Debre Tabor University

Gafat Institute of Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Internship Report and Project

Internship Duration: (March 15,2015 – June 15,215)

Hosting Campany: Selam Hawassa Bussiness Group
Project Title: Modified Trolley Machine

Prepared By: Enkusilas Orsa (ID. NO. 1395/12)

Advisor: Desu Eshatie (MSc.)

January 31, 2024

Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
DECLARATION
I declar the final intrnship report program in Selam Hawassa Business Group is record of my
orignal work and being submitted to Mechanical Engineering Department of Debre Tabor
University and this report is in requirement to practical fulfillment for three monthe
internship.This report has not been submitted to any other university for fulfillment of
requirement of the internship semester.
I have trid my best to keep report simple to understand.I hope I succeed in my attempt.

Prepared by
Enkusilas Orsa Signature:____________ Date:__________________

Approved by
Mr. Desu Eshatie Signature:____________ Date:__________________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I would like to thank almighty God for his merciful and endless guidance,then I
Would also thank my company supervisor Mr. Filmon and Mr. Natinael for their incredible
support ,hospitality and direction during my training time.Secondly I would thank Hawassa
University Student Service for there dormitery service for three monthe.Finally Iwould like to
thank my acadamic advisor Mr. Desu for his appreciable supervision,advice and willingness
to help me while I face challenge in my work and project work.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMERY
This report is mainly a record of my personal experience in different aspect that I get during
my internship time.It consist of four chapter which all together show the general view of
entire report.I have put the whole report format in summerized and sequential manner as
follows.
In the first chapter I have tried to discuss about my hosting company (SHBG).It start by
giving information on company background and continues with its
mission ,vision,organizational structure and work flow of company.The second chapter which
is a part of main body is mainly focus on a shop Ihave been working,A specfic tasks I was
executing,A procedure that I have been followed whenever performing my tasks and the
problems and challengesthat I have been faces.The third chapter include different skill related
concept that I have been assimilated during my internship in terms of theoretical
knowledge,practical,communication,team work,work ethics and entrepreneural skill.The
fouth chapter cover the conclusion and recommendation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration..................................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgement.....................................................................................................................ii
Executive Summery..................................................................................................................iii
Table of Contents......................................................................................................................iv
COMPANY PROFILE...............................................................................................................1

1.1 Brief History of the Company.....................................................................................1

1.2 Vision, Mission, Objective, and Core Values.............................................................2

1.2.1 Vision...................................................................................................................2
1.2.2 Mission.................................................................................................................2
1.2.3 Objective..............................................................................................................2
1.2.4 Core Value...........................................................................................................2

1.3 Main Product of Company..........................................................................................2

1.4 Technical and Vocational Training.............................................................................3

1.4.1 Other Service/ Restaurant....................................................................................3

1.5 What Make Selam Hawassa TVET Different............................................................3

1.6 CUSTOMER AND PARTNERSHIP AREA OF SHBG PLC....................................4

1.6.1 PUBLIC SECTOR...............................................................................................4

1.6.2 Civil Society Sector..............................................................................................4
1.6.3 BUSINESS SECTOR...........................................................................................5

1.7 SHBG PLC ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE.....................................................7

2. INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE...........................................................................................7

2.1 How I Get Into The Company.....................................................................................7

2.2 Objectives of the Internship.........................................................................................8

2.2.1 General objectives................................................................................................8

2.2.2 Specific Objectives...............................................................................................8

2.3 Shops in the company..................................................................................................8

2.3.1 Machine shop.......................................................................................................8

2.3.2 Sheet metal shop..................................................................................................8
2.3.3 Construction equipement shop.............................................................................9

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 2.3.4 Painting shop........................................................................................................9

2.4 The shop that I have been working..............................................................................9

2.4.1 Lath machine......................................................................................................10

2.4.2 Drilling machine.................................................................................................10
2.4.3 Milling machine.................................................................................................11
2.4.4 Shearing machine...............................................................................................12
2.4.5 Rolling machine.................................................................................................12
2.4.6 Bending machine................................................................................................13

2.5 My Performance In The Work Shop.........................................................................13

2.6 Problem that I faced in the company.........................................................................14

3. Over All Internship Benefits............................................................................................14

3.1 Developing Practical Skills.......................................................................................14

3.2 Developing Theoretical Knowledge..........................................................................14
3.3 Developing Work Ethics Skill...................................................................................14
3.4 Developing Interpersonal Communication................................................................15
3.5 Developing Leadership Skills....................................................................................15
3.6 Developing Team Work Approches..........................................................................15
3.7 Developing Entrepreneurship Skills..........................................................................15

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATON....................................................................16

4.1 Conclusion.................................................................................................................16
4.2 Recommendation.......................................................................................................16

5. Design of Modified Trolley Machine..............................................................................16

5.1 Introduction of Hydraulic Cylinder and Rack Pinon.................................................16

5.2 Classification of Hydraulic Cylinder and Rack Pinion.............................................20

5.2.1 Hydraulic cylinder..............................................................................................20

5.2.2 Rack pinion........................................................................................................22

5.3 Application area of Hydraulic cylinder and Rack pinion..........................................23

5.3.1 Hydraulic cylinder..............................................................................................23

5.3.2 Rack pinion........................................................................................................25

5.4 Component of Hydraulic cylinder and Rack pinion..................................................26

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 5.4.1 Hydraulic cylinder..............................................................................................26
5.4.2 Rack pinion........................................................................................................29

5.5 Objectives of Modified Trolley Machine Project......................................................33

5.5.1 Main Objectives of the Project...........................................................................33

5.5.2 Specific Objective of the Project........................................................................33

5.6 Scope and Significance of the Project.....................................................................33

5.6.1 Scope of the Project...........................................................................................33

5.6.2 Significance of the Project.................................................................................33

5.7 Material Selections...................................................................................................33

5.7.1 Carbon Steel.......................................................................................................35

5.7.2 Stainless Steel.....................................................................................................35
5.7.3 Aluminium.........................................................................................................37
5.7.4 Low-Carbon steel...............................................................................................41

5.8 Working Enviroment................................................................................................42

5.8.1 Working Temperature......................................................................................42

5.8.2 Working Pressure...............................................................................................43
5.8.3 Hydraulic Fluid..................................................................................................43

5.9 Magnetic Holder.......................................................................................................45

