CHAPTER ONE

CELL
A cell can be defined as the smallest organized unit of any living forms which capable of
prolonging independent existence and replacement of its own substance in a suitable
environment.
The cell was first described by Robert Hooke in 1665 while he was examining a cork with
microscope and could found that it contains box-like structure.

The cell theory was proposed by SCHELEID AND SCHWANN in 1838

Components are:
(i) Cells are of universal occurrence
(ii) Basic unit of an organism i.e. living organisms are composed of cells and cell products.
There are cell theory and organismal theory.

ORGANISMALTHEORY: That the whole organ is the basic entity and that the cell is
incidental sub-units.

Cell varies in size; from viral cell of diameter of 10-4µm to bacteria cell of diameter of 1mm and
to nerve cell of 10cm.
Cell varies in form; some are simple in internal organization; others are complex; bacteria as an
example. Cell also varies in function some perform numerous and various functions while others
have specialized function.
Cell exhibits basic characteristic features
a. They utilize extraneous energy to organise atom and molecule from external
environment and synthesise macro molecule that are useful to them.
b. They perpetuate information for their own overall synthesis through repeated cycle of
multiplication.
c. They control their internal environments so as to create the most suitable conditions for
their metabolisms
d. They regulate their component reaction such that harmony is attained.

Cell observed under the electron microscope reveals two basic plans which allow it
classification into two and thus are:

PROCARYOTIC EUCARYOTIC
(1) The cells are usually small They are usually large e.g.
e.g. bacteria and blue-green algae, fungi, protozoan, plants
algae and animals
(2) Lack Nuclear membrane possess nuclear membrane
(3) Lack membrane bound Contain membrane bound
organelle organelle
(4) Possess single chromosome Possess more than one
chromosome.
(5) Chromosome does not contain Histone is present in the cell
basic protein histone
(6) No nucleolus Nucleolus presents
(7) No mitotic apparatus Mitotic apparatus presents
(8) There is no cytoplasmic Cytoplasm is capable of
streaming internal movement
(9) Flagella is not multi-stranded It is multi-stranded

Cell can exist in unicellular and multicellular set up.

Unicellular organisms are found in the protista e.g. bacteria. They are usually small in size and
have poorly developed internal structure. They can be further subdivided based on their
peculiarities.
The cells in multicellular set up are found in higher animals and plants. The remarkable feature
of cells in multicellular set up is that; while individual cell may have the same genetic
constitution and behaves differently, for example liver cells have great metabolic rate while
connective tissue cells have specialised structural functions and epithelia cells have protective
functions. Phagocytic cells have scavenging functions. Gonad cells have reproductive functions.
However, in spite of this specialization; it is possible to visualize a typical cell of a plant cell or
animal cell.

FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE OF CELLULAR ORGANELLE

The cell is differentiated into two major portions; the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Nucleus: Among the Eukaryotes; the nucleus is large; is spherical in structure and it is most
prominent structure within the cell. It is surrounded by double membrane structure called nuclear
membrane. However this membrane is lipoprotein in nature. The two lipoproteins fused at
frequent interval; to create pore which is 50-80nm.There are openings in lipoprotein that are
pores serve as avenue for the exchange of material between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.
Chromosome occurs within the nucleus of dividing cell; the chromosomes are visible as web or
triangle tiny thread which is known as chromatin. Also within the nucleus is a conspicuous
round structure known as nucleolus; usually they are two per nucleus; only one is visible under
light microscope. It is the site of assemblage of ribosome.
Function of the nucleus
i) It carries hereditary information for the cell
ii) It exerts control over the synthesis of macromolecules inside the cytoplasm.

THE CYTOPLASM
The following organelles are found inside the cytoplasm and are explained as follow

 Ribosome: Ribosome is the most numerous of all cell organelles. Itis a site of protein
synthesis. As a result of this; the more protein the cell produces; the more ribosome in its
cytoplasm. The distribution of ribosome is determined by the type of protein produced e.g.
in the cells that are producing protein for their own self consumptions; for instance, the
embryonic cell; the ribosome tends to be freely distributed in the cytoplasm of the cell. In
cells that are producing protein, which are to be used outside the cell; the ribosome tends to
aggregate around the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).

