materials, when the medium contains into three stages. The first stage is the incubation period,
certain active anions (such as Cl−), these active anions are first during which the cracks are nucleated as a result of localized
adsorbed at certain points on the metal surface, destroying the corrosion process and tensile stress. The second stage is the
passivation film on the metal surface. Once the passivation development period of corrosion crack. When the crack
film is damaged and lacks self-passivation capability, corro- nucleates, the crack grows under the combined action of
sion of the metal surface occurs [94–96]. In the defect of the tensile stress in corrosive medium and metal. In the third
metal surface, the body metal is apt to leak out and makes the stage, due to the local concentration of tensile stress, the
body metal to be in an active state, while the passivation film crack grows rapidly and leads to the failure of the part. When
is still in a passivated state, thus forming an active-passivated stress corrosion cracking occurs, no obvious uniform cor-
corrosion cell. Since the anode area is much smaller than the rosion occurs, and even corrosion products are very few and
cathode area and the anode current density is large, corrosion sometimes difficult to be found by the nude eye, so stress
develops deep, and the metal surface is quickly corroded into corrosion is a very dangerous failure.
small holes, known as pitting corrosion. In general, an increase in chloride concentration in the
In the corrosion failure type statistics of petroleum and medium shortens the time required for SCC. The corrosion
chemical industry, pitting corrosion accounts for about 20– action of different chlorides decreases according to the order
25%. The conditions of accumulation and concentration of of Mg2+, Fe3+, Ca2+, Na+, and Li+. The temperature at which
the active anion are easily formed in the medium containing stress corrosion occurs is generally 50–300 °C.
the active anions in which the flow is not smooth, and the Measures should be taken to prevent stress corrosion
generation of pitting corrosion is promoted. Rough surface is from reducing corrosion and relieving tensile stress. First,
more prone to pitting corrosion than smooth surface. we should avoid the use of sensitive materials to stress
Decrease of pH value and increase of temperature will corrosion as much as possible. Second, when designing the
increase the tendency of pitting corrosion. Oxidized metal equipment structure, it is necessary to try to be reasonable to
ions (such as Fe3+, Cu2+, and Hg2+) can promote pitting minimize the concentration of stress and storage of corrosive
corrosion. However, some oxygen-containing anions (such medium. Third, when machining and manufacturing equip-
as hydroxides, chromates, nitrates, and sulfates) can prevent ment, care should be taken to eliminate residual stress.
pitting. Although the pitting corrosion doesn’t lead to very Uniform corrosion refers to corrosion that occurs at
large weight loss, the corrosion rate is very fast because the almost the same rate over the entire metal surface in contact
anode area is very small. When it is serious, the equipment with the environment. In the application of corrosion-
may be perforated, causing a large amount of oil, water, and resistant materials, uniform corrosion resistance shall be
gas leakage, sometimes even causing serious accidents such taken as the main basis for corrosion resistance, and some
as fire and explosion, which is very dangerous. Pitting cor- local corrosion resistance properties shall be considered
rosion can aggravate intergranular corrosion, stress corro- under special circumstances [89, 97].
sion, and corrosion fatigue. In many cases, pitting corrosion Crevice corrosion is the formation of a narrow gap
is the origin of these types of corrosion. between metal and metal or between metal and non-metallic
SCC is the occurrence of brittle cracking below the surfaces in electrolyte, and the movement of related sub-
strength limit in which a material is subjected to static tensile stances within the gap is retarded to form a concentration cell,
stress (including residual stress caused by applied load, thereby causing local corrosion. Crevice corrosion often
thermal stress, cold working, hot working, welding, and occurs at the joints of flanges in the equipment, or the place
wedging stress of crack corrosion products, etc.) in a specific where gaskets, liners, windings and metal overlap, which can
corrosive medium. SCC first forms small pits in the occur in different metals and in different corrosive media,
846 X. Li
thus causing serious obstacles to the normal operation of the centrifugal pump, blades in fan, etc., have high relative flow
production equipment, and even a damage accident. For speed of corrosive medium, making passivation film on the
titanium and titanium alloys, crevice corrosion is the most surface of passivated corrosion-resistant metal material. Due
common corrosion phenomenon that should be paid attention to excessive mechanical erosion, it is not easy to recover and
to. In the medium, the oxygen concentration increases, and corrosion rate will be significantly increased. If there are
the crevice corrosion amount increases; pH value decreases solid particles in the corrosive medium, wear corrosion will
and the rate of anodic dissolution and the amount of crevice be greatly increased [99].
corrosion increases; the concentration of active anions
increases and the susceptibility to crevice corrosion increa- 6.4.2.1 Investigation on Corrosion of Structural
ses. However, an increase in certain oxygen-containing Components of Construction Machinery
anions reduces the amount of crevice corrosion. In the process of manufacture and service, the construction
Corrosion fatigue is caused by the combined action of machinery is often corroded by oxygen and water in the
corrosion medium and cyclic stress. This degradation of atmosphere. In order to prevent the corrosion, the coating
corrosion fatigue due to corrosive media is known as cor- technology of the whole machine is mainly used for protec-
rosion fatigue. Fatigue failure will occur only when stress tion. The coating process generally adopts two-coating and
value of fatigue failure is lower than the yield point and is one-drying process: upper part—pretreatment—shot blasting
higher than the critical cyclic stress value (fatigue limit or —cleaning—primer spraying—primer leveling—primer
fatigue life). However, corrosion fatigue can break under drying—primer cooling—top coat spraying—top coat
very low stress conditions, so it is very dangerous [98]. leveling—top coat drying—strong cold—lower part. The
The main factors affecting corrosion fatigue of materials main function of primer is for anti-corrosion and anti-rust,
include stress alternating speed, medium temperature, med- and the main function of top coat is beauty of products.
ium composition, material size, machining and heat treat- The main material of the frame is high-strength steel,
ment, etc. Increasing the load cycle speed, lowering the pH which is easy to rust at the inside of the leg box, the belly of
value of the medium or increasing the temperature of the the frame, and the platform board (Fig. 6.78).
medium will reduce the corrosion fatigue strength. Damage The main material of the turntable is also high-strength
to the surface of the material or stress concentration due to steel, and the inner cavity and hinge hole are easy to rust
lower roughness will lower the fatigue limit and thus also (Figs. 6.79 and 6.80).
reduces the fatigue strength. The main material of the extension arm is stainless steel,
Wear corrosion is a process of material destruction caused and the main body of the extension arm is not easy to rust,
by the combination of wear and corrosion. Wear corrosion but corrosion is easily generated at the arm head, arm tail,
can occur in high-speed flow fluid pipelines and pumps and and auxiliary arm bracket (Fig. 6.81).
pipelines carrying suspended friction particle fluids. Some There are three main reasons for corrosion of structural
overflow components, such as valve disk (head) and valve components. The first is the structural reason, that is, the
seat in high-voltage pressure reducing valve, impeller of structure is more complex and multi-ribbed parts are more
Fig. 6.78 Corrosion of inside of frame leg box (a) and frame deck (b)
Fig. 6.79 Internal cavity corrosion of turntable
Fig. 6.80 Reaming hole corrosion of turntable

prone to corrosion, which is due to poor film adhesion and
easy to pond for irregular shape. Water accumulates at edges
and corners makes the substrate and weld more susceptible components all have a certain cross-sectional size, and a
to corrosion, while the coating layer is poor at the edge of small amount of uniform corrosion will not significantly
the hole, and corrosion tends to occur and spread after water reduce the mechanical properties of the metal. However, the
vapor penetrates. The second is the cause of wear. The inner cavity surface of the box-shaped metal structure is
coating layer of the leg box, the auxiliary arm bracket, the peeled off, so that the web is thin, which can’t be ignored.
extension arm and other places due to working reasons wear The second type is local corrosion, a kind of corrosion that
seriously and suffers from very serious corrosion. The third occurs within the local part of the metal body. This corrosion
is environmental reason. The appearance covering parts of reduces the effective cross-sectional area of the component,
construction machinery in the humid environment and making the component susceptible to sudden fracture (such
chemical plant environment suffer from more serious cor- as bolt). Local corrosion can be divided into pore corrosion
rosion than those of the general machinery (Fig. 6.82) and intergranular corrosion, which is much more harmful
than uniform corrosion. Intergranular corrosion is the most
6.4.2.2 Investigation on Corrosion of Crane dangerous because intergranular corrosion develops along
Industry the grain boundary, so that the bonding between the crystals
is destroyed and the mechanical properties of the metal are
remarkably reduced, and the adverse effect is often not easily
1. Location and form of corrosion of metal structures found.
Metals are damaged by corrosion in two forms. The first is 2. Selection of structural materials
uniform corrosion, which refers to that the entire surface of
the metal suffers from corrosion under the action of corro- The main structural material is 16Mn and the structural
sive medium. This corrosion is less harmful because the auxiliary material is low carbon steel. The fastening and
848 X. Li
Fig. 6.81 Corrosion of arm

bracket
Fig. 6.82 Corrosion of structural

components at holes and edges
connecting materials are all kinds of alloy steel (such as (3) Hard chromium plating technology is adopted for
40Cr and 20CrMnTi), and the thin plate material is low the rope row shaft for hoisting.
carbon cold-rolled sheet.
3. Severity of corrosion and the importance of corrosion
1) Platform, balustrade, escalator, and other metal structural protection
parts
The hot-dip galvanizing process shall be followed by The corrosion of iron and steel has caused enormous eco-
passivation and polishing, and the surface shall be nomic loss and social harm to human beings. The annual
smooth and uniform. This kind of component is difficult economic loss caused by steel corrosion accounts for 1–4%
to assemble, maintain and easy to have accident, so this of its GNP. The corrosion and failure of metal components
kind of long-term anti-corrosion technology is adopted. whose value is far greater than that of metallic materials
2) Connectors and fasteners cause indirect loss difficult to count. In Britain, Hoar report,
(1) The common bolt pair adopts the zinc electroplating published in 1969, estimated an annual loss of at least
process; £1.365 billion. According to the American National Stan-
(2) High-strength bolt pair, tower body connection pin, dards Institute (ANSI), in 1975, the United States suffered as
and other workpiece adopt “SCN + SDL” compos- much as $70 billion in damage caused by corrosion. Up to
ite surface treatment process to improve the com- now, no complete statistical data have been reported in
prehensive performance of increasing surface China, but numerous examples show that there are common
strength, reducing friction, anti-corrosion, and corrosion problems in all industries. The corrosion of
anti-occlusion (imported technology of Pctain of metallic materials in atmospheric environment is one of the
France); most widespread causes of material damage and failure. This
kind of corrosion not only causes huge economic losses but of the chemical reaction is prevented, the formation of the
also seriously threatens the safe operation and service life of corrosion cell is destroyed, or the electrochemical process
all kinds of equipment and devices. between the cathode and the anode is strongly blocked. Most
metallic materials always have tissues and impurities having
4. Analysis of the causes of corrosion of metal structures different electrode potentials, and they are always in close
contact, so that corrosion of the metal can be effectively
There are two types of corrosion: chemical corrosion and prevented as long as the metal surface is not brought into
electrochemical corrosion. contact with the electrolyte solution.
Chemical corrosion is carried out in dry gas or At present, the main methods used to prevent metal
non-electrolyte solution. For example, in dry air (a technique corrosion are as follows: improving the corrosion resistance
is used in dry production), iron and steel forms rust Fe3O4 of the metal material by alloying the matrix structure of the
and Fe2O3 on the surface. In addition, the influence of steel and the single phase of the metal structure; improving
temperature on chemical corrosion is also great. The corro- corrosion resistance of metals by covering method.
sion rate of iron and steel in the dry air at normal temperature Covering method is also called the protection method,
is so small that it can hardly be observed. At high temper- and its essence is to isolate the metal from the external
ature, however, steel can easily interact with the oxygen in conditions (such as oxygen and water) which can cause
the air to form scale FeO. Furthermore, the cementite corrosion, so as to achieve the purpose of rust prevention.
structure in steel is also susceptible to the following reaction According to the different materials of the protective layer, it
with the gas at high temperature. can be divided into two kinds: corrosion-resistant metal
covering method and non-metallic covering method.
Fe3 C þ O2 ¼ 3Fe þ CO2 ð6:16Þ Corrosion-resistant metal covering method is to cover zinc,
lead, tin, chromium, nickel, copper, and other corrosion-
Fe3 C þ CO2 ¼ 3Fe þ 2CO ð6:17Þ
resistant metals with little activity on the protected metal sur-
The gas generated by the reaction escapes from the steel face to achieve the purpose of rust prevention. Its technology
surface, so a decarburization layer is formed on the steel generally has the electroplating method, the coating plating
surface, and the decarburization of steel inevitably leads to method, the hot plating method, the infiltration plating method,
the decrease of its strength, thus affecting the use perfor- the spraying method, and so on. However, these methods are
mance of the material. not widely used because of their high process requirements,
Another type of corrosion is electrochemical corrosion. high material cost, and high production cost. They are only
When electrolyte solution is present on the surface of the suitable for small-sized workpieces. For large-scale machines
metal, corrosion is caused due to electrochemical action. that have been put into operation, the exposed metal parts have
The so-called electrochemical action causes the corrosion a large area, so that the abovementioned methods aren’t widely
process to proceed gradually when electric current generates used. Therefore, for gantry cranes and other large-scale
in the chemical reaction process. The principle of electro- machinery and equipment, non-metallic covering method is
chemical corrosion of metals is the same as that of galvanic usually used for corrosion protection.
cell. The formation of electrochemical corrosion must have Non-metallic covering method is to coat the metal surface
three conditions. First, there is a potential difference, that is, with basic anti-rust oil to separate the metal surface from
there is a potential difference between different metals or oxygen in water and air, so as to prevent rust. As the basic
different regions of the same metal. The larger the potential anti-rust oil has certain permeability, its anti-rust effect is
difference is, the faster the corrosion is. Second, there should poor, generally only 6–12 months of anti-rust. Therefore, this
be electrolyte solution, that is, two electrode materials are method is only applicable to anti-corrosion of mechanical
co-located in the electrolyte solution. Third, there will be transmission and joint. However, another painting anti-rust
contact, that is, there must be a conductive connection or method is widely used by the portal crane because of low cost
direct contact between the two parts of the metal at different and simple operation. The anti-rust effect of the paint layer is
potentials. As long as the above three conditions are satisfied that it separates the medium from the metal, but a single paint
at the same time, electrochemical corrosion can be formed. film doesn’t completely prevent moisture and oxygen from
penetrating into the metal surface. Besides, there is a tech-
5. Methods of corrosion protection nological gap in painting, which can make paint not play a
long-term effective anti-corrosion effect. Therefore, we must
According to the above discussion, the corrosion of the take the necessary and effective remedial measures to better
metal can be effectively prevented as long as the occurrence prevent the corrosion of metal structures.
850 X. Li
6. Remedial measures for corrosion protection of metal a protective layer, called non-metallic coating, can also
structures achieve the purpose of corrosion protection. For example,
the hull, car, and bucket are often coated; car shells are often
In view of the deficiencies of the above methods, the fol- painted; and guns and machines are often coated with min-
lowing remedial measures can be taken. eral grease. It is better to spray metal surface with plastic
(such as polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, and polyurethane)
(1) Improving the nature of metals than paint. This kind of plastic coating is compact and
bright and has the dual function of anti-corrosion and
The corrosion of metals can be prevented or slowed down by decoration.
selecting corrosion-resistant alloys of different material
compositions according to different applications, or by D. Metal protective layer
adding alloying elements to the metals to improve their
corrosion resistance. For example, adding nickel to steel to It is a protective coating formed by plating one metal on the
make stainless steel can enhance corrosion resistance [100]. surface of another metal article to be protected. The former
metal is often referred to as a plating metal. The metal
(2) Formation of protective layer plating is formed by electroplating, chemical plating, hot-dip
coating, thermal spraying, infiltration, vacuum plating, and
Covering the metal surface with various protective layers to other methods [102]. At present, with the progress and
separate the protected metal from the corrosive medium is an development of science, new technologies are constantly
effective method to prevent the corrosion of metals. The emerging. For example, the development and application of
protective layers commonly used in industry are thermal spraying corrosion protection technology enrich the
non-metallic protective layers and metallic protective layers. anti-corrosion methods.
They are realized by chemical methods, physical methods,
and electrochemical methods. (3) Electrochemical protection
A. Phosphating of metals The purpose of studying metal corrosion is to propose

effective, cheap, and easy measures to avoid or slow down
After de-oiling and de-rusting, steel products are immersed in metal corrosion. Due to the complex mechanism and various
specific phosphate solution to form a water-insoluble phos- forms of electrochemical corrosion of metals, the influence
phate film on the metal surface. This process is called phos- factors vary widely. In the practice of corrosion protection,
phating. The phosphating film is dark gray to black gray with many measures and methods to deal with metal corrosion
a thickness of 5–20 lm and has good corrosion resistance in have been studied, among which electrochemical protection,
the atmosphere. The film has a microporous structure and has metal material selection and structure design, coating pro-
strong adsorption ability to paint. If it is used as a paint bottom tection, and corrosion inhibitor are the most widely used
layer, the corrosion resistance can be further improved. [103]. As an effective protection measure, electrochemical
protection method is widely used in the fields of ship, ocean
B. Oxidation treatment of metals engineering, petroleum, chemical industry, and so on. It is
one of the methods that need to be understood.
Heating the steel product in mixed solution of NaOH and Electrochemical protection is one of the important
NaNO2 can form a blue oxidation film (the main component methods of metal corrosion protection. Its principle is to use
is Fe3O4) with a thickness of about 0.5–1.5 lm in order to external current to change the potential of the corroded metal
achieve the purpose of steel corrosion protection. This pro- so as to slow down or restrain the metal corrosion. Elec-
cess is called bluing treatment, referred to as bluing [101]. trochemical protection can be divided into anode protection
The oxidation film has greater elasticity and lubricity, and and cathodic protection. Anode protection is to lead enough
does not affect the precision of the parts, so the precision anodic current into the metal surface, so that the metal
instrument and optical instrument parts, spring steel, thin appears anode polarization, that is, the potential becomes
steel sheet, and small steel wire often use bluing treatment. positive and passivated. As a result, metal dissolution is
greatly slowed down. Cathodic protection is the introduction
C. Non-metallic coating of sufficient cathodic current to the corroded metal surface to
cause cathodic polarization of the metal, that is, the potential
The use of non-metallic substances such as paint, plastic, becomes negative to prevent dissolution of the metal.
enamel, mineral grease coating on the metal surface to form Cathodic protection can be divided into sacrificial anode
protection and impressed current method according to dif- widely used in industrial processes such as pickling cooling
ferent current sources. water system, oil field water injection, storage, and trans-
The sacrificial anode protection is to directly connect a portation of metal products.
protected metal with a sacrificial anode having a more Corrosion inhibitors are classified into inorganic salts
negative potential to form a current circuit, so that cathode (such as silicate, orthophosphate, nitrite, and chromate) and
polarization occurs in the metal. In this method, a metal or organic compounds (compounds generally containing N, S,
an alloy having an electrode potential lower than that of the O, such as amines, pyridine, thiourea, formaldehyde, and
protected metal is used as an anode and is fixed to the propynol). The function of corrosion inhibitor is to form a
protected metal to form a corrosion cell, and the protected protective film on the surface of metal electrode by
metal is protected as a cathode. The impressed current adsorption and precipitation of corrosion products, thus
method is to connect the protected metal to the negative slowing down the rate of electrode process and achieving the
electrode of the power source, and a current loop is formed purpose of corrosion inhibition [104–107]. Corrosion inhi-
through an auxiliary anode, so that the metal undergoes bitors can also be divided into anodic corrosion inhibitors
cathodic polarization. This method is mainly used to prevent and cathodic corrosion inhibitors. The anodic corrosion
corrosion of metal equipment in soil, seawater, and river inhibitor directly prevents the metal on the surface of the
water. anode from entering the solution or forms a protective film
Commonly used materials for sacrificial anode are alu- on the surface of the metal to protect the anode from cor-
minum, zinc, and their alloys. This method is commonly rosion. If the amount of the corrosion inhibitor is insufficient
used to protect marine hull, various metal equipment, com- and the anode surface is not completely covered, the current
ponents in seawater, and to prevent corrosion of giant density of the anode is increased and the corrosion is
equipment (such as oil storage tanks) and oil pipelines. accelerated, so the anodic corrosion inhibitor is sometimes
When the sacrificial anode protection is used for cathodic referred to as a dangerous corrosion inhibitor. The cathodic
protection, the protection effect is directly related to the corrosion inhibitor mainly inhibits the progress of the cath-
performance of the sacrificial anode material itself. The ode process, increases the cathode polarization, and some-
sacrificial anode material must have the following condi- times forms a protective film on the cathode. Cathodic
tions: ① The potential is negative and the polarization is corrosion inhibitor is not “dangerous”. Along with the social
small. The potential of the sacrificial anode must be more progress and the enhancement of human environmental
negative than that of the protected metal to ensure significant protection consciousness, the development and application
cathodic polarization of the protected metal. At the same of corrosion inhibitor pay more and more attention to the
time, during the working process, the potential change of the requirement of environmental protection. Green chemistry
sacrificial anode is small, and can’t change greatly with the and technology will be widely used in the field of corrosion
increase of the output current. ② The discharge of electricity protection. CIBA has developed two low-toxicity organic
per unit mass of anode is large. ③ Anodic corrosion is coating inhibitors: Irgcor252 and Irzcor53.
small, current efficiency is high, and most of the current
generated when the anode dissolves is used for cathodic (5) Improving the corrosive environment
polarization of the protected metal. ④ The dissolution uni-
formity is good. ⑤ The price is low, the source is wide and Improve the environment is important for reducing and
the processing is convenient. At present, there are three preventing corrosion. For example, reducing the concentra-
kinds of sacrificial anode materials developed and widely tion of corrosive media, removing oxygen from the media,
used in cathodic protection of steel facilities: magnesium and controlling ambient temperature and humidity can
anode, zinc anode, and aluminum anode. reduce and prevent metal corrosion. It is also possible to
reduce and prevent metal corrosion by adding a substance
(4) Corrosion inhibitor method (called a corrosion inhibitor) that reduces the corrosion rate
to the corrosive medium.
Corrosion inhibitor method is a common anti-corrosion
measure. By adding a small amount of corrosion inhibitor in (6) Strengthening the inspection and timely filling
corrosive environment, physical, and chemical action can
take place with metal surface, so the corrosion of metal The corrosion of metal is slow and local, so it can also control
material can be significantly reduced. Because the corrosion the speed and diffusion range of metal corrosion effectively
inhibitor doesn’t need special equipment doesn’t change the by strengthening inspection, timely finding and filling oil and
properties of metal components in the process of use, it has painting. If the periodic curing can be strengthened, the
the advantages of economy and strong adaptability, and is lubrication condition can be improved, and the corrosion
852 X. Li
protection work of the metal can be included in the daily 600 steel plate, wear-resistant 360 steel plate, wear-resistant
inspection and maintenance work, the corrosion state of the 400 steel plate, manganese 13 wear-resistant steel plate,
metal structure can be grasped in time and the corrosion hot-rolled round steel. The adopted steel plates are classified
phenomenon can be eliminated before the formation and as follows: round steel, round bar, cold-rolled coil, steel coil,
spread. At the same time, improving the driver’s technical steel plate, four-cut plate, two-cut and two-cut rough plates,
quality to reduce or avoid the impact and collision is also very seamless pipe, steel pipe, woolens, steel, blank, round steel,
beneficial to the anti-corrosion work of metal structure. cast steel, ultra-thick steel plate, medium thick plate, thin
steel plate, wide plate, narrow plate, long plate, imported
7. Analysis of economic losses caused by construction steel plate, bright plate, raw steel, forged material, forged
machinery industry steel, and large-diameter round steel (Fig. 6.83).
Taking three hydraulic cylinders of boom cylinder, a luffing 2. Severity of corrosion in the industry and the impor-
cylinder, and a bucket cylinder as an example, the average tance attached to corrosion protection
price of new product is RMB 10,000. According to the
national statistics, the failure of hydraulic cylinders due to According to incomplete statistics, bulldozer blade and
corrosion accounts for about 1.2% of the total repair. The bulldozer body of bulldozer are the places most easy to be
economic loss of hydraulic cylinders of construction corroded. According to the investigation, the longest
machinery due to corrosion is estimated to be about anti-corrosion method is anti-corrosion coating. However,
1,000,000 3 1.2% 10,000 = RMB 360 million/year since the blade often collides with the stone when working,
based on the amount of 1 million pieces of scrap each year, the coating is easily peeled off from the blade, thereby
accounting for about 1.3% of the cost of new cylinders every accelerating the corrosion of the blade. According to statis-
year. If the cylinders are scrapped and reprocessed with tics, the annual economic losses caused by equipment cor-
chrome plating, the cost of repairing 3 million of cylinders is rosion reach RMB 12.5 million every year. The main causes
about RMB 380 million/year, and the total charge for loss of of corrosion are:
working time is about RMB 240 million/year. Therefore, the
economic losses caused by the construction machinery A. Corrosion phenomenon
industry accounts for about 3.27% of the total output value.
After bulldozer arrives abroad, only local carrion instead of
6.4.2.3 Investigation on Corrosion of Bulldozer whole corrosion occurs, and corrosion level is different. Bolt
Industry and nut, hidden place, and weld joint are typical places prone
to corrosion.
1. Corrosion site and material of bulldozer B. Causes of corrosion
The bulldozer corrosion mainly occurs in the bulldozing Due to huge size, bulldozers are generally storage in open air.
steel plate and the fuselage part. The material types of steel If transport owners are exposed to the wind, sun, and rain
plate mainly are mainly classified as follows: wear-resistant through the day and night, surface dust and impurities will be
Fig. 6.83 New bulldozer