5.10 Design of Hydraulic Cylinder................................................................................47

5.10.1 Part Design Assumption.......................................................................................48

5.10.2 Design Of Piston Rod..........................................................................................48
5.10.3 Design of the piston...........................................................................................51
5.10.4 Design of the cylinder Outside Diameter...........................................................52
5.10.5 Cylinder Tube thickness.....................................................................................52
5.10.6 Bursting Stress...................................................................................................53
5.10.7 Oil Volume Required for the Piston Stroke.......................................................54

5.11 Design of Rack Pinion...........................................................................................54

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List of Figures
Figure 2.1. Machine shop...........................................................................................................8
Figure 2.2. Sheet metal shope....................................................................................................9
Figure 2.3. Construction equipment shop..................................................................................9
Figure 2.4. Painting shop.........................................................................................................10
Figure 2.5. Lath machine.........................................................................................................10
Figure 2.2.6. Drilling machine...............................................................................................11
Figure 2.7. Milling machine....................................................................................................12
Figure 2.8. Shearing machine..................................................................................................12
Figure 2.9 Rolling Machine....................................................................................................13
Figure 2.10 Bending Machine.................................................................................................13
Figure 5.1. Single Acting Hydraulic Cylinder........................................................................21
Figure 5.2. Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder......................................................................22
Figure 5.3. Spur Teeth...........................................................................................................23
Figure 5.4. Helical Teeth........................................................................................................23
Figure 5.5. Roller Pinion......................................................................................................23
Figure 5.6. Part of Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder.........................................................28
Figure 5.7. Rack Pinion.........................................................................................................30
Figure 5.8. Magnetic Holder................................................................................................46
Figure 5.9. Design Parameter of Hydraulic Cylinder............................................................50
Figure 5.10. Table of Piston Force and Piston Diameter.....................................................52
Figure 5.11 The Meshing of Standard Spur Gear and Rack....................................................55
Figure 5.12. The meshing of standard spur gear and r...........................................................55
Figure 5.13. Meshing of Standard Spur Gear and R.............................................................55
Figure 5.14 Meshing of Standard Spur Gear and Rack...........................................................55

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COMPANY PROFILE
1.1 Brief History of the Company
Mr. David Röschli, a Swiss Engineer resigned his job and came to Ethiopia with his wife,
Mrs. Marie-Luise Röschli in 1989. He began his job as a lecturer at Addis Ababa University,
Technology Faculty. After a while, he couldn’t satisfy in working at the university despite his
bulky experiences. His intuition was helping those who were left behind/disadvantageous.
Eventually, Mr. David and Ethiopian adopted daughter, W/ro. Tsehay Röschli decided to
open Selam Children Village Center in Addis Ababa.
Children who were in Selam Children Village getting young and completed their secondary
school, Selam David Röschli Technical and Vocational College Addis Ababa established in
the intention of helping those children by his managing directorship. The college trained
those youth that brought up in Selam Children Village and communities’ youth who couldn’t
get a chance to further study for one reason or another. He tried his best to help the other part
of Ethiopian’s communities, like Hawassa by intensifying his ideas to others.
Three young and energetic Ethiopians: Mussie Mohammed, Paulos Temesgen and Atekelt
Girmay pursue his vision. They were both grew up in Selam Children’s Village Addis Ababa
and studied at Selam David Röschli Technical and Vocational College Addis Ababa
established Selam Hawassa Business Group PLC at the end of 2006 G.C. The founders, the
Roschli family brought their knowledge, experience and money on the investment to make
something special by taking all the risks.
Thus, SHBG was established with the aim of insuring social and economic development of
Ethiopian’s farming communities and urban dwellers by producing and promoting
appropriate technology through trained and skilled man power. To ensure the company’s
sustainability and productivities, two Dutch share holders, Mr. Simon Boersma and Mr.
Roelof van Burggen joined SHBG after four years since the establishment of the company in
February 2010. Recently, the company has achieved its objectives and manufacturing pre and
post harvest machineries and equipments, construction and water lifting devices, renewable
energy: solar and wind mill.
Besides, other related equipments have been produced to meet the demand of individuals,
governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Furthermore, it also serve the
community’s disadvantageous youth have employable skills through technical and vocational
training without any payment.

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1.2 Vision, Mission, Objective, and Core Values
1.2.1 Vision
To see economically and technologically advanced farmers and visionary youth through
manufacturing appropriate agricultural equipments and trained youth with employable skills.
1.2.2 Mission
Providing TVET training to the disadvantageous youth so as to fill the need gap of best
fitted professional employees for both the state and private sectors.
To provide farmers, small industries and other consumers newly best post harvesting and
appropriate technology products that increases the efficiency and effectiveness of
productivity.
1.2.3 Objective
To insure social and economical development of Ethiopian farming communities
and urban dwellers youth by producing and promoting appropriate technology
through trained and skilled man power
1.2.4 Core Value
 We love others in the love of God and give care and attention for destitute.
 We provide hope for the poorest of the poor through education and love.
 We want to maintain perfect integrity through all aspects of the organization’s
operations.
 We care about the environment.
 We want to deliver value for money.
 Dedication to and respect the work
 Keeping one’s word
1.3 Main Product of Company
We deliver the following basic products and services to the communities:
 Pre-harvesting machineries: Donkey plough, Tie Redger, & Eric plough
 Post harvesting Machineries: Multi- crop thrasher with engine, Grain cleaner with
engine & Maize Sheller with engine
 Construction Equipment: Hollow block machine, Tripod, Wheel barrow & Terazo
machine
 Water Lifting Equipment: Rope and Washer pump, Over flow pump (Tradle) &
Hand pump

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  Renewable Energy: Mirt stove mould, Gonziye stove mould, Biogas Appliance &
Hand wheel
 Furniture Making
 Bee Keeping: Kenya Top Bar beehive & Modern Beehive
 Children play Ground : Marry go Round, Balance, Swing (double seat) & Slide
 Non – standard products
 Training service
 Machining service: Milling, Drilling, Boring, any lathe and milling machine
service
 Sheet Metal cutting and bending services
 Special Welding Services: Tig welding and Mig welding
 Dairy Farm Equipment: Aluminum Milk Cans(5-50lit), Chopper machine for
animal feed, Manual milk churner(20lit & 40lit) and Electrical milk churner(40lit)
1.4 Technical and Vocational Training
The College has got full accreditation from Southern Nation Nationalities and peoples’
Regional State TVET bureau to give training on General Metal Fabrication &
Assembly/ Mechanics, Hotel Kitchen Operation, Fruit and Vegetable Processing and
other programs
1.4.1 Other Service/ Restaurant
 We serve the near by community a hotel services between 11:30 – 14:00 (5:30
– 8:00 local time) in our study place.
 The community enjoys the delicious meal as European dining culture ready by
experienced chefs.
 Our frequent customers, mostly foreigners and European dish lovers thank us
for our delicious food and enjoy five crumbs of lunch service; served as an appetizer,
salad, soup, main dish and desert respectively at lunch time
1.5 What Make Selam Hawassa TVET Different
• Delivering basic knowledge, skill and attitude training to the disadvantageous youth
to be competent.
• The training program is integrated with the productive activities that help trainees to
be capable.
• Have well-equipped workshops to deliver the skill training.
• Offering upgrading courses for former graduates.