 Endoplasmic reticulum: Is a network of interconnected sac, vesicle, tube and channel;

which occurs in eukaryotic cells. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum in
eukaryotes; namely: rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum: They have ribosomes attached to them. Rough

endoplasmic reticulum is associated with cell producing protein for export (use outside the
cell).Sometimes endoplasmic reticulum seems to be continued with the outer layer of the
nuclear membrane. The rough endoplasmic reticulum often includes; large flattened sac and
these are called cisternae. Rough endoplasmic reticulum involves in protein synthesis.

 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: This endoplasmic reticulum have no ribosome attached to

them and are found in the cell busy with synthesis of lipids e.g. gland which produces
steroid hormone e.g. the adrenaline. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also found in the
liver cells where it is associated with detoxification. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum
appears to be involved in breakdown of glycogen to glucose. Finally; it appears to function
as pipe or a channel through which materials can be moved from the rough endoplasmic
reticulum to the golgi body.

 Golgi body: is a small group of membrane bound vesicle. They are arranged and stacked on
one another; they are surrounded by tubular vessel. The function is to accept vesicle from
endoplasmic reticulum and to modify their contents and distribute the product to the other
parts of the cell. It functions as package and distribution of materials within the cell. It
synthesizes glycoprotein; a complex of sugar and protein. They are found in all eukaryotic
cells. They are more numerous in plant cell than animal cell.
 Lysosome: It is a small vesicle commonly found in the golgi body. It is essentially bag of
hydrolytic enzymes which is destructive enzyme. The bag is made up of single membrane
which separates the content of the bag. It functions in the catabolic activities of the cell. If
it breaks inside the cell; it dissolves the cell.

 Mitochondrion: Is a very large cell organelle; this is one of the most numerous organelles
in the cell. It varies in physical form. It may be filamentous or granular and it can change
from one physical form to another; depends upon the physiological state of the cell. The
position of mitochondrion is also varies, it may aggregate to form rings within the
cytoplasm as in the muscle cell. It aggregates in inter neural junction; as in the nerve cell. It
aggregates in one end of the rod cell of the retina. In non-photosynthetic cell; it is the site of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) formation; because it is the main site of ATP production; it
occurs in large number in the Eukaryotic cell; where much energy is needed. It is bounded
by double membrane. The more active the mitochondrion is; the more cristae present.
Cristae are fold projection.

 Plastid: It is also membrane bound organelle found only in plants. It is bound by two
membranes. There are three types of mature plastid namely leucoplast, chromoplast and
chloroplast.

 Leucoplast: It mostly stores starch but sometimes contains protein and oil. It occurs in large
number in storage organ such as root e.g cassava, tubers e.g. potatoes

 Chromoplast: contains pigments; these pigments are associated with the brilliant red or
yellow colour of the fruits, flower, old leaves and carrots

 Chloroplasts: Plastid containing chlorophyll and photosynthesis occurs in them. The

number of chlorophyll per cell varies from one; in some algae; to several; in higher plant.
The Biological Membrane
It is important for a number of reasons:
i) To maintain stable pH and ionic concentration within the cell for enzyme activities.
ii) To obtain food supply and energy for synthesis.
iii) To excrete toxic substances or secrete useful substances.
iv) To generate the ionic gradient essential for nervous and muscular activities.
There are four basic methods for the movement of substances across plasma membrane namely:
i) Diffusion
ii) Osmosis
iii) Active transport
iv) Endocytosis or exocytosis

Diffusion: is simply defined as a movement of substance from high concentration to region of

low concentration.

dx

A
N n-dx

Assume a cylinder with a cross section A and contains a solution which decreases in
concentration from left to right. Suppose there are N molecules at particular point perpendicular
to axis of that cylinder. If move slightly to the right; the concentration of that particle at the
perpendicular will be n-dx. The concentration gradient in the situation is defined by
−dn
dx
and the rate at which the particle diffuse down the concentration gradient is define as

dN
dt
This rate of diffusion is proportional to the concentration gradient and the surface area of the
cylinder.

dN Adn
∝
dt dx
 dN DAdn
=
dt dx
D=diffusion constant .
This equation is the simplest equation of diffusion and is known as flick law.
Flick law states that the rate of diffusion is proportional to the cross sectional area and the core
gradient; which holds for a non-membrane process.
Obviously, if a membrane is put along the part of diffusion; the diffusion equation is drastically
modified to accommodate the new membrane.

Osmosis: is the movement of water molecules from region of lower concentration to the region
of higher concentration.

Active transport: is the reverse case of osmosis; where energy is being expended against
concentration gradient. In case of osmosis; it is spontaneous; no external force being applied; it is
natural.