serious. A large amount of dust can be accumulated on the collision is also very beneficial to the anti-corrosion
surface, and the medium with certain corrosiveness will be work of metal structure.
formed after being mixed with rainwater. Because of the
micro-defects of the surface coating and the non-uniformity The anti-corrosion effect can also be improved in the
of the surface of the part substrate, the corrosive medium or following two aspects:
water enters the surface of the steel part substrate through the
surface paint film, and the galvanic cell is formed, an elec- (1) Improving transportation and assembly conditions for
trical reaction occurs, and the metal on the surface of the parts and components
workpiece is oxidized, causing corrosion of the metal.
In order to avoid corrosion of workpieces in processes to
3. Types of anti-corrosion measures achieve good surface quality, the required general handling,
including electroplating and painting, is often stopped.
As for the above corrosion, the following protective mea- However, in the event of friction and collision in trans-
sures may be taken: portation and assembly, these clad layers or coatings will be
partially damaged, and the failure points of these parts are
(1) Passivation of foundation anti-rust oil and paint very likely to be the site of subsequent corrosion. Parts that
In order to enhance the anti-rust effect of the basic have been plated or painted shall not collide with each other
anti-rust oil, passivant can be added to form a passi- between the workpieces or between the workpieces and the
vation protective film on the metal surface to reduce the transportation tools during the transportation process. During
corrosion rate of the metal. Similarly, by adding some the assembly process, care should be taken to avoid collision
auxiliary materials such as passivant or pigment to the with other workpieces during the hoisting process which will
paint, the paint can also be passivated. Even if moisture result in partial damage of the coating or paint film.
and oxygen reach the metal surface, it can also prevent
the metal from rusting or greatly delay the start of (2) Enhancing the quality control of plated parts
rusting.
(2) Improving anti-corrosion technology Except for special requirements, the plated parts shall not
Before the machinery and equipment are manufactured have sharp edges, sharp corners, and flanges, and carried out
and put into use, the pre-stage anti-corrosion work must with burring. Plated parts are generally machined or
be done well. The internal and external surfaces and cold-drawn, and their general brightness shall not be lower
associated parts of the metal structure shall be thor- than Ra 6.3. All plated parts shall be smooth and free from
oughly cleaned of impurities such as oil stain and oxi- serious corrosion and shrinkage. The sand hole of casting
dation scale on the metal surface (such as shot blasting) shall be well set, and the machining knife mark shall be
before coating the paint and anti-rust oil on the foun- polished. Prior to plating, it is necessary to stop the severe
dation. Then passivated paint or basic anti-rust oil is cleaning, remove the general oil stain, and ensure the
applied to the metal surface without any leakage, so that bonding force between the plated layer and the base metal of
each surface and each joint of the metal forms a layer of the plated part. The surface of the plated layer shall be
anti-rust protection layer that is impermeable to water smooth and fine with uniform color and thickness to satisfy
and oxygen. the requirements. Burrs, spots, peeling, inclusions, nodules,
(3) Strengthening the inspection and timely filling bubbles, and other defects affecting the appearance and
The corrosion of metal is slow and local, so it can also performance of the plated layer shall not be allowed.
control the speed and diffusion range of metal corrosion
effectively by strengthening inspection, timely finding 4. Existing problems
and filling oil and painting. If the periodic curing can be (1) Bolts and nuts. The corrosion of bolts and nuts
strengthened, the lubrication condition can be treated by electroplating is relatively slight, while
improved, and the corrosion protection work of the corrosion of bolts treated with blackening is serious.
metal can be included in the daily inspection and Plating and blackening are common surface treat-
maintenance work, the corrosion state of the metal ment methods for adjoining parts, but the ability to
structure can be grasped in time and the corrosion prevent rust is different and the application situation
phenomenon can be eliminated before the formation is different. Fieldwork equipment such as bulldoz-
and spread. At the same time, improving the driver’s ers, which uses blackened bolts as adjoining parts
technical quality to reduce or avoid the impact and for the ultimate assembly, is bound to be corroded.
854 X. Li
The plated layer has excellent protection to iron and Ltd. account for nearly half of the total sales volume.
steel, but it is related to the coating quality. If the Through the renovation and improvement of equipment and
iron and steel are not well treated before plating and technology, the surface quality has become one of the ben-
the coating thickness can’t meet the requirements, eficial conditions for “going out” of Shantui’s bulldozers.
their protection ability will be reduced. For example, In general, domestic bulldozers are available to users after
if the coating is partially destroyed, the cathodic 2 or 3 months of complete machine in storage, inventory
coating will not prevent rust and accelerate the time is generally in 1–3 months, and can be for open-air
corrosion of the steel matrix. The coating is easy to storage. In addition to mass transport by rail, they are gen-
be damaged in the process of utilization. For erally by road transport and the process of transport gener-
example, the sleeve is loose when tightening, and ally doesn’t add protection, that is, nude transport. Domestic
the coating on the edge of the bolt head is worn off. transportation time is relatively short and the longest will not
(2) Hidden parts. Before assembly, the parts of the exceed a week.
construction machinery only stop the primer spray- The exported bulldozers spend a long time in trans-
ing, which is used as the anti-rust coating between portation and need to adopt a variety of transportation modes
the process and the priming coat of the complete with a long line and a great change in natural conditions. The
vehicle top coat. After assembly, the complete time of inventory for exported bulldozers is about the same
vehicle stops top coat spraying to meet the surface as that in China, about 1–3 months, but occasionally the
quality requirements of the factory. Defects in the inventory can be over half a year due to uncertain delivery
quality of the component primer, too long inventory time. The exported bulldozers of “Shantui” are mainly loa-
and bumping in the transportation and assembly ded from Tianjin Port and Shanghai. It takes 1–2 days from
process, can form part of rust. In the coating of the the company to the port. The stay time at the port is 3–
whole machine, not only the top coat is sprayed but 5 days or 10–15 days. It takes about a month by sea to
also the primer is stopped for the defect of the pri- Africa and 10 days to Southeast Asia. As bulldozers belong
mer and the collision and scratch. However, once to large-scale equipment, it is generally necessary to stop
the workpiece is assembled, some hidden parts or special acceptance, so the supplier is generally required to be
dark surfaces will appear where the primer can’t be responsible for transporting to the buyer’s port.
repaired and the top coat is difficult to be sprayed, It can be seen that the exported bulldozers have the fol-
making these parts bare and prone to corrosion. lowing characteristics:
(3) Position of weld joint. The reasons for forming the
corrosion of weld joint come from many aspects. (1) Transportation cycle is long. The shortest is about
First, the quality of weld joint is not good with lots 10 days and longest will reach over a month. If there is
of spatter and welding slag, and the grinding and an unexpected delay, it will be longer.
settlement are not stopped. Second, the weld joint (2) Weather conditions are complicated. The daytime
doesn’t stop needing disposal before painting, the temperature difference is big and the latitude scope is
surface is rough, and the coating can’t be smooth big with different weather belt.
and film-forming. Besides, the weld joint is not easy (3) The transport vehicles need to be replaced, and the
to spray and easy to form a virtual spraying or dry bulldozers are required to walk on the ground.
spraying phenomenon. (4) Because of the huge size, they are usually transported in
nude packing.
5. Examples of investigation
6.4.2.4 Status Quo of Corrosion of Mining
Most of the bulldozers in China have been judged as sec- Machinery
ondhand products by the purchaser after they are exported to In the course of mining machinery operation, the early
shore. The reason is that the surface quality and protection failure and mass destruction of equipment are often caused
don’t meet the standard, which leads to serious corrosion in due to the influence of harsh environmental conditions, such
the course of transportation. In recent years, while improving as vibration, impact, friction and wear, corrosion of chemical
the internal performance and quality of domestic construc- media, especially under the comprehensive action of friction
tion machinery, the investment in painting, surface quality, wear and corrosion wear. According to the investigation of
and transportation protection of the whole machine has been 140 coal mines by the former Ministry of Coal Industry in
increased, so that domestic construction machinery is sold 1984, the average annual corrosion of shaft supports was
well at home while its export volume is expanding. The 0.34 mm, and that of coastal areas was 0.5 mm. The annual
bulldozers exported by Shantui Construction Machinery Co., steel loss caused by corrosion is more than 18,000 tons,
accounting for about 3.3% of the total installed quantity of corrosion is more serious, and many pockmarks are formed
the equipment. The consumption of drill bits and bucket on the surface. The effect of changing the steel product into
teeth of excavators, as well as crusher hammers, grinding the aluminum alloy product is very good in Huainan Xiesan
machines lining plates and grinding balls are very serious, Mine.
which also brings great economic losses to mining enter- Figure 6.85 is a picture of serious corrosion of the fans of
prises [108]. Huainan Xiesan Mine. In the wet environment, the corrosion
According to incomplete statistics, the grinding machine is mainly caused by mine ventilation which meets the
lining plate consumed by only metallurgical, building oxygen-absorbing corrosion condition of electrochemical
materials, and electric power sectors in China is 300,000 corrosion. The air also contains a large amount of hydrogen
tons, worth RMB 700 million, and the ball mill grinding ball sulfide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane, and dust,
consumed annually is about 100,000 tons, worth nearly which is dissolved in high-salinity underground water to
RMB 1.3 billion. The annual consumption of the crusher is form various kinds of corrosive electrolyte aqueous solution,
about 20,000 tons, worth more than RMB 40 million. For making the corrosion of metals more complicated. After
hard rock, the life of a bit is only 5–7 m, and 3 bits with a being condensed on the metal surface, the dust in the ore
value of about RMB 500 will be consumed for drilling one absorbs water and becomes a local source of electrochemical
blast hole [109]. In some coastal areas and non-ferrous metal corrosion. The flow erosion of dust or mud will expose the
concentration plants, equipment suffers from corrosion fresh active surface of the metal to faster corrosion (i.e.,
damage before putting into operation because of seawater abrasion). The local plastic deformation of the component
erosion and corrosion of chemical media. The influence of caused by working stress or collision will cause stress cor-
mining environmental conditions on mining machinery rosion, leading to the initiation and rapid propagation of
operation that causes the early failure of mining machinery micro-cracks and failure of the component. Every year, 5–6
parts and the economic losses has aroused the attention of fans need to be replaced, resulting in a direct economic loss
mining enterprises and relevant research and development of RMB 5 million.
units, and effective measures have been taken to improve The serious pitting corrosion of reducer gear is also one
[110]. of the common problems. The problems of corrosion and
According to the investigation, the flotation machine of wear are very serious due to the complicated conditions such
Shandong Jinyang Mining suffers from serious corrosion in as water drenching, wind blowing, sunlight, and abrasion
its tank body before putting into use. Serious corrosion of during the work of the hoisting steel rope. When wear and
the surface of the impeller cover plate occurs due to the local corrosion occur, the effective cross-sectional area decreases,
humid environment (Fig. 6.84), which causes the enterprise causing wire breakage and then rope breakage and resulting
to stop the maintenance and delays the construction period, in great loss.
bringing about big economic losses to the enterprise. Investigation of Wuhan Iron and Steel Group Mining Co.,
Ltd. finds that there are many pitting marks on the surface of
1. Corrosion parts of mining machinery vertical ball mill gear because of corrosion. Although it can
be continued to use, the strength of the gear has been reduced,
Fans, pressure fans, drainage, lifting equipment, scraper and it is inevitable that accidents may occur. Therefore, the
conveyor, and ball mill used in mining machinery are several gear is replaced in time, but the replacement of gear is not
kinds of key equipment in mining industry. cheap, one would cost RMB tens of thousands (Fig. 6.86).
The main problems of fans and pressure fans are that The survey of Qidashan Iron Ore Plant of Ansteel Mining
when the humidity of fan blade and casing is large, the shows that the domestic steel rope has a life of only
Fig. 6.84 Impeller cover plate

856 X. Li
Fig. 6.85 Fan corrosion of Huainan Xiesan Mine
Fig. 6.86 Ball mill gear of Wuhan Iron and Steel Group Co., Ltd.
Fig. 6.87 Winch wire pope corrosion used in Qidashan Iron Ore Plant of Ansteel Mining
Fig. 6.88 Corrosion of drainage pump in Jinling Mining Co., Ltd. in Shandong Province
8 months, while that of Japan can be used for 16 months, The economic losses caused by the shutdown are as high as
which is twice as long as that of China. As can be seen from RMB hundreds of thousands (Fig. 6.88).
Fig. 6.87, after 8 months of service, the surface of the steel Generally speaking, the scraper conveyor is one of the
rope has been almost completely rusted and normal opera- equipment with the largest consumption of spare parts in
tion can’t be continued. each mine. The main wear parts are the middle slot, chain,
For the drainage pump, the common problems are the scraper, and chain wheel, among which the middle slot
erosion wear, corrosion wear, cavitation erosion, and cor- accounts for 40% of the wear, the chain accounts for 22% of
rosion of the impeller and guide wheel, as well as the wear the wear, and the scrape and the sprocket account for 23%.
and corrosion of the casing. The life of impeller is only about For example, the 40 tons of scraper of Huaibei Mining
1 year, and the shell can only be used for 2–3 years. Some Co., Ltd. uses more than 4,000 chains every year, each of
domestic mines use the pump of former Soviet Union, and it which is 960 mm. Made of ordinary steel, head sprocket
is used for 15 years to be scrapped due to corrosion. There is wear and tooth drop often occur with the life of only 2–
a large level gap at home and abroad. 3 months. Corrosion is mainly caused by gas in the atmo-
The drainage pump used in Jinling Mining Co., Ltd. in sphere and wear of ore. Figures 6.89 and 6.90 show the
Shandong Province is investigated. The drainage pump is scraper conveyor of Huaibei Mining Co., Ltd. and the chain
clean and not corroded on the surface. In fact, due to various wheel subjected to corrosion. As can be seen from the fig-
ions in the water, it has been seriously corroded and could ures, the scraper conveyor is unable to maintain normal
not continue to maintain production, so workers replace it. operation due to corrosion. The chain of the scraper
858 X. Li
Fig. 6.91 Ball mills in the concentrating mill of Jiangxi Copper

Corporation
Fig. 6.89 Corrosion of scraper conveyor of Huaibei Mining Co., Ltd.
Fig. 6.92 Lining plates of ball mills in the concentrating mill of

Jiangxi Copper Corporation
more stringent requirements are put forward for the prop-

erties of the materials, and the traditional metal anti-wear
materials are far from meeting the performance require-
ments. According to the investigation, the lining plates of
ball mills in the concentrating mill of Jiangxi Copper Cor-
poration are still made of traditional high manganese steel
Fig. 6.90 Corrosion of chain wheel of scraper conveyor (Mn13Cr2) (Figs. 6.91 and 6.92). The service life of the
lining plates is generally about 4–6 months, that is, they
conveyor is also corroded seriously, if it is not replaced and need to be replaced in less than half a year. Frequent
continues to work, it will cause serious safety production replacement, maintenance, and shutdown result in increase
accident, and the economic losses caused by the shutdown of grinding costs. As a result, the annual economic losses
are very large. amount to RMB several million.
In the beneficiation process of metallurgical mines, wet Stone crushers are widely used in mines, smelting,
ball mill is the main equipment of ore crushing and grinding, building materials, roads, railways, water conservancy, and
and its lining plate is the main vulnerable part. Among chemical industries. At present, commonly used stone
China’s wear-resistant steel, only ball mill liner plate and crushers are jaw crusher, baffle crusher, pneumatic crusher,
grinding ball will be consumed about 2.2 million tons every hammer crusher, impact crusher, roller crusher, compound
year. In the operation and production of concentrating mills crusher, cone crusher, and so on. Investigation shows that
of copper mine enterprises in China, the lining plate of ball the hammer crusher is used in Mengzi Mining & Metallurgy
mill works under the condition of wet weak acid medium. Co., Ltd. Because of the interaction of wear and corrosion,
The grinding process of ore is completed by ball mill. The the hammer head of the crusher has to be replaced fre-
lining plate of ball mill must bear the corrosive wear of weak quently, resulting in economic loss of RMB several hun-
acid copper ore slurry and is also subjected to the impact dreds of thousands (Fig. 6.93).
wear of grinding balls. The service conditions are very harsh. Investigation on the coal cutter of Heilongjiang Longmay
Because of the interaction of corrosion, impact, and wear, Mining Holding Group Co., Ltd. finds that the coal cutter
Fig. 6.93 Hammer crusher used

in Mengzi Mining & Metallurgy
Co., Ltd.
Fig. 6.94 Coal cutter of

Heilongjiang Longmay Mining
Holding Group Co., Ltd.
needs to replace a new set of equipment in only 3 months reaching 2–3. The salt content is as high as 800 mg/L,
because of the co-action of underground water and ore wear. higher than seawater. The relative humidity of the air is high,
This has caused considerable damage to the company. Fig- generally about 80% and as high as 92%. In addition, in
ure 6.94 shows the coal cutter being used and replaced. order to reduce the dust content in the air, the working face is
generally installed with a watering device, increasing the
2. Causes of corrosion of mining machinery humidity [112].
The forced ventilation in mine meets the
There are many kinds of mines, including coal mine, metal oxygen-absorbing corrosion condition of the electrochemical
mine, and non-metallic mine. The causes of corrosion of corrosion in the humid environment. The underground water
mining machinery in different types and regions are also often contains Cl− and SO42−. Cl− plays the role of
different. depolarizer and can accelerate the corrosion of metal
According to the investigation of the coal system, the equipment. The Cl− content is particularly high in offshore
annual corrosion rate of underground iron and steel equip- mines [113].
ment in coal mines is 0.2–1.2 mm, and the equipment The investigation shows that the content of chloride ion
abandoned due to corrosion accounts for about 1/3 of the in underground water of Shandong Longkou Mining Bureau
steel consumption every year. In addition, the shutdown is as high as 2,487–4,490 mg/L. Areas where metals are
accident caused by equipment corrosion damage makes the susceptible to local electrochemical corrosion include
loss even greater. For example, the maintenance of shaft seams, micro-cracks, stress concentration areas, and coating
equipment after corrosion will not only cost a large amount voids. In this environment, corrosion is accelerated by the
of manpower and material resources, consume a large depolarization of chloride ions. If the end of a crack is
amount of steel, but also stop production for nearly subjected to tensile stress, the crack will propagate rapidly
2 months, causing great loss to production [111]. until it breaks down, which is called SCC. In other cases, it
is called galvanic corrosion, pinhole corrosion (pitting cor-
(1) Chemical corrosion rosion), crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion, selective
corrosion or filamentary corrosion. Local corrosion is
The composition of water in mine in China is complex, most destructive. In a coal mine environment, the majority of
of which is neutral or weakly alkaline with pH value of 7–9; metal components undergo similar corrosion (Table 6.14)
some of which is acidic with pH value of 4–7 and even [114].
860 X. Li
Table 6.14 Common corrosion Equipment Parts Conditions Corrosion failure

failure of coal mine machinery types
Shaft Tank channel, tank There are many kinds of ions (such as Crevice corrosion,
equipment beam, welding chloride ion and sulfate ion) in the water galvanic corrosion
seam that penetrates from coal seam into the
well, and the harmful gas in the coal mine
atmosphere accelerates the corrosion
Belt Downhole In the process of underground use, the Abrasion corrosion,
conveyor supporting roller water is drenched so that the environment pitting corrosion,
is wet, the water quality is high in acidity erosion wear
and alkalinity, the transmission belt is
worn
hydraulic Inner wall High relative humidity, forced ventilation Wear corrosion and
prop and complicated water quality, the erosion
coating may be damaged by bumping or
blasting coal
Coal Flume, shaker Ion in water and coal slurry water, air Erosion and stress
washing oxidation and wear of hard particles corrosion
equipment
Coal Heat exchanger High pressure, high temperature, strong Pitting corrosion
chemical tube bundle corrosion, high-speed flow medium and intergranular
heat stainless steel temperature, medium pressure, strong corrosion
exchanger piping corrosion
(2) Wear corrosion (3) Current corrosion
In the process of underground mining and transportation of The corrosion caused by the stray current of mining
minerals, the minerals have abrasive wear effect on the machinery should not be underestimated. According to rel-
equipment. Because of the high humidity, the weak corro- evant data, the stray current of 1 A can corrode 9 kg of Fe,
siveness of water, and the corrosive components contained 11 kg of Cu, and 34 kg of Al in a year. To prevent stray
in the minerals, the corrosion wear is accompanied by the current, leak detection device should be used to timely
abrasion. In open-pit mining, the relative humidity is small eliminate electrical fault [117].
and corrosion wear is less, which is mainly due to the serious
abrasive wear in the process of moving minerals. Benefici- 3. Common anti-corrosion measures for mining
ation and coal cleaning plants shall crush, transport, and sort machinery
minerals. There is abrasive wear of mineral, and corrosion
failure occurs due to the action of water and medium, and the The most effective way to prevent corrosion of mining
combined action of corrosion and abrasive wear and machinery is to electroplate metal with a protective layer
mechanical fatigue is more serious. Parts and components of resistant to underground corrosion. Zinc and chromium
equipment suffer from corrosion wear and corrosion fatigue coatings are widely used for protection. Zinc coatings have
[115]. good protective properties, cathode characteristics and are
According to statistics, in the petrochemical industry, relatively cheap compared with other metals, so they are
energy transportation, agricultural machinery, building widely used in all sectors. Chromium has good physical and
materials, mines, coal burning and washing, metallurgy, chemical properties in coal mine machinery manufacturing.
water conservancy, and electricity industries, the loss caused The electrolytic chromium plating method should be widely
by corrosion wear accounts for 9% of the total corrosion and applied for anti-corrosion treatment and repair of worn parts
5% of the wearing capacity. (Fig. 6.96).
Therefore, corrosion wear is more serious than that of Chromium plating has the characteristics of strong wear
non-corrosive media, and the damage of abrasive to surface resistance and stable chemical property. It is suitable for
film is one of the important reasons for wear-promoting parts which bear friction in corrosive environment. The
corrosion. The mechanical removal model of the surface film porous coating obtained from the standard electrolyte pro-
[116] is shown in Fig. 6.95. vides only mechanical protection of the iron–carbon alloy. In
Initial rapid corrosion

Passivation film
Cyclic process
Abrasive
Wear of film
Fig. 6.95 Mechanical removal model of surface film
Chromium plating
Copper-tin alloy
Reinforced GFRP and engineering plastics
Bronze plating
Enamel
Other
Fig. 6.96 Anti-corrosion measures for mining machinery
the case of the iron–chromium type, the base metal can be internal stress, it is very fragile. Under the effect of alter-
destroyed. The standard chromium electrolyte has a very nating load, crack will appear. In this way, it can’t play a
small production capacity, a very low current efficiency long-term role in preventing corrosion.
(13%), a very weak dispersing ability, and a high internal Bronze plating is a relatively new technology which has
stress. As the chromium plating layer contains pores and been only used in industry since the last decade. This coating
862 X. Li
is suitable for the bottom layer of chromium plating, as a

protective layer.
Copper–tin alloy (bronze) is a cathode according to the
relationship with steel. There is no porosity, so the metal can
be well protected from corrosion. When the thickness of
bronze coating is 15–18 lm, the tin content is 12–15%. In
fact, there is no pore. In order to deposit the bronze pro-
tective layer, a large amount of electrolyte is required, but
only cyanide electrolyte is used in the industry temporarily.
Another way to prevent corrosion is to use reinforced
GFRP and other engineering plastics. GFRP and engineering
plastics have the characteristics of lightweight and corrosion Fig. 6.98 GFRP gas pipes of Hegang Mining Group Company
resistance. There is no aging problem caused by ultraviolet
radiation in downhole application, so the service life is
GFRP is twice that of carbon steel, the service life is pro-
longer. In recent years, the application of GFRP and engi-
longed. From the economic point of view, it is cost-effective,
neering plastics in underground is increasing, and the scope
so this anti-corrosion method is effective.
is wider and wider. Some have realized that the wind shaft is
The enamel process may also be used to protect the
equipped with full GFRP, and the large and small beams,
wellbore equipment. Enamel coating has corrosion resis-
ladders, platforms, fences, and supports in the air shaft are
tance, strong adhesion, wear resistance, smooth, and beau-
all manufactured by GFRP. In the lifting shaft, parts with
tiful appearance, but the coating is brittle, difficult to repair,
low bearing capacity can also be made of GFRP. Engineer-
and high in cost.
ing plastics can be used to make gas pipes, spray pipes,
From the point of view of substrate selection, low alloy
spray pipes and panels, etc. The UK has introduced a rigid
steel and corrosion-resistant cast iron are promising materi-
Trllex wear-resistant, inorganic, new material-treated pipe,
als. A few mines in China have tried to use aluminum alloy
coated with a reinforced plastic exterior that combines the
lifting vessels for lightweight and corrosion resistance, but
strength of steel, the wear-resistant protection of rubber, and
the cost is relatively high, about 2.5 times that of steel
the light and corrosion-resistant properties of plastics.
vessels. It is poor in weldability, easy to plastic deformation,
The investigation finds that the gas pipes of Fenxi Mining
and easy in occurrence of galvanic corrosion at the con-
Group Company use polyethylene winding (Fig. 6.97),
nection with steel.
which is characterized by lightweight and good corrosion
resistance. Previous gas pipes can only be used for 1 year
4. Existing problems and investigation examples
due to corrosion. After winded with polyethylene, the ser-
vice life of the gas pipes is extended by three times, which
The anti-corrosion problem of hydraulic prop and single
effectively saves the cost and reduces the economic losses.
hydraulic prop has not been solved well.
However, the gas pipes of Hegang Mining Group Com-
The amount of the corrosion-resistant coating on the
pany are made of GFRP (Fig. 6.98). Although the price of
surface of the single hydraulic prop movable column is
discarded due to corrosion falling off, accounting for 8% of
the total waste amount. The coating with good electroplating
quality can maintain about 2 years in the well, and that with
poor quality can be only used a few months or even dozens
of days, far from the design life. Hydraulic prop forms a
huge and complicated system with other equipment in the
coal mining face, some of which have a total weight of more
than 1,500 tons, a total power of more than 1,000 kW, and
an investment of more than RMB 6 million with an average
daily raw coal of exceeding 150 tons. Once such efficient
and complex equipment is stopped for maintenance due to
corrosion failure, it will cause huge economic losses. The
design objective requires that there is no overhaul in
5–8 years.
At present, the surface anti-corrosion methods of the
Fig. 6.97 Polyethylene winded gas pipe of Fenxi Mining Group single hydraulic prop can be roughly classified as follows.
Company
Hardness
Wear resistance
Corrosion resistance
Cost
Degree of environmental pollution
Electroplate
Laser cladding
Plasma cladding
Fig. 6.99 Comprehensive comparison of three processes for repairing hydraulic prop (higher values represents better performance)
China most adopts the plating of milky white chromium to

make the bottom layer, and then plates hard chromium on it,
and also uses bronze with tin of 12–20% in plating hard
chromium plating. In addition to continuously improved
electroplating process in recent years, attempts have also
been made to use chemical nickel plating and zinc plating
phosphating (Fig. 6.99).
The following is a survey of Pingdingshan Coal Industry
Co., Ltd. The picture of the single hydraulic prop is the use
of plating milky white chromium to make the bottom, and
then plating hard chromium. After this method, the corro-
sion damage degree of the single hydraulic prop is reduced,
the cost is greatly saved, and the company loss is reduced
(Figs. 6.100 and 6.101).
Single chromium plating is used at abroad with very good
Fig. 6.100 Chromium plating single hydraulic prop
quality and the above composite coating is used. Among
them, galvanized phosphating has been in mass production
in the former Soviet Union. cause the sealing ring to fail. Maintenance cost for single
Chromium plating or composite chromium plating is a chromium plating is also high because of the need for
cathodic coating, which plays a role of mechanical protec- repairing welding a large number of corroded holes and then
tion and is extremely sensitive to voids or micro-cracks. grind and replace. Although the porosity of electroless nickel
Once the pores penetrate the coating during production or plating layer is much less than that of chromium plating, it is
use, the iron matrix at the bottom of the pores becomes a also a cathodic protective layer. Once there is porosity, it
small anode and suffers from accelerated corrosion. The also accelerates the perforation corrosion of iron and steel
corrosion products accumulate gradually, which will cause substrate. The advantages of electroless nickel plating are as
the coating to bubble and fall off, scratch the sealing ring and follows compared with chromium plating. The pollution
864 X. Li
of cathode coating. In addition, it has the performance of

anodic electrochemical protective layer, and is a kind of
steel protective material with low cost and good perfor-
mance. However, except for thermal spraying, hot-dip
plating, vacuum physical deposition, and plate composite,
electroplating aluminum is not yet mature.
For the surface treatment of the hydraulic prop cylinder
column, in addition to the single chromium plating and
composite chromium plating on the surface of the single
hydraulic prop movable column, semi-bright nickel plating,
and hard chromium plating, three layers of hard chromium
or three isomeric chromium plating can be adopted. In recent
years, boron aluminum infiltration and zinc phosphating
Fig. 6.101 Chromium plating single hydraulic prop in use in the mine process have been used. The development direction of sur-
face treatment of hydraulic prop cylinder column is basically
degree is greatly reduced; uniform plating performance is the same as that of single hydraulic prop column.
very good, suitable for complex shape parts such as
three-use valves. However, relevant technical specifications
haven’t been established.
6.4.3 Conclusions
With the increase of single prop usage and maintenance,
According to incomplete statistics, China’s annual corrosion
the environmental pollution caused by chromium plating
loss is far more than RMB 500 billion. In addition, the
should not be ignored. At present, the mature chromium
annual corrosion loss of mine metallurgy, light industry,
plating technology adopts hexavalent chromium plating
food and paper industry, as well as joint venture and private
solution with concentration of 20–30 g/L, and pollution
enterprises will increase the annual corrosion loss of China
from workpieces and air pollution from bubbles are car-
(Fig. 6.102).
cinogenic factors. Although expensive pollution elimination
Compared with Japan, the proportion of anti-corrosion
devices are installed, there is still some harm to the opera-
cost is different in China (Table 6.15). Compared with the
tors. Several series of trivalent chromium plating processes
United States, for example, in 2000, China’s GNP was
have been developed abroad, and the pollution is only 1% of
$1,071 billion, accounting for about 6% of GNP. GNP of the
hexavalent chromium process. At present, China is also
United States was $9,996 billion, and the annual corrosion
vigorously carrying out research. Considering the economic
loss accounted for about 2.76% of GNP, which was much
benefit, environmental benefit, and social benefit compre-
lower than that of China.
hensively, the single hydraulic prop treatment process with
It is generally accepted by corrosion and protection
low void ratio Ni-P amorphous alloy coating as bottom layer
experts all over the world that the economic losses of cor-
and trivalent chromium plating layer as surface layer is a
rosion can be reduced by 25–30% if modern corrosion sci-
development direction worthy of attention.
entific knowledge and anti-corrosion technology can be
The zinc phosphating treatment process equipment is
applied. The main reason for the high proportion of corro-
simple, convenient to operate, low in cost, long in life, and
sion loss in China is that quite a large number of construc-
easy to repair. The coating is anodic and has an electro-
tion sectors and enterprise leaders lack sufficient
chemical protective effect on the iron and steel substrate. It is
understanding of the seriousness and harmfulness of corro-
not sensitive to voids and does not corrode the iron at the
sion, and don’t understand the relationship between protec-
bottom of the pores. This technology is a kind of protection
tion investment and the improvement of enterprise economic
method worth popularizing. Its posttreatment is organic
benefits. They just think that “material corrosion is inevi-
coating, which has poor binding force and is not resistant to
table, the damaged will be repaired and the scrapped will be
collision and wear. In the aqueous solution with high salt
changed”. Therefore, insufficient funds are invested in
content, aluminum also plays an electrochemical protection
infrastructure investment and maintenance. In addition, the
role for iron, and aluminum can form a dense and hard
engineering and technical personnel engaged in design,
aluminum oxide film after surface treatment, which is
manufacture, construction, and management usually lack
resistant to wear and corrosion, and has the wear resistance
Corrosion loss/ RMB 0.1 billion

Sector
Chemical industry
Energy sector
Transport sector
Construction sector
Machinery industry
Other input
Anti-corrosion input
Total output value
Fig. 6.102 Corrosion loss and corrosion input of some sectors in China
Table 6.15 Anti-corrosion proportion of China and Japan

Anti-corrosion method Anti-corrosion proportion (%)
of Medical Materials
China Japan
2000 1975 1997
6.5.1 Review
Surface coating 75.63 62.5 58.4
Metal surface treatment 11.66 25.4 25.7 6.5.1.1 Overview of the Progress
Corrosion-resistant material 12.46 9.4 11.3 and Development of Corrosion Protection
Anti-rust oil 0.1 0.6 1.6 Technology
Corrosion inhibitor 0.05 0.6 1.1 The corrosion protection technology of biomedical materials
is actually the selection of anti-corrosion materials and the
Electrochemical protection 0.1 0.6 0.6
treatment technology of material surface. From the view of
Corrosion research fee – 0.8 1.1
the development of the technical connotation of biomedical
Corrosion investigation fee – 0.0 0.2 materials, there have been three generations.
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 The first generation is a biologically inert material. It is
selected from well-established engineering materials that are
biocompatible and substitute for tissue repair functions, such
knowledge of corrosion and protection, which is also an as widely used metallic cardiovascular stents, titanium
important reason for directly affecting the popularization and joints, ceramic joints, carbon-based heart valves
application of new anti-corrosion technologies. Therefore, in (Fig. 6.103), and contact lenses (Fig. 6.104). It is charac-
order to reduce the economic losses caused by corrosion, it is terized by as little immune response as possible and
necessary to improve the anti-corrosion awareness and long-term maintenance of its function.
increase the anti-corrosion investment.
866 X. Li
Artificial valve
Normal valve
Lesion valve
After operation
Fig. 6.103 Artificial valve
Fig. 6.105 PGA surgical suture