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 • Having trust from governmental and non-governmental agencies, so they
recommended applicants for technical fields and production work to our company.
• Providing consultative and technical services to interested individuals and agencies.
• Graduates job linking service by own expert
1.6 CUSTOMER AND PARTNERSHIP AREA OF SHBG PLC
As an active and industry-demand-based training and production center, SHBG has been
working in smooth and keen relationship collaborating with governmental, nongovernmental
organizations, civil societies and associations who are working in areas of entrepreneurship,
TVET training and other areas related to us directly or indirectly. So far we have been
working with:
1.6.1 PUBLIC SECTOR
• Ethiopia Institute of Agricultural Research, Melkasa Agricultural Research
Center
• South Water Works and Construction Enterprise (SWWCE)
• Woman Support Association
• Hawassa university
• Arbamich university
• SNNPRS Bureau of Agriculture & Natural
• Resource Development
• SNNPR TVET Bureau
• SNNPR COC Agency
• Hawassa Polytechnic
• Hawassa Tegbare'ed Industrial and Construction College
• S/N/N/P/R/S/ Mine & Energy Agency Regional Biogas Coordination Unit
• Oromiya Water; Mineral & Energy Bureau Regional Biogas Coordination
Unit
• SNNPRS Bureau of Livestock and Fishery Development
1.6.2 Civil Society Sector
• Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA)
• CIP Ethiopia
• LVIA

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 • Sassakawa Global 2000
• Farm africa
• Life water international
• Jerusalem Children and Community Development Organization (JECCDO)
• Ethiopian Center for Disability Development Association (ECDD)
• Common Vision Development
• FH Ethiopia
• Hunde Oromia Grassroots Dev’t
• Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS
• SOS
• SIM
• Mercy Corps
• FH Ethiopia
• International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
• Dorcas Aids international
• International Rescues committee /IRC
• Woord en Daad
• Symphonies
• International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center /CIMMYT
• Selam Charity Switzerland
• Education for Sustainable Development College
• Hawassa Vocational Training College
• Feed the Future
• Save the children
• International Rescues Committee (IRC)
• Netherland Development Organization Ethiopia (SNV)
• World Vision
• Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)
• People In Need (PIN)
• Plan International Ethiopia
• Care Ethiopia
1.6.3 BUSINESS SECTOR
• Haile Hotel Management College
• Awassa textile
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• Tabor Ceramic
• CCECC
• Arvind Enviso Limited
• Ontex Hygienic Disposable plc
• Indo Chain
• Indo Chain
• Tal Appeal
• PVH
• Jass Garment
• ETAB
• Midroc constriction
• Saba constriction
• Awassa Pepsi
• Yirgalem constriction
• Guts Agro Industry

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1.7 SHBG PLC ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

2. INTERNSHIP EXPERIENCE
2.1 How I Get Into The Company
Most university has a program that links student to different companies through UIL, which
helps students meet to their practical world.There are two option to engage in to different
company ,the first one is searching intersted company by own ,then the second one is
university will assign an any where they related with our specific field of study. then I decid
to ask sinor students about every detial of internship program,accordining to sinor batch
students I start to search better company to understanding mechanical engineering science in
to practical world.After ending of third acadamic year I appiled to selam hawassa business
group,they accepted ,finally I started my intern program in March 15,2015 morining.

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2.2 Objectives of the Internship
2.2.1 General objectives
The general objective of an internship is support student in connecting with apractical world
of engineering related knowledge which students learnt in theoretical approach in past seven
semesters.
2.2.2 Specific Objectives
 It develop my theoretical knowledege
 It consolidate apractical skill
 It strength team work spirt
 It enables to know acompany management system
 It helps to know discipne and ethics of company
 It helps to develop enterpreneurship skill
2.3 Shops in the company
There are different shops in the company where different tasks can performed namely ;
Machine shop,Sheet metal machine shop.Construction shop,Auto shop,Painting shop
2.3.1 Machine shop
This shop equipped with different important machine like , lath machine,milling
machine,drilling machine and hydraulic press machine .They consist spare part store and
work shop class. Turning,facing.boring,milling,driling are some fuction performed within this
shop.

Figure 2.1. Machine shop

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2.3.2 Sheet metal shop
It it is most important shop in the compound.they consist rolling, shearing,bending,band saw
and punching machines.different function like cutting,rolling,bending are performed in it.

Figure 2.2. Sheet metal shope

2.3.3 Construction equipement shop
This shop also colled as welding shop,it consist TIG,MAG AND ARC weldings. most
product of company was assembled in this shop.

Figure 2.3. Construction equipment shop

2.3.4 Painting shop
Some product of the company are polished based on the interest of customers.the process
involved in painting shop are, grinding and polishing,puttying/primary coating ,prepartion for
paintingsuch as covering of areas painting,drying and inspection and dispatch.

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 Figure 2.4. Painting shop
2.4 The shop that I have been working
Eventhough there are different shop in the company .as mechnical engineer, I choose shops
based on my future plan.after asking question about my future interst company supervisor
gives advice to focus on machine and sheet metal shops.Each shop consist electrical and
mechanical machines and also manual operating and automated machines.Most task in the
company was performed in this two shops,they cosists lath,milling,drilling,hydraulic
press,shearing,rolling,bending and other different machines.
2.4.1 Lath machine
A lath machine is muti-functional machine tool that rotat a work piece about an axis of
rotation to perform various operation such as cutting,drilling,facing,grooving and turning
with tool that are appiled to the workpiece to creat an object with symmetry about that axis.

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 Figure 2.5. Lath machine

2.4.2 Drilling machine

Drilling machine is amachine that used to make ahole by changing the driller with diameter
arranged.It works with principle of hydraulic system that an operator manage the speed of
drilling manually whether to clockwise or anticlock wise. An oil is added to machine for
purpose of lubrication.