Endocytosis or Exocytosis: This is the movement of materials from in and out of the cell
respectively

CELL DIVISION (REPRODUCTION)

Cell division means cell multiplication. Process of cell division consists of two parts.
i) nuclear division
ii) cytoplasmic division
There are two types of cell division.
i) vegetative growth
ii) Production of sex cells.

Cell Division for Vegetative Growth: This type of cell division is of two types namely;
amitosis and mitosis.

Amitosis: is the division in which there is no regular or detail sharing of material, in such
division; it is possible for one cell to bigger than the other cell resulted; example are binary
fission, fragmentation, budding etc. This is found in lower organism such as bacteria, amoeba,
algae and yeast.

MITOSIS
Mitotic: is a division involves equal sharing of material; this type of vegetative division is found
in the somatic (body) cell of higher organisms. It involves below processes
Mitosis is the process of cell division in which nuclear DNA is replicated such that two daughter
cells produced have the same genetic complement as the parent cell. It occurs in five stages as
follows; interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Interphase stage: Is the stage when the cell is at rest with a distinct nucleus and cytoplasm.
Prophase stage: The chromosome in the nucleus becomes visible. The chromosome then
becomes shorter and thicker and appears like thread. Each chromosome splits lengthwise to form
two chromatins materials mix freely. A spindle like arrangement extends from one pole of the
cell to the other.

Metaphase stage: The spindle is completed and chromosomes arrange themselves along the
equator of the spindle. The centromere splits; separating the two chromatins that constitute each
chromosome

Anaphase stage: The chromatins of each chromosome separate by being pulled the centromere
by the spindle fibres to the opposite poles. The chromatins then migrate towards the pole by the
elongation of the spindle axis. At the termination of the anaphase stage; a group of chromatins is
located at each pole of the spindle.

Telophase stage: The spindle disappears; then nuclear membrane envelops group of chromatins.
The latter duplicate themselves to form chromosome. A nucleolus appears in each group and the
chromosomes wear their dense appearance; that is they become thinner and longer. At a later
stage when two daughter nuclei are formed; cleavage occurs. A groove is formed on each side of
the cell at the equator. The protoplasm of the cell flows inward on either side and extends toward
the centre of the cell. The flow continues until new cell surfaces are formed; when cleavage is
completed two daughter cells are formed.
 Mitosis Division

Production of Sex Cells

Meiosis: is a cell division for sex cell production, occurs only in the higher organism in form of
haploid spores as in the fungi, ova and sperm. This is the cell division that results to the
formation of gametes. Nuclear division occurs twice and there is reduction from the diploid to
haploid state. The processes are as follow.

Interphase: This is the resting stage of the cell where the chromosomes are not visible.

Prophase: prophase occurs in three stages as follows:

Lepitonema: The chromosome comes together in homologous pairs each pair is referred to as a
homologue. The chromosomes of each pair lies close together centromere to centromere along
their whole length.

Pachynema: in pachynema, the chromosomes are shorter, thicken and become twisted. Each
chromosomes splits length wise to form chromatins. Tetrads are formed each of which consist of
four chromatins.
Diplonema: There is exchange of genetic materials as a result of crossing moves apart and the
nuclear membrane disappears spindles are formed.

First meiotic division

Metaphase I: Each pair of homologus chromosomes lie at the equator and each attached to the
spindle by its centromere.

Anaphase I: The cemtromere moves towards opposite poles of the spindle drawing its two
chromatids with it.

Telophase I: Two groups of chromosomes are now formed at opposite poles of the cell. A new
set of spindle are formed they lie at right angle to the first spindle axis.

Second meiotic division

Metaphase II: The chromosomes become split along the centromere into two chromatins each.
The chromatids group themselves at the equator.

Anaphase II: The chromatids move away from each other towards opposite poles.

Telophase II: The chromatids arrive at the poles and duplicate themselves. The chromosomes
lose their dense appearance and a nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
cleavage sets in resulting in the formation of 4 daughters in haploid hence meiosis completed.
 MEIOSIS DIVISION