Fig. 6.104 Contact lens
The third generation of biomedical materials relates to
The second generation is a bioactive material and tissue engineering and gene control and activation therapy.
absorbable material developed in the 1990s. The bioactive The process of tissue engineering technology to repair tissue
material implanted in the body can have benign physiolog- and organ defects is to adsorb tissue cells on the framework
ical effects with the surrounding environment, such as material which has good biocompatibility and can be grad-
bioinorganic material, bioactive glass, biodegradable cera- ually degraded and absorbed by human body. At the same
mic, bio-glass ceramic, and nano-biomaterial. time, cells gradually reproduce (under the control of growth
Bio-absorbable polymeric materials such as PLA and PGA factor) out of human body tissue. The framework material
are used for surgical sutures (Fig. 6.105), bone nails and provides three-dimensional space for the cells to survive,
bone plates for fracture fixation, controlled drug delivery enabling the cells to obtain sufficient nutrients and exchange
systems, nerve conduits (Fig. 6.106), medical membranes, nutrients, and enabling the cells to grow on scaffolds
and so on. according to a predesigned three-dimensional shape. The
connotation of this technology is to make an organ with life,
6.5.1.2 Corroded Site and the Main Materials
1. Corroded site
Biomedical materials are small in size and are a complete

whole. Generally, a biomedical product consists of only one
material which is in a complex environment inside the
human body, so the corroded site of biomedical material is
itself. Direct combination with a biological system is the
most basic feature of biomedical materials, such as materials
that come into direct contact with blood in artificial bone,
teeth, heart, lung, kidney, and other devices directly into the
human body to meet the requirements of physical and
chemical properties such as various biological functions.
Fig. 6.106 Nerve regeneration collagen scaffold and nerve conduit Biomedical materials, without exception, must have tissue
compatibility with organisms, which is the most important
feature of biomedical material that distinguishes them from
and its technical parameter is that the organ has all biological
other functional materials. Histocompatibility requires that
functions and is a new artificial organ. Gene control and
biomedical materials should not have significant deleterious
activation therapy materials can activate the genes of cells so
effects on the organism and may reduce the corrosion failure
that they express specific proteins to influence the function
directly associated with the biological system and prolong its
of the cells. Biological molecules such as specific proteins
service life.
and polypeptides are grafted onto the material to mimic the
extracellular matrix environment to provide a multifunc-
2. Major materials
tional cell-binding surface, and specific cell recognition
factors may stimulate gene dominance to stimulate regen-
(1) Medical stainless steel materials
eration of living tissue.
As biomaterials have been used over the years, 1/3–1/2
According to metallographic structure of stainless steel, it is
of patients with second-generation materials need to be
classified into austenite type, austenite-ferrite type, marten-
reoperated because of implantation failure within 10–
site type, and precipitation hardening type. Austenitic
25 years after implantation, which promotes the develop-
stainless steel has the characteristics of non-magnetism,
ment of third generation of biomedical material. In the
good corrosion resistance, easy processing, and low price.
third generation of biomedical material, the material
The addition of molybdenum, chromium, and other elements
self-assembly technology and material modification tech-
can enhance the stability and strength of its alloy struc-
nology are adopted, which greatly increases the
ture. 316L stainless steel is widely used as a stent implant
anti-corrosion performance of the material and prolong the
material (Fig. 6.107), and ASTM also recommends 316L as
service life of the material.
a metal implant material.
Fig. 6.107 Stainless steel nail

plate
868 X. Li
(2) Titanium alloy has good X-ray visibility, can be implanted quickly and
accurately, and has good biocompatibility. However, the
Titanium is a highly chemically active metal and its surface application of tantalum alloy is limited because of its high
is easily oxidized into titanium dioxide to form an inert price, less resources, and difficulty in processing and
passivation film, which protects the substrate well, thus forming.
making the titanium alloy the most corrosion-resistant metal
besides gold and platinum. In addition, titanium alloy has (5) Biomedical polymer material
good biocompatibility and can be effectively matched with
organisms, which is considered as a promising implant Biomedical polymer material is one of the earliest and most
material. Titanium, together with aluminum, vanadium, iron, widely used biomedical materials, and it is also a rapidly
zirconium, molybdenum, nickel, and other elements, forms developing field. It comes from natural products and syn-
an alloy that improves the physical and mechanical proper- thetic ones. In addition to meeting the general requirements
ties of the material in varying degrees. Some titanium alloy of physical and chemical properties, the material must also
materials also have shape memory functions, such as Ti–Ni, have a good enough biocompatibility. According to different
Ti–Ni–Nb, and Ti11.5V1.7Fe3.3Al. The first generation of properties, medical polymer material can be divided into
medical titanium metal materials is represented by pure non-degradation type and biodegradable type. For the for-
titanium and Ti–6Al–4V, accounting for 60% in the current mer, it is required to be stable in the biological environment
medical titanium alloy market. The second generation is for a long time without degradation, cross-linking or phys-
represented by Ti–5Al–2.5Fe and Ti–5Al–2.5Sn. The third ical wear, etc., and has good physical and mechanical
generation is mainly based on the newly developed titanium properties. Although it is not required to be absolutely
alloy materials with better biocompatibility and mechanical stable, it is required that it itself and a small amount of
compatibility. degradation products don’t cause obvious side effect to the
body, and at the same time, the material doesn’t cause
(3) Cobalt alloy catastrophic damage. The material is mainly used for human
soft/hard tissue restoration, artificial organs, artificial blood
The medical cobalt alloy material generally refers to a vessels, contact lenses, membrane materials, adhesives, and
cobalt–chromium alloy and is generally divided into two lumen products. Such material mainly includes poly-
types: CoCrMo alloy (cast product) and CoNiCrMo alloy ethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylate, aromatic polyester,
(obtained by forging and precision machining). ASTM rec- polysiloxane, polyoxymethylene, and the like. The degrad-
ommends the use of four types of cobalt alloys as implant able polymers mainly include collagen, linear aliphatic
materials: cast CoCrMo alloy (F75); forged CoCrWNi alloy polyester, chitin, cellulose, polyamino acid, polyvinyl alco-
(F90); forged CoNiCrMo alloy (F562); and forged CoN- hol, polyhexyl ester, and so on. They can undergo structural
iCrMoWFe alloy (F563). Among the four cobalt alloys, cast destruction and property transformation under the action of
CoCrMo alloy (F75) and CoNiCrMo alloy (F562) have been biological environment, and their degradation products can
widely used as medical implant materials. be absorbed and utilized by the body through normal
metabolism or discharged out of the body, and are mainly
(4) Tantalum used for drug release and delivery carriers and
non-permanent implant devices. According to the purpose or
In recent years, tantalum and tantalum alloys have excellent use, medical polymer material can also be divided into
biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, high fatigue strength, cardiovascular system, soft tissue, and hard tissue repair
good processability, and mechanical property. It is worth material. The medical polymer material used in cardiovas-
mentioning that such materials still have these properties cular system should be especially required to have good
even in a corrosive medium, so they have attracted the anti-coagulability, not to destroy red blood cells and platelets
attention of many researchers. Chen et al. point out that or not to change the proteins in blood and not to interfere
tantalum can be used as a candidate material for a vascular with electrolyte.
stent because it has good blood compatibility and X-ray and
MRI visibility, and its oxide is not substantially absorbed (6) Iron
and doesn’t show toxicity. In 1998, a self-made tantalum
wire stent implantation experiment was conducted in the The vascular stent made of pure iron material refers to an
Peking University Third Hospital. 17 stents were implanted iron stent with an iron content of 99.5% or more, which has
into the coronary arteries of 12 miniature pigs. The experi- a very high elastic modulus and can be used in fine blood
mental results show that the self-made tantalum wire stent vessels, and is dissolved into blood after being oxidized into
ferrous ions in a human body, which can reduce the prolif- (8) Ceramic material
eration of smooth muscle cells and effectively inhibit vas-
cular intimal hyperplasia. In 2001, Peuster et al. prepared a Ceramic material has high hardness, low wear rate, and
corrosive iron stent NOR-1 from pure iron (Fe > 99.8%) and small wear particles, which can solve the problem of oste-
evaluated its biosecurity. The stent was implanted into the olysis caused by wear particles of metal and polymer pros-
normal descending aorta of 16 New Zealand white rabbits. thesis. In addition, the ceramic can also overcome the
No side effects were found 6–18 months after operation, and problem that the prosthesis can easily release metal ion in a
the vessels were always dilated and no thrombus was found. humid environment in the body. ① Alumina ceramic has
In addition, no neointimal hyperplasia and toxic effects were stable chemical properties, excellent wear resistance, and
observed by histopathological examination. In 2006, the biocompatibility. ② The fracture strength of zirconia
team also implanted pure iron stents into the descending ceramics is two to four times that of alumina, and the frac-
aorta of 29 miniature pigs. No iron degradation products ture toughness is about two times. ③ Hydroxyapatite is the
were found to cause toxicity 360 days after surgery. No iron main component of bone mineral, which has good biocom-
overload or organ toxicity was found in histopathology. patibility, but its mechanical properties are poor, so it can be
Muller et al. noted that iron ions on iron vascular stents used as coating material. Ceramic material not only has good
inhibit the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells by biocompatibility but also has ultrahigh hardness, wear
affecting growth-related gene expression levels, thereby resistance, and corrosion resistance, and its hardness is
reducing the rate of restenosis. However, the degradation second to that of diamond. At present, the most commonly
rate of iron is slow, and more research work is needed to used ceramics are Al2O3 and ZrO2.
improve its degradation performance.
3. Corrosion types
(7) Biodegradable magnesium scaffold (1) Pitting corrosion. Pitting corrosion refers to the
corrosion of some defects or weak points on the
Magnesium and magnesium alloy scaffolds are considered to surface of the material. Over time, the corrosion
be the most promising biodegradable absorbent scaffolds due increases and even leads to perforation of the
to their excellent mechanical properties and degradable material, while most other parts of the surface of the
properties [118, 119]. Compared with other degradable material don’t have corrosion or have slight corro-
materials, magnesium-based materials have their unique sion. Magnesium metal is easily oxidized, and a
advantages. ① Magnesium ion plays an important role in passivation film is formed on the surface, but the
various physiological metabolisms and is an essential ele- passivation film is loose and porous, and the passi-
ment in human body with large content in body. The daily vation film is in a dynamic balance state of disso-
intake is 420 mg/d for adult men and 320 mg/d for adult lution and reformation in the solution. When
women. Magnesium ion has the effect of antagonizing magnesium metal is immersed in the solution con-
intravascular thrombosis, as well as anti-arrhythmia and taining chloride ions, the chloride ions will prefer-
treating severe depression. ② Low density (1.7 g/cm3), entially adsorb in the relatively low-lying areas of
elastic modulus similar to bone (41–45 GPa), and good yield the passivation film, destroy the dynamic balance
strength (65–100 MPa). Magnesium stents have sufficient state formed by the passivation film layer and its
mechanical properties to support the repair of the vessel and dissolution, so that the magnesium substrate is
prevent early elastic retraction of the vessel. ③ Good his- exposed and corrosion occurs to form small corro-
tocompatibility, magnesium ion is the degradation product sion pits. The concentration of magnesium ions after
of magnesium scaffold, which has no toxicity to cells and corrosion increases greatly. In order to keep the
tissues, can inhibit the proliferation of smooth muscle, pro- charge balance, chloride ions continuously move
mote the growth of endothelial cells after implantation, and into the corrosion holes, which leads to the accu-
accelerate the process of endothelialization, and thus the mulation of chloride ions in these corrosion pits,
incidence of thrombosis is low. ④ The corrosion kinetics of thus accelerating the corrosion and finally forming
magnesium and magnesium alloys enables their corrosion to large corrosion pits.
be controlled by various surface modification methods. The (2) Fatigue corrosion. Fatigue corrosion is metal dam-
excellent mechanical properties, degradability, and good age that expands with the accumulation of cyclic
biocompatibility of magnesium and magnesium alloy pro- stress in a corrosive environment caused by local
vide a new breakthrough for the research of cardiovascular chemical and electrochemical reaction and irre-
stent materials. versible cyclic plastic deformation. Fatigue
870 X. Li
corrosion is an important index to evaluate the ser- between implanted devices and corrosive environ-
vice life of metal materials under alternating stress ment. Wear corrosion can cause pitting corrosion or
load. Magnesium alloy implant material will pro- the formation of grain-shaped spots.
duce corrosion in the human body and corrosion pits
will occur on the surface of the substrate. The pits 6.5.1.3 Types of Anti-corrosion Measures
the core points for the formation of cracks on the
surface of the material, and the fatigue property of
the implant material is remarkably reduced and even 1. Surface modification of materials
brittle fracture occurs under the action of cyclic
stress. A material that combines biological materials with life sys-
(3) Galvanic corrosion. Galvanic corrosion occurs when tems, diagnoses, treats, or replaces tissues, organs, or func-
two metals of different electrochemical potentials tions in the body [120] involves many disciplines fields such
physically contact or are immersed in the same as materials, medicine, physics, biochemistry, and modern
electrolyte. Galvanic corrosion is one of the biggest high technology. Its clinical application is generally pro-
obstacles for magnesium alloy to be used in harsh cessed into components that are used alone or in combina-
environments. Magnesium metal is a chemically tion with a drug, depending on its function. The purpose of
active metal that is easily corroded as an anode research on biomedical materials is to enable the devices
when in contact with other metals. Even in the same made of the material to replace or repair the organs and
material, galvanic corrosion occurs between the tissues of the human body and realize their physiological
substrate and the doped other metal components. In functions.
clinical applications, when a magnesium alloy plate Biological materials must not only have proper physical
and a stainless steel screw for fixing the magnesium and chemical properties like traditional functional materials
plate are implanted into a human body, magnesium but also must have good biological properties. When the
plate becomes an anode for its low potential and the biomaterial comes into contact with the human body tem-
stainless steel becomes a cathode for its relatively porarily or for a long time, the compatibility with the
high potential. Galvanic corrosion occurs between organism environment must be fully satisfied, i.e., the
the magnesium plate and the stainless steel, making organism does not undergo any biological reaction such as
the corrosion rate of the magnesium plate too fast. toxicity, sensitization, inflammation, cancer, and thrombus.
Similarly, for the magnesium alloy material, since These depend on the interaction between the surface of the
the magnesium alloy contains alloy components material and the biological environment. Therefore, to con-
such as Al, Zn, Fe, Ca, and Mn, potential difference trol and improve the surface properties of biomaterials is the
exists between each other, and galvanic corrosion key way to exert and utilize the favorable conditions
may also occur. Lambotte, who has applied mag- between materials and organisms and to suppress the unfa-
nesium implants to orthopedic and wound surgery, vorable factors. However, among the traditional metal, alloy,
has found galvanic corrosion between magnesium ceramic, and polymer materials, few can fully achieve the
plate and gold-plated stainless steel. biological properties required for implantation into the body.
(4) Uniform corrosion. Uniform corrosion refers to the Therefore, it has become the focus of the research work of
phenomenon that corrosion occurs all over the metal many biomaterial scientists to modify the surface of mate-
surface in contact with the corrosive medium. Cor- rials so as to take their advantages.
rosion occurs in a large area so that the amount of
metal in the form of ions into the human body tissue 1) Modification of metallic materials
is considerable, while uniform corrosion will affect
the biocompatibility, increase the patient’s pain and Table 6.16 shows common surface modification methods
even endanger life. and materials of metallic materials.
(5) Crevice corrosion. A narrow gap appears at the
joint, and the electrolyte solution enters into it, so (1) Ion implantation method: The required elements are
that the metal inside the gap and the metal outside gasified in an ion gasification chamber, ionized by
the gap form a short circuit galvanic cell, and strong high-frequency discharge, induced by an external
local corrosion occurs inside the gap. In a multipart electric field, and focused and accelerated to form a
implant device, about 50% suffers from crevice high-energy fine ion beam to be driven into a surface
corrosion. layer of a solid material as a target, thereby altering the
(6) Wear corrosion is caused by the combined effect of physical, chemical, mechanical, and biological proper-
surface wear due to repeating relative sliding ties of the surface layer of the material.
Table 6.16 Common surface modification methods and materials of metallic materials
No. Type Typical material Common preparation methods Characteristics
1 Bio-inert Nitride film Physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor High hardness, wear resistance, corrosion
inorganic (TiN film) deposition, and plasma-enhanced chemical resistance, and biocompatibility
coating vapor deposition
Oxide film Physical vapor deposition and chemical vapor Good biocompatibility and high hardness
(Al2O3) deposition
2 Bioactive Hydroxyapatite Plasma spraying method, ion beam sputtering It is guided by bone, combined with the
inorganic (HA) method, electrophoresis method, sol-gel method, surrounding bone tissue by chemical bonding
coating etc. and biological union
(2) Thermal spraying method: A powdery metal or polymer materials in contact with blood is one of the important
non-metallic spraying material is heat to be melted or directions for the development of general polymers. The
softened by a heat source such as an electric arc, an ion medical devices made of this kind of polymer material mainly
arc or a flame of combustion, and is atomized by the include vascular catheter, vascular stent, artificial heart valve,
power of the heat source or an external high-speed circulation support equipment, various extracorporeal circula-
airflow. The droplets of the spraying material are tion tubes, hemodialysis, pulmonary membrane, and so on. As
sprayed onto the clean surface of the pretreated sub- a result of long-term contact with blood, the selection of raw
strate at a certain speed, and a bonding layer is formed materials requires consideration of the following factors:
with the substrate by the physical change and chemical mechanical properties, stability, permeability, processability,
reaction of the sprayed material. price, non-toxicity, ease of disinfection, and acceptable blood
(3) Electrochemical method: A preparation method of compatibility. General polymer materials, such as polyolefins
controlling the reaction by adjusting the concentration and thermoplastic elastomers, have good physical, chemical,
of electrolyte, pH value, reaction temperature, electric and processing properties; no toxicity; and high biological
field strength, current, etc. stability. However, most polymer materials show non-polarity,
(4) Ion sputtering method: The HA target is bombarded low surface energy, poor hydrophilicity, and blood coagulation,
with high-speed ions, and hydroxyapatite particles are and hemolysis will occur after contact with blood. Improving
sputtered and deposited on a metal substrate to provide the biocompatibility of general polymer materials, especially
a relatively high binding force with the surrounding the blood compatibility has become a key problem in the
bone tissue. development of medical polymer materials.
(5) Electron beam method: Applying high energy to the Blood compatibility is closely related to the surface prop-
surface layer of metal substrate to heat treat the surface erties of materials. It is an effective means to control the surface
layer to make the surface layer amorphous, so as to and interface properties of materials to improve the blood
achieve the purpose of hardening and modification. compatibility of materials. The surface properties of materials
(6) Laser cladding method: HA powder is deposited on the mainly consider the factors such as surface hydrophilicity,
surface of the substrate under pulsed laser irradiation surface charge, and surface roughness. Currently widely used
with low output power and high scanning speed to methods include ① forming a polymer brush or hydrophilic
improve its wear resistance and biocompatibility. layer on the surface of the material, reducing the contact of
blood components with the surface of the material, and main-
Other metal material modification methods include sin- taining the normal conformation of the protein; ② immobi-
tering, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, lization of bioactive molecules on the surface of the material
ion plating, oxygen diffusion treatment, and the like. can interact with the components in blood to avoid coagulation
and hemolysis; and ③ biomimetic membrane is formed on the
2) Surface modification of general polymer materials material surface to improve blood compatibility.
In recent years, through constant upgrading and transformation (1) Form an inert surface. Hydrophilic monomer is grafted
of a large amount of general polymer materials, the cost has onto the surface of a general polymer material by a
been greatly reduced and the service performance has been chemical graft method to form a long-chain hydrophilic
greatly improved [121]. A variety of new types of polymer passivation layer. Commonly used grafting monomers
materials adapted to the development of modern technology are include long-chain polyethylene glycol compounds,
constantly emerging, among which the development of medical 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, sulfo-methacrylate, and
872 X. Li
the like. The passivation layer can effectively reduce the surgically implanted into soft and hard tissues of the oral
adhesion of plasma proteins and platelets on the surface cavity to replace part of living tissues or whole organs to
of the material, and reduce various adverse reactions restore their shape and function. The commonly used
caused by non-specific adsorption of the material sur- implant materials are titanium and titanium alloy, stainless
face, and effectively improve the biocompatibility of the steel, cobalt–chromium alloy, acrylic resin, silicone rubber,
material surface. bioceramics, composite materials, and so on.
(2) Introduction of biologically active substances. On the Bone replacement implant materials refer to artificial
basis of the formation of an inert surface, certain bio- biomaterials (metals, plastics, ceramics, etc.) to solve the
logically active substances, such as heparin, albumin, repair of large bone defects.
lysine, and the like, are introduced, which can selec- At present, non-degradable stent materials mainly include
tively adsorb or bind specific biological macro- stainless steel, cobalt, tantalum, nickel–titanium alloy, and
molecules, effectively interact with blood components, so on. These stents have shown remarkable efficacy in the
regulate, and control blood compatibility. clinical treatment. However, these metallic stent materials
(3) Biomimetic modification of material surface. The ideal are not degradable, and if in-stent restenosis (ISR) occurs
method to improve the biocompatibility of the material after implantation in a human body, permanent retention is
is to carry out biomimetic modification of the surface of required in body, increasing the risk of causing restenosis, or
the material, so that it is not regarded as foreign matter it can only be removed through a second operation, which
by blood and is not metabolized in the body. One way undoubtedly increases the patient’s pain.
to achieve biochemical imitation is surface endothe-
lialization—planting and culturing vascular endothelial 6.5.1.4 Current Corrosion Severity
cells on the surface of the material. Healthy endothelial and Importance of Corrosion Protection
cells have an appropriate hydrophilic surface and con- in This Industry
tain important factors such as heparan sulfate, throm- Biomedical materials can’t produce everlasting effect
bomodulin, tissue factor pathway inhibitors, because they are in the complex environment of human body
plasminogen activator, and nitric oxide. Therefore, it and wear away due to various factors such as corrosion and
has blood compatibility which is incomparable with any wear. Among them, the first generation of inert materials
artificial biomaterial, and the endothelial cells can includes widely used metal cardiovascular stents, titanium
release or retain different vasoactive factors at the same joints, ceramic joints, carbon heart valves, contact lenses,
time to maintain blood dynamic balance and have dual and so on. The second generation of biologically active
functions of anticoagulation and procoagulant [122]. materials and absorbable materials, such as bioinorganic
materials, bioactive glass, biodegradable ceramics, bio-glass
3) Modification of ceramic materials ceramics, nano-biological materials, have been implanted by
tens of millions of people in the world every year. This is
The modification of ceramic materials mainly starts from important for the medical needs of the rapidly increasing
the aspects of decreasing the grain size and increasing the elderly population. It will still be used for several years to
density of the raw materials. At present, the research on the come. But there are some problems with such implants.
modification of ceramic materials mainly focuses on alumina Statistical analyses of orthopedic medical devices and
ceramics and zirconia ceramics. In modern production, the prosthetic heart valves, for example, show that 1/3–1/2 of
grain size can be reduced to less than 2 lm by using new patients need to be reoperated due to implant failure within
technique such as dust-free treatment, thermal equilibrium 10–25 years after implantation. Therefore, the corrosion of
pressurization, laser etching, and the like. The crystal the industry is a problem that can’t be ignored.
structure of the ceramic materials composed of trace The corrosion protection of biological materials is basi-
amounts of chromium oxide and strontium oxide can be cally carried out from two aspects of material improvement
reduced to 1–2 lm, so that the hardness of the material is and surface treatment, and it is not possible to use general
maintained and the brittleness is reduced [123]. anti-rust oil or electrochemical corrosion prevention. Experts
in this industry are also working to develop materials with
2. The selection of suitable corrosion-resistant materials better corrosion resistance to prolong the service life of
according to the corresponding corrosive environment biomaterials and improve the compatibility of materials with
human bodies. Modern research into the third generation of
It is pointed out here that some biomedical materials are used biomedical materials has involved in tissue engineering and
in the main parts of the human body. Oral implant materials gene control and activation therapy. Since the third genera-
refer to the materials for making oral implants, which can be tion of biomedical materials relates to cell frame materials
and gene carrier materials, both in the assembly and structure at the same time. In fact, any anti-corrosion measures can
of the materials show different characteristics from the tra- only delay the effect of corrosion. We can only continue to
ditional synthetic materials, it is necessary to adopt material improve the technology in order to make biomedical mate-
self-assembly technology and surface modification technol- rials achieve better corrosion effect under the premise of
ogy. Developed countries are vigorously developing the ensuring the function.
third generation of biomedical materials.
6.5.1.5 Effect of Anti-corrosion Measures 6.5.2 Cases of Corrosion of Biomedical Materials

Biomedical materials directly affect the human body, and its
corrosion is directly related to people’s health, so scientists Since the nineteenth century, bone grafting has been used to
attach great importance to its research and have achieved repair a wide range of bone defects by implanting substitute
quite fruitful results. In recent years, in order to obtain better materials such as autogenous bone, allogenic bone, and
biological properties and clinical effects, most clinicians artificial bone. With the progress of social civilization and
have adopted composite dental implants, i.e., metal or metal economic development, people’s living standards are
alloy as implant cores, ceramic or carbon or other materials improving day by day and human beings attach special
as coatings or active materials for metal surfaces, such as importance to their own medical rehabilitation cause. The
titanium core surface spraying hydroxyapatite (HA) implant aging of the population, the emergence of a large number of
teeth, titanium core and bone morphogenetic protein com- means of transportation, the accelerated pace of life, dis-
posite implant teeth, titanium core bioactive glass ceramic eases, natural disasters, accidents, and local wars result in a
implant teeth, bioceramic microporous titanium composite sharp increase in human accidental injuries [125]. At pre-
bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) implant teeth. These sent, tens of millions of people are traumatized every year
composites take into account the properties of implant around the world and millions in China, a significant pro-
materials in terms of strength, wear resistance, corrosion portion of which are bone traumas. At the same time, bone
resistance, and biocompatibility, making them more suitable defects caused by trauma, tumors, and infections afflict many
for clinical application requirements of implants, but the patients every year. It is understood that the output value of
adjustment and strengthening of some properties need fur- medical devices in China in 2005 was about RMB 80 bil-
ther study. For example, titanium is a metal with high lion, of which the medical devices in contact with the human
chemical activity, and its surface is easily oxidized into body, intervention or implantation into the human body
titanium dioxide to form an inert passivation film, so that the accounted for about 50% of the entire market. In 2008, the
matrix is well protected. In this way, the titanium alloy output value of the global spinal restoration materials
becomes the most corrosion-resistant metal other than gold reached RMB 700–800 million [126]. It can be seen that the
and platinum. demand for implant materials is increasing with the devel-
opment of society and the progress of science.
6.5.1.6 Problems in Corrosion and Protection With the successful application of titanium and titanium
Although the corrosion resistance of biomedical materials alloys in aircraft, they have gradually entered the medical
has been studied and developed to some extent, it can’t field. Because of their good mechanical properties and bio-
achieve the effect of anti-corrosion completely. For example, compatibility, they have become one of the most promising
stainless steel is one of the earliest human implant materials, medical metallic materials. However, after medical metallic
and austenitic stainless steels, especially 316 and 316L material is implanted in the body, it is immersed in constant
stainless steels, have better corrosion resistance than other temperature electrolyte environment composed of organic
stainless steels and are widely used as metal implant mate- acid, alkali metal or alkaline earth metal, Cl− ion for a long
rials. 316L stainless steel is a common metal material which period of time, and the environment is very complicated by
is cheap to make medical artificial joint. It is mainly used as the action of protein, enzyme, and cell [127]. As shown in
joint handle and joint head material. However, that clinical Fig. 6.108, the lifetime of the titanium alloy implant material
application of 316L stainless steel in human body shows that is limited due to the loss of implant material after implan-
some problems such as crevice corrosion, friction corrosion, tation into the human body. As shown in Fig. 6.109, the
and fatigue corrosion crack may occur in physiological bone plate and the bone nail embedded in the great arm of
environment, and Ni2+, Cr3+, and Cr5+ may be released due the human body have to be operated twice due to fatigue
to friction and wear, resulting in loosening of the prosthesis corrosion of the bone plate and the bone nail, the fracture is
and eventual failure of the implant [124]. However, because not healed, and the left upper arm is injured again 9 years
different parts of the human body require different properties after operation. The external fixation is removed and a new
of the biological material, so it is difficult for the same bone plate is implanted. Taking the artificial joint of
material to achieve its functionality and corrosion resistance Fig. 6.110 as an example, the service life is generally about
874 X. Li
corrosion of the medical materials can be strengthened, the

service life can be prolonged, the pain of the implant can be
reduced, the medical cost can be reduced, and many mate-
rials can be saved.
Mg is a very light metal with a density of 1.74 g/cm3. It
has minimum density in all metal structural materials and is
close to the density of human bone. Mg has excellent
biomechanical compatibility and its modulus of elasticity
and compressive yield strength are also closer to human
bones. Thus, it is more suitable for clinical application in
hard tissue repair and cardiovascular interventional stents.
Figure 6.111 is vascular stent effect picture.
The working environment of the implant material is
inside the human body, the body fluid composition and
Fig. 6.108 Implant illustration
working mechanism of the human body are very compli-
cated, and a large amount of Cl− ions exist, and magnesium
20–30 years and the life of the artificial joint is greatly alloy exhibits severe local corrosion in the Cl−-containing
reduced due to improper maintenance or use, so that the medium, as shown in Fig. 6.112. This makes the service life
function of the artificial joint is lost. Thus, a second opera- of magnesium alloy medical instrument difficult to estimate
tion is required and this will bring a certain amount of [128], and the chemical elements introduced by magnesium
economic expense. Take the artificial knee joint as an alloy corrosion, such as aluminum, zinc, and iron may make
example, the cost of each knee joint is about RMB 40,000– the contents of trace elements in human body exceed the
60,000, and the cost of surgery and post-care is very standard with the rapid corrosion and degradation of mag-
expensive, which is difficult for most people to bear. If the nesium alloys, and the long-term use of magnesium alloys
Implantation materials
Bone marrow
Cortical bone
Medium
Sponge bone
Tip
Fig. 6.109 Bone plate and bone nail

the materials need to be replaced regularly due to corrosion,

the medical cost is relatively high.
After using the repeatedly used surgical instruments, the
recovery, classification, cleaning, disinfection, drying,
instrument inspection, maintenance, packaging, sterilization,
storage, distribution, and other processing steps involve a
number of complex cycle operations. These processes often
result in rust on the instruments, as shown in Fig. 6.113.
Although most medical instruments are made of stainless
steel and have strong corrosion resistance, they are still easy
to be corroded by weak acidic substances with high ion
content such as blood, mucus, and body fluid. A large
amount of chlorine elements are contained in the extracel-
Fig. 6.110 Artificial joint lular fluid, which strongly corrodes stainless steel. At the
same time, disinfectants, physiological saline, sterilization
steam, and foreign rust will also cause equipment rust,
will damage the health of implants [129]. Too fast corrosion sometimes after the equipment is cleaned, corrosion will also
of magnesium alloy implant materials can make the service occur without carrying out effective oil maintenance. Rust
life of the material difficult to be estimated, and can also stain is one of the most important pollutants in medical
bring about other additional diseases, and may even cause a devices. Its existence will not only cause damage to the
second operation, increasing the pain of the patient. At the instrument, affect the life of the instrument, but also breed
same time, the cost of the second treatment is relatively high. bacteria, affect the effect of disinfection and sterilization, and
Taking cardiovascular stent as an example, the cost of cause disinfection and sterilization failure. If such surgical
domestic stent operation is about RMB 20,000 per stent, and instruments are used, cross-infection may occur or the
imported one is about RMB 30,000. In addition, the number patient’s life may even be endangered. Every year, a large
of implanted stent depends on the condition of cardiovas- number of surgical instruments have to be replaced due to
cular blockage, and the operation needs to consider whether corrosion of the instruments, resulting in a large economic
there are any complication or pathological changes or not. If expense.
Stent entry
Stent dilation
Stent stays in coronary artery
Fig. 6.111 Cardiovascular stent