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Figure 2.2.6. Drilling machine
2.4.3 Milling machine
Milling machine has got cutter installed up on it which helps in removing the material from
the surface of work piece.The cutter made from highly resistant material that are durable and
less friction.There are two type of milling machine such as vertical and horizontal milling
machine.

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 Figure 2.7. Milling machine
2.4.4 Shearing machine
The first step in fabricating of sheet metal is reducing its size in to desired shape. Shearing
machine perform most cutting operation in this shop.It performed by the action of two
blades,one fixed in the shaer bed and the other moving vertically with little or no clearance.
Rhe typical shears consist of afixed bed to which one blad mounted ,a vertically advancing
crosshead and a series of hold down pins or feet that hold the material in the place while the
cutting occures.There are mechanical,hydraulic and manual shearing machines.In this shop
we used hydraulic shearing machine for cutting sheet metal up 6mm thick.

Figure 2.8. Shearing machine

2.4.5 Rolling machine
Rolling machine is machine which uses to roll different type sheet metal in to round ,semi
round or conical shape.The rolling machine boast a working mechanism that allows it to bend
flat sheet in to large arc or cylinder or even ellips shape.Utilizing aseries of precise and strong
hardened rols powered by either hydraulic or mechanical methods,the rolld brought in to
pitching position with material is firmly held between two of rolls,a third roll is brought in to
position pushing the material cousing initial bend, or what is referred to as the pre-bend. The
rolls then begin to rotate pulling material through the pinched rolls and past the pusshing
rolls forcing an arc in to material .The machine which is used in this workshop is mainly

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works with the principle of mechanical gear system.It can roll up to 6mm, 3m thick and width
respectively.

Figure 2.9 Rolling Machine

2.4.6 Bending machine

This type of machine used to bend sheet metal that already cut down by the shearing
machine,it using high pressurized hydraulic lifting system .This machine has also a relay
which sends the drawing specification from the screen to the bending plate.Mostly this
machine is used in this shop for bending sheet metal have thickness up to 6mm.

Figure 2.10 Bending Machine

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2.5 My Performance In The Work Shop
During our internship since I have been working in company, I was trying to be active when
everything going on each days.I was performing different task with fellow employee of
company.I am not much familiar before this kind of practical world.At beginning its diffcult
to servive with stranger working condtion and its not easy to introduce various manuall and
automated machine.If today machine operator perform sometask,next time I will operat that
machine ourselve.Eventually this daily practice made me to upgrade my practical skill.I
passed most time by assisting,asking question that not clear to understood .Besides I was
learning and upgrading my skill.Toward the end of our internship ,Idid to expect to solve at
least one challenge that exist in the company.I have responsible that way given for engineer
and for this purpose I have diffinitelly imrovd my practical skill and also theoritical skill.
2.6 Problem that I faced in the company
The main problem that I have faced during my trianing time was the lack of repeatedly task
in machine and other shop.In those shop there are different challenges like safty
problem,noisy working condtions.Although I decide to focuse on my plane to achieve my
goal by changing various mechanism like asking employee about their task,following each
safty rules and using soft, eye googl and hand glab to reduce injury.

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3. OVER ALL INTERNSHIP BENEFITS
3.1 Developing Practical Skills
When I am first engaged in to the company my practical knowledge is not good.Mainy I was
gather theortical skill during past semester.But after I start my training it was widening .I get
a chance to obesrve different machine that I have learnt in my previous lessons in
theory.Asking and interviewing operator of machine in company about different
machine,which helps me to develop my practical skill.
3.2 Developing Theoretical Knowledge
Internship program is not only need to upgrade a practical skill but also it helps to improve
my theoretical knowledge in different aspects.When I have been working in the company
they helps me to expand my existing theoretical knowledge ,then I can easily understand
every steps of the work performed in shop in good manner.
3.3 Developing Work Ethics Skill
A work ethics is a set of moral principle a person uses in the job.People who posses a strong
work ethics embody certain principles that guide their behavior,leading them to produce high
quality work consistently and the output motivates them to stay on track.In my case,I have
learned a good work ethics that will help me for my futur career.
Reliability,Dedication,Cooperation,Being productive,Respecting company principle and
Accountability of the workers are among the basic work ethics that Ihave learned during my
internship period.
3.4 Developing Interpersonal Communication
Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information,feeling
and meaning through verbal and non-verbal message.The internship program I have been
engage has got different kinds of personalities with different background.During my
training ,I had good communication skill with company workers.
3.5 Developing Leadership Skills
Leadership skills are an essential component in positioning executives to make thoughtful
decisions about their organizations mission and goal, and properly allocate resources to
achieve those directives.At my training period, I had a chance to see different leaders with
their respective areas from head office adminstrator to the work shop foreman .I was able to
develp a valuable leadership skill like, ability to inspre and communicate effectively with
honesty,confidence and commitment.

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3.6 Developing Team Work Approches
Team work is mechanism by which working together in group to perform a specific ask in
accurate way. When people works together in team they can able to thrive their creativity,
work speed and problem solving skill. During my training I was able to build a good team
working skill with employee in shop. Team work helps to maximizes involvement, increase
shared information, increase problem solving approaches and assure improved out comes.
3.7 Developing Entrepreneurship Skills
Most important benfit that I acquired from my internship career is entreprenuership
skill.Entreprenuership is the process of designing,launching and running a new
business,which is often initially a small business.I have gained a priceless experience that
related with entrepreneurship ,especially after I start to do m project .When I design my
project my supervisor and fellow employee tries to encouraged me.These creates a positive
energy on my capacity that makes me to think in the future .I would be an entrepreneur on
creating several new innovtive ideas and identifying different problem then solving them with
my existing knowledge I Have gained throughout my all careers.
4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATON
4.1 Conclusion
During my training time in SHBG is fruitful,becouse I was able to expand and develop my
skill in many aspects.I was not familar with campany working condition and organizational
structure before I engaged in SHBG.The internship program was good way to meet an
experianced professionals and practical knowledge which helps me for any future career.I
was able to develope my social interaction with different personality and employee.The most
important thing that I get from internship program was developing project working and
enterepreneural skill,which creates agood way to test my self on the real world by theoretical
and practical knowledge.
4.2 Recommendation
Eventhough the company is well organized , there would be some recommendation I wish to
raise inorder to increase the production and quality on company product.They should be
focus on satisfaction of employee.Even if the company provide safty materials for reduction
purpose of injury ,but some ot them are out of service or expired becouse lack of replacement
with new one ,which trigger the chance to face accident.The other appreciable part of
company punctuality should be continued.