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

The grouping of living things into their kinds in such a way it reflects their natural or
evolutionary relationship is referred to as classification or Taxonomy. In the classification of
plant and animals, individual organisms are arranged in small groups based on their common
feature. Then the small groups are arranged into progressively large groups. The system of
classification of living things used today is based on the work of carolus linnaeus (1707-1778), a
Swedish naturalist.
The basic unit of classification of living thing is the SPECIES. This is the smallest unit
containing members which have the largest number of features in common and usually
interbreed among themselves to produce offspring. For instance, all dogs belong to the species
Canis familiaris, all maize plant to the species Zea mays.
Species which have many features in common are placed in one Genus. For instance, the horse
belongs to one species; the donkey to another and zebra to another species. These are placed in
one genus. In the same vein; the Genera which have many things in common are placed in a
FAMILY and families into ORDER and order into CLASS and classes in a PHYLUM or
DIVISION and phyla or divisions are placed in a KINGDOM.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE: It is necessary to name living things before classifying
them. The standard system of naming living organism is known as BINOMIAL
NOMENCLATURE, also introduced by LINNAEUS. Each kind of organism is given two
names, hence the term binomial nomenclature.
The first name is the name of the genus to which the organism belongs; the second name is the
species to which it belongs. Both names must be underlined except when printed in italics, with
only the genus name having an initials capital letter; hence the scientific name of the maize plant
is Zea mays. Horse, Donkey and Zebra are different species belonging to the same Genus, hence
they have their scientific names as follow: Horse-Eguus caballus Donkey-Eguus asinus, Zebra-
Eguus burchelli.

CLASSIFYING MAIZE PLANT

NAMES OF LEVEL ORGANISM THAT BELONG TO THE LEVEL
KINGDOM Plantae (All Plant)
DIVISION Tracheophta (Vascular plant)
SUPER CLASS Spermatophyta (Seed producing plants,
CLASS Angiospermae (flowering plant)
SUB CLASS Monocotyledonae (Seed with one seed leaf)
ORDER Graminales (One seed leaf grasses)
FAMILY Graminacea (Leaves in two rows)
GENUS Zea (Corn plant)
 SPECIES Zea mays (Cultivated domestication plant)

PLANT KINGDOM
The plant kingdom includes thallophyta, bryophyta pteridophyta and spermatophyta.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THALLOPHYTA
 They are simple green plants that are all aquatic
 They lack definite organs like roots, stems and leaves but instead they are thread-like
(Filamentons) or flat (thallus) bodies
 They reproduce sexually by gametes; asexually by fragmentation, spores formation,
binary fission etc.

CHARATERISTICS OF BRYOPHYTA
 They lack true roots, stems and leaves but have structure resembling them.
 They grow in damp places on land they are probably the first plants to venture on land
 They show advancement over thallophytes by the development of archegonia and
antheridia for sexual reproduction example are liver worth, moss etc.

CHARACTERICSTICS OF PTERIODPHYTA
 They have vascular tissue
 They have structures that perform the function of roots, stems, and leaves
 They are predominantly terrestrial e.g fern, equisetum, petridium etc.

CHRACTERICTICS OF SPERMATOPHYTA
 These are seeds producing vascular plants
 They are divided into gymnosperms and angiosperms

GYMNOSPERMS
o These are plants with naked seeds; they do not bear flower
o They are mostly evergreen trees or shrubs
o The seeds are borne in special structure called cones.
o They have needle-like or scale like leaves.
o They produce “soft wood” which is used as timber and wood pulp (Paper making)
e.g pinus, spruce (xmas tree) etc.

ANGIOSPERM
 They are flowering plants i.e the plant bears flowers which enclose ovules and ovaries.
 They have true roots, stems, and leaves.
  Angiosperms consist of monocotyledon and dicotyledon.

S/N DICOTYLEDON MONOCOTYLEDON

1. They bear two seeds leaves They bear one seed leaf
2. Most dicotyledonous have tap root Most monocotyledon have fibrous roots
3. Vascular bundles of their stem and roots are arrange The vascular bundles of the stem are scattered
in regular pattern
4. Their floral parts exist in group of four or five Their floral parts exist in group of three or
multiple of three
5. Their leaves have veins arranged in a branched net- They have parallel vein
work
6. They usually undergo secondary growth They don’t’ normally undergo secondary
e.gpomoeaatatas growth e.g zea mays.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGAE
1. They are aquatic organism
2. They possess chlorophyll
3. Member are unicellular, colonial, filamentous and thalloid
4. They exhibit both asexual and sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is of three types
namely; Isogamous, Anisogamous and Oogamous