876 X. Li
sales volume of the overall output has increased, reaching

98.6% by 2015.
The increase in sales volume corresponds to an increase
in sale, but the profit margin didn’t continue to grow
between 2011 and 2015, but declined. The profit margin was
only 0.0936% by 2015 (Fig. 6.116).
The manufacture of hygienic materials and pharmaceu-
tical products is consumed mainly by hospitals. Quantity
purchased by hospitals accounts for about half of total out-
put, which declined slightly in 2012 and then continued to
increase (Fig. 6.117).
As shown in Fig. 6.118, although the export volume is
higher than the import volume, the difference in delivery
value compared with that of import and export is not much
Fig. 6.112 Surface morphology of magnesium alloy after immersion different, indicating that the unit price of the imported
in simulated body fluid for 10 days products is higher than that of the exported ones.
As can be seen from Fig. 6.119, medical accidents caused
by biomedical materials are increasing year by year. In 2015,
hospitals consumed RMB 131.714 billion of hygienic
materials and pharmaceutical products, of which RMB 90.12
million were lost due to medical accidents. It can be seen
that the economic losses account for 0.6842% of consum-
ables due to medical accidents.
6.5.3.2 Manufacture of Medical Diagnosis,

Monitoring and Treatment Equipment
Manufacture of medical diagnosis, monitoring, and treat-
ment equipment refers to equipment manufacture and repair
of medical, surgical, ophthalmology, dental, obstetrics and
gynecology, traditional Chinese medicine, and other medical
and veterinary diagnostic, monitoring, and treatment
Fig. 6.113 Scalpel corrosion equipment.
As can be seen from Figs. 6.120 and 6.121, the number
6.5.3 Analysis of Investigation Data and Results of enterprises in the medical diagnosis, monitoring, and
treatment equipment manufacturing industry has continued
6.5.3.1 The Manufacture of Hygienic Materials to grow over the past 5 years. By 2015, enterprise output
and Pharmaceutical Products Belongs will be 1.5 times that of 2011. At the same time, total output
to the Pharmaceutical Manufacturing and sales volume have continued to grow.
Industry Sales volume growth in the medical diagnosis, monitor-
The manufacture of hygienic materials and pharmaceutical ing and treatment equipment manufacturing industry corre-
products belongs to pharmaceutical manufacturing industry, sponds to sale growth, but profit margin didn’t continue to
which refers to the manufacture of hygienic materials, sur- grow between 2011 and 2015, showing fluctuating changes.
gical dressings, medicinal packaging material, and other Profit margin peaked at 0.1277% in 2014 and declined to
medical products for internal and surgical use. 0.0936% in 2015 (Fig. 6.122).
As can be seen from Figs. 6.114 and 6.115, in the past Hospital is a major consumer of products in the medical
5 years, although the number of enterprises in the manu- diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment equipment manufac-
facturing industry of hygienic materials and pharmaceutical turing industry, and hospital’s purchase quantity was less
products has continued to grow, there has been no significant than half of the industry’s total output in 2011, and then
increase, and the number of growth fluctuated by no more continued to grow. By 2015, the purchase quantity for the
than 50. At the same time, the overall output has continued current year exceeded 2.0522 million, accounting for the
to grow, but not substantially. However, the proportion of total output of the current year (Fig. 6.123).
Year
Number of enterprises
Fig. 6.114 Number of enterprises in the hygienic materials and pharmaceutical products manufacturing industry from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output (10,000 tons)
Sales volume (10,000 tons)
Fig. 6.115 Total output and sales volume of hygienic materials and pharmaceutical products manufacturing industry from 2011 to 2015
According to Fig. 6.124, although the export volume is imaging equipment, ECG and physiological equipment, radi-
more than twice the import volume, the delivery value of the ation treatment, laser treatment, and physical therapy. The
import and export is similar, indicating that the unit price of the average price of an ECG measuring instrument with high
imported products is higher than that of exported ones. quality is about RMB 7,000. The circuit is easy to be corroded
As can be seen from Fig. 6.125, the number of accidents in humid air, resulting in short circuit and shortening the life of
continued to decrease after a slight increase in 2012, especially the instrument. In 2015, the number of medical accidents
in 2014 and 2015. At the same time, the trend of economic loss caused by biomedical materials in the medical diagnosis,
is consistent with the number of accidents. In 2015, the pur- monitoring, and treatment equipment manufacturing industry
chase quantity of hospitals was as high as 2.0522 million units, reached more than 30,000. If the anti-corrosion measures can
and such monitoring and treatment equipment was more be taken properly, the medical accidents will be greatly
expensive, including clinical monitoring equipment, ultrasonic reduced.
878 X. Li
Year
Sale (RMB 0.1 billion)
Profit margin
Fig. 6.116 Sales and profit margin of hygienic materials and pharmaceutical products manufacturing industry from 2011 to 2015
Year
Purchase quantity of hospitals (10,000 tons)
Consumption amount of hospitals (10,000 tons)
Purchase amount of hospitals (RMB 0.1 billion)
Fig. 6.117 Purchase quantity, consumption amount, and purchase amount of hospitals of hygienic materials and pharmaceutical products
manufacturing industry from 2011 to 2015
Year
Quantity of imported goods delivered (10,000
tons)
Quantity of exported goods delivered (10,000
tons)
Shipment value of import (RMB 0.1 billion)
Shipment value of export (RMB 0.1 billion)
Fig. 6.118 Import and export delivery amount and delivery value of hygienic materials and pharmaceutical products manufacturing industry from
2011 to 2015
Year
Number of medical accidents caused by biomedical
materials
Economic losses due to medical accidents (RMB
10,000)
Fig. 6.119 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in the hygienic materials and pharmaceutical products manufacturing industry from
2011 to 2015
880 X. Li
Year
Fig. 6.120 Number of enterprises in medical diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment equipment manufacturing industry from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output
Sales volume
Fig. 6.121 Total output and sales volume of medical diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment equipment manufacturing industry from 2011 to 2015
6.5.3.3 Manufacture of Equipment industry of equipment and apparatus for stomatology has
and Apparatus for Stomatology continued to grow, while the total output and sales volume
Manufacture of equipment and apparatus for stomatology has also continued to grow. By 2015, the total output and
refers to the manufacture and repair of equipment and sales volume almost doubled that of 2011.
instruments used for oral treatment and repair, including oral Sales growth in manufacturing industry of equipment and
comprehensive treatment equipment, dental drill and acces- apparatus for stomatology corresponds to sales growth, and
sories, dental auxiliary equipment and instruments, oral profit margin continued to grow between 2011 and 2015 and
function detection equipment and appliances thereof, man- peaked at 0.0686% in 2014. The increase was significant
ufacture and repair of dental chairs equipped with dental with profit margin of 0.0845% by 2015 (Fig. 6.128).
equipment, surgical instruments for stomatology, accessories The hospital is the main consumption place of the
and accessories of oral comprehensive treatment equipment. equipment and appliance manufacturing industry of stoma-
As can be seen from Figs. 6.126 and 6.127, over the past tology, and the purchase quantity and the purchase amount
5 years, the number of enterprises in the manufacturing of the hospital continue to grow (Fig. 6.129).
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.122 Sale and profit margin of medical diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment equipment manufacturing industry from 2011 to 2015
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.123 Purchase quantity and purchase amount of hospitals of medical diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment equipment manufacturing
industry from 2011 to 2015
As shown in Fig. 6.130, the volume of import and export As can be seen from Fig. 6.131, the number of accidents
delivery varies little, but the import delivery value is always continues to decrease within 5 years, and the economic
lower than the export delivery value and the import delivery losses due to medical accidents have basically decreased,
value is suppressed higher than the export delivery value, except for a slight increase in 2014. In 2015, the purchase
indicating that the import unit price is higher than the export quantity of hospital in manufacturing industry of equipment
unit price. and apparatus for stomatology reached 19.26 million sets,
882 X. Li
Year
tons)
tons)
Fig. 6.124 Import and export delivery amount and delivery value of medical diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment equipment manufacturing
industry from 2013 to 2015
Year
materials
10,000)
Fig. 6.125 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in medical diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment equipment manufacturing industry
from 2011 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.126 Number of enterprises in manufacturing industry of equipment and apparatus for stomatology from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output
Sales volume
Fig. 6.127 Total output and sales volume in manufacturing industry of equipment and apparatus for stomatology from 2011 to 2015
and the number of medical accidents caused by biomedical the manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disin-
materials reached 2,944, and the corrosion loss ratio was fection equipment and apparatus has continued to grow, and
0.1529%. total output and sales volume have continued to grow.
Sales volume growth in the manufacturing industry of
6.5.3.4 Manufacturing Industry of Laboratory laboratory and medical disinfection equipment and apparatus
and Medical Disinfection Equipment corresponded to the increase in sale, but the profit margin
and Apparatus decreased to 0.0956% by 2015 (Fig. 6.134).
The manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disin- The hospital is the main consumer for the products of
fection equipment and apparatus refers to the manufacture and manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disinfec-
repair of disinfection and sterilization equipment and apparatus tion equipment and apparatus and the purchase quantity and
for laboratory or medical use. As can be seen from Figs. 6.132 purchase amount of the hospital continue to grow
and 6.133, over the past 5 years, the number of enterprises in (Fig. 6.135).
884 X. Li
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.128 Sales and profit margin of manufacturing industry of equipment and apparatus for stomatology from 2011 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.129 Purchase quantity and purchase amount of hospital in manufacturing industry of equipment and apparatus for stomatology from 2011
to 2015
As can be seen from Fig. 6.136, the import delivery million, and the number of medical accidents caused by
volume increased in 2014, but the import delivery value biomedical materials reached 2,724. The corrosion loss ratio
decreased, indicating a decrease in import unit price. is 0.6342%.
It can be seen from Fig. 6.137 that the number of medical
accidents and the economic losses caused by the biomedical 6.5.3.5 Manufacturing Industry of Medical,
materials are continuously reduced. In 2015, the purchase Surgical, and Veterinary Instrument
quantity of manufacturing industry of laboratory and medi- The manufacturing industry of medical, surgical, and vet-
cal disinfection equipment and apparatus reached 4.2951 erinary instruments refers to the manufacture and repair of
Year
tons)
tons)
Fig. 6.130 Import and export delivery amount and delivery value of manufacturing industry of equipment and apparatus for stomatology from
2013 to 2015
Year
materials
10,000)
Fig. 6.131 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in manufacturing industry of equipment and apparatus for stomatology from 2011
to 2015
surgical instruments, medical diagnostic supplies, and The growth in sales in the manufacturing industry of
medical instruments for veterinary use, such as operating medical, surgical, and veterinary instrument corresponded to
rooms, emergency rooms, and medical clinics. the increase in sale, but the profit margin fluctuated within a
As can be seen from Figs. 6.138 and 6.139, over the last certain range after a large increase in 2013 (Fig. 6.140).
5 years, the number of enterprises in the manufacturing Hospital is a major consumer of manufacturing industry
industry of laboratory and medical disinfection equipment of medical, surgical and veterinary instrument, and the
and apparatus has continued to grow except for a slight purchase quantity continues to grow, but the purchase
decline in 2015, and at the same time, total output and sales amount declines significantly after the last four years of
volume have also continued to grow. sustained growth (Fig. 6.141).
886 X. Li
Year
Fig. 6.132 Number of enterprises in manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disinfection equipment and apparatus from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output
Sales volume
Fig. 6.133 Total output and sales volume of manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disinfection equipment and apparatus from 2011
to 2015
According to Fig. 6.142, the import and export delivery units, and the number of medical accident caused by
volume within 3 years don’t increase greatly, but the export biomedical materials reached 11,921. The corrosion loss
delivery volume is much higher than the import while the ratio is 0.04807%.
import and export delivery value difference is not large,
indicating that the import unit price is much larger than the 6.5.3.6 Manufacturing Industry of Mechanical
export unit price. Therapy and Ward Nursing Equipment
From Fig. 6.143, it can be seen that the number of The manufacturing industry of mechanical treatment and
medical accidents and economic losses caused by biomedi- ward nursing equipment refers to the manufacture of various
cal materials fluctuates within a certain range, and there is no kinds of treatment equipment, ward nursing, and rehabili-
tendency to continuously increase or decrease. In 2015, the tation special equipment. Because of the long service life of
number of hospitals in the manufacturing industry of med- mechanical treatment and ward nursing equipment, the
ical, surgical, and veterinary instrument reached 248 million consumption of hospital is zero.
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.134 Sale and profit margin of manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disinfection equipment and apparatus from 2011 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.135 Purchase quality and purchase amount of hospitals in manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disinfection equipment and
apparatus from 2011 to 2015
As can be seen from Figs. 6.144 and 6.145, over the past Sales growth in the manufacturing industry of mechanical
5 years, the number of enterprises in manufacturing industry treatment and ward nursing equipment corresponded to sales
of mechanical therapy and ward nursing equipment has growth, but profit margin declined to 0.0681% by 2015
continued to grow, and total output and sales volume have (Fig. 6.146).
continued to grow. It is worth noting that annual sales vol- The hospital is the main consumer of the manufacturing
ume is higher than the total output of the same year. industry of mechanical treatment and ward nursing
888 X. Li
Year
tons)
Fig. 6.136 Import delivery amount and delivery value of manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disinfection equipment and apparatus
from 2013 to 2015
Year
materials
10,000)
Fig. 6.137 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in manufacturing industry of laboratory and medical disinfection equipment and
apparatus from 2011 to 2015
equipment, and the purchase quantity and purchase amount As can be seen from Fig. 6.149, the number of medical
of the hospital continue to grow (Fig. 6.147). accidents and economic losses caused by biomedical mate-
According to Fig. 6.148, the export delivery amount is rials first increased and then decreased, and reached a peak
approximately twice the import delivery value, but the value in 2013. In 2015, the purchase quantity in the manu-
export delivery value does not reach twice the import facturing industry of mechanical therapy and ward nursing
delivery value. The difference between the export delivery equipment reached 7.2908 million units, and the number of
value and the export delivery value was the largest in 2015. medical accidents caused by biomedical materials reached
However, it has not yet reached 1.5 times the export delivery 24,020. The corrosion loss ratio is 0.3295%.
value.
Year
Fig. 6.138 Number of enterprises in manufacturing industry of medical, surgical, and veterinary instrument from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output
Sales volume
Fig. 6.139 Total output and sales volume in manufacturing industry of medical, surgical, and veterinary instrument from 2011 to 2015
6.5.3.7 Manufacturing Industry of Artificial Limb, instrument has continued to grow, and total output and sales
Artificial Organs, and Implant Instrument volume have continued to grow. It is worth noting that
The manufacturing industry of artificial limb, artificial annual sales volume is higher than the total output of the
organs and implant instrument refers to the manufacture of same year.
medical and veterinary artificial limb, artificial organs, and The growth in sales of artificial limb, artificial organs, and
implant instrument such as surgery and dentistry, as well as implant instrument corresponded to the increase in sale, but
the manufacture of orthotics. profit margin declined after a small increase in 2012 and
As can be seen from Figs. 6.150 and 6.151, over the past reduced to 0.2284% by 2015 (Fig. 6.152).
5 years, the number of enterprises in the manufacturing The hospital is the main consumption place of manu-
industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant facturing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and
890 X. Li
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.140 Sales and profit margin in manufacturing industry of medical, surgical, and veterinary instrument from 2011 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.141 Purchase quantity and purchase amount of manufacturing industry of medical, surgical, and veterinary instrument from 2011 to 2015
implant instrument, and the purchase quantity and purchase 2015, the purchase quantity of hospitals in the manufactur-
amount of the hospital continue to grow (Fig. 6.153). ing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant
According to Fig. 6.154, the export delivery quantity is instrument reached 1.9 million units, and the number of
always higher than the import delivery value, but the import medical accidents caused by biomedical materials reached
delivery value of the current year is higher than the export 5,986. The corrosion loss ratio is 0.3151%.
delivery value, indicating that the export unit price is lower
than the import unit price. 6.5.3.8 Other Manufacturing Industries
It can be seen from Fig. 6.155 that the number of medical of Medical Equipment and Instrument
accidents and economic losses caused by biomedical mate- Other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and
rials continued to decrease after a small increase in 2012. In instrument refer to manufacturing and repair activities of
Year
tons)
tons)
Fig. 6.142 Import and export delivery and delivery value of manufacturing industry of medical, surgical, and veterinary instrument from 2013 to
2015
Year
materials
10,000)
Fig. 6.143 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in the manufacturing industry of medical, surgical, and veterinary instrument
892 X. Li
Year
Fig. 6.144 Number of enterprises in manufacturing industry of mechanical therapy and ward nursing equipment from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output
Sales volume
Fig. 6.145 Total output and sales volume of manufacturing industry of mechanical therapy and ward nursing equipment from 2011 to 2015
surgical, dental, and other medical and veterinary furniture Sales growth in other manufacturing industries of medical
equipment, as well as other unlisted medical equipment and equipment and instrument corresponded to sales growth, but
instruments. profit margin increased first and then decreased and reached
As can be seen from Figs. 6.156 and 6.157, the number a peak of 0.0935% in 2013 (Fig. 6.158).
of enterprises in other manufacturing industries of medical The hospital is the main consumption place of products of
equipment and instrument has continued to grow over the other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and
past 5 years, and total output and sales volume have also instrument, and the purchase quantity and purchase amount
continued to grow. of the hospital continue to grow (Fig. 6.159).
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.146 Sales and profit margin of manufacturing industry of mechanical therapy and ward nursing equipment from 2011 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.147 Purchase quantity and purchase amount of hospitals of manufacturing industry of mechanical therapy and ward nursing equipment
from 2011 to 2015
According to Fig. 6.160, export delivery is far more than instrument reached 56.8697 million units, and the number of
import delivery value, but the ratio of export delivery value medical accidents caused by biomedical materials reached
to import delivery value is less than the ratio of export 7,014. The corrosion and loss ratio is 0.1233%.
delivery and import delivery, indicating that import unit
price is higher than export unit price.
As can be seen from Fig. 6.161, the number of medical 6.5.4 Conclusions
accidents and economic losses caused by biomedical mate-
rials first increased and then decreased, and reached a peak Application of biomedical materials saves tens of millions of
in 2014. In 2015, the purchase quantity of hospitals in other lives, enables diseases to be detected early and effectively
manufacturing industries of medical equipment and treated, and significantly reduces the mortality rate of major
894 X. Li
Year
tons)
tons)
Fig. 6.148 Import and export delivery amount and delivery value of manufacturing industry of mechanical therapy and ward nursing equipment
from 2013 to 2015
Year
materials
10,000)
Fig. 6.149 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in the manufacturing industry of mechanical therapy and ward nursing equipment
from 2013 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.150 Number of enterprises in manufacturing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant instrument from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output
Sales volume
Fig. 6.151 Total output and sales volume of manufacturing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant instrument from 2011 to 2015
diseases. Besides, it has important civil value and social According to the data of biomedical materials industry, it
significance to improve people’s health and the quality of can be seen that the number of enterprises in China is
life. At the same time, the application of biomedical mate- increasing year by year, and the total output and sales vol-
rials will lead to changes in traditional treatment methods ume are increasing year by year, which indicates that the
and modes of tissue and organ defects and dysfunction in the medical material industry has received universal attention,
surgical field, and greatly reduce medical cost. It is of and the medical material industry has developed rapidly. At
important industrial significance and brings huge economic present, China has formed three major biomedical materials
benefits. industry gathering areas, including Beijing, Tianjin,
896 X. Li
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.152 Sales and profit margin of manufacturing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant instrument from 2011 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.153 Purchase quantity and purchase amount of hospitals in manufacturing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant
instrument from 2011 to 2015
Shandong, and other areas around the Bohai Bay, Shanghai, indicating that the medical material industry has become a
Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and other Yangtze River Delta areas, pillar industry in China, which is of great significance to the
Shenzhen, Guangzhou, and other Pearl River Delta areas. economic development and population health of China.
These areas are the areas where China’s economy, technol- In the meantime, according to the survey data, hospital is
ogy, and talents are concentrated. In 2015, the total sales the main consumption place of the medical equipment
amount of eight industries reached RMB 405.268 billion, industry. The total purchase quantity of eight medical
Year
tons)
tons)
Fig. 6.154 Import and export delivery and delivery value of in manufacturing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant instrument
Year
materials
10,000)
Fig. 6.155 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in the manufacturing industry of artificial limb, artificial organs, and implant
equipment
equipment industry hospitals in 2015 amounted to RMB of each medical accident is RMB 35.500. The indirect
240.602 billion, the number of medical accidents caused by economic losses reached nearly RMB 5 billion. Most of the
medical materials reached 140,516, the direct economic loss eight industries have profit margins of less than 0.1% a year,
of medical accidents caused by medical materials reached suggesting that the economic losses caused by damage to
RMB 309.86 million, and the average compensation amount medical materials can’t be ignored. The economic cost due
898 X. Li
Year
Fig. 6.156 Number of enterprises in other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and instrument from 2011 to 2015
Year
Total output
Sales volume
Fig. 6.157 Total output and sales volume of other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and instrument from 2011 to 2015
to the corrosion of medical material accounts for a large patients not only suffer from the pain but also have to pay a
proportion. Non-uniform corrosion, wear, and deformation high cost. If medical materials can be protected well, the
of the material and improper use of the medical materials service life of the medical materials is prolonged and the
may cause the loss of function of the medical material or times of replacement of the medical materials is reduced,
introduce elements harmful to the human body. It can lead to which can not only effectively reduce the economic loss, but
unnecessary illness or even a second operation, so that also effectively improve people’s life quality.
Year
Profit margin
Fig. 6.158 Sales and profit margin of other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and instrument from 2011 to 2015
Year
Fig. 6.159 Purchase quantity and purchase amount of hospitals of other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and instrument from
2011 to 2015
900 X. Li
Year
tons)
tons)
Fig. 6.160 Import and export delivery volume and delivery value of other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and instrument from
2013 to 2015
Year
materials
10,000)
Fig. 6.161 Medical accidents caused by biomedical materials in other manufacturing industries of medical equipment and instrument from 2011
to 2015
6.6 Investigation Report on Corrosion Loss conditions, resulting in fungal corrosion of electronic circuits
of Electronic Industry and Household and components. Underground bunkers and roadway envi-
Appliances ronments meet all conditions for mold growth, and elec-
tronic equipment is at risk of mold corrosion [130]. Naval
6.6.1 Review shipborne electronic equipment is facing the triple test of
damp-heat, salt mist, and mold [131, 132]. Therefore, three
With the improvement of material living standard and the requirements have been put forward for military electronic
rapid development of science and technology, demand for equipment (anti-damp-heat, anti-salt mist, anti-mold), and
electronic products, household appliances, and telecommu- the three-protection technology is not a simple “technolog-
nication is increasing, and the upgrading speed of electronic ical protection” but a comprehensive technology related to
products is accelerating gradually in China. According to the materials, technology, structure design, and guarantee
2014 Statistical Yearbook issued by the National Bureau of method. Juzeliunas et al. [133, 134] studied the corrosion
Statistics, the production of electronic products, household behavior of Zn and Al in the environment of Penicillium
appliances, and telecommunication has increased year by niger, Aspergillus niger, and mycobacterium. The results
year over the past 5 years. We have selected some repre- show that the corrosion effects of Aspergillus niger on Zn
sentative products as the main electronic and electric prod- and Al are different. For Zn, Aspergillus niger has obvious
ucts and analyzed their scale and development trend. accelerating effect on the corrosion: on the surface of Zn
Table 6.17 and Fig. 6.162 show the details. with the action of Aspergillus niger, the capacitance of the
passivation film measured by EIS is obviously lower than
that of the surface of Zn without the action of Aspergillus
6.6.2 Investigation Report on Corrosion Loss niger. For Al, Aspergillus niger has obvious inhibition effect
of Electronic Industry and Household on corrosion, and the inhibition strength of three molds is
Appliances Penicillium niger > Aspergillus niger > mycobacterium. Hu
et al. [134] found that Vasa Piper powder is effective in
6.6.2.1 Progress and Development of Corrosion inhibiting mold corrosion through the study of the mold
Protection Technology for Electronic corrosion behavior of bullets.
Industry and Household Appliances
Corrosion protection technology for the electronic industry 6.6.2.2 Corroded Sites and Main Materials
has also been a focus of scientists. For biological corrosion,
suitable environmental conditions cause mold growth and
form organic matter accumulation, thus causing circuit 1. Corroded sites
interruption or short circuit, etc. For example, PVC bushings
for lead wires of components on printed circuit boards and There are many kinds of metal materials used in the elec-
residues of flux will seriously grow mold under suitable tronic industry, household, and electric appliances. Due to
Table 6.17 Production scale of main electronic and electric appliances in China from 2009 to 2013 (10,000 units)
Type of electric appliances Year
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Air conditioner 8078.25 10887.47 13912.50 12398.72 13057.20
Mobile phone 68193.37 99827.36 113257.71 118154.57 145560.99
Home computer 18215.07 24584.46 32036.93 31806.71 33660.98
Laptop 15009.47 18584.12 23897.41 25289.37 27278.85
Displayer 13123.47 13926.99 12680.54 12713.27 13257.00
Color TV 9898.79 11830.03 12231.34 12823.52 12776.05
Washing machine 4973.63 6247.73 6715.94 6791.12 7201.90
Refrigerator 5930.45 7295.72 8699.20 8427.00 9261.02
SPC switch 4147.40 3133.23 3032.41 3206.51 3180.84
Communication base station 111.90 139.80 175.20 206.60 241.00
Server 67.7 90.4 111.1 130.9 147.3
902 X. Li
Year
Air conditioner
Mobile phone
Home computer
Laptop
Displayer
Color TV
Washing machine
Refrigerator
SPC switch
Communication base station
Server
Fig. 6.162 Output of main electronic and electric products in China from 2009 to 2013
the artificial factors, they are located in different regions and connector contact site, switch contact site, integrated cir-
different natural environment conditions, so the corrosion is cuits, and the like. These components are complicated in
complicated and varied. The corrosion mainly occurs in the structure in various kinds of metals, and coatings (epoxy,
following sites. plastic, ceramic, etc.) which act as insulation or protection
The main function of wires in various conductive wires, between the components can produce good ion conductive
electronic industry, and household and electric appliances channels under the condition of moisture or even lack of
industry is to transmit electric energy or electromagnetic water, and the tendency of metal galvanic corrosion is large.
signals. The wires commonly used in electronic products At the same time, because of the small size of the compo-
include mounting wires, electromagnetic wires, flat wires, nents and the large spatial density, even if there are trace
shielded wires, cables, power wires, etc. For example, the corrosion products on the surface of the components, there
cable has been exposed to the natural environment and will be serious impact, leading to the early failure of elec-
affected by various temperatures, humidity, atmospheric tronic circuits and components. In addition, when the con-
gases, dust, and other interference, resulting in corrosion. tent of pollutants (such as SO2, Cl2, NO2, and H2S) in the air
Corrosion occurs on various functional electronic com- increases in the microscale (10−4%), the probability of failure
ponents such as printed circuit boards, relay outpoints, of the electronic device increases significantly.
With the improvement of people’s living standard, more often occurs, and the corrosion rate depends on the envi-
and more electric and electronic products enter the peak ronment in which the electronic components and the
period of scrapping. Waste electric and electronic products equipment are located. The influence of humidity on the
not only have the nature of resources, but also have potential corrosion rate is the most significant. Galvanic corrosion
environmental hazards. When the electronic information also occurs when metals or alloys of different electrode
material is buried, it will cause corrosion of the material potentials are in contact in a humid environment. When the
under the action of the environmental medium of the soil, in inert protective layer coated or sputtered on the active metal
which the heavy metal components will leach out, thus surface has pores or defects, corrosive media will contact the
causing adverse effect on the environment. active metal matrix to induce corrosion [137, 138]. There-
Corrosion of weld joint and weld seaming area. The fore, the stability and corrosion resistance of these metals,
common solder is tin–lead alloy solder and rosin welding alloys, coatings, and polymers in the environment directly
machine is the main solder in electronic products. The affect the reliability and service life of electronic equipment.
common welding composite materials are plastics, among
which polyamide, methyl methacrylate, phenolic plastics, (1) Copper and copper alloys. Copper is the main con-
and other products are the main components in the electronic ductive material and electrical contact structure material
process production. For example, the residual solder will not of PCB in electronic equipment. When copper is taken
only corrode the metal, but also reduce the insulation per- as electrical contact material, the surface is usually
formance so that electric short circuit occurs and false plated with tin, silver, gold or nickel. Copper is very
welding and mildew take place. Due to the action of chloride sensitive to factors such as temperature, relative
ion in solder, tin–lead solder will react under the condition of humidity, pollutants (Cl−, H2S, SO2, and NOx) and
high temperature and humidity, which will destroy the weld stray current. When H2S and Cl2 produce synergistic
joint. effect, corrosion is the most serious in the form of
Household appliance color-coated board and wood uniform corrosion. Corrosion of copper generally pro-
external device board will be corroded. duces an oxidation film and a sulfurization film of
copper on the surface. In PCBs and integrated circuit
2. Corrosion materials modules, it is important to ensure the reliability of
electronic equipment to avoid corrosion of copper, the
Copper and copper alloys, silver and silver alloys, nickel and main conductive material.
nickel alloys, gold and gold alloys, palladium and palladium (2) Silver and silver alloys. Silver is a metal with the best
alloys, tin and tin–lead alloys, aluminum, galvanized steel, electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. Silver
and so on are widely used in electronic devices as conduc- plating has good weldability, so silver is widely used in
tive materials for printed circuit boards (PCBs), contact point electronic equipment, mainly used in sockets, relays,
materials, weldable plating materials, riveted welding and permanent connection joints and contacts surface
mounting materials, equipment supports and frames, etc. In coating. Pure silver has a low hardness, so when used as
addition, silicon-copper resin, polyamide and epoxy resin, a relay and contact material, silver alloys are often used
and other polymers are taken as coating, capsule packaging to improve corrosion resistance. Silver is very sensitive
materials and adhesives, etc. [135]. to H2S and stray current corrosion and the use of silver
The concentration requirements of electronic materials for and silver alloys in electronic equipment is decreasing,
environmental pollutants are very demanding, even far but is still irreplaceable in some locations.
below the standard magnitude of health damage. For (3) Nickel and nickel alloys. In electronic equipment,
example, the maximum allowable concentration of SO2 is nickel and nickel alloys are used as diffusion barrier
30 ppbV while the standard for human health is layer, protective and decorative electroplated layer,
1,000 ppbV. For H2S, the corresponding concentration is bimetallic layer, relay contact profiles, springs, and rivet
10 ppbV and 10,000 ppbV, respectively [136]. At the same contact materials. The nickel electroplated layer is used
time, in the production of electronic circuit, the small as a diffusion barrier layer to prevent the corrosion
amount of residual Cl− or Br− in the material may also products of copper from diffusing to the surface through
directly lead to circuit corrosion failure. The atmospheric the micropores of the plated layer on the precious metal
corrosion mechanism of electronic materials is the same as surface, thereby avoiding the formation of secondary
atmospheric corrosion in other cases, which is under syn- corrosion products. The corrosion type of nickel is
ergistic effect of factors such as relative humidity, tempera- mainly uniform corrosion and pitting corrosion. In a
ture, and pollutants (Cl−, H2S, SO2, and NOx). Uniform slightly corrosive environment, a thin oxidation film is
corrosion of Au, Ni, Cu, Ag, and Al in electronic equipment formed on the surface of the nickel, which has a certain
904 X. Li
protective effect on the nickel base. This oxidation film frames, respectively. Aluminum and aluminum alloys
is broken only in a high-voltage or high-stress tend to form a dense aluminum oxide film on the sur-
environment. face in air, preventing further oxidation of the substrate.
(4) Gold and gold alloys. Gold has low activity, excellent However, in a humid environment containing chlorine,
ductility, weldability, and oxidation resistance. A gold such an oxidation film is susceptible to destruction and
layer with a thickness of 0.1–3 lm, a gold alloy elec- pitting corrosion. When it comes into contact with inert
troplated layer containing 1% nickel or cobalt, a coating metals such as gold and silver, galvanic corrosion tends
layer, or a vapor deposition layer is commonly used as a to occur.
contact material and a surface material of a socket pad. (8) Steel and galvanized steel. Steel with an organic coat-
The gold coating used for the surface treatment is very ing, zinc electroplated layer, and hot-dip zinc layer is
thin, inevitably in a small number of micropores, so that used as a supporting material for electronic equipment
the base metal is corroded through the micropores in and is usually required to be grounded, and corrosion is
contact with the corrosive medium even under slightly less likely to occur.
corrosive environmental conditions. When in contact (9) Polymers. Polymers such as silicon-copper resins,
with a highly corrosive medium, corrosion products can polyamides, and epoxy resins are widely used in elec-
creep from the micropores to the surface of the coating, tronic equipment as coatings, capsule packaging mate-
increasing the contact resistance of the coating, and rials, and adhesives, respectively. Their main failure
even spreading to adjacent components to cause a short modes are depolymerization at high temperature,
circuit. The corrosion caused by stray current is easy to degradation, and release of gas. The released gas from
occur in circuits or components coated with gold plating depolymerization is easily deposited on the surface of
in high electric field strength and highly humid the metal contact to regenerate the insulating polymer,
environment. resulting in contact failure. Some of the released acid
(5) Palladium and palladium alloys. Palladium is used as an gas is prone to react with the metal in a humid envi-
alternative to gold. Usually, a layer of palladium is ronment, resulting in corrosion of the metal and circuit
electroplated on the surface of the base metal and a thin failure.
layer of gold. The palladium coating has high hardness
and good wear resistance, but it is easy to produce an 3. Corrosive environment
insulating film on the surface of the palladium coating,
thus increasing the contact resistance. A layer of gold The corrosive environment of electronic and electric prod-
on the surface of the palladium coating can reduce the ucts is mainly atmospheric corrosion and soil corrosion: ①
probability of corrosion. the corrosive environment in which electronic products are
(6) Tin and tin–lead alloys. Tin and tin–lead electroplated directly in contact with is atmosphere [139, 140]. Therefore,
layer, hot-dip plating layer and cladding layer are used atmospheric corrosion is the main factor to destroy the
for permanent bonding and soldering in electronic electronic and electric products; ② the discarded electronic
equipment, and their surfaces quickly react with oxygen and electric products will come into contact with high salt,
in the air to form an oxidation layer that protects the acid-base medium and microorganism in the soil, which will
substrate. However, tin and tin–lead alloys are sensitive corrode the discarded electronic and electric products and
to Cl− and Cl2 and tend to corrode, resulting in circuit decompose many heavy metal substances, thus leading to
failure of solder joints or migration and peeling of large-area pollution of the soil.
corrosion products on the surface of solder joints, which
causes short circuit. Tin and tin–lead alloys should 1) Atmospheric environment
avoid contact with inert metals such as gold and silver, (1) Temperature. Temperature is a major factor in
otherwise galvanic corrosion may occur, and tin and accelerating corrosion. When the temperature is
tin–lead alloys may dissolve as anodes. At the same higher than 40 °C, the corrosion rate of copper and
time, it should be avoided to use with nickel or silver that are the main conductive materials will
cemented carbide; otherwise, vibration corrosion is increase obviously.
likely to occur. Under the condition of high-temperature (2) Humidity. The moisture content in the air is also one
environment, the base copper is easy to diffuse with tin of the most influential factors of corrosion. When
and tin–lead coating, which causes corrosion and leads moisture content cooperates with other corrosion
to circuit failure. factors, the corrosion rate will increase. It is gener-
(7) Aluminum and aluminum alloys. In electronic equip- ally believed that when the moisture content of the
ment, aluminum and aluminum alloys are used for air is small, corrosion is difficult to occur even if
integrated circuits and for making instrument boxes and
other corrosion conditions exist (except for the condition of moisture or even lack of water. The tendency of
hydrogen sulfide environment). In general, corro- metal galvanic corrosion is high. At the same time, because
sion will increase when the relative humidity is of the small size of the components and the large spatial
around 60%, and the corrosion rate will increase density, even if there are trace corrosion products on the
sharply when the relative humidity is more than surface of the components, there will be serious impact,
75%. leading to the early failure of electronic circuits and com-
(3) Corrosive gas. With the increase of haze in China in ponents. In addition, when the content of pollutants (such as
recent years, there are more and more kinds and SO2, Cl2, NO2, and H2S) in the air increases in the micro-
contents of pollutants in the air. Corrosive gas is an scale (10−4%), the probability of failure of the electronic
important factor leading to the corrosion of elec- device increases significantly. Atmospheric corrosion of
tronic and electric products. When electronic prod- electronic materials is generally classified into the following
ucts work, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, categories according to their apparent form:
hydrogen sulfide, halogen gas, ammonia gas in the
atmosphere will bring corrosion to electronic prod- (1) Uniform corrosion. Uniform corrosion of silver, copper,
ucts. Corrosive gas may cause corrosion of PCBs, iron, and zinc in electronic equipment often occurs, and
switch contacts, relay contacts and connector con- the corrosion rate depends on the environment in which
tacts in electronic products, and lead to open or short electronic circuits and components are located. In
circuits of electronic circuits, thereby causing failure electronic equipment, a very low corrosion rate can
of electronic products and resulting in many direct significantly endanger the electrical properties of the
and indirect economic losses. component. Therefore, measures must be taken to pre-
(4) Sea salt particles. In coastal and offshore areas, vent atmospheric erosion.
sodium chloride and magnesium chloride will dis- (2) Galvanic corrosion. When two different metals or one
solve in small droplets in the air to form sea salt mist metal are in contact with other non-metallic electronic
which will seriously affect the corrosion rate of conductors, a corrosive couple in humid condition will
electronic and electric products. be formed. In addition, when the sputtered or coated
(5) Dust. The dust contains water-soluble components protective layer of the active metal surface has defects
such as sulfate ion, nitrate ion, and hydrochloric acid and pores, the corrosive medium will contact the active
ion. When the dust is adsorbed on the electronic matrix metal to promote galvanic corrosion. This is a
products, corrosion of the electronic products is type of corrosion that often occurs in electronic mate-
caused under a certain humidity condition. And dust rials. The two metals that make up the corrosive couple,
such as carbon dust also causes short circuit of or the metals in different active states, have a potential
electronic and electric products. difference in the corrosive medium. When they are in an
2) Soil environment electrically connected state, anode dissolution occurs at
the interface of the anode metal/electrolyte, electrons
With the improvement of people’s living standard, more are emitted, the electrons flow to the cathode material
and more electric and electronic products enter the peak through the electron conductor, a cathode reduction
period of scrapping. Waste electrical and electronic products reaction occurs at the electrolyte interface, and the
not only have the nature of resources but also have potential cathode material is subjected to cathodic protection. In
environmental hazards. When the electronic information the electronic circuits and components, the copper-clad
material is buried, it will cause corrosion of the material circuit board, the tin (lead) solder joint, the gold plating,
under the action of the environmental medium of the soil, in and the silver plating form a corrosion couple among
which the heavy metal components will leach out, thus each other, and the galvanic corrosion occurs under the
causing an adverse effect on the environment. action of the thin liquid film. Some scholars have
established the mathematical model of galvanic corro-
4. Corrosion types sion system. Smyrl and New-Man use the finite differ-
ence method and nonlinear boundary conditions to
The atmospheric corrosion mechanism of electronic mate- solve the Laplacian equation of potential distribution so
rials is basically the same as that of other systems, but it has that the current and potential distribution of the galvanic
its own characteristics. In electronic equipment, there are corrosion system of many anode elements on a large
many kinds of metals and coatings (epoxy, plastic, ceramic, cathode is determined [141]. Morris and Smyrl establish
etc.), which act as insulation or protection between compo- the Laplace equation based on nonlinear boundary
nents, can produce good ion conduction channels under the conditions by using the finite element method, which
906 X. Li
solves the problem of regular distribution, irregular to thermal, electric, magnetic, or mechanical reasons,
distribution, and arbitrary distribution of the potential of leading to pit-like or groove-like damage to the contact
the base metal (i.e., the anode element) on the cathode surface. If the contact material is easily oxidized, the
surface through the exposure of small holes and defects original contact is oxidized after the contact point is
in the atmosphere. Besides, they find that the circum- moved to a new position. This repetitive movement
ference of anode element is more suitable for control- causes the contact surface to form an insulating oxida-
ling galvanic corrosion than the ratio of cathode and tion film, resulting in an increase in contact resistance.
anode area. The factors affecting the vibration corrosion include the
(3) Micropore corrosion. Micropore corrosion is a special contact material, the geometry of the contact surface,
case of galvanic corrosion, which often occurs in a the kind and content of the contaminating components
bimetallic system consisting of plating on the surface of contained in the environmental medium, the amplitude
gold-plated elements and internal plating or base metal. of the vibration slip, the contact load, the frequency and
The coating of precious metal always has micropores the lubrication, etc.
and other defects, and the intermediate transition layer (7) Form polymers. Organic substances in electronic
and even the base metal are exposed to the atmosphere, equipment release organic gas to form an insulating film
resulting in a galvanic couple, which leads to corrosion on the sliding contacts, such as aromatic compounds
of the base metal at the micropores. The corrosion (benzene and its derivatives), which polymerize with
products fill the micropores, migrate along the pore the surface of the contacts during the rubbing process
walls, and finally reach the outer surface, so that the caused by vibration or switching to produce the film.
contact resistance of the element is greatly increased. (8) Microbial corrosion. The ideal conditions for the
The pollution gas such as Cl2, H2S, and SO2 can growth of most microorganisms are as follows: tem-
obviously promote the corrosion of micropores, and perature 20–40 °C and relative humidity 85–100%.
shorten the service life of gold-plated contacts in harsh Mold belongs to aerobic bacteria and likes acidic
environment. environment [142]. Mold can secrete a lot of enzyme
(4) Corrosion products creep. Creeping base metal (such as and organic acid in metabolism which corrode and
Cu) may be corroded at the edge of the contact point, decompose electronic material. In the process of growth
and corrosion products will creep along the edge and and reproduction, a large number of mold wires are
spread to the outermost precious metal surface. This produced, which have strong moisture absorption effect
corrosion is related to humidity and the material itself. like an aqueous sponge, so that the surface of the
For example, corrosion products of copper and silver material is in a moist state for a long period of time. The
can move rapidly to the surface of gold in the presence mold wires are electrically conductive because of con-
of Cl2 or H2S, while corrosion products of nickel don’t. taining moisture. The mycelium layer forms an elec-
(5) Crevice corrosion and corrosion under the deposit. In a trical circuit across the insulating material, causing a
normal environment, most of ionic pollutants on an short circuit. The mold wire may also change the
electronic device originate from particle deposition effective capacitance and cause the resonance circuit of
rather than corrosive gas. The deposited particles or the device to be out of tune, which may cause serious
dust may absorb moisture and gas pollutants from the failure to some electronic devices. Direct or indirect
atmosphere, forming a more corrosive electrolyte film damage to mold growth can lead to damage to electric
on the surface of the element or creating gaps. Below or electronic devices [143].
the gaps and deposits, the critical relative humidity (9) Stray current. Stray current mainly refers to the current
decreases obviously due to surface contamination and that does not move in a specified way. It exists in the
capillary action so that the electrolyte film is easier to soil and is not associated with the equipment system to
form and the concentration difference corrosion battery be protected. If the wire is in a high voltage, high
of oxygen is formed, causing local corrosion. Such magnetic field environment, it is extremely easy to
local corrosion is most likely to occur at contacts and generate stray current [144].
connectors, resulting in failure of electronic circuits and
components. In the case of a PCB, stray current on the surface of the
(6) Vibration corrosion. Vibration corrosion is also called PCB can cause serious corrosion of the circuit board, as
fretting corrosion or ripple corrosion. In corrosive shown in Fig. 6.163. This is a microwave sensor for the
environment, low-frequency relative vibration (1– condensate water control system. The microwave sensor is
100 µm) will occur between metals in close contact made of a die-cast aluminum–silicon alloy and treated with
with each other or between metal and non-metallic due chromate passivation. As shown by the arrows in Fig. 6.163,
(4) Reliability. The reliability of the material not only