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5. DESIGN OF MODIFIED TROLLEY MACHINE
5.1 Introduction of Hydraulic Cylinder and Rack Pinon
Hydraulic cylinder is a part of a machine’s hydraulic system. Simply said, hydraulic cylinder
is a hydraulic actuator which creates linear movement by converting the hydraulic energy
back to a mechanical movement. Hydraulic cylinder can be compared to a muscle; with the
machine’s hydraulic system, it creates the movement – therefore it is like a muscle.
In the hydraulic transmission, the medium is liquid, usually oil, of which we are also talking
about this text. The basic concept of hydraulics is that when the power machine rotates the
pump, a volume flow is formed (the volume of liquid passing through the cross-section per
unit of time, which’s unit in the SI is m3/s). The pressure of the hydraulic system is
determined by the load which is caused either with the cylinder or valve which then resists
the flow of the liquid flow caused by the hydraulic pump.
The pressure spreads evenly to every direction in the system and effects to all hydraulic
system’s closed spaces’ surfaces evenly; this effect is called Pascal’s law.
So, the pressure is generated when the force effects to the item’s surface. When the force is
divided with area, we get the pressure as follows:
p= F/A
(where: F = force [N, Newton];
A = area [m2];
p = pressure [N/m2] = pascal [Pa]).
So, cylinder’s hydraulic energy is transformed back to a mechanical movement. When the
pressure comes to chamber A, the rod pushes out and therefore the force pushes out (F = p x
A1). As counter motion in a double acting cylinder as the pressure comes to chamber B, the
rod retreats in and also the force retreats in (F = p x A2)
The idea for hydraulic cylinders can be attributed to renowned French mathematician Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662), who dedicated a large part of his mid-1600s studies to fluids, fluid
pressure and vacuums.
Pascal’s research led to the discovery that fluids do not compress in the same way that air
does, rather, if you put pressure on a fluid in one area, that pressure will transmit equally in
all possible directions.

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He imagined a liquid-filled bottle with an opening at the top. If 5 pounds of force was applied
with a cork to the opening, then that same 5 pounds of force would be transmitted equally to
every possible area of surface on the inside of the bottle. This is known as Pascal’s Law:
P=F/A
P – Pressure
F – Force
A – Area
It would be over a century before this principle was used in a meaningful way, but it went on
to provide the grounding for some of the most crucial hydraulic innovations in human
history. It provided an extremely valuable principle for anything that works with fluid
movement.
As a guiding principle and the basis for most modern hydraulic systems, it defined how
energy is harnessed and led to the invention of the hydraulic press.
Pascal’s Law was put into motion with the dawn of the Industrial Revolution over 100 years
or so later. English inventor and locksmith, Joseph Bramah (1748-1814), patented his
“Hydrostatic Machine” in 1795.
Using Pascal’s law, Bramah took two liquid-filled cylinders of differing sizes and connected
them by a pipe. When pressure was applied to the top of the smaller cylinder it would force
the liquid to put a huge amount of pressure on the larger cylinder. Cylinders with matching
pistons, sealed with leather and self-tightening collars, were introduced – Bramah had the
basis of the first known hydraulic press.
Along with William George Armstrong, he can be considered one of the two fathers of
hydraulic engineering. William George Armstrong (1810-1900) experimented with
hydraulics and developed the rotary engine, although there was no real fanfare for his
invention at the time. Later, he went on to discover what we know as the Armstrong effect,
whereby electric energy could be created from escaping, high pressure steam.
Armstrong used hydraulics to design a crane with a powerful reciprocating ram, using the
technology to bipurpose the water supply of a town as a source of power – this led to a
successful business in crane manufacturing.
Later, Armstrong went on to develop the hydraulic accumulator. The hydraulic accumulator
served several purposes, bypassing the need for a reservoir and allowing for much higher
pressuresHydraulic cylinders are utilized for a number of different equipment types and
systems, providing the essential power for them to operate appropriately. There are many
different hydraulic cylinder uses along with many different cylinder types. And with so many
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implementations, the hydraulic cylinder industry is worth quite a lot. In fact, as of 2020, the
hydraulic cylinder market was worth $13.4 billion. And with so many emerging projects and
industries implementing hydraulic applications, it’s only expected to grow.
Wondering if one of the types of hydraulic cylinders can benefit your business? You’ve come
to the right place. To assist, we are breaking down the top applications of hydraulic
cylinders.Hydraulic cylinder find wide application in construction,waste management,food
industry,mining,infrastructure repairs,metal production,marine and agriculture.
A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a circular gear (the pinion)
engaging a linear gear (the rack). Together, they convert between rotational motion and linear
motion. Rotating the pinion causes the rack to be driven in a line. Conversely, moving the
rack linearly will cause the pinion to rotate. A rack-and-pinion drive can use both straight and
helical gears. Though some suggest helical gears are quieter in operation, no hard evidence
supports this theory. Helical racks, while being more affordable, have proven to increase side
torque on the datums, increasing operating temperature leading to premature wear. Straight
racks require a lower driving force and offer increased torque and speed per fraction of gear
ratio which allows lower operating temperature and lessens viscal friction and energy use.
The maximum force that can be transmitted in a rack-and-pinion mechanism is determined by
the torque on the pinion and its size, or, conversely, by the force on the rack and the size of
the pinion.
The rack-and-pinion mechanism was first developed in China by firearms designer Zhao
Shizhen. In his book of 1598 AD, the Shen Qi Pu (神器譜), the Xuanyuan arquebus (軒轅銃)
featured a firing mechanism using a rack-and-pinion system that was inspired by Turkish
matchlock designs that featured a novel pivoting firing mechanism. The Xuanyuan arquebus
was designed in response to contemporary firearm unreliability problems arising from rainy
and windy conditions, and offered a trigger that simultaneously operated both the flash pan
and serpentine. The Wu Pei Chih (1621) later described Ottoman Turkish muskets that used a
rack-and-pinion mechanism.
A rack and pinion are used when converting rotational movement to linear motion (or vice
versa). A bar shaped gear with an infinite (flat surface) radius of a cylindrical gear is called a
rack, and a meshed spur gear is called a pinion. A rack can be used by extending it combining
as many racks with machining operation on the end faces when necessary.
Rack and pinions are used for lifting mechanisms (vertical movement), horizontal
movement, positioning mechanisms, stoppers and to permit the synchronous rotation of
several shafts in general industrial machinery. On the other hand, they are also used in
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steering systems to change the direction of cars. The characteristics of rack and pinion
systems in steering are as follows: simple structure, high rigidity, small and lightweight, and
excellent responsiveness. With this mechanism, the pinion, mounted to the steering shaft, is
meshed with a steering rack to transmit rotary motion laterlly (converting it to linear motion)
so that you can control the wheel. In addition, rack and pinions are used for various other
purposes, such as toys and lateral slide gates.
Rack and pinion gear’s finds their applications in various industries; Automotive Industry,
Robotics, Industrial Automation, Steering in Vehicles, CNC Machinery, Industrial
Automation, Elevators, Linear Actuators, Printing and Packaging Machinery, Woodworking
Tools,Gantry Systems, Amusement Park Rides, Solar Tracking Systems, Dental Chairs,
Agricultural Equipment, Automated Warehouses, Pipe Cutting and Welding Machines and
Material Handling Systems.
5.2 Classification of Hydraulic Cylinder and Rack Pinion
5.2.1 Hydraulic cylinder
Hydraulic Cylinders come as either Single or Double Acting. If only one chamber is
pressurized by the hydraulic fluid, it is a single acting, otherwise it‘s double acting.
Single Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