ISOGAMOUS CONJUGATION: When the two algae involved cannot be differentiated by any
means i.e they are similar morphologically and physiologically.
ANISOGAMOUS: This is when the algae involved are morphologically similar but
physiologically dissimilar.
OOGAMOUS: This is when they are different both morphologically and physiologically i.e sex
is differentiated.
CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE
1. Division chlorophyta (i.e) Green algae e.g chlamydomonas and spirogyra
2. Division phaecophyta (i.e) Brown algae e.g fucus species
3. Division rhodophyta (i.e) Red algae e.g palmate and gelidium
4. Division bacillarophyta (i.e) diatiom e.gTabeloria and Amphipleura
5. Division cyanophyta (i.e) Blue-green algae e.g Anabaena, rivularia

S/N ALGAE FUNGI

1. Contain chlorophyll Have no chlorophyll
2. They are autotrophic They are heterotrophic
3. Body is composed of true parenchymatus tissue Composed of pseudo parenchymatous tissue
4. Cell wall composed of true cellulose Composed of chitin mixed with cellulose,
 callose, pectose
5. Reserve carbohydrate is starch Reserved carbohydrate is glycogen reserved
6. Live in water or wet substrata e.g spirogyra Live as parasites or saprophytes e.g mucor
mucedo.

FUNGI COMPRISES OF THREE MAJOR GROUPS NAMELY

1. Ascomytes
 2. Basidiomyeetes Eumycophyta
3. Phycomyeetes
4. Fungi imperfective: with asexual stage only; with no known sexual or perfect stage

ANIMALKINGDOM
All animal belong to the kingdom animalia
Animals are put into two main groups of sub kingdom.
a. In vertebrata (invertebrates) animal without backbone
b. Vertebrata (vertebrates) animals with backbone.

INVERTEBRATES
The group of animals comprise of many phyla namely: Protozoa, Coelenterate, Platyhelminthes,
Nematoda, Annelids, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata
a. PROTOZOA
 These are unicellular and microscopic animal
 They live freely in water or as parasite on other animals
 They reproduce mainly by cell division called binary fission, while some undergo sexual
reproduction

Examples are Amoeba proteus, Plasmodium vivax etc.

b. COELENTERATA
 These are simple multicellular aquatic animals
 The body has a single opening, the mouth surrounded by numerous tentacles
 The exhibit polymorphism e.g solitary or colonial
 Their body is made up of two layer of cell (Diploblastic)
 Asexual reproduction by budding
 Sexual reproduction produces characteristics planula larva

Example are: Hydra fusca, Obelia geniculata

PLATYHELMINTHES
 They are flatworms existing mostly as parasites in man and other animals
 They have bilateral symmetrical body
  They body is made up of three layers of cell (triploblastic)
 They gut of a flatworm has only one opening which serves for the entrance of food and
exist of wastes
 They are acoelomates with solid body walls
 All flat worms are hermaphrodite

Examples are Taenia solium, Fasciola gigantica

NEMATODA
 These are roundworm; mostly existing freely while some are parasites
 The body is bilaterally symmetrical and elongate tapering both ends
 The body is covered with a thin elastic protein cuticles
 The sexes are usually separate
 They have unbranched gut with mouth and anus
 They are pseudoceolomate

Examples are Ascaris Lumbricoides, Dracunculus medinensis

ANNELIDA
 They are ringed or segmented worm, i.e the body is divided into similar segment
 The body is tubular and has two openings.
 There is a well-developed body cavity or coelom
 They are mostly marine species, other live in fresh water or damp soil.

Examples are lumbricus terrestris, Nereis diversicolor

ARTHROPODA
 The largest phylum in the animal kingdom
 They have metamerically segmented bodies enclosed with hard rigid exoskeleton made
of chitin
 In most arthropods, the segments are grouped to form a head, thorax and abdomen
 Each segment usually bears a pair of jointed appendages which may be used for feeding,
Moving, reproduction or as sensory organs
 Compound eye be present
  Because of the presence of hard exoskeleton; growth or development takes place in form
of moulting (Ecdysis

Examples are Periplaneta Americana, Astacus pallipes

PROTOCHRODATES
The phylum hemichordate consist of two groups
(a) The Enteropneusta – Acorn Worms
(b) The ptetrobranchiata – feather gill. They are characterized by the followings
 The body is divided into three part i.e the proboscis, the collar and the trunk
 The coelom is also divided into three parts corresponding to the three external
division of the body.
 The anus is terminal; there is no post anal tail
 Gill slits are present, they lack atrium
 A notochord is never present. Instead they possess a buccal cavity diverticulum, the
STOMOCHORD
 The nervous system is inform of a nerve net, concentrated to form a dorsal and
ventral nerve cord. In some species; the dorsal nerve cord is hollow and tubular in the
collar region.
 A tornaria larva occurs in the life history of this group
 All hemichordates are marine.