depends on the inherent characteristics of the material,
but also is affected by the processing process, produc-
tion method, and use environment. The protective life
of each part of the material in the whole equipment is
considered as far as possible to meet the service
requirements of the whole life of the equipment.
(5) Requirements for materials in the working environment.
Corrosive environment and high-temperature and
low-temperature environment are also important factors
that determine the material requirements. According to
the environment and working conditions, the selection
of suitable materials is an important content of corro-
sion control. In view of the environment with severe
corrosion conditions such as ocean atmosphere, the
following requirements are put forward for commonly
used materials. It is not recommended to use ordinary
carbon steel in the harsh environment such as the sea.
Fig. 6.163 Microwave sensor corrosion caused by stray current
When steel is selected, it shall be able to reach the
required strength of the part after heat treatment without
we find that the sensor is subjected to severe corrosion that is producing temper brittleness. The stress corrosion and
caused by stray current. hydrogen embrittlement susceptibility of steel can be
reduced by controlling the strength level of the material
6.6.2.3 Types of Anti-corrosion Measures by appropriate heat treatment. For alloy steel parts with
rb 1240 MPa, the residual stress shall be mini-
mized to prevent SCC. For high-strength steel, it is not
1. Material selection recommended to use 4340, 300M and materials that are
less resistant to SCC and hydrogen embrittlement.
Electronic information products may be subjected to a very Structural steel shall be used with a reasonable protec-
complex and demanding service environment because they tive coating.
serve in different environments according to their different
application requirements. In general, the selection of mate- Stainless steel: For martensitic stainless steel, ultralow
rials must be considered at the early stage of their design. carbon martensitic stainless steel, such as 1Cr17M, shall be
Proper selection of materials will affect many aspects of the used and it is not recommended to use high carbon
product, such as cost, function, durability, and reliability. martensitic stainless steel. Free machined surfaces shall be
Generally, the following requirements shall be considered avoided for all critical structural locations. For 2205 and
for material selection: higher grade duplex stainless steels, it is recommended to be
passivated prior to use. All welded or brazed austenitic steels
(1) Functional requirements. The functional requirements shall suffer from solution treated after welding.
of the products determine the requirements for the Aluminum alloy: It is not recommended to use the
physical properties, chemical properties, and mechani- two-system aluminum alloy of hard aluminum and ultra-hard
cal properties of the materials, such as structural aluminum under the environment of ocean atmosphere. If
members, and the mechanical properties of the materi- the aluminum alloy with high susceptibility to intergranular
als shall be mainly considered. corrosion, stress corrosion, and denudation is used, its heat
(2) MaChinability is a measurement of the ability of a treatment system should be strictly controlled to improve its
material to be machined, including weldability, casta- corrosion resistance. When all aluminum alloy materials are
bility, and maChinability. used, the surface shall be coated with a corrosion-resistant
(3) Cost. The cost per unit mass of material or unit cost of coating as far as possible.
performance shall be included and the total cost, Plastics: In areas with poor sealing and ventilation con-
including the cost of processing, shall be taken into ditions, we should avoid the use of highly volatile plastics
account. and avoid the use of highly absorbent plastics and plastics
908 X. Li
that corrode in contact with metals. In the severe environ- 2. Corrosion control of electronic equipment
ment, aging-preventing agent such as phenol, thiourea,
amine, or nickel dithiocarbamate and nanoparticles are The core of electronic information products is circuit board
added in the preparation process. When the material with components and microelectronic products, so the integrity
poor aging resistance must be selected according to the and reliability of electronic components in the equipment
service performance requirements, the antiaging protection must be guaranteed. The main methods for corrosion control
(coating and fabric) on the surface shall be considered to of electronic equipment include:
improve the aging resistance of the plastic.
Rubber: Unsaturated rubber, such as natural rubber, iso- (1) Choose materials that are not corroded by moisture,
prene rubber, polybutadiene rubber, and styrene-butadiene temperature, salt, fungi, etc.
rubber, is poor in aging resistance, so it is generally not (2) The environment is changed by eliminating moisture,
suitable for the South China Sea environment, or corre- cooling, and sterilization, so as to protect it.
sponding antiaging measures shall be taken in use. Saturated (3) Sealing assemblies, packaging elements, part surface
or low-saturated rubber, such as ethylene-propylene rubber, coatings are used to prevent corrosive media from
chlorosulfonated polyethylene rubber, and butyl rubber, has contacting the surface of the material.
relatively good aging resistance. Rubber products with (4) Periodic inspection and maintenance shall be used to
effective antiaging agent shall be selected. For example, eliminate the corrosion effect before it develops to cause
antiaging agent, such as phenol, thiourea, amines or nickel damage.
dithiocarbamate, and rubber materials with nanoparticles are
added in the preparation process. The aging speed of the 3. Protective technology of circuit board coating
stressed part of rubber is faster than that of static exposure
time. For example, shock-reducing rubber and sealing rubber Generally, in order to ensure the weldability, protection,
require materials with good mechanical properties while the electrical conductivity, and wear resistance of PCB, the
aging resistance of rubber material is required to be high. circuit board is plated. At present, the main plating processes
Special cases should be considered: rubber surface treat- include tin plating, silver plating, nickel–gold plating, pal-
ment, such as hydrophobic treatment; the outdoor exposed ladium plating, palladium copper, etc. The characteristics of
parts of rubber shall be protected against aging by-products the above process are shown in Table 6.18 [145].
such as coated fabric, coating, and protective wax.
Table 6.18 Related properties Advantages Disadvantages

of PCB surface coating system
Tin Hot air Good weldability If the thickness is not uniform,
plating leveling intermetallic compound may be
lead-free tin generated, which are not
spraying suitable for chip on board
Chemical tin High flatness, good weldability, low Difficult to obtain very thick
precipitation cost deposited tin layer, slow
deposition rate
Au/Ni Uniform thickness, can be used for wire High cost
bonding, the most stable temperature,
good corrosion resistance
Pd/Ni Uniform thickness, can be used for wire High cost
bonding
Pd/Cu Uniform thickness, can be used for wire High cost (thick coat)
bonding
Silver plating The weldability is excellent, the silver Sulfur can cause the surface to
migration problem is small, and the tarnish black, brown, or yellow
silver surface coating has high tensile
resistance effect
Organic film layer Uniform thickness, low cost, easy Not suitable for chip on board,
inspection high-temperature degradation,
sensitivity to flux and reflow
process
Table 6.19 Thickness Thickness (lm) Purpose

requirements for gold plating
0.025–0.18 Flash colored decorative coating
0.25–0.76 Minimum value on the contact that can be welded
0.76–1.27 Minimum value on the contact that can be welded
1.27–2.54 Etch-resistant layer and weldability for etching
2.54–5.08 Wear-resistant engineering
5.08–7.62 Excellent corrosion resistance
7.62–38.1 Electron emission characteristics
38.1 Electroforming application
Table 6.20 Characteristics of Characteristics

five kinds of three-protection
paint Acrylic resin High electrical property, physical property and mildew resistance, long
three-protection paint application period, easy coating, short cure time, no heat release when
curing, no damage to the heat sensitive element, no shrinkage after curing
Epoxy resin Generally, it is two-component, with short application period, good moisture
three-protection paint resistance, and salt fog resistance. The epoxy resin film must be removed by
physical means to replace the component or repair the circuit board, and
protective measures must be applied to the fragile component before coating
Silicone three-protection High-temperature resistance 200 °C, good resistance to chemical corrosion
paint and salt fog, easy to repair, with remarkable electrical insulation
characteristics, suitable for high heating elements, such as high-power
resistance high-frequency circuit board
Polyurethane There are one-component and two-component, long-term good dielectric
three-protection paint properties, excellent moisture resistance, and solvent resistance, and the
performance of low-temperature environment is stable. The circuit board
must be clean before coating, especially without the presence of moisture
Parylene three-protection The coating is uniform in thickness, dense and pinhole-free, transparent, and
paint stress-free; does not damage the workpiece; has good electrical insulation
property and good protection property; and is the most effective protective
coat material for high-frequency components, high-density components, and
high-insulation components
According to Table 6.18, Au/Ni or Pd/Ni systems may be (Silicone, Type SR), polyurethane (Urethane, Type UR), and
used for highly reliable plating processes. For the thickness parylene (Parylene, Type XY), as shown in Table 6.20.
of gold plating layer with different requirements, as shown in The three-protection coating of PCB assembly shall first
Table 6.19, the thickness of Au layer should be greater than meet the electrical performance requirements, and then con-
5 lm in order to obtain good corrosion resistance. For Ag sider the three-protection performance and technological per-
plating, a new and reliable process is to first coat the sub- formance. In order to guarantee the manufacturability and
strate with a layer of Ni (thickness: 3.81–7.62 lm); then Ni reliability of coating, the selection principle of the coating is as
is plated with silver (thickness: 1.27–6.35 lm); finally, the follows. One is to select the coating and the proportion design
silver layer is plated with rhodium (thickness 0.1–0.3 lm) according to the performance requirements of the protective
[146]. material, and the other is to meet the technological performance
of the selective coating equipment. After technological test and
4. Electronic three-protection coating coating screening, in principle, one-component coating should
be preferred. The following problems exist in the application of
(1) Selection of coating the two-component coating in the selective coating equipment:
① the failure time after mixing is short, generally 6–8 h; ②
In accordance with the US military standard MIL-I-46058C, paint pipeline and nozzle are easy to block; and ③ it is difficult
the three-protection paint can be mainly divided into acrylic to remove the deposited paint from the nozzle and positioning
(Acrylic, Type AR), epoxy resin (Epoxy, Type ER), silicone fixture [147].
910 X. Li
Cleaning
Pretreatment
Covering up
Coating selection
Coating preparation
Brushing, ultrasound, vapor
Piezoelectric tape, masking film
Environmental test
Coating test
Coating curing
PCB PCB coating
Manual spraying, automatic spraying, vapor
deposition
Fig. 6.164 Coating process flow
Table 6.21 Characteristics of three-protection paint coating

Characteristics
Brush coating A wide range of applications, simple operation
Shower coating Simple operation
Spray Manual Low cost
coating spraying
Selective High precision, uniformity, good film-forming quality, controllable film thickness
spraying
Dip coating Small investment, complete coating of the product, and no shadowing effect
Parylene coating technology Uniform pinhole-free coating (micron scale); excellent electrical performance, low dielectric constant, low
(vacuum vapor deposition) loss, high insulation strength; anti-moisture, anti-mold, anti-chemical reaction, anti-friction
(2) Selection of coating process and the uniformity can’t be accurately controlled. Thus,
parylene coating technology may be preferentially adopted
The coating process flow is shown in Fig. 6.164. At present, in the electronic equipment protection with high
there are four coating methods, such as brush coating, three-protection requirements.
shower coating, spray coating, and dip coating. The char-
acteristics of the above four coating methods are shown in 5. Packaging technology
Table 6.21 [148].
The manual spraying process can’t be controlled, the In order to achieve the purpose of anti-corrosion of PCB,
pollution is large, and the waste is serious; the thickness of PCB working in a good environment such as indoor, gen-
mechanical dip coating film can’t be controlled accurately, erally uses three-protection coating for protection. However,
and the waste is serious; the selective coating cost is rela- for the circuit board in service and outdoor environment, or
tively high, and can’t be used in the high-frequency circuit, the printed conductor work under high voltage and the
Table 6.22 Characteristics of Type of materials Advantages Use device