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In a single acting cylinder, there is one chamber that receives pressurized hydraulic fluid.
Which side that is will depend on the intended use of the cylinder. If it is meant for a pushing
motion, the chamber opposite the cylinder rod will be pressurized. The other chamber is
usually spring loaded to cater for the retraction. If the chamber with the cylinder rod is the
one pressurized, it will be a pull motion. The opposite chamber will also be spring loaded to
cater for the protrusion. Hydraulic Cylinders come as either Single or Double Acting. If only
one chamber is pressurized by the hydraulic fluid, it is a single acting, otherwise it‘s double
acting.

Figure 5.11. Single Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Advantages of Single Acting Cylinder

 Simple to design, manufacture and easy to install
 Low cost of initial purchase
 Single port (Input) and small housing
 Reduces the costs in valve and piping costs
Single Acting Disadvantages
 The thrust generated by the cylinder is reduced due to the spring that is supplying an
opposite force
 When the spring wears off, the strokes of the cylinder will become inconsistent.
Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

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In a double acting cylinder, both chambers can be pressurized. Of the two chambers, the one
that accommodates the cylinder rod will have little surface in contact with the hydraulic fluid,
since we cannot take into account the surface area of the piston already occupied by the
cylinder rod. This difference in the surface area will need less pressure to retract than the
other. Thus, pressure control and direction control is important in this set up of hydraulic
systems.

Figure 5.12. Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Advantages of Double Acting Cylinders

 It has a lot of control over movement considering pressurized air moves both ways
 Faster, stronger and use less energy
 It offers a variety in design options for stroke and bore size
 It offers a force in all directions, that is push and pull motions
 Double Acting Disadvantages
 Costlier than single pneumatic cylinders
 They need a bigger housing if used for example as a feed cylinder because of the
coupling required
5.2.2 Rack pinion
Rack and pinion gears are available in three variations:

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Straight teeth
It have the tooth axis parallel to the axis of rotation. Straight teeth that run parallel to the axis
of the gear. Load movement or transfer is manual or walk-behind.

Figure 5.13. Spur Teeth

Helical teeth
Helical teeth gears provide continuous engagement along the tooth length and are often
quieter and more efficient than straight tooth gears. Helical tooth gears resemble spur gears in
the plane of rotation, but include teeth that are twisted along a helical path in the axial
direction

Figure 5.14. Helical Teeth

Roller pinion
Roller pinion drives use bearing supported rollers that mesh with the teeth of that rack in
orderto provide minimal to no backlash

Figure 5.15. Roller Pinion

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5.3 Application area of Hydraulic cylinder and Rack pinion
5.3.1 Hydraulic cylinder
Construction
One of the most prevalent industries for hydraulic cylinder usage is construction.Construction
sites are home to many different tools and equipment types, many of which rely on hydraulic
systems. For instance, a hydraulic cylinder can assist in powering essential tools, such as
forklifts, excavators, and bulldozers.
In fact, hydraulic cylinders are often used from the very start of construction, providing the
focused energy needed for the completion of your project. This is because hydraulic cylinders
and pumps are often used in material handling equipment, concrete, and brick molding
machines. So, they help lay the groundwork for your project. It’s not the only place hydraulic
cylinders are needed - you’ll see them throughout construction sites as projects come to life.
Waste Management
hydraulic cylinder usage
In the waste management industry, hydraulic cylinder applications are seen in various
equipment and systems such as loaders, collection equipment, and lifters. Hydraulic cylinders
are commonly used here as they help provide the necessary torque to control these large
machines.
Additionally, trash compactors use hydraulic cylinders and motors to compact waste,
conserving space within the truck and allowing for more waste removal in the process while
limiting fuel consumption.
Hydraulic cylinders are also seen with street sweepers, helping to rotate the brushes. Plus,
they are beneficial for sweepers that use water, helping reduce the water needed for a high-
pressure mist for cleaner roads.
Food Industry
Another common application of hydraulic cylinder systems is in the food industry. In many
cases, different types of hydraulic cylinders are needed to power equipment in this industry.
For instance, a hydraulic pump can power equipment, such as forklifts to transfer materials.
Occasionally, conveyor systems will source power using hydraulic cylinders helping them
process, package, and position food products. This often requires a more powerful hydraulic
cylinder and the help of a professional.

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Additionally, hydraulic systems help ensure consistent torque for important equipment in the
industry, such as procedures involving shaping, cutting, separating, transferring ingredients,
mixing, and dicing.
Ultimately, hydraulic cylinders are essential to the food packaging industry to keep food fresh
and achieve precision, and much of the industry's success depends on hydraulic cylinders.
Mining
Another popular hydraulic cylinder use is in mining, especially when it comes to an essential
piece of equipment - the stacker reclaimer.
A stacker reclaimer is a large mining machine involved in handling bulk materials. Since it
can move multiple thousands of tons of aggregates every hour, it needs regular maintenance.
This is where hydraulic cylinders come in, assisting in lifting the unit when things such as
bearings need replacing.
Infrastructure Repairs
Hydraulic cylinders are beneficial to use in different infrastructure repairs, including
everything from lifting buildings to leveling bridges.
To lift large structures, such as buildings, hydraulic jacks are used in tandem with lifting
systems to lift these heavy buildings. This is beneficial when the foundation of a building is
in need of repair.
Another use is to lower and level structures such as bridges. This involves a bar lowering
method, using single-acting high-tonnage cylinders and synchronous control units to control
the bridge down and level it out.
Metal Production
Another hydraulic cylinder used is in metal production. Often, hydraulic presses containing
hydraulic cylinders are used in metal production. These cylinders exert force on metal,
allowing it to be cut, bent, drilled, and assembled into pieces. Some of the hydraulic-powered
machines that make this happen are grinders, planners, honing machines, and gears.
Due to the complexity involved in metal products, more robust hydraulic cylinders are
required to make it possible, making consulting a professional on the different types of
hydraulic cylinders more important.
Marine
Hydraulic cylinders are used in the marine industry in several ways, including handling
equipment and placing heavy loads onto a ship.