CHORDATA
INTRODUCTION: The phylum chordate to which man belongs is the most highly evolved
phylum in the animal kingdom. The phylum contains a diverse, assemblage of marine, fresh
water and terrestrial animals which includes the reptiles, bird and mammals. Despite the recent
emergence, (only 500 million years) they have established themselves as the major and
successful animal phylum dominating water, air and land. In terms of number of species and
number of individuals, the chordates cannot rival arthropods. Chordates are however more
successful in term of
 Total biomass
 Ecological dominance
  Development of the nervous system

DIAGNOSTIC FEATURE
 Chordates are triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, metamerically segmented
coelomates. The body segmentation is however of a different nature from that of
arthropods.
 All chordates possess (at least during part of the life cycle) a dorsal axial skeletal rod
called NOTOCHORD lying above the gut and ventral to the central nerve cord. In higher
form, the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column.
 All chordates possess lateral opening or punches called pharyngeal or VISCERAL
CLEFT in the pharynx at least during some stage in their life cycle; an endostyle or its
homologue; the thyroid gland is also present.
 Chordate possesses a single dorsal hollow (tubular) nerve cord.
 A post anal segmented tail is usually present
 The main direction of blood flow in chordates is in sharp contrast with those of non-
chordates. Blood flows forward in the ventral vessel below the gut. A number of braches
pass dorsally around the pharynx to a dorsal blood vessel above the gut in which blood
flows backwards.

OUTLINE CLASSIFICATION: The phylum chordata consist three subphyla.

a. Subphylum urochordate: Which contains the sessile sea squirts and a few pelagic forms?
b. The subphylum cephalochordata contains the small fishlike worm Amphioxus burrow in
sandy bottom
c. Subphylum vetebrata which contains the chordates which possess a back bone of
vertebrate replacing the notochord
VERTEBRATES
All vertebrates have these features
a. A bilaterally sysmetrically body.
b. An internal skeleton with a backbone
c. A well development central nervous system (C.N.S) with a brain and spinal chord
d. Kidneys for eliminating body wastes
e. A muscular heart
f. They usually have two pair limbs

Vertebrates are divided into five classes

Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves and Mammal.
1. Pisces: These are fishes which are all aquatic; A fish has the following features.
2. It is a cold blooded (poikilothermic) animal
3. The body is covered with scales
4. It has fin. The paired fins are adaptation of the fore and hindlimbs
5. It carries out gaseous exchanges by gills.
6. It has a well developed sense of smell and a lateral line system to detect vibration
 7. It has a two chambered
8. Fertilization is external

Examples are Tilapia Zilla, Clara lazera

AMPHIBIA
An amphibian has these features
 It has a naked moist skin
 It is cold blooded animal
 It has pentadactyl paired fore and hind limbs
 Has gill in larval stage called tadpole and lungs in adult
 It carries out gaseous exchange by lungs, skin and mouth lining separately or in
combination
 It has a three chambered heart
 Fertilization is external

Examples are Rana temporaria, Bufo regularis

REPTILE
 Skin is covered with dry horny scale
 Gaseous exchange strictly by lung
 They are cold blooded animals
 It has teeth of the same kind called Homodont
 It usually has pentdactyl paired fore and hind limb located almost at 900 to the sides of
the body
 Has an incompletely developed four-chambered heart
 Fertilization is internal, large heavily yolked egg with calcareous shell are laid

Example are Agama agama; Lacerta agilis

AVES
This class includes all types of bird both flightless and flying birds. They have the following
features.
 They are warm blooded animals (Homoiothermic)
 Their head, neck and trunk are covered with feathers, hind limbs with scales.
  Their fore-limbs have been modified to form wings
 Mouth extended or jaws drawn out to form toothless beak
 Neck is long and flexible turn 3600
 Respiration by lungs
 They have rigid skeletons and bones have air sacs.
 They have four-chambered heart
 Fertilization is internal, egg with large yolk covered with hard shell
 Example are Gallus domectica, Columbia livia

MAMMALIA
They are warm blooded and have many glands
They are viviparous (i.e their young develop inside the female’s body and are born alive) .
Their skin bear hair
Their skins have sweat and sebaceous
Their body cavity is separated into two by muscular diaghragm
They have different types of teeth called heterodont
Fertilization is internal
Have external ears called pinnae
Examples are Homo sapien, Felix catus