packaging materials
Plastic Phenolic resins, Light in weight, small in Low power devices,
packaging polyesters, epoxies, and size, simple in process, low integrated circuits, and
silicones; epoxy resins in cost, convenient for hybrid circuits
are the most widely used automatic production, poor
in airtightness, poor in
mechanical performance,
small in high-frequency
parasitic effect, no shielding
effect on electromagnetic
waves
Ceramic Al2O3, BeO, AlN Good airtightness, good High frequency, ultrahigh
packaging mechanical performance, frequency devices, integrated
good heat conduction and circuits, large scale
high-frequency insulation integrated circuits, and
property; low-temperature hybrid circuits
glass fusion sealing is easy
to stain the chip, epoxy resin
cover leakage ceramic
sealing material
Metal Cu, Al, Mo, W, Kovar, Good airtightness, good heat Transistors, power
packaging Invar, W/Cu, and dissipation, electromagnetic transistors, integrated
Mo/Cu alloy wave shielding, reliable circuits, and hybrid circuits
printed circuit assembly under low pressure in the airborne metal matrix electronic packaging material for aircraft,
equipment, it is far from enough to apply only which has excellent comprehensive properties. Third, the
three-protection coating for protection in order to prevent the low cost requirements can be realized.
corrosion of the circuit by damp and heat, mold and salt mist In addition, carbon fiber reinforced magnesium matrix
to effectively avoid creepage between the wires and occur- composite material has high thermal conductivity, high
rence of breakdown phenomenon. The protective coated electrical conductivity, good damping vibration attenuation
circuit board needs to be integrally packaged or partially property, excellent electromagnetic shielding characteristics,
packaged for the purpose of protection so as to improve the and easy process properties, and also overcomes the poor
performance reliability of the product. Packaging technology dimensional stability, high thermal expansion coefficient,
mainly includes plastic packaging, ceramic packaging, metal and small creep resistance of magnesium alloy.
packaging, and metal matrix composite packaging devel-
oped recently [149]; the characteristics of which are shown 6.6.2.4 Current Corrosion Severity
in Table 6.22. and Importance of Corrosion Protection
Metal matrix composite packaging can obtain different in This Industry
properties through different combinations of matrix and For precision instrument, small corrosion of electronic and
reinforcement, which mainly includes copper matrix com- electrical equipment may have an impact on production and
posite packaging, aluminum matrix composite packaging, life. The corrosion of the server will result in the loss of
and carbon fiber reinforced magnesium matrix composite information and bring huge economic loss. The corrosion
packaging. and destruction of the communication base station will affect
Copper matrix composites are widely used in heat sink the communication, and the destruction and collapse of the
materials and electrical contact materials. base station may cause casualties. In military affairs, the
Particle reinforced aluminum matrix composite material corrosion of electronic equipment will directly affect the
is one of the most mature metal matrix composites. At failure of military equipment, endangering the security of
present, SiCP/Al is the most widely studied and widely used. national defense. In 2008, the Air Accidents Investigation
Its matrix can be pure aluminum, but most of them are all Branch (AAIB) noted that [150] airlines had to revise the
kinds of aluminum alloys. The high-silicon aluminum alloy regulations for the design and installation of electronic
refers to an aluminum matrix composite material having a Si equipment in aircraft. During flight, fluid and humid air will
content of 30–50% and is called an aluminum–silicon alloy cause serious corrosion of electronic equipment, so that the
when the Si content is more than 50%. First, the material aircraft has a major safety hazard accident. AAIB indicated
physical properties can be designed by changing the alloy that during the climb of the aircraft, moisture in the air
composition. Second, this kind of material is the lightest would condense on the bottom plate of the avionics
912 X. Li
equipment, which would lead to corrosion of the welded objective of corrosion management is to maintain production
parts in the circuit board and lead to complete corrosion of safety, strengthen environmental protection, and improve
the circuit board unit of the pitch level control system, cost-effectiveness. The objective is achieved by controlling
seriously affecting flight safety. Due to the severity of its all factors related to corrosion, materials, processes, etc. At
hazards, corrosion protection in the industry has received a present, the main reason that this idea can be popularized in
large amount of research input. European and American countries is that it pays more
attention to reducing the leakage of various pollutants in the
6.6.2.5 Effect of Anti-corrosion Measures production process, ensuring the life safety of operators,
With the maturity of anti-corrosion technology, its protective improving product quality, and reducing production cost and
effect on electronic components becomes better, such as product consumption. The corrosion management can be
three-protection coating technology of printed components. changed from adopting a single traditional corrosion control
To a great extent, the surface of printed board components measure in the past to implementing the corrosion man-
coated with three-protection coating plays a protective role, agement for the whole system. And the related work in this
so that printed boards and their components can improve the respect is also relatively deficient in China.
use value and enhance the use performance. Through the
comparison of the four kinds of materials, Zhu et al. [148] 6.6.2.7 Typical Corrosion Cases
find that the silicone paint has good temperature resistance.
However, because of its large molecular spacing and large
surface pores, it is necessary to absorb the moisture in the air 1. Communication failure
during the curing process and it is easy to form the paint
layer bulge phenomenon. Epoxy resin three-protection Communication interruption caused by base station corro-
coating has poor flexibility, but due to its strong adhesion, sion occurs every year. On March 6, 2012, the large-scale
the material itself will produce stress during curing. Under interruption of the 3G network of Vodafone in Australia
the effect of this stress, the component will be pulled to caused serious impact on the communication of users,
create cracks or fracture. It is also difficult to remove the resulting in Vodafone’s $500 million for overhaul of mobile
paint in situations where repairs are required. With the 3G network equipment. On February 23, 2014, the 4G LTE
development of material technology, the market share of network of Verizon, the US telecommunications operator,
epoxy three-protection coating is gradually decreasing, and suffered large-scale interruption, affecting Indianapolis,
this kind of paint is mainly used in civil products. Therefore, Milwaukee, Phoenix, and parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio.
acrylic, polyurethane, and parylene three-protection paint
have a more prominent application prospect in the military 2. Aircraft failure
field.
On November 8, 2005, a Challenger 604 aircraft with reg-
6.6.2.6 Problems Existing in Corrosion istration number of VP-BJM (just put into operation in 2004)
and Protection of Bombardier Aerospace was paralyzed in its level stabi-
Corrosion brings damage to electronic components. In order lization system due to corrosion of the pitch level control
to prevent the failure of various electronic components, the circuit board unit after only 202 h of flight. The aircraft flew
reliability tests of the components are carried out according from Lagos, Nigeria’s capital, to Farnborough Airport in
to the relevant standards before leaving the factory, but the Britain. At that time, the pitch level controller of the aircraft
failure that could not be predicted still occurs in use. One of autopilot system failed, resulting in a sudden failure of the
the causes that could not be predicted is corrosion. There are level stabilization system. The crew attempted to reaccess
two ways to prevent the influence of various corrosion fac- the level control system. However, unit 2 of the level control
tors on electronic components. One is to perfect the structure system can’t listen to the level control command after
of electronic components to resist environmental corrosion. reaccess, and unit 1 can also receive the command inter-
However, due to the limitation of cost and performance, the mittently. After that, even though the pilot had pressed the
main countermeasure of corrosion prevention is to improve climb button, the level control system went haywire and
the use environment of electronic components according to often let the plane dive. Finally, the level control system
the corrosion factors. almost let the plane dive straight down, so that the crew had
In addition to research and improvement of technology, it to increase the tail pressure of the aircraft to keep the plane
is necessary to strengthen corrosion management that is an balanced, and eventually the aircraft had to make an emer-
integrated method to prevent corrosion failure. The main gency landing in London’s Heathrow Airport.
3. Military failure Based on the assumption that this part of enterprises can
represent the whole industry to a certain extent, the corrosion
Corrosion of electronic communications equipment can situation of the whole industry can be obtained from the
cause the failure of military equipment. During the Second corrosion data of some enterprises through the data analysis
World War, 60% of the aviation electronic products shipped and calculation of the successfully collected questionnaires.
to the Far East by the United States failed due to damp and The result of the questionnaires shows that for the elec-
mildew before being used. Britain’s radar has an average tronic industry and household appliances industry, the direct
failure-free time of 116 h in Europe, 61 h in the Mediter- anti-corrosion costs mainly include the following three
ranean and only 18 h in Southeast Asia. In the 1950s, 80% aspects: ① coating and coating cost; ② cost of
of US military electronic equipment in the North Korean corrosion-resistant materials; and ③ other expenses on
battlefield failed because of not adapting to the cold weather. anti-corrosion equipment.
In Vietnam battlefield in the 1960s, most of the communi-
cations equipment failed to work because the equipment was 1. Coating and coating cost
not adapted to the tropical rain forest climate. In the 1980s,
the U.S. Department of Defense investigated the conven- Small corrosion of precision instruments, such as electronic
tional ammunition inventory of the army worth $18 billion and electric equipment, may have an impact on production
and with weight of nearly 3.8 million tons and found that: and life. As one of the important anti-corrosion methods,
because of the corrosion and deterioration caused by the anti-corrosion coating plays a protective role in the elec-
natural environment in the United States, Europe, and the tronic industry and household appliances industry to a large
Pacific, the army alone maintained and destroyed more than extent, which can improve the use value of PCB and its
110,000 tons of ammunition. The seventh incident was components and enhance the use performance, thus saving
caused by a “wet sensor failure”, in which the US B-2 the production cost in a disguised form.
bomber was damaged by a damp sensor: $1.4 billion. According to the result of the questionnaires, the total
On February 23, 2008, a B-2 stealth bomber crashed coating and coating cost in 2014 was RMB 8.76 billion, and
shortly after taking off from the Guam base. The investiga- the total cost of the electronic industry and household
tion revealed that the cause of the accident was due to a appliances industry in 2014 was
disturbance in the onboard flight control system data caused
by moisture. The bomber rose sharply, causing a flameout in RMB 8:76 billion=5:05% ¼ RMB 173:5 billion
the air and crashing with a loss of $1.4 billion.
6.6.2.8 Evaluation of Corrosion Loss in Electronic 2. Cost of corrosion-resistant materials

Industry and Household Appliances
In recent years, there are three main methods of corrosion Corrosion-resistant materials can mainly include three types:
investigation and economic loss evaluation at home and stainless steel, titanium, GFRP.
abroad: Uhlig method, Hoar method, and Battelle method. According to www.askci.com, in 2014, the apparent
The Uhlig method is used to evaluate the economic loss consumption of stainless steel in China was 15.72 million
caused by the corrosion of electronic appliances. The Uglig tons. There are many kinds of stainless steel. We calculate it
method is to evaluate the cost of corrosion protection from at the average price of 20,000 RMB/ton. The price of ordi-
simple accumulation of production and manufacture. nary steel is about 2,800 RMB/ton. Therefore, the
In order to find out the corrosion situation of China’s anti-corrosion cost of stainless steel is RMB 207.385 billion.
electronic industry and household appliances industry, and The proportion of stainless steel used in the electronics and
obtain the corrosion cost and anti-corrosion strategy data, household electronics industries is 15%, and the estimated
this project distributes questionnaires to some enterprises cost of corrosion prevention for stainless steel in the elec-
with a certain scale in the industry. In the collected ques- tronic industry is RMB 31.11 billion.
tionnaires, the total output value of the enterprises in 2014 In the same way, we can calculate the anti-corrosion cost
was RMB 596.3 billion, and the total output value of the of titanium and GFRP in the electronic industry is RMB
electronic industry and household appliances industry was 7.738 billion and RMB 2.356 billion, respectively. To sum
RMB 11,800 billion. The ratio of enterprise output value to up, the total cost for corrosion-resistant materials in elec-
the total output value of the electronic industry and the tronics and household appliances industry is RMB 41.654
household appliance industry is as follows: billion.
RMB 596:3 billion=RMB 11; 800 billion ¼ 5:05% According to the result of the questionnaires, the total
cost of corrosion-resistant materials invested by this part of
914 X. Li
enterprises in 2014 was RMB 2.54 billion, and the total cost of the four indexes of the recycled questionnaires, the cor-
invested in corrosion-resistant materials by the electronic rosion loss of the enterprise can be calculated, and then the
industry and the household appliances industry in 2014 was total corrosion loss of the electronic industry and the
household appliances industry can be calculated.
RMB 2:54 billion=5:05% ¼ RMB 50:3 billion The result of the questionnaires shows that the indirect
By comparison, it is found that there is little difference corrosion loss of the enterprise in 2014 was RMB 310
between the cost of corrosion-resistant materials estimated million, and the economic loss caused by indirect corrosion
by the questionnaire and the cost of corrosion-resistant in the electronic industry and the household appliances
material estimated by industrial data, which may be caused industry is as follows:
by the fluctuation of industry steel price or other factors. We
RMB 310 million=5:05% ¼ RMB 6:1 billion
believe that the difference is acceptable, and therefore the
cost of corrosion-resistant materials estimated by the enter- It should be noted that in the questionnaire on compen-
prise questionnaire is credible. sation for environmental pollution caused by corrosion and
compensation for casualties caused by corrosion, the value
3. Other expenses on anti-corrosion equipment of each enterprise is very small. However, the value of
shutdown loss caused by corrosion and product quality loss
In fact, in addition to the direct economic losses caused by caused by corrosion is relatively large. In general, the ratio
the abovementioned common corrosion protection measures, of direct corrosion to indirect corrosion in enterprises is 38:1,
other direct losses caused by corrosion also include the cost which indicates that for the electronic industry and the
of new anti-corrosion equipment, the investment in household appliances industry, the corrosion loss is mainly
anti-corrosion engineering, the cost of corrosion allowance, reflected in the direct corrosion.
the input of personnel in anti-corrosion posts, as well as the To sum up, the corrosion economic loss of the whole
cost of renewal, renovation, and maintenance of old electronic industry and household appliances industry is
anti-corrosion equipment, depreciation of fixed assets of RMB 230.9 billion, and the total output value of this
anti-corrosion equipment and pharmaceutical expenses. industry is RMB 11,800 billion. The ratio of corrosion losses
The result of the questionnaires shows that the enter- in the electronic industry and the household appliances
prises’ direct loss due to other factors in 2014 was RMB 50 industry to the total output value of the industry is
million, and the direct economic losses caused by other
factors in the electronic industry and the household appli- RMB 230:9 billion=RMB 11; 800 billion ¼ 1:96%
ances industry were It can be seen that corrosion has caused huge economic
losses to the whole electronic industry and household
RMB 50 million=5:05% ¼ RMB 1 billion
appliances industry. We urgently need to develop
To sum up, the direct corrosion loss of the electronic anti-corrosion technology in order to reduce corrosion loss
industry and household appliances industry is about RMB and promote resource saving. Comprehensive corrosion
224.8 billion. control is the guarantee for good operation and safe opera-
tion of national economy, national defense equipment, and
4. Discussion of corrosion loss results infrastructure, and it is an indispensable and important
component in the process of national modernization. It is
In order to calculate the corrosion loss (including direct also a complex system engineering, which needs the joint
corrosion loss and indirect corrosion loss) in China’s elec- maintenance and development of relevant departments and
tronic industry and household appliances industry, indirect enterprises and colleges.
corrosion loss must be evaluated. Indirect corrosion is hid-
den in the actual production, so it is difficult to carry out 5. Overview of corrosion cost of a large enterprise
quantitative evaluation. Therefore, the following four
indexes are set in the questionnaire to evaluate indirect The following is an analysis of a large enterprise among the
corrosion: compensation for environmental pollution caused investigated enterprises. The gross output value of the
by corrosion, compensation for casualties caused by corro- enterprise in 2013 was RMB 239 billion, and the direct
sion, shutdown loss caused by corrosion, and product quality economic loss caused by corrosion was RMB 5.38 billion,
loss caused by corrosion. According to the sum of the values and the indirect economic loss was RMB 110 million. In
2013, the corrosion loss accounted for about 2.12% of the

total output value. The gross output value in 2014 was RMB
288.2 billion, with direct economic losses of RMB 4.95
billion and indirect economic losses of RMB 110 million
caused by corrosion. Corrosion loss accounted for about
1.90% of the total output value in 2014. For this enterprise,
the corrosion loss accounted for about 2% of the annual
output value, and the economic loss due to corrosion will
become very large, so it is imperative to strengthen the
anti-corrosion measures of the electronic industry and the
household appliances industry. As can be seen from the
enterprise’s investment in corrosion cost, compared with
2013, the enterprise’s investment in corrosion and protection
in 2014 also increased. Among them, the investment of
coating cost and corrosion-resistant material cost is the lar-
gest, which plays a certain role in reducing product quality Fig. 6.165 Crude steel output in China from 2004 to 2015
loss, shutdown loss, equipment maintenance, and compen-
sation for damages caused by subsequent corrosion. This is a transformation in 2013, the relative surplus of steel output
precaution measure. appeared obviously in China, and the steel price dropped.
With an increase of 5.6% in output in 2014, the industrial
output value of the entire steel industry was about RMB 7.16
6.7 Report on Corrosion Investigation trillion, a decrease of 2.6% compared with 2013. It
in Metallurgical and Mining Industry accounted for 11.26% of the GDP of the year. In 2015, the
decline in steel prices continued to expand, and the industrial
6.7.1 Brief Introduction to the Metallurgical output value of the steel industry and its share of GDP
Industry in China declined sharply. At present, the steel industry is in the
transition period of excess capacity, insufficient demand, and
Metallurgical industry includes ferrous metallurgical indus- low efficiency. Since 2004, China’s crude steel output is
try and non-ferrous metallurgical industry. Both ferrous and shown in Fig. 6.165, and the total industrial output value of
non-ferrous metal industries are important basic industries of steel industry and its proportion in GDP are shown in
the national economy. They are technology, capital, Fig. 6.166.
resources, energy, and labor-intensive industries. Their out- China is also the largest non-ferrous metal industry in the
put is an important index to measure the economic strength world and can produce 64 kinds of non-ferrous metals,
of various countries. becoming the world’s most complete producer of
China’s steel output reached 101.24 million tons in 1996, non-ferrous metals. The output of 10 kinds of common
becoming the first country in the world, and reached 128.5 non-ferrous metals in China surpassed that of the United
million tons in 2000, accounting for 15% of the world’s total States in 2002 and became the largest non-ferrous metal
output. After entering the twenty-first century, China’s steel producer in the world. China has also been the largest
output has advanced by leaps and bounds. In 2008, China’s non-ferrous metal consumer in the world for many years.
steel output exceeded 500 million tons, accounting for 38% There are more than 30,000 non-ferrous metal enterprises
of the world’s total output. In 2014, the number of and institutions throughout the country, including about
employees in China’s iron and steel industry was about 3.3 8,000 non-ferrous metal industrial enterprises above scale,
million. There were more than 500 iron and steel enterprises, with 3.2 million employees. Among the 64 non-ferrous
including more than 20 enterprises with annual output of ten metals, copper, aluminum, lead, zinc, nickel, tin, antimony,
million tons of steel, with the highest steel output reaching mercury, magnesium, and titanium are called ten commonly
823 million tons, accounting for 49.5% of the world’s total used non-ferrous metals. In 2015, the national output of ten
output. From 2013 to 2015, China’s steel output reached kinds of non-ferrous metals was more than 50 million tons,
around 800 million tons, accounting for 49.5–49.7% of the accounting for more than 40% of the global total output. The
world’s total output. The proportion of the total output value main business income of non-ferrous metal industrial
of China’s iron and steel industry to the GDP has been high. enterprises above the scale was about RMB 5.73 trillion. The
From 2006 to 2013, the highest proportion was over 14%, industrial GDP of the whole industry is 7.6% of GDP, and
and that of 2013 was 13.42%. With the economic the highest year of GDP is 2013 and 2014, accounting for
916 X. Li
Output/0.1 billion tons

Year
Output value of iron and steel industry
Proportion to GDP
Year
Fig. 6.166 Total industrial output value of China’s iron and steel industry and its proportion to GDP
tons of iron and steel per year and tens of millions of tons of
non-ferrous metals and alloys. Taking the iron and steel
industry as an example, from the perspective of enterprise
types, there are ordinary steel enterprises, special steel
enterprises, and mixed enterprises. From the production
chain, there are long-process enterprises (from ore to steel
rolling) and short-process enterprises (steel rolling). As for
the end products, there are hot-rolled and cold-rolled prod-
ucts. Because of the difference in products and processes, the
corrosion status of different iron and steel enterprises is also
different. In addition, the corrosion involved in iron and steel
enterprises has a very important characteristic, namely, the
corrosion of iron and steel production equipment, plant and
auxiliary equipment facilities, as well as the oxidation and
corrosion of steel products (including intermediate prod-
Fig. 6.167 Output of ten non-ferrous metals in China from 2004 to ucts). The latter has an absolute share of the total amount of
2015 enterprise corrosion losses. The following analysis focuses
on the corrosion status of iron and steel enterprises.
more than 8% of GDP. Since 2004, the output of ten kinds of
non-ferrous metals in China is shown in Fig. 6.167. The 6.7.2.1 Corrosion Status of Iron and Steel
gross industrial output value and its proportion in GDP in Enterprises
non-ferrous metallurgy industry are shown in Fig. 6.168.
1. Corrosion of steel billets

6.7.2 Corrosion Status in Metallurgical Industry
The corrosion of steel billets includes iron loss caused by
There is a variety of products and processes in the metal- high-temperature oxidation of steel billets during production,
lurgical industry. Products include hundreds of millions of pickling, and natural corrosion during the period from
Output/ 10 million tons

Year
Output value of non-ferrous industry
GDP Proportion to GDP
Year
Fig. 6.168 The total industrial output value of China’s non-ferrous metals industry and its proportion to GDP
product to sale. The high-temperature oxidation of steel The natural corrosion of products in iron and steel
billets mainly includes the oxidation of steel billets after enterprises is generally caused by long storage time or poor
continuous casting to the steel rolling furnace, the oxidation storage environment (such as open air and rainwater) during
of steel billets in the hot-rolled furnace, and the oxidation the production and sale of the products. Under normal
from hot-rolled steel to cooling. For the annealed hot-rolled storage and distribution conditions, such corrosion is less
products, oxidation in the post-hot-rolled annealing furnace likely to occur.
is also included. For cold-rolled products, the annealing
furnace is oxidized during and after the rolling process of the 2. Corrosion of production equipment
cold-rolled sheet. According to the production statistics of
different types of products (wire rod, profile, plate, steel The main production equipment of iron and steel enterprises
pipe) and process (traditional process and hot charging and include sintering machine, coke oven, blast furnace, hot blast
delivery), the oxidation loss rate between casting billet and furnace, converter/electric furnace, refining equipment,
hot-rolled material can reach 1–1.8%. In addition, for ladle, continuous casting machine, steel rolling heating fur-
products with subsequent processes after hot-rolled, such as nace, rolling mill, heat treatment furnace, pickling tank,
annealing in the production of cold-rolled sheet and coated galvanizing equipment, and finishing equipment. Some
sheet, the oxidation loss will be further increased. Fig- equipment is mainly subjected to high-temperature oxidation
ure 6.169 shows high-temperature oxidized billets and or high-temperature compound action with a medium, such
steels. as coke oven, sintering machine, and steel rolling heating
For some products, such as cold-rolled sheet, coated furnace. Some suffer from medium corrosion, such as
sheet, galvanized pipe, and so on, after hot rolling, anneal- pickling tank; some suffer from corrosion wear, such as raw
ing, and other production processes, there are processes such material conveying equipment. Much equipment is subjected
as phosphorus breaking, shot blasting, and acid pickling, in to moisture and corrosion in the industrial atmosphere, such
which the iron loss caused by the acid pickling process as equipment and instruments far from high-temperature
occupies a certain proportion and is included in corrosion areas in the plant area. However, some metallurgical
loss. equipment, such as roll operating under high load and high
918 X. Li
Fig. 6.169 High-temperature oxidized billet and steel: a, b continuous cast billets; c hot-rolled reheating furnace billet; and d hot-rolled strip
Fig. 6.170 Oxidized steel rolled furnace (a) and corroded acid pickling equipment (b)
neglected. Figure 6.170 shows the corrosion of the steel

temperature, is mainly consumed by wear, and a few are
rolling furnace and pickling equipment.
scrapped due to fatigue cracking. For high-strength friction
wear with respect to the roll surface and thermal stress
3. Corrosion of production support equipment and
fatigue with interaction (caused by the alternating action of
facilities
cooling of the roll surface and high temperature of the rolled
piece) and load stress fatigue (caused by high-strength roll-
The production support equipment and facilities of iron and
ing cycle stress), the high-temperature oxidation of the roll
steel enterprises mainly include equipment of oxygen and
surface accounts for a lower proportion. Generally, the wear
gas production, hydropower, gas and power, pipelines,
and fatigue cracking of the roll are not included in the cor-
storage tanks and boilers, etc. The corrosion forms of the
rosion category, and the oxidation of the roll surface is also
Fig. 6.171 Corroded burning

pipelines
equipment include high-temperature oxidation, humidity, (dust removal pipelines, gantry cranes, etc.). These kinds of
and corrosion in industrial atmosphere, gas medium corro- equipment and facilities are subjected to different types and
sion, soil corrosion, microbial corrosion, etc. (Fig. 6.171). degrees of corrosion.
4. Corrosion of buildings 6.7.2.2 Brief Introduction of Corrosion

in Non-ferrous Metal Enterprises
The corrosion of buildings of iron and steel enterprises There are many non-ferrous metal enterprises with large
includes corrosion of workshops, storage rooms of equip- output in China. In 2015, the output of ten kinds of
ment, raw materials, products and inspection and develop- non-ferrous metals in China was 50.9 million tons, of which
ment rooms, as well as the corrosion of the foundation of the total output of electrolytic aluminum and refined copper
equipment and facilities, the related steel structure, and accounted for almost 80%. For example, compared with the
reinforced concrete structure. As the buildings in the plant production of aluminum and copper, the melting, casting,
area are in the atmospheric environment with industrial and forming processes of aluminum and copper are similar,
pollution such as SO2 and industrial dust, the corrosion is but the melting points of aluminum and copper are low, so
more serious than that of residential buildings. The corrosion the temperature of the whole production process is low so
of steel structure and other buildings in acid fog environment that the self-oxidation in the production of aluminum and
of acid storage station and pickling workshop of enterprises copper is greatly reduced. At the same time, the temperature
with acid pickling process will be more serious. Fig- borne by the equipment also drops greatly, and the
ure 6.172 shows corroded plant steel structure. high-temperature oxidation loss of the enterprise decreases.
However, the electrolytic process of producing aluminum
5. Corrosion of other equipment and facilities and copper increases corrosion. It can be seen that in
non-ferrous metallurgical industry and iron and steel met-
In addition to the above equipment and facilities, iron and allurgical industry, the change of corrosive environment is
steel enterprises also include mines and mineral processing mainly reflected in the reduction of high-temperature oxi-
equipment (such as mining crushing, grinding, furnace, and dation. In addition, because the electrolytic process of pro-
kiln equipment), transport equipment (special vehicles such ducing metal aluminum and copper replaces the
as locomotives and in-plant rail traffic), and other equipment high-temperature oxidation and reduction reaction process
Fig. 6.172 Corroded plant steel