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For instance, in cases where the slew bearing needs replacing on a ship loader, the upper
structure needs to be lifted. To do this, double-acting cylinders are used in tandem with a
lifting system to make this possible.
When it comes to controlling a ship in the water, hydraulic cylinders often play a critical role.
It’s essential that loads remain even, with even weight distribution. In order to address
uneven ships, a lifting system and double-acting cylinder help slowly lower cargo into the
vessel.
Agriculture
it comes to the agriculture industry, a multitude of machines are controlled by hydraulic
cylinders. This includes everything from tractors, to loaders, spraying equipment, ballers,
heavy machines for planting, weeding, and harvesting, as well as skid steers.
With so much of the industry relying on the application of hydraulic cylinder equipment,
hydraulic cylinders have become essential to the process of planting crops and rearing
livestock. Plus, hydraulic cylinder usage is also seen with equipment such as wood splitters,
making it a truly unavoidable addition to your agricultural projects.
5.3.2 Rack pinion
Rack steering in an automobile
A rack and pinion is commonly found in the steering mechanism of cars or other wheeled,
steered vehicles. Rack and pinion provides less mechanical advantage than other mechanisms
such as recirculating ball, but less backlash and greater feedback, or steering "feel". The
mechanism may be power-assisted, usually by hydraulic or electrical means.
The use of a variable rack (still using a normal pinion) was invented by Arthur Ernest
Bishop[2] in the 1970s, so as to improve vehicle response and steering "feel", especially at
high speeds. He also created a low cost press forging process to manufacture the racks,
eliminating the need to machine the gear teeth.
Rack railway
Rack railways are mountain railways that use a rack built into the center of the track and a
pinion on their locomotives. This allows them to work on steep gradients, up to 45 degrees,
as opposed to conventional railways which rely on friction alone for locomotion.
Additionally, the rack and pinion addition provides these trains with controlled brakes and
reduces the effects of snow or ice on the rails.
Actuators
Pneumatic rack-and-pinion actuators

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A rack and pinion with two racks and one pinion is used in actuators. An example is
pneumatic rack-and-pinion actuators that can be used to control valves in pipeline transport.
The actuators in the picture on the right are used to control the valves of large water pipeline.
In the top actuator, a gray control signal line can be seen connecting to a solenoid valve (the
small black box attached to the back of the top actuator), which is used as the pilot for the
actuator. The solenoid valve controls the air pressure coming from the input air line (the
small green tube). The output air from the solenoid valve is fed to the chamber in the middle
of the actuator, increasing the pressure. The pressure in the actuator's chamber pushes the
pistons away. While the pistons are moving apart from each other, the attached racks are also
moved along the pistons in the opposite directions of the two racks. The two racks are
meshed to a pinion at the direct opposite teeth of the pinion. When the two racks move, the
pinion is turned, causing the attached main valve of the water pipe to turn.
5.4 Component of Hydraulic cylinder and Rack pinion
5.4.1 Hydraulic cylinder
Hydraulic cylinders haven’t changed much since their introduction in 1795 due to the
simplicity of their design. Read about the 7 basic components that make up hydraulic
cylinders. Learn more about the history of the hydraulic cylinder in this article.
The hydraulic cylinder, also known as a linear hydraulic motor. This engineering marvel
enables all your heavy engineering vehicles to operate. It enables your employees to complete
construction, mining and farming related tasks quickly and efficiently by the application
through those machines.
Understanding your equipment gives you an edge over your competitors. You can identify
problems and propose solutions, saving you time and money. If any of these parts break or if
you need a part, we at

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Kappa Engineering specialise in all the aspects of hydraulic cylinders. Whatever your
hydraulic cylinder needs, we will be able to help.

Figure 5.16. Part of Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

Hydraulic Cylinder Barrel

The barrel is designed to contain the pressure of the cylinder. This barrel is made from honed
tubes which are made from Cold Drawn Seamless Tubes. This steel has to be suitable to be
honed. Honing is an abrasive machining process used to produce a precision and smooth
surface on the metal that is being honed. Honing is one of the main processes to manufacture
a hydraulic cylinder tube. The inside surface of the tube should have a smooth inside surface,
be durable and have a high precision tolerance.
Cylinder Head (End Cap)
The cylinder head, also known as the “blind end”. This part is inside the cylinder barrel and is
not exposed to daylight, hence the name. This part encloses the pressure chamber from one
end of the cylinder. The cylinder head has the option for an integrated rod sealing
arrangement or an option for a seal gland which we will discuss in this article in detail.
Hydraulic Cylinder Base or Gland
This part encloses the pressure from the other end of the cylinder barrel. This part is also
referred to as the rod end. This can be identified by an opening where the cylinder rod
connects to. The cylinder gland is connected by welding, threading, bolts or tie rods as in the
example of our 150 series cylinders. The 150 series cylinder caps are connected by tie rods.
The gland is also used as a cylinder mounting component. Examples of these mounting

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components are the cap flange, gland trunnion and the gland clevis. The gland size is
determined by the bending stress resistance required by the hydraulic cylinder.
Piston
The piston inside the hydraulic cylinder is used to separate the pressure zones inside the
barrel. The piston is machined to fit rubber or metallic seals which can be single-acting or
double-acting. The piston rod is attached through threads, bolts or nuts to transfer the linear
motion. Depending on where pressure is applied on either side of the piston will cause the
hydraulic cylinder to extend or retract. Applying pressure, for example, on the cap end will
extend the cylinder rod outside of the barrel.
Piston rodAlso known as the cylinder rod. This is made from hard chrome plated cold rolled
steel. The rod is attached to the piston and the cylinder head. The piston rod connects the
hydraulic cylinder to the machine component that is used to do work. The piston rod is made
from hard chrome for its properties to be grounded and polished very well. This ensures a
reliable seal which prevents leaks.
Seal gland
The hydraulic cylinder gland is fitted with a number of seals that prevent the pressured oil
from leaking past the interface of the cylinder rod and the cylinder head. If you take the
option of the seal gland this will give you the advantage of easy removal and replacement of
all the seals needed to prevent leaks
The seals within the seal gland are the primary seal, secondary seal, wear bands, wiper,
scrapper and the static seal.
Seals
The seals used within the seal gland are made specifically according to the cylinder working
pressure, speed of the cylinder, operating temperature and the application of the hydraulic
cylinder. These are dynamic seals and can be single-acting or double-acting. Hydraulic
cylinders used in lower temperature environments use Elastomer seals made from nitrile
rubber. If your hydraulic cylinders are used at a higher temperature make sure your seals are
made of Fluorocarbon Viton as this is better suited for those temperatures. The wiper and
scraper seals are used to eliminate contaminants such as dirt and water which can cause
extensive damage to the hydraulic cylinder walls. The wear bands are used to avoid metal to
metal contact, which if they are absent, will also cause damage to the cylinder walls.