structure
920 X. Li
in which various elements participate in the steel production, 6.7.3.2 Electrolyte Solution Environment
the content of harmful elements such as sulfide in the The electrolytic workshop of aluminum and copper pro-
atmospheric corrosive environment is reduced. Generally duction enterprises and the electroplating and pickling
speaking, the corrosion of non-ferrous metallurgical enter- workshop of iron and steel enterprises are the most serious
prises is weaker than that of iron and steel metallurgical and main areas of medium corrosion in metallurgical
enterprises. enterprises. Electrolytic solution, electroplating solution, and
acid solution directly corrode electrolyzer, electroplating
tank, pickling tank, related equipment, storage device, etc.
6.7.3 Corrosive Environment and Types At the same time, evaporated acid mist also causes serious
in Metallurgical Industry corrosion to production equipment, instruments, and build-
ings. In the pickling process, the oxidation layer of pickling
6.7.3.1 High-Temperature Oxidation parts such as plate, pipe, and wire rod is removed, and the
Environment base material of the pickled parts is also corroded, resulting
Metallurgical industry generally belongs to high-temperature in the consumption and loss of the base materials.
environment, such as steel melting temperature up to 1,600– In the pickling process of stainless steel, sulfuric acid,
1,700 °C, rolling heating temperature up to 1,100–1,200 °C. hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, especially mixed acid (mixed
In the high-temperature environment, the steel itself is easy acid of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid) seriously corrode
to be oxidized, and the metallurgical equipment must also be the pickling equipment. In the environment of reducing acid
subjected to high-temperature oxidation, wear, fatigue and corrosion of hydrochloric acid used for pickling, the titanium
erosion, etc. Part of the equipment is in the harsh environ- fan impeller of the pickling line will also be corroded
ment under the interaction of high temperature, humidity, because of the poor corrosion resistance of titanium in the
and corrosion. reducing acid corrosive environment of hydrochloric acid. In
In general, loss of iron and alloying elements during the concrete, acid fog invades into the micropores of the
various redox reactions of liquid molten iron and molten concrete, causing the pH value to drop, and generating
steel, such as burning loss of iron element during oxidation CaSO4 and CaCO3, so that the concrete is corroded and
and carbon reduction of molten steel, oxidation of deoxi- dissolved. With the corrosion time increases, the reinforcing
dized alloy during deoxidation, oxidation of alloying ele- bar inside the concrete is corroded by acid, and loose
ments in the alloying process isn’t taken into account the expansion, pulverization, and flaking of concrete occur.
high-temperature oxidation corrosion loss. Various oxidation High-temperature production equipment of metallurgical
losses formed after casting and solidification of molten steel, enterprises needs circulating cooling, especially wastewater
such as surface oxidation of continuous casting slab, in containing a large amount of metal ion, residual acid, and
heating furnace of steel rolling, rolling and cooling process other compounds needs to be discharged and treated. The
and annealing treatment, are regarded as high-temperature corrosion of cooling water containing electrolyte and
corrosion losses. The oxidation amount in these processes wastewater to conveying pipelines and storage facilities
can reach 1–1.8% of the total amount of billet, calculated as belongs to environmental corrosion of electrolyte solution.
0.6–1% according to the output value, which is the largest
part of corrosion loss in iron and steel enterprises. 6.7.3.3 Industrial Atmospheric Environment
In addition to high-temperature oxidation, the The atmospheric corrosive environment of metallurgical
high-temperature corrosion of metallurgical equipment often enterprises is a typical industrial atmospheric environment.
becomes high-temperature oxidation wear, high-temperature High-temperature equipment, product, and wastes are cooled
fatigue, high-temperature erosion and high-temperature to form a large amount of water vapor, and a large amount of
environmental corrosion due to the superposition of other harmful gases such as SO2 and NO2 are discharged from
factors. For example, the shell of hot blast heater, converter, sinter, coking, and smelting. Acid mist evaporating in a
electric furnace and ladle, steel rolling heating furnace, and pickling plant, and a large amount of dust discharged from
heat treatment furnace mainly suffer from high-temperature combustion, high-temperature reaction and blowing form
oxidation. However, coke oven, blast furnace, and coal/gas extremely corrosive atmospheric corrosive environment of
boil are subjected to the compound action of moisture pollution. Although the recovery treatment of three
high-temperature and sulfur-containing gas. The lining of wastes has greatly reduced the degree of moisture pollution,
blast furnace and tuyere, and the lining of converter, electric the industrial atmospheric environment of metallurgical
furnace, and ladle belong to high-temperature scouring. enterprises is much more corrosive compared with ordinary
However, the blade of roll and shear are subjected to mul- atmospheric environment. The most important factor of
tiple action of high-temperature oxidation, wear, thermal severe atmospheric corrosion in steelworks is the SO2 in the
stress fatigue, and load stress fatigue. flue gas from steel smelting. The dust particles are corrosive
because they contain various compounds; or are not corro- production. The wastewater produced in the process of
sive themselves, but they are corrosive after adsorbing SO2 non-ferrous metallurgy contains heavy metals such as Cu,
and water vapor; or the dust particles themselves are neither Zn, and Pb. Meanwhile, the exhaust gas discharged by the
corrosive nor absorbing corrosive active substances. How- enterprise contains harmful gases such as SO2 and NO2, and
ever, after they are adsorbed on the metal surface, crevices dust-containing harmful components, which will settle and
are formed, resulting in the formation of local corrosion penetrate into the ground under the influence of natural
conditions by absorbing moisture. Water vapor, harmful gas, conditions such as rainwater. Even if emission reduction and
and dust constitute the three elements of the harsh atmo- pollution control are implemented, the long-term pollution
spheric corrosive environment of metallurgical enterprises accumulation causes the soil and groundwater in the plant
and pose a serious corrosion threat to the equipment and area to contain high concentration of heavy metal ions and
facilities exposed in the atmosphere. acid root ions and other harmful substances that promote
corrosion, causing serious corrosion of underground
6.7.3.4 Gas Environment facilities.
The gas produced by blast furnaces and coke ovens in iron
and steel enterprises is important power gas for enterprises, 6.7.3.6 Friction Corrosive Environment
of which the combustible component of coke oven gas is Friction corrosion exists widely in metallurgical equipment
mainly H2 and CH4, and the main component of blast fur- and facilities, mainly in the following types. ① Vibration
nace gas is CO. The impurity gases such as H2S, CO2, O2, and fretting corrosion of metallurgical equipment. Vibration
and SO2 have serious corrosion effect on the pipelines and and fretting are common in large-scale transmission equip-
the inner wall of the storage tanks when it is wet. The ment and peripheral equipment in metallurgical enterprises.
harmful gas content in the atmosphere is increased after the Under strong corrosive environment, corrosion and abrasion
combustion discharge, and the atmospheric environment may occur at the same time in inappropriate interface contact
corrosion is deteriorated. The corrosive gases such as H2S, parts. ② Friction corrosion of material conveying facilities.
CO2, and SO2 combine with water to form hydrogen sulfuric The conveying machinery of all kinds of metallurgical ore
acid, carbonic acid, and sulfurous acid, which cause acid materials and auxiliary materials is in the state of corrosion
corrosion or electrochemical corrosion to gas pipelines. and wear under the condition of dust and friction, while the
A small amount of oxygen in the gas can cause oxygen conveying equipment of hot material and hot blank has the
corrosion or electrochemical corrosion of oxygen concen- dual functions of oxidation and friction and wear. ③ Erosion
tration on the inner wall of the pipelines. In addition, the gas and friction corrosion of gas and water pipelines. When the
pipelines also bear joint effect of stress and corrosion, gas and water contain corrosive components, the combined
especially the weld joint may suffer from stress corrosion. effect with the flow impact of water, gas, and solid particles
will cause erosion and friction corrosion on the inner wall of
6.7.3.5 Soil Environment the pipelines. ④ High-temperature scouring, such as
The underground water supply and drainage, gas pipelines, high-temperature scouring and melting loss of blast furnace
and other buried facilities of metallurgical enterprises will be tuyere, scouring of high-temperature liquid metal against
corroded by the soil environment. Compared with the usual lining material, pouring nozzle, and mold. ⑤ High-strength
soil corrosion, the soil corrosion in metallurgical enterprises mechanical friction and corrosion, such as multiple interac-
is characterized by the long-term pollution of industrial tion of high-strength friction wear, thermal fatigue stress,
wastewater and waste gas to the soil, resulting in a signifi- load fatigue stress and high-temperature oxidation on roller,
cant increase in soil corrosion. A large amount of wastewater and multiple interaction of high-temperature friction wear,
will be produced in metallurgical industry, such as flue gas fatigue stress, and high-temperature oxidation on
washing wastewater, slag washing wastewater, pickling high-temperature bearing and steel rolling guide device.
wastewater, and cooling water. Heavy metal ion such as Zn,
Cr, Pb, and acid are contained in that pickling wastewater; 6.7.3.7 Molten Metal Environment
The flue gas washing water of metallurgical enterprises and The corrosive environment of molten metal in metallurgical
the non-ferrous metallurgical flue gas washing water contain production also exists widely. The erosion and penetration
a large amount of suspended substances, and may contain damage of high-temperature liquid metal to the furnace
highly toxic metal ions such as cyanide, sulfide, phenol, lining is second only to the loss caused by high-temperature
inorganic salts, Zn, and Cr. There are harmful substances liquid metal erosion. In particular, in the case that heavy
such as phenol, benzene, pouring oil, and cyanide in metal elements are deposited, eroded, and infiltrated at the
dedusting and washing water in sintering and coking furnace bottom, and furnace bottom perforation may even
922 X. Li
occur. In hot-dip galvanizing of steel, zinc pot, as a storage pickling workshop to slow down the corrosion of the
tool for liquid zinc, is seriously corroded. The high-quality equipment. The wall skin, wall surface, and roof of the
low-carbon steel plate used as hot-dip galvanizing pot may workshop adopt acid-proof color coating steel plate, and the
cause uniform corrosion due to the dissolution of iron in base plate uses hot-dip galvanized steel plate to enhance the
steel by liquid zinc. It is also possible that local corrosion corrosion resistance of the steel structure. All external sur-
may occur due to the reaction of iron and zinc promoted by faces of equipment, pipelines, storage tanks, and steel
C and Si, and the local thickness of zinc pot wall may be structures shall be protected by coating, and exposed metal
reduced or even perforated. Iron–zinc compounds may also surfaces shall be strictly prohibited.
be formed due to diffusion between zinc and iron. The
cementite can be precipitated along the grain boundary 6.7.4.3 Corrosion-Resistant Lining
because of the chemical reaction between steel and molten For coatings that still don’t meet corrosion protection
zinc, leading to grain boundary corrosion. requirements, a more corrosion-resistant lining material is
required. For example, the inner wall of blast furnace gas,
gas pipelines, equipment, and accessories with high corro-
6.7.4 Corrosion Protection Measures sion can be made of austenitic stainless steel bellows to slow
in Metallurgical Industry down the corrosion rate, and non-metallic lining such as
chlorine rubber or polytetrafluoroethylene can be added to
6.7.4.1 Technological Measures the bellows to prevent corrosion from occurring. GFRP is
For reducing the high-temperature oxidation which takes the laid inside the pickling tank, and resin is applied on GFRP in
largest proportion of corrosion loss in iron and steel enter- order to prevent collision and cracking, so as to ensure heat
prises, the most remarkable effect is realized with the pro- transmission and minimize the occurrence of corrosion. For
gress of metallurgical technology. With the application of desulfurizing equipment, reasonable anti-corrosion lining
advanced technologies such as high-speed continuous cast- material matched with desulfurized flue gas temperature can
ing, continuous casting and rolling, hot charging, high-speed be selected. Carbon steel lining rubber is selected as the
rolling, and two-phase zone rolling, the production efficiency material of mixer in desulfurization zone. The equipment
is greatly improved and the exposure time at high temper- with low-temperature flue gas or contacting low-temperature
ature is shortened, so that the surface oxidation of steel is flue gas usually adopts glass flake or butyl rubber lining for
greatly reduced. In addition, the protective atmosphere anti-corrosion. High-temperature areas can be used
annealing and other measures also have obvious effect on the high-temperature glass flake or lined with suitable alloys and
oxidation in the annealing process. The application of slag other anti-corrosion materials. The most typical
splashing technology in steelmaking converter increases the corrosion-resistant lining of metallurgical enterprises is that
age of converter from tens of furnaces to thousands of fur- all kinds of high-temperature metallurgical furnaces adopt
naces and basically compensates the erosion and erosion of inorganic non-metallic materials with high-temperature
molten steel to the lining. Owing to the adoption of new resistance, erosion resistance, and stable physical and
structural design and surface treatment technology and chemical properties as lining.
optimization of blast furnace operation system, the erosion
resistance and service life of blast furnace tuyere have been 6.7.4.4 Corrosion-Resistant Materials
greatly improved, and the service time has been increased In order to meet the requirements of corrosion resistance in
from less than 20 days in the early stage to the maximum special corrosive environment, corresponding
service life of nearly 2 years. corrosion-resistant materials should be used. For example,
some iron and steel enterprises use corrosion-resistant
6.7.4.2 Coating non-metallic materials for acid pickling tank. According to
Coating is a common measure of corrosion protection and is the difference of acid, GFRP + acid-resistant ceramic tile,
also widely used in metallurgical enterprises. In the water GFRP + graphite brick, PPH or RPP lined with steel
and gas transmission pipelines, the organic and inorganic skeleton, butyl adhesive plate + acid-resistant ceramic tile,
metal anti-corrosion coating is sprayed to avoid the contact butyl adhesive plate + graphite brick are adopted to avoid
between the corrosive medium and the pipelines so as to acid corrosion. Some enterprises choose stainless steel and
improve the service life of the pipeline. In view of the H2S-resistant steel as gas pipelines to reduce the corrosion of
influence of blast furnace mineral composition on blast gas pipelines. In view of the characteristics of serious
furnace gas composition in iron and steel enterprises, the industrial atmospheric corrosion in coking plant, acid pick-
anti-corrosion layer on the inner wall of gas pipelines adopts ling, and electrolysis, the corrosion resistance of concrete
the targeted heavy anti-corrosion scheme. Zinc-rich epoxy facilities can be improved by using high-performance con-
primer is sprayed on the steel structure surface of the crete and corrosion-resistant steel bars. The stirring blade of
desulfurization equipment can be made of duplex stainless (2) Purifying water quality and gas. Improve water quality,
steel. High-purity copper is used for the tuyere with high improve the water quality purification agent, reduce the
thermal conductivity and heat fatigue resistance, heat cor- active electrolyte concentration and chloride ion con-
rosion, and erosion performance, and is subjected to centration in the circulating water, reduce the scaling,
appropriate surface treatment. and reduce the corrosion of the circulating water to the
water pipeline. Gas purification, desulfurization, alkali
6.7.4.5 Anti-rust Oil or Corrosion Inhibitor spraying, and dehydration facilities are added to treat
In addition to proper coating protection for all kinds of the gas, so as to reduce the content of various impurity
mechanical equipment, anti-rust oil is usually used inside the components such as dust, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia,
equipment. For the action parts, anti-rust oil or lubricating chloride, sulfate, oxygen, and other corrosive sub-
oil is used for protection, which can not only prevent rust but stances in the gas, reducing corrosion of inner wall of
also reduce friction and wear. For the circulating cooling gas pipelines.
water system, corrosion inhibitor and scale inhibitor are (3) Electrochemical protection. Electrochemical protection
added to reduce the corrosion of circulating water to the may be used for facilities where corrosion is particularly
water pipeline, prevent scale from forming a closed corro- severe. For example, electrochemical protection,
sion system, and prolong the service life of the pipeline. cathodic protection, and anode protection shall be
implemented on the driving equipment of the pickling
6.7.4.6 Other Measures workshop, and impressed current electrochemical pro-
tection shall be applied to the outer wall of the con-
centrated sulfuric acid pipeline in the desulfurization
(1) Strengthening the recovery treatment of waste gas, facility.
wastewater, and waste materials reduces the pollution
sources and prohibits the natural discharge of harmful Waste treatment, water quality and gas purification,
products. Various kinds of harmful gas such as SO2 and electrochemical protection, and other measures implemented
NO2 produced and discharged in metallurgical process in enterprises have produced a significant effect on reducing
are the most important factors causing atmospheric the related corrosion.
corrosion in the plant area. Dust discharged from the
production process will promote corrosion to occur
when attached to the surface of the steel structure 6.7.5 Research Data and Analysis
because it contains a variety of harmful chemical of Metallurgical Industry
components, or can absorb harmful components, or
form a micro-zone corrosive environment by adsorption 6.7.5.1 Investigated Object for Corrosion Data
of water. Therefore, the recovery and treatment of Iron and steel enterprises in sampling survey include ordi-
metallurgical waste gas is an important way to reduce nary steel, special steel, and mixed enterprises. In terms of
atmospheric pollution sources and reduce atmospheric process, enterprises include long-process and short-process
corrosion loss. In the same way, wastewater produced enterprises with the output of enterprises from one million
in the production of metallurgical industry contains a tons to ten million tons, including both state-owned enter-
variety of heavy metal ions, acid ions, inorganic salts, prises and private enterprises. In the non-ferrous metal
and the like. If penetrating underground, it will cause industry, taking 2015 as an example, the output of elec-
serious pollution to groundwater and soil, posing a trolytic aluminum and refined copper was 31.41 million tons
serious corrosion threat to the production of buried and 7.96 million tons, respectively, accounting for about
pipelines and other underground facilities. The large 80% of the total output of ten kinds of non-ferrous metals of
amount of volatile and soluble harmful substances 50.9 million in China. Therefore, the non-ferrous metallurgy
contained in metallurgical wastes will further promote enterprises in the sampling survey are mainly aluminum and
the environmental corrosion of the plant area once they copper production enterprises, focusing on the representative
volatilize and penetrate into the atmosphere and soil. It large-scale combined enterprises with full flow from elec-
is an effective way to reduce the atmospheric and soil trolysis, smelting to billet/ingot and mold/wire rod produc-
corrosion of metallurgical enterprises by innocuous tion and processing.
treatment of three wastes to reduce the emission of
harmful substances. The recovery and treatment of 6.7.5.2 Corrosion Data and Analysis of Typical
waste gas, wastewater, and waste materials is not only Iron and Steel Metallurgy Enterprise
harmless treatment but also can be used to increase Table 6.23 shows the corrosion data of one of the typical
economic benefits. iron and steel metallurgy enterprises obtained by sampling
924 X. Li
Table 6.23 Corrosion data of a steel joint venture from 2013 to 2014
No. Item Ratio of corrosion
loss to annual
gross domestic
product (%)
2013 2014
One Direct corrosion loss–corrosion of products, equipment, and facilities 1.114 1.131
1 Oxidation of billets or steels (including high-temperature oxidation of billets during continuous casting, rolling, 1.030 1.028
annealing, etc.), and pickling losses
1.1 High-temperature oxidation of steel billets during continuous casting and rolling 0.468 0.497
1.2 Oxidation of hot-rolled plate annealing furnace 0.075 0.061
1.3 Hot-rolled sheet phosphorus breaking/shot blast iron loss 0.131 0.123
1.4 Pickling iron loss of hot-rolled plate 0.131 0.143
1.5 Oxidation of cold-rolled plate annealing furnace 0.075 0.061
1.6 Pickling iron loss of cold-rolled plate 0.150 0.143
2 Corrosion of main production equipment 0.058 0.072
2.1 Oxidation and corrosion of high-temperature equipment (such as sintering machine, coke oven, blast furnace, 0.004 0.005
converter, steel rolling heating furnace, and heat treatment furnace)
2.2 Corrosion of equipment and facilities in pickling system 0.050 0.061
2.3 Corrosion of other equipment and facilities 0.004 0.006
3 Corrosion of gas, power, water, and electricity equipment (boiler, storage tank, water, electricity gas pipeline, 0.011 0.015
etc.)
4 Corrosion of workshop (including steel structure and reinforced concrete) 0.008 0.008
5 Mine facilities 0.004 0.005
5.1 Equipment corrosion such as mine crushing, grinding and selecting, furnace, and kiln 0.003 0.003
5.2 Corrosion of media conveying pipelines 0.001 0.002
6 Corrosion of special vehicles such as production locomotives <0.001 <0.001
7 Corrosion of other equipment or facilities (dust removal pipeline, gantry crane, etc.) 0.002 0.002
Two Direct corrosion loss—input of anti-corrosion 0.167 0.195
1 Cost of new anti-corrosion equipment 0.013 0.022
2 Cost of renewal, modification, and maintenance of old anti-corrosion equipment 0.001 0.001
3 Depreciation of fixed assets of anti-corrosion equipment 0.108 0.118
4 Cost of corrosion-resistant materials 0.001 0.002
5 Coating and coating cost 0.004 0.004
6 Electrochemical protection fee <0.001 <0.001
7 Medicament cost (corrosion inhibitor, bactericide, cleaning agent, etc.) 0.027 0.032
9 Input of anti-corrosion engineering 0.003 0.004
10 Total cost of corrosion monitoring and testing 0.003 0.003
11 Input of personnel on anti-corrosion posts (such as labor remuneration, and medical insurance, training fees) 0.008 0.009
Three Indirect loss 0.003 0.004
1 Compensation for environmental pollution caused by corrosion 0.001 0.001
2 Shutdown loss due to corrosion 0.002 0.002
3 Other indirect loss due to corrosiveness <0.001 0.001
3.1 Failure and quality accident due to corrosion <0.001 0.001
Total 1.284 1.330
survey. The total output value of the enterprise in 2013– calculation of total corrosion loss can rise by about 10% on
2015 is RMB 60 billion–100 billion, and the products of the the basis of valid statistical results of typical enterprises.
enterprise are quite complete, including hot-rolled and According to the valid statistical results of typical enter-
cold-rolled products of carbon steel, special steel, stainless prises and the estimation of statistical omission rate, the
steel wire rod, profile, and plate. The production process proportion of corrosion loss in steel industry is
includes mining, ironmaking, steelmaking, hot rolling, and 1.40% ± 0.10%. Calculated by the total output value of the
cold rolling. steel industry of RMB 7.63 trillion and RMB 7.43 trillion in
In the corrosive environment of iron and steel enterprises, 2013 and 2014, the annual corrosion loss of the steel
the most important is the high-temperature environment. As industry is about RMB 95 billion–115 billion.
can be seen from Table 6.23, for iron and steel enterprises
with cold rolling production lines and products, the 6.7.5.3 Corrosion Data and Analysis of Typical
high-temperature oxidation loss of steel products and their Non-ferrous Metallurgy Enterprises
intermediate products accounts for nearly 60% of the cor- The corrosion data obtained by sampling survey for one of
rosion loss of the whole enterprise. In addition, the the typical non-ferrous metal metallurgical enterprises is
high-temperature oxidation equipment also occupies a large shown in Table 6.24. From 2013 to 2014, the total output
proportion in the production equipment. The corrosion in the value of the enterprise was RMB 8 billion–10 billion. The
pickling process also accounts for a large proportion, enterprise has complete product types and complete pro-
including the corrosion loss of the intermediate products by duction process, including production of electrolytic alu-
pickling (about 20% of the total corrosion loss) and corro- minum, aluminum alloy ingot/billet, and various aluminum
sion of acid environment to equipment and buildings. Both profiles.
of these are followed by the corrosion of production facilities Compared with iron and steel enterprises, the amount of
and plant buildings by the humid and industrial atmospheric oxidation and corrosion of non-ferrous metal products in the
environment containing SO2 and dust. It is decisive to the production process is much smaller, and the proportion of
reliability of the total corrosion loss rate of iron and steel corrosion of production equipment and facilities is increased.
enterprise because the sum of high-temperature oxidation Hence, the proportion of total corrosion loss to the total
and pickling loss of steel billets and steels accounts for about output value of enterprises is low than that of iron and steel
80% of the total corrosion loss of the enterprise, and the enterprises. The corrosion loss of aluminum production
transparency and accuracy of these two corrosion data enterprises in the whole production line accounts for 0.50–
industries are relatively high. 0.60% of the total output value. The copper production
In iron and steel enterprises with different products and process is similar to that of aluminum, including electrolysis,
production processes, the proportion of various kinds of melting and alloying, casting and deep processing, etc., but
corrosion losses in the output value of enterprises is differ- the oxidation loss in the production process is lower than
ent. For the enterprises with hot-rolled steel as the final that of aluminum due to the lower activity of copper, while
product, the high-temperature oxidation loss of steel and its the oxidation loss is higher for the more active metals such
intermediate products in the process of continuous casting as magnesium and titanium. Aluminum, copper, and its alloy
and hot rolling is relatively large. For the enterprises with products account for about 80% of ten non-ferrous metals, so
cold-rolled steel as the final product, the proportion of it is highly reliable to calculate the corrosion loss in
high-temperature oxidation loss during continuous casting non-ferrous metallurgy industry based on the corrosion data
and hot rolling decreases, the iron loss during subsequent of all-process aluminum and copper production enterprises.
annealing and acid pickling increases, and the total mass loss Using the same estimation method of metallurgical
increases. However, product is value-added during subse- enterprises, according to the effective statistical results and
quent deep processing, so the proportion of product corro- statistical omission rate of typical enterprises, the proportion
sion loss in the final output value changes little. In general, of corrosion loss in non-ferrous metallurgical industry is
the difference between the effective statistical value of total 0.60 ± 0.05%. Calculated by the gross output value of
corrosion loss and the total output value of each iron and non-ferrous metallurgy industry of about RMB 5.13 trillion
steel enterprise is estimated to be within ±10% according to in 2014 and 2015, the annual corrosion loss of non-ferrous
statistics. In addition, according to the statistical content of metallurgy industry is about RMB 28 billion–33 billion.
each enterprise, there is missing part, including loss, omis- In general, the total industrial output value of China’s
sion or neglect corrosion items caused by neglect corrosion metallurgical industry is high and account for a significant
as a secondary factor (such as corrosion of three waste proportion of GDP. The total amount of corrosion loss is
treatment equipment and facilities, corrosion of electrical also large and the overall metallurgical industry, including
instruments, aging of polymer materials). Therefore, the the steel and non-ferrous metals industries, suffers from
926 X. Li
Table 6.24 Corrosion data of a certain aluminum production joint venture from 2013 to 2014
No. Item Ratio of
corrosion loss
to annual gross
domestic
product (%)
2013 2014
One Direct corrosion loss—corrosion of products, equipment, and facilities 0.421 0.412
1 Loss of materials such as aluminum water, aluminum ingot/billet, aluminum profile (high-temperature oxidation 0.358 0.343
during aluminum water, aluminum ingot/billet aluminum electrolysis, melting, casting, heating and heat
preservation, annealing, surface treatment, etc.)
2 Corrosion loss of major production equipment 0.028 0.029
2.1 Oxidation and corrosion of main equipment (such as aluminum electrolytic cell and auxiliary equipment, 0.022 0.002
aluminum water transfer bag, smelting furnace, heating and holding furnace, flow cell, heat treatment furnace,
aluminum extruder and auxiliary equipment, and surface treatment equipment)
2.2 Corrosion of other auxiliary equipment and facilities 0.006 0.009
3 Corrosion of gas, power, water, and electricity equipment (boiler, storage tank, water, electricity gas pipeline, etc.) 0.008 0.010
4 Corrosion of workshop (including steel structure and reinforced concrete) 0.016 0.018
5 Corrosion of special vehicles such as production locomotives 0.001 0.001
6 Corrosion of other equipment or facilities (dust removal pipeline, gantry crane, etc.) 0.009 0.010
Two Direct corrosion loss—input of anti-corrosion 0.166 0.119
1 Cost of new anti-corrosion equipment 0.032 0.021
2 Cost of renewal, modification, and maintenance of old anti-corrosion equipment 0.016 0.012
3 Depreciation of fixed assets of anti-corrosion equipment 0.046 0.040
4 Cost of corrosion-resistant materials 0.002 0.003
5 Coating and coating cost 0.003 0.003
6 Electrochemical protection fee 0.001 0.001
7 Medicament cost (corrosion inhibitor, bactericide, cleaning agent, etc.) 0.001 0.001
8 Corrosion allowance cost 0.004 0.004
9 Input of anti-corrosion engineering 0.054 0.027
10 Total cost of corrosion monitoring and testing 0.007 0.007
Three Indirect loss (as detailed in Table 6.23) 0 0
Total 0.587 0.531
corrosion loss of about RMB 120 billion–150 billion per 6.7.6 Existing Problems and Suggestions
year. on Corrosion Protection Strategies
The above corrosion data don’t include the output value
or value-added portion of corrosion-resistant coated products According to corrosion data investigation and corrosion
(such as galvanized steel tubes) and corrosion-resistant analysis in metallurgical industry, the following preliminary
materials (such as stainless steel and weather resistant steel) conclusions can be obtained:
produced by metallurgical enterprises, which are used as raw
materials for downstream industries. The corrosion loss (1) In the metallurgical industry, the corrosion loss is about
during use is included in the corrosion loss or corrosion RMB 120 billion–150 billion/year, among which the
protection cost of the downstream industry. corrosion of the steel industry accounts for
1.40 ± 0.10% of the total industrial output value, and
that of non-ferrous metallurgy industry accounts for 6.8 Report on Corrosion Investigation
0.60 ± 0.05%. in the Agricultural Machinery Industry
(2) Advanced production technology is of great signifi-
cance for reducing the corrosion loss of enterprises. 6.8.1 Basic Situation
With the progress of metallurgical technology, pro-
duction efficiency has been greatly improved, and the 6.8.1.1 Current Situation of Agricultural
high-temperature oxidation loss which accounts for a Machinery Industry in China
significant proportion of the corrosion of metallurgical Agricultural machinery refers to all kinds of machinery used
enterprises has been greatly reduced. in crop planting and animal husbandry production, as well as
(3) Strengthening environmental protection and reducing in the initial processing and treatment of agricultural and
emissions is not only beneficial to the natural environ- livestock products, including agricultural power machinery,
ment and human health but also is an important factor farmland construction machinery, soil cultivation machinery,
for reducing corrosion pollution sources and reducing planting and fertilization machinery, plant protection
corrosion loss. machinery, farmland drainage and irrigation machinery, crop
(4) The comprehensive protection system of metallurgical harvesting machinery, agricultural products processing
enterprises shall be established, and advanced corrosion machinery, animal husbandry machinery, and agricultural
protection technology shall be adopted to comprehen- transport machinery. The broad sense of agricultural
sively and effectively protect the products of production machinery also includes forestry machinery, fishery
lines, production equipment, and relevant equipment machinery and sericulture, beekeeping, edible fungus culti-
and facilities of the enterprise, so as to further reduce vation, and other rural sideline machinery [151, 152].
the corrosion loss. At present, there are about 3,500 kinds of agricultural
machinery products in China, which is only half of the total
number of international agricultural machinery. Special
6.7.7 Relevant Suggestions on the Investigation
products are also relatively deficient, such as agricultural
on Corrosion
machinery for hill and cash crops.
According to data [154], in 2012, sales revenue of agri-
(1) Strengthening environmental law enforcement. Envi- cultural machinery industry was RMB 330.997 billion, a
ronmental protection is not only beneficial to the natural year-on-year increase of 18.96%; in 2013, the sales revenue
environment and human health but also can reduce of enterprises above the scale in agricultural machinery
corrosion pollution sources and reduce corrosion loss. industry reached RMB 389.27 billion, a year-on-year
(2) Eliminating the backward production capacity and increase of 17.61%. From January to December 2015, the
improving the technical level of the enterprise. main business income of 2,319 enterprises above the scale in
Advanced production technology not only improves agricultural machinery in China was RMB 428.368 billion.
product quality and production efficiency but also It is estimated that by 2020, the comprehensive mecha-
greatly reduces corrosion loss in metallurgical industry. nization of plowing, planting, and harvesting will reach
(3) Improving and upgrading trade standards for corrosion, 70%.
introducing advanced concepts and technologies for Shandong Province is a major province of agricultural
corrosion, comprehensively improving the level of machinery production in China. In 2013, the main business
corrosion protection, and reducing the harm of income of agricultural machinery industry was RMB 83.415
corrosion. billion, a year-on-year increase of 18.98%, accounting for
(4) Other aspects: strengthening the corrosion basic 22.56% and ranking first in the country.
research work, strengthening the national corrosion
platform construction, perfecting the national corrosion 6.8.1.2 Holding Quantity of Agricultural
data; strengthening specialized personnel training of Machinery in China
corrosion and the protection, restoring the university In 2013, holding quantity of agricultural machinery in China
corrosion specialty, and establishing the enterprise is shown in Table 6.25.
corrosion personnel training mechanism.
928 X. Li
Table 6.25 Holding quantity of Large and medium tractors Small tractor Agricultural drainage and
agricultural machinery in China irrigation diesel engine/unit
in 2013 Unit Supporting Unit Supporting
agricultural tools agricultural tools
5,270,200 8,260,200 17,522,800 30,492,100 12,594,000
6.8.1.3 Main Materials for Agricultural Machinery metallurgy porous material has better anti-friction effect and
and Equipment self-lubricating performance.
Agricultural machinery often uses metals and non-metallic
materials with good corrosion resistance, wear resistance, 5. Engineering plastics
anti-friction, impact resistance, fatigue resistance, and low
cost. Raw materials are based on domestic metals and Engineering plastics are widely used in the manufacture of
non-metallic materials, and various treatment processes are plant protection machinery, livestock feeding equipment,
used to improve the performance of these materials. farm irrigation and irrigation machinery, and other agricul-
tural machinery components, such as medicine boxes, liquid
1. Steel pipes and cold forming sectional steel pumps, spray and spray nozzles, irrigation pipes, sprinkler
spray nozzles, bearings of water wheel pump and sub-
For less loaded frames such as planters and cultivators, mersible pump, milk storage tank and conveying pipeline,
welded steel pipes with square or rectangular sections of low feed and water supply pipeline, livestock drinking water
carbon steel are commonly used while low alloy manganese machine and seed metering sheave of seeder, etc. Commonly
steel pipe is used in the frame of heavy load plow, chisel used plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester
plow, disk plow, disk harrow, etc. The frame of planter and or epoxy glass fiber reinforced plastics, polyvinyl chloride,
cultivator using channel steel or hemmed channel steel nylon, polyoxymethylene, bakelite, and polystyrene. In
formed by cold forming of thin steel plate can reduce the addition, friction resistance can be reduced by making
weight significantly compared with the frame of hot-rolled plastic plow wall from low-pressure polyethylene or cover-
section steel. High-precision cold-drawn thin-wall seamless ing the working surfaces of the plow wall with polyte-
steel pipe is suitable for manufacturing hydraulic cylinder of trafluoroethylene plastic.
agricultural machinery hydraulic system.
6. Rubber
2. Alloy steels and low alloy steels
Rubber is not only used for all kinds of transmission belts
A layer of hard alloy is deposited on the surface of plow- but also used to make rubber track of harvesting machinery,
share, hoe and blade of harvester, which can increase the fertilizer discharging star wheel of fertilizing device, seed-
service life of these parts. ling claw of seedling sowing machine, feeding roller of
sugarcane planter, cots of husking machine, rubber hose for
3. Special cast iron irrigation, and various sealing bodies.
A plow side plate made of spheroidal graphite manganese

cast iron, a die of a feed granulator made of bainite plus 6.8.2 Corrosion and Protection
boron nodular cast iron after isothermal quenching, a ham-
mer piece of a feed crusher made of strong and strong white 6.8.2.1 Service Characteristics of Agricultural
cast iron, a plowshare and a rotary tiller made of pearlite Machinery
malleable cast iron, and the pump impeller made of boron The working environment changes greatly. Most agricultural
cast iron has high wear resistance under the conditions of machinery works in the open air, dusty, humid, and dirty
ensuring the necessary strength and toughness. environment or in water or soil, and comes into contact with
soil, fertilizer, pesticide, excrement, rotten plant, and water,
4. Powder metallurgy material and is corroded by these materials and environments.
In the case of frequent farming season, the components
Complex parts such as gears of agricultural machinery made are subjected to heavy wear due to the high service strength
of powder metallurgy material can replace some steel cast- per unit time, the components are rubbed against the soil, the
ings or iron castings. The oil-bearing made of powder crop rhizomes (type and material strength are often
changed), and the livestock fur and other components are 1980s in typical farmland water. As can be seen from the
subjected to large dynamic loads and impact effects. In table, the corrosion rate of carbon steel is very high in high
addition, corrosion occurs, so failure often occurs over a salt-alkali areas and is even several times higher in areas of
relatively short period of time. relatively heavy acidic soil. Thus, the level of surface pro-
The ability and level of the operators to master the tection of agricultural machinery in these areas needs to be
operating and maintenance equipment is uneven. further improved, including the quality and grade of various
Agricultural machinery is a kind of equipment that is easy protective layers.
to wear and tear, so it needs regular maintenance. However,
due to the short maintenance cycle and low cost, the main- 6.8.2.3 Anti-corrosion Methods and Measures
tenance process is simple and extensive, and can’t meet the The application of advanced and practical surface technol-
high-quality requirements. ogy in the agricultural machinery industry can significantly
Agricultural machinery is a kind of product that should be improve the anti-oxidation, corrosion resistance, wear
popularized. The cost is mainly economical and applicable resistance, and fatigue resistance performance of the com-
and not too high, leaving little space for the application of ponents, and can extend the service life of the agricultural
high-end surface protection technology, so the durability and tools to the maximum extent. For damaged products, the use
durability are not optimal. of surface repair technology can greatly save money with
These factors affect the long-term performance of agri- significant economic benefits [153, 154].
cultural machinery equipment. The advanced surface protection technologies include:
6.8.2.2 Major Corrosion Faced by Agricultural (1) Surface coating technology adopts advanced organic
Machinery coating, electroless plating, electroplating and physical,
The main reason for the failure of agricultural machinery is chemical vapor deposition, plasma deposition technol-
the effect of mechanical mechanics, including impact, wear ogy, plasma spraying, and arc spraying technology.
and tear, and corrosion aging. According to related data (2) Surface treatment and modification techniques: For the
statistics, corrosion can cause the tensile strength of agri- surface of the matrix material, by ion implantation, infil-
cultural machinery spare parts to drop by 30–40%, and tration, or by chemical and other surface treatment means,
service life to shorten by 40%, leading to early failure. the structural composition of the surface layer is changed
The agricultural machinery is extensive and various, and the to form a surface modified layer which is completely
annual loss due to surface damage and failure is enormous. The different from the mechanical and physical properties of
data show that about 60% of the failure of agricultural the base material, mainly including traditional carburiza-
machinery products is caused by corrosion and wear on the tion, nitriding, boronizing, and laser surface treatment.
surface of parts. Many components of farming, seeding and (3) Surface composite treatment technology: Surface pro-
harvesting machines, are in direct contact with the soil, and cessing technology, supplemented by surface coating
their corrosion and wear are quite severe, leading to increased treatment and modification technology, such as laser
failures, reduced productivity and significantly increased integrated processing technology is used to treat the
operating costs. Cylinders, valves, and crankshafts in agricul- parts.
tural power are often subjected to reduced power and increased (4) Surface anti-rust and lubrication technology adopts
pollution due to wear and corrosion. The performance and high-quality lubricating anti-rust oil system.
service life of all kinds of agricultural pumps, fans, and blades (5) Further improving the harvester cutting table, peeling
are reduced after surface wear. machine, conveying devices and other key parts of the
Table 6.26 lists the corrosion rate data of some steels design, and improving the durability of transmission
made by Wuhan Research Institute of Materials Protection in components such as chains and belts.
Table 6.26 Annual corrosion rate of steel in farmland water in different areas of China (Test 1986) (from Advanced Machinery Manufacturing
Technology Sharing Network)
Area pH value Salinity (mg/L) Type of steel Corrosion rate (mm/a)
South China 5.4 201 10# 0.0940
45# 0.0899
Yancheng 7.3 12,880 10# 0.7751
45# 0.4260
Panjin 7.3 817 10# 0.0410
45# 0.0397
930 X. Li
6.8.3 Summary of Investigation Data reasons for the backwardness is that it is influenced by the
and Results in the Industry production level of the corn harvester, such as more
mechanical failures and unreliable performance. Since 2008,
According to the data, the British Society of Agricultural the quality of corn harvester sold in Liaoning Province has
Engineers held the first special meeting on corrosion of been investigated by Liaoning Agricultural Machinery Sta-
agricultural engineers in 1977. According to the analysis of tion for 7 consecutive years. The survey result is similar to
the investigation data, it was concluded that the corrosion the national corn harvester quality survey result, and the
loss of agricultural machinery was 40–60% of the mainte- overall satisfaction rate is nearly 90%. The mechanical
nance cost. properties basically meet the user’s use requirements, but
In 1976, the ministry of agricultural machinery, the there are certain quality problems. Besides the common
ministry of agriculture and the ministry of chemical industry mechanical performance failures and imperfect safety pro-
in the Soviet Union jointly held the “seminar on agriculture, tection, the mechanical properties are also related to the
soil improvement technology and anti-corrosion science and corrosion and aging of the materials. First, the contents of
technology in livestock farm”. The meeting pointed out that the safety warning signs are not up to the standard, the
the annual corrosion loss of agricultural machinery is RUB quality of the safety warning signs is inferior and the
2.2 billion–2.4 billion. sticking intensity is not enough, making it easy to fall off in
In 1975, the agricultural industry spent JPY 9.5 billion on the wind and rain, and the safety warning function is not
corrosion, accounting for about 3% of the annual output available. Second, paint quality is poor and painting tech-
value of the agricultural machinery industry. nology is poor (making paint easy to fall off). Third, during
As a result of corrosion, the durability of agricultural the investigation, it is also found that during the product is
machinery is reduced by an average of 14–17% compared to put into use, the strength of components and assemblies is
the design life. The durability of agricultural machinery not enough, and damages occur frequently. For example,
components in contact with corrosive media is reduced by some machines often appear breakage of frames and shafts,
40–60% on average compared with the designed service life. break of welding parts and leakage of hydraulic system,
The service life of the components damaged by corrosion of wear of drive belt, broken chain, damage of bearing and oil
agricultural machinery is reduced by half than that of the pump, which is partly caused by corrosion and aging of
components without corrosion. materials.
There is still a gap between China’s agricultural Plant protection machinery is for the prevention and
machinery industry in terms of anti-corrosion and surface treatment of diseases, insects, grass, birds, animals and frost
treatment of agricultural machinery compared with that of in agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry. It plays a very
foreign advanced countries, which is reflected in that the important role in the high and stable production of agricul-
standard system is not perfect, the proportion of advanced ture, forestry, and animal husbandry. Plant protection
materials and processes is not high, the industry production machinery shall have corrosion resistance for it is in contact
enterprises lack the specialized technical talented persons, with chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides. Due to
lack corrosion protection management, the technical level in inadequate protection and aging of component materials, the
the agricultural machinery maintenance domain is low and scrap rate is quite high.
the specialized personnel is insufficient. If the anti-corrosion The complete equipment of animal husbandry is seriously
cost of Japan accounts for about 3% of the output value of corroded by the influence of the breeding environment. In
agricultural machinery, it should be estimated to be about 2– the livestock house, the environment is harsh, containing
3% according to the existing anti-corrosion management and severe corrosion factors and high relative humidity which is
application level in China. The proportion of a small plant in 95–100% relative in summer and 70–95% in winter.
the questionnaire is only 1.1% (some costs may not be Besides, the combined effect of garbage, feces, urine,
included). The proportion of anti-corrosion cost for large detergent, and disinfectant accelerates the corrosion of var-
backbone enterprises will be higher than this. ious equipment and structures in the livestock house.
6.8.4 Analysis of Corrosion Phenomenon 6.8.5 Investigation and Analysis of Individual

and Cause of Typical Products Cases
in Agricultural Machinery Industry
We investigate the information analysis of Shandong Wupu
By the end of 2014, China’s corn harvest level reached 49%, Agricultural Equipment Technology Co., Ltd. The enterprise
behind wheat (90%) and rice (70%) [155]. One of the is a small enterprise with an output value of RMB 42.3
million in 2014, mainly producing grain dryer. Corrosion brightness, and monochromaticity. The laser surface
mainly occurs on the outer wall of equipment or structure. quenching is to directly irradiate a laser beam to a
The coating may fall off due to the influence of temperature, workpiece surface, so that the workpiece surface is
and the metal structure will be seriously corroded. However, rapidly heated to a critical point. Then the laser beam is
the proportion of funds for surface protection is very low, stopped or removed, heat is rapidly conducted from the
accounting for only 1.1% of the output value. Moreover, the workpiece surface to the interior of a substrate, and the
production process doesn’t implement a complete standard surface is rapidly cooled to realize self-cooling
system to control quality. As a result of the pursuit of the quenching. Its advantages lie in that ① the surface
market and the inability to adopt higher corrosion protection hardening layer has high hardness and good wear
technical standards, it is not possible to use a higher pro- resistance; ② the deformation of workpiece is very
portion of corrosion protection costs. This is also a common small, so it is especially suitable for surface strength-
problem in the industry. ening of long, thin, and fine parts; ③ only the key parts
of the workpiece are partially processed, thus greatly
saving energy; and ④ self-cooling quenching is carried
6.8.6 Existing Problems and Suggestions out without quenching liquid, with no pollution and
on Corrosion Protection Strategies good working conditions. Laser quenching technology
has developed rapidly in recent years. It should be
Countermeasures and suggestions on surface protection gradually popularized to agricultural machinery manu-
technology of agricultural machinery industry include: facturing industry by determining typical products and
selecting reasonable process parameters.
(1) Giving priority to the development of arc spraying tech- (3) Paying attention to the systematic study of surface engi-
nology. Arc spraying is a process in which two wire-like neering. Surface engineering is a new subject which takes
metal spraying materials are short-circuited at the end of “surface” and “interface” as the research core. According
the spray gun to produce heat, and the melted metal wire to the failure mechanism of the material surface, it is an
is atomized into micro-droplets by compressed airflow, emerging subject that takes the application of various
and sprayed on the surface of the workpiece at high speed surface engineering technologies and its composition as its
to form a spray layer. Its main features include the fol- characteristics, and is characterized by crossing and syn-
lowing. ① Excellent performance. High coating proper- thesis of many disciplines. The research contents of sur-
ties and bonding strength can be achieved without face engineering include basic theory of surface
increasing the temperature of the workpiece and without engineering, surface technology and composite surface
the use of valuable substrates. ② High efficiency. The technology, surface processing technology, surface quality
quality of the sprayed metal per unit time is large. ③ detection and control, and surface technology design. The
Good economy. Energy utilization rate is high, and competent departments of agricultural machinery industry
equipment investment and use cost are low. ④ Safety and should strengthen the awareness of the surface quality of
reliability. Arc spraying technology only uses electricity industry management and technicians through policy
and compressed air instead of oxygen, acetylene, and guidance, organization and coordination, research, devel-
other combustion-supporting flammable gas, so it has high opment and popularization, and application of key tech-
safety. Technical strength of agricultural machinery nologies. In addition, they should establish the surface
industry is relatively weak, the agricultural machinery technology center, technology extension center and tech-
products are complicated and scattered, and the income of nical training center of the agricultural machinery industry,
agricultural machinery industry is relatively low, so arc strengthen the combination of production, education and
spraying technology should be regarded as the surface research, carry out systematic planning and research on
technology for the development of agricultural machinery the application of surface technology in the agricultural
manufacturing industry. machinery industry, determine the phase target, and make
(2) Studying and popularizing laser quenching technology. a breakthrough, gradually forming a complete agricultural
Laser has the characteristics of high directionality, high machinery surface engineering system.
932 X. Li
6.9 Report on Corrosion Investigation There are many classification methods for packaging
in the Food Machinery Industry machinery. According to the function, it can be divided into
single function packaging machine and multifunction pack-
6.9.1 Overview of Food Machinery Industry aging machine. According to the purpose of use, it can be
in China divided into inner packaging machine and outer packaging
machine. According to the type of packaging, it can be
6.9.1.1 Classification of Food Machinery divided into special packaging machine and general pack-
Food machinery refers to the mechanical equipment and aging machine. According to the level of automation, it is
devices used in the process of processing raw food materials divided into semiautomatic machine and full automatic
into food (or semifinished products). Food machinery can be machine. According to the state of the product, it is divided
divided into two categories: food processing machinery and into liquid, block, granular soil, paste, electronic combina-
packaging equipment [158]. tion scale packaging, pillow packaging machine. According
Food and packaging machinery is one of the 14 major to the function of packaging, it is divided into internal
industries in China’s machinery industry (Table 6.27). Food packaging and outsourcing packaging machine. According
machinery focuses on the development of the following 13 to the packaging industry, it includes food, daily chemicals,
types of products: ① technical equipment for edible oil textiles, and other packaging machines.
processing; ② technical equipment for fruit and vegetable In terms of product structure, there are about 2,000 kinds
processing; ③ technical equipment for meat processing; ④ of food packaging machinery in China.
technical equipment for dairy products processing; ⑤ The distinction between agricultural product processing
technical equipment for convenience food processing; ⑥ machinery and food machinery: grain processing, oil pro-
technical equipment for beer and beverage processing; ⑦ cessing, such as processing equipment such as oil extraction
technical equipment for ultrafine grinding and processing; from rapeseed belongs to agricultural machinery, and
⑧ technical equipment for extrusion forming; ⑨ steriliza- equipment from oil extraction to blend oil is food machinery.
tion and ripening technical equipment; ⑩ technical equip- That is to say, the raw material processing equipment of food
ment for microencapsulation; ⑪ technical equipment for belongs to agricultural products machinery and the finished
vacuum freezing; ⑫ technical equipment for fresh-keeping food processing equipment belongs to food machinery.
and packaging; and ⑬ complete set of technical equipment
for agricultural products deep processing, such as deep 6.9.1.2 Output Value and Main Manufacturers
processing and comprehensive utilization equipment of of Food Machinery Industry
soybean, rice, corn, and potatoes. According to incomplete statistics, the total industrial output
Packaging machinery refers to the machinery which can value of China’s food and packaging machinery industry in
complete all or part of the packaging process of products and 2013 was RMB 292 billion, a year-on-year increase of
commodities. The packaging process includes the main 16.80%, exceeding the growth rate of the national machinery
processes such as filling, wrapping, and sealing, as well as industry in that year. Among them, the output value of food
other related processes, such as cleaning, stacking and dis- machinery industry was RMB 137.2 billion, and the output
assembly. In addition, packaging includes processes such as value of packaging machinery industry was RMB 154.7
metering or stamping the package. billion. In 2015, the total output value of China’s food
Table 6.27 Classification of Main class Subclass

Chinese food industry
Food processing and Grain processing industry, vegetable oil processing industry,
manufacturing industries confectionery manufacturing industry, sugar manufacturing industry,
slaughtering and meat processing industry, egg processing industry,
dairy processing industry, aquatic product processing industry, canned
food manufacturing industry, processing salt industry, food additive
manufacturing industry, condiment manufacturing, and other food
manufacturing industries
Beverage manufacturing Beverage wine manufacturing industry, alcohol manufacturing
industry industry, non-alcoholic beverage manufacturing, tea making, and other
beverage manufacturing industries
Tobacco processing industry Tobacco baking industry, cigarette manufacturing industry, and other
tobacco processing industries
Salt mining industry Salt processing industry
processing and packaging machinery industry exceeded During the “12th Five-Year Plan” period (2011–2015),
RMB 600 billion. the steady growth of the food industry has also expanded the
At present, there are more than 6,000 food packaging scale of the food machinery industry. In 2013, there were
machinery enterprises in China. According to statistics, in 36,275 food industry enterprises above the national scale,
the food packaging machinery industry, there are more than with the main business income reaching RMB 10.1140
ten enterprises with annual sales of over RMB 100 million trillion, an increase of 66.9% over 2010 at the end of the
and about 50 enterprises with annual sales of over RMB 30 “11th Five-Year Plan”. The average annual growth rate was
million. There are 21 enterprises in the list of top 500 Chi- 18.6%, exceeding the national target of 15% of annual
nese enterprises (Table 6.28). These large-scale enterprises growth in the “12th Five-Year Plan” food industry devel-
have a high level of science and technology and production opment plan. The food industry has invested RMB 1.6 tril-
capacity, and have the desire and strength to participate in lion in fixed assets. It is expected that by the end of the “12th
the international market competition. 75% of the export Five-Year Plan”, the main business income of the food
products in the industry are produced by 60 enterprises with industry will reach RMB 12.3 trillion to the planned target.
competitive strength. In 2013, there were 35 food industry enterprises with more
Table 6.28 Food enterprises on the list of top 500 Chinese enterprises in 2010 (21 in total)
No. Ranking in Name of enterprise Headquarters Operating Main project
top 500 revenue/RMB 10,000
1 24 COFCO Beijing 17,828,588 Agricultural trade, food
processing
2 41 China Resources (Holdings) Co., Ltd HongKong 14,582,761 Beer
3 79 Bright Food (Group) Co., Ltd Shanghai 7,553,083 Dairy
4 83 Heilongjiang Beidahuang Land Heilongjiang 7,268,546 Agricultural and
Reclamation Group Co., Ltd livestock products
5 134 New Hope Group Co., Ltd Sichuan 4,606,739 Dairy products and feed
6 135 Jiangsu Yurun Food Industry Group Co., Jiangsu 4,514,916 Meat product
Ltd
7 141 Hangzhou Wahaha Group Co., Ltd Hangzhou 4,320,417 Drinks and dairy
products
8 157 Shandong Liuhe Group Co., Ltd Shandong 4,021,600 Feed and meat products
9 160 Henan Luohe Shuanghui Industrial Group Henan 4,007,021 Meat product
Co., Ltd
10 186 Sichuan Yibin Wuliangye Group Co., Ltd Sichuan 3,503,882 Liquor and spirits
11 214 Linyi Xincheng Jingong Meat Products Shandong 2,979,822 Meat product
Co., Ltd
12 222 Tianjin TIENS Group Tianjin 2,789,021 Health products
13 249 Inner Mongolia Yili Group Inner 2,432,355 Dairy
Mongolia
14 299 China National Salt Industry Group Co., Beijing 1,987,505 Salt industry
Ltd
15 329 TSINGTAO Tsingtao 1,802,611 Beer
16 393 Jiusan Grain & Oil Industry Group Co., Ltd Heilongjiang 1,451,776 Grain and oil
17 420 Beijing Yanjing Beer Group Co., Ltd Beijing 1,330,815 Beer
18 426 Sanhe Hopefull Grain & Oil Group Co., Beijing 1,310,000 Soya bean oil
Ltd
19 439 Kuwichow Moutai Co., Ltd Guizhou 1,275,297 Liquor and spirits
20 437 Jilin Grain Group Co., Ltd Jilin 1,285,865 Grain
21 489 Shanghai Liangyou (Group) Co., Ltd Shanghai 1,144,470 Grain and oil
934 X. Li
than RMB 10 billion nationwide, 8 enterprises more than in quality of food. More importantly, it can affect food hygiene,
2010, including 4 enterprises with more than RMB 100 lead to food pollution, and harm human health and food
billion, 2 enterprises more than in 2010. flavor [156, 157].
Processing media in food production (syrups and fer-
6.9.1.3 Metal Materials Commonly Used in Food ments, organic acid, alkali, salt solutions, vinegar solutions,
Machinery and Equipment hydrolysates of fats and proteins) and long-term
Common metal materials for food machinery components high-temperature, high-humidity working environments
are carbon steel and cast iron, stainless steel, copper and constitute all processes and conditions for carrying out
alloys thereof, aluminum, and alloys. Among them, stainless chemical or electrochemical corrosion of metallic materials.
steel is widely used in food machinery, which can resist the The corrosive medium and the mechanical load act simul-
corrosion of almost all food media, and can obtain very low taneously, so that the metal surface of the mechanical
surface roughness, and completely meet the sanitary equipment is rapidly worn. The oxidized metal is mechani-
requirements of the food industry for mechanical equipment. cally removed so that a protective layer cannot be formed,
Different materials are selected for different parts, such as and the metal cracks and deep-etched holes are generated
cast iron or welded carbon steel for the equipment base; due to cavitation erosion. The surface of the corroded metal
metal plate with organic coating or plastic for the shell; material loses its luster, becomes rough, and is covered with
ceramic or polytetrafluoroethylene for the parts in contact rust, which leads to the destruction and loss of the food, and
with strong acid and strong alkali; stainless steel for the reduces the quality, nutrition, and hygiene of the food.
components with strength requirement and in direct contact The corrosion form of food machinery can be divided into
with food; vulcanized rubber for the sealing element work- general corrosion and local corrosion, and local corrosion
ing at high temperature. High chromium ferritic stainless can be subdivided into galvanic corrosion, crevice corrosion,
steel instead of austenitic stainless steel is often used for pitting corrosion, intergranular corrosion, stress corrosion
parts in contact with salt-containing food because pitting fracture, and corrosion fatigue.
corrosion, crevice corrosion, and weld corrosion of auste- Galvanic corrosion is a common phenomenon in food
nitic stainless steel increase with decrease of pH value and machinery and equipment. For example, various heat
increase of Cl− concentration. In particular, even perforation exchangers, concentrating equipment, liquid filling equip-
and breakage occur to pipe and containers. In baking soda ment, and other equipment for treating the feed liquid are
biscuit production, the components in contact with food are made of different metals, so that the two metals constitute the
usually made of austenitic stainless steel because of its good two poles of the primary battery, and the treated liquid is
corrosion resistance in alkali liquor. electrolyte solution, thus forming a corrosion cell. As a
result, serious corrosion often occurs at the joints of dis-
similar metal components. The failure of the whole equip-
6.9.2 Corrosion and Protection ment is often caused by this local deterioration of the
material.
6.9.2.1 Corrosion of Material of Mechanical The impeller of the pump, the paddle of the agitator, the
Equipment Components in Food Industry inlet end of the condenser, the various pipes in the delivery
The food materials in contact with the components of food pipeline and the tee always produce erosion, cavitation,
machinery are acidic or weakly basic, some of which are abrasion, and corrosion at the transition of the flow direction.
acid or base, such as acetic acid, citric acid, malic acid, In corrosive media, the repeated occurrence of cavitation
tartaric acid, lactic acid, butyric acid, fatty acid, hydrochloric bubbles produces dense honeycomb-like cavitation corro-
acid, pure acid, and baking soda. These materials have a sion on the metal surface. The plastics have the properties of
corrosion effect on many metallic materials. Salt also has a lightweight, insulation, anti-friction, wear resistance,
corrosion effect on many metals. Some food raw materials self-lubricating, beauty, resistance of acid, alkali, oil, water
are not corrosive by themselves, but may cause damage to and atmosphere. In particular, polytetraoxyethylene has
the machine when microorganisms grow and propagate, better mechanical properties besides being able to resist the
shortening the life of mechanical equipment and even corrosion of strong oxidant “aqua regia”. In addition, the
causing accidents and loss of products and reducing the plastic molding process is simple and efficient, so it has been
widely used in food machinery and equipment in recent caused by the flow forms such as turbulence and
years. However, the heat-resistant property is far less than vortex.
that of metal, ceramic, and other materials, and is easy to be (6) Mechanical equipment or pipelines shall be placed on a
aged, decomposed, and deteriorated due to heat. After being base or support with a small contact area as far as
exposed to light and oxygen, degradation or cross-linking possible so as to avoid crevice.
will occur inside the molecule, resulting in deterioration of (7) The sealing gasket at the flange connection should not
its physical mechanism performance, and even loss of use be too large and extend into the inside of the equipment
value. (food medium), and non-hygroscopic material shall be
Rubber has good elasticity, flexibility, wear resistance, used for gasket as far as possible.
sound insulation, damping, and the ability to accumulate (8) When contact with different metals cannot be avoided,
energy. It is often used in food machinery to make seals, insulating materials may be used to separate them or a
vibration damping parts, transmission parts, and transport corrosion-resistant material may be used to coat the
tapes. However, in the course of use, when oxygen and precious metal portion, and the area ratio of the
ozone invade the rubber molecular chain, the rubber pieces cathode/anode may be reduced as much as possible.
become cracked, sticky or brittle due to aging. The hardness (9) In order to avoid corrosion of a certain metal, cathodic
increases and the elasticity and elongation decreases. In protection may be used by connecting a second metal
particular, when the ultraviolet ray is absorbed, an active which is less corrosion-resistant than it.
group is formed at the end of the molecular chain, and an (10) In terms of corrosion resistance, welding is better than
oxidation reaction with oxygen occurs. At the same time, the riveting and screw connection; butt welding is better
rubber is isomerized, promoting chain breakage and than lap welding; continuous welding is better than
cross-linking. As the temperature increases, the oxidation discontinuous welding. In addition, aggregate and
reaction accelerates. The service life decreases very quickly intersecting welds shall be reduced as far as possible.
at high temperatures. During welding, weld thoroughly to avoid welding
holes or cracks. Attention must be paid to surface
6.9.2.2 Common Anti-corrosion Methods treatment such as slag removal and grinding of welding
for Food Machinery seam after welding repair.
In the design of food machinery, the corrosion factors in
food processing shall be always taken into account, and the There are many kinds of coatings applied in
rationality of corrosion protection in terms of structure shall anti-corrosion of structural surface, but the coatings which
be increased as much as possible [158]: can be used in food industry are very limited because there
have special requirements for coatings in terms of cleaning
(1) The corrosion allowance shall be left for the design of hygiene properties in addition to the general requirements
structural dimensions; the structure shall be simple for polymer materials. Coatings made from polyvinyl chlo-
(preferably designed in a cylindrical shape) so as to ride resins, epoxy resins, polyethylene, fluoroplastics,
facilitate the construction and maintenance of polyamide-based polyurethanes, and other resins, are used as
anti-corrosion technology. protective coatings in the manufacture of food machinery.
(2) The places prone to liquid accumulation (such as the
bottom of the container and the inlet and outlet pipes)
should be designed with circular arc transition so as to 6.9.3 Summary of Investigation Data
exhaust the internal medium solution and sediment. and Results in the Industry
(3) When designing the feeding pipe, we should keep it in
the center of the container as far as possible, so as to From the analysis of the collected data, although there are some
avoid medium splashing to the wall or outside of the articles on the corrosion of food machinery, there is almost no
container during feeding. specific literature on the corrosion and protection of a certain
(4) The parts bearing the load shall be conducted with product. Among the information found through various net-
circular arc transition as much as possible to avoid work platforms, there is no data and analysis on design cor-
stress concentration at sharp corner, keyway, oil hole, rosion and protection. It is very difficult to obtain the economic
and groove due to sudden change of bearing area. ratio value related to corrosion protection and surface treatment
(5) In the structural design, baffles with good wear resis- when looking for several units in Hubei. Therefore, in the field
tance are arranged at the place with high fluid velocity, of food machinery, it is not yet possible to make a preliminary
so as to avoid or slow down the impact corrosion anti-corrosion economic budget proportion.
936 X. Li
6.9.4 Analysis of Typical Corrosion Failure Cases 8. 韩晓燕, 陈旭 (2007) 聚四氟乙烯防腐蚀涂层的研究进展. 塑

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tu ceng de yan jiu jin zhan (Research progress of PTFE
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production machinery is serious due to the corrosion caused 9. 盛强, 丁盛 (2008) 关于热管换热器在硫酸转化局部应用的寿
by hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, enzymes, and 命分析. 有色设备 2008(5):27–29. Sheng Q, Ding S (2008)
organic acid produced in the processing, and the abrasion of Guan yu re guan huan re qi zai liu suan zhuan hua ju bu ying
yong de shou ming fen xi (The life analysis of heat pipe heat
hydrolysis product slurry and decolorizing agent carbon exchanger in local application of sulfuric acid conversion).
black. The screw of the stainless steel thick slurry pump is Non-ferr Metall Equip 2008(5):27–29
corroded in half a year and the ordinary carbon steel lined 10. 张联合 (2007) 离子膜法烧碱装置中设备、管道的防腐蚀措
epoxy GFRP tank is completely corroded and damaged in 施. 氯碱工业 2007(B06):89–91. Zhang LH. Li zi mo fa shao
jian zhuang zhi zhong she bei, guan dao de fang fu shi cuo shi
1.5 years. The starch processing machine is subjected to the (Corrosion protection measures for equipment and pipeline in
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as well as the abrasion of processed product such as corn and 2007(B06):89–91
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Baorong Hou Editor

The Cost of Corrosion

The Cost of Corrosion

ISBN 978-981-32-9353-3 ISBN 978-981-32-9354-0 (eBook)

Consultants: Xu Kuangdi, Zhou Ji, Ding Zhongli, Wang Yupu

List of Team Members for the Project: A Study on Corrosion Status

Consultants: Xu Kuangdi, Wang Yupu

II. Transportation Team

III. Energy Team

Director: Zhang Jianyun

IV. Water Environment Team

Director: Hou Baorong

V. Manufacturing and Public Utilities Team

VI. Comprehensive Team

Secretary General: Ma Xiumin

Corrosion is a phenomenon in which chemical, electrochemical, or other reactions of materials

Beijing, China Xu Kuangdi

Qingdao, China Baorong Hou

1 Introduction to A Study on Corrosion Status and Control Strategies

© Science Press 2019 1

2. Japan is attributed to the complexity and uncertainty of investi-

RMB 100 million

4. Surface treatment of aluminum alloy 4. Engineering plastics and rubbers

5. Subtotal 1.4.1.4 Corrosion Inhibitors

1. Stainless steel 1.4.1.5 Anti-rust Oil and Anti-rust Paste

2058.1 19.34% Cost of corrosion protection materials: RMB 205.81 19.34%

Fig. 1.3 Corrosion cost calculated with the Uhlig method

814.5 7% Infrastructure 81.45 billion 7%

Fig. 1.4 Statistical corrosion cost by the Hoar method

Draft the safety guidance on corrosion protection of

Academician Hao Jimin, Director of the Science Department

Fig. 1.9 Academician Liu Xu, Vice President of the Chinese

Chinese Academy of Sciences and Chinese Academy of

Fig. 1.11 Academician Hou Baorong reported the project at the

Fig. 1.13 Conference on the deployment of series publishing work

Baorong, the head of the project, signed a publishing agree-

The Project Team Signed a Series Publishing

At the beginning of 2015, the project team has held a work

the obtained results. This symposium discussed the problems

Seminar on Investigation of Port Terminals

The investigation of the port terminal industry is one of the

217th China Engineering Technology Forum

On November 16, 2015, the 217th China Engineering

Fig. 1.19 Seminar on investigation of port terminals held in Tianjin

Fig. 1.21 2016 annual project work conference held in Qingdao

Symposium on Industry Corrosion

With discussion by the Standing Committee of the Depart-

On May 16, 2016, Academician Hou Baorong, who takes

After listening to the report, President Xu Kuangdi

and Mr. Bob Chalker, Chief Executive Ofﬁcer of the NACE,

NACE, and Ms. Helena Seelinger, Executive Director of the

The mileage of rural roads around the country (including

© Science Press 2019 35

Fig. 2.1 Total mileage of highway (2010–2014)

Fig. 2.3 Total mileage of expressway (2010–2014)

Fig. 2.5 Sutong Yangtze River

Fig. 2.6 Runyang Yangtze

Fig. 2.7 Chongqing

Fig. 2.8 Increase of investment in highway construction (2010–2014)