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5.4.2 Rack pinion
The main components of a rack and pinion system include:

Figure 5.17. Rack Pinion

Rack
The rack is a straight toothed bar that is attached to the vehicle's chassis. It has teeth along its
length, and these teeth mesh with the pinion gear to convert the rotational motion into linear
motion.
Pinion Gear
The pinion gear is a small round gear that is connected to the steering wheel. When the
steering wheel is turned, the pinion gear rotates, causing the teeth on the rack to engage and
move the rack linearly.
Tie rods
The tie rods are long metal rods that connect the ends of the rack to the steering knuckles or
spindles of the front wheels. As the rack moves linearly, it pushes or pulls the tie rods, which
then transmit the motion to the wheels, causing them to turn.
Steering shaft
The steering shaft connects the pinion gear to the steering wheel. It transfers the rotational
motion from the steering wheel to the pinion gear, initiating the steering process.
Mounting brackets and bushings
Rack and pinion systems are typically mounted to the vehicle's chassis using mounting
brackets. These brackets secure the rack in place while allowing it to move linearly.
Additionally, bushings are used to provide support and reduce vibration and noise in the
system.
Power steering components (optional)

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In some vehicles, rack and pinion systems are assisted by power steering. Power steering
components, such as a power steering pump, hydraulic lines, and a steering gear, can be
incorporated to make steering easier by providing additional force.
These are the primary components of a rack and pinion steering system. However, it's worth
noting that the exact design and configuration can vary depending on the specific vehicle and
manufacturer.
5.5 Literature Review
At the start of the 17th century, the study of hydraulics advanced with Simon Stevin’s
discovery of the hydrostatic paradox and the study of non-moving water, and Galileo
Galilei’s observations on gravity. Galileo studied gravitational acceleration, which played
into the movement of water. His students included Evangelista Torricelli, who applied this
knowledge to liquid jets and the liquid barometer, and Benedetto Castelli, who rediscovered
the principle of continuity.
As a teenager, the Frenchman Blaise Pascal started work on mechanical calculators and
became one of the first two inventors of the device. He made contributions to mathematics —
such as Pascal’s triangle — and studied hydraulic fluids. Building off the work of Torricelli
and studies on vacuum space, Pascal came up with his law in 1648. Pascal’s Law says that if
pressure is applied to a fluid inside of a closed system, the pressure will be equally
transmitted in all directions. Essentially, the pressure within a closed system stays constant.
This principle laid the groundwork for some of the most critical hydraulic innovations in the
industrial world. It defined how energy is harnessed and therefore this principle is the basis
for most modern hydraulic systems. Pascal’s work led to the invention of the hydraulic press
and provided an extremely valuable principle for anything that works with fluid movement.
About a century and a half later, Joseph Bramah patented the hydraulic press in 1795. In this
invention, he used Pascal’s discovery to multiply a small amount of force and create large
amounts of pressure capable of powering machinery and lifting very heavy objects. Part of
what makes the hydraulic press so useful is that a hydraulic press uses small, flexible tubing.
In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli published his book Hydrodynamica, in which he described how
water behaves under certain conditions and how it reacts to equilibrium, pressure and speed.
Bernoulli’s principle was based on his studies of energy conservation. Bernoulli worked
closely with the mathematician Leonhard Euler, who may have derived the Bernoulli
equation first. He also developed several important hydraulic equations and a hydraulic
turbine.
The 19th century led to many advancements in hydraulics.
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The effects of temperature on pipe flow and determining flow rate: Isaac Newton was
studying various properties of fluids at this time. Then, Gotthilf Ludwig Hagen conducted
experiments to find the effects of temperature on pipe flow. Even though he was working off
of Newton’s base of knowledge, his results were within 1% of modern measurements. His
experiments involved injecting sawdust into a fluid to see the motion more clearly. Over in
France, Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille was researching flow as well, but his work was about
the flow of blood through the body. His research led to equations on laminar flow in piping.
His work, along with that of Hagen, was used to develop the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. This
equation states that the flow rate is dependent on fluid viscosity, pipe length and the pressure
difference between the ends.
The development of the rotary engine and hydraulic accumulator: In 1838, William George
Armstrong, a man considered the grandfather of modern hydraulic power, began to
experiment with hydraulics and developed a rotary engine. Unfortunately, no one cared for it
at the time. He then discovered what became known as the Armstrong effect, or creating an
electric charge from the escaped high-pressure steam of a boiler. He later designed a crane
powered by hydraulics with a reciprocating ram. Armstrong modified an existing crane to use
a town’s water supply as a source of power. He started a business using this arrangement and
began to manufacture cranes with this method. Later, Armstrong also developed the hydraulic
accumulator which accomplished several goals. It bypassed the need for reservoirs, allowed
for much higher pressures and created a system for hydraulic power to move between widely
spaced hydraulic devices.
The introduction and regulations of hydraulic mining: When the California Gold Rush arrived
in the United States in the 1840s, hydraulic mining developed out of the Roman “hushing”
methods. This type of mining used high-pressure water jets that look like cannons to excavate
rock. The machines could be 16 to 18 feet long. By removing rock and sediment, workers
could access much more gold. Quickly, farmers and settlers felt the damage this method had
on the environment, as miners placed the excavated soil into nearby creeks or canyons —
which filled up and blocked waterways and downstream farms that relied on the water. This
process quickly became regulated, and although still used today, is still legally regulated.
While the rack and pinion steering system has been used by U.S. automotive manufacturers
for less than 50 years, the concept is nearly a century old in other countries. Hemmings Motor
News reports that in the 1930s, BMW produced the first rack and pinion gearbox. The first
American automotive manufacturer to use rack and pinion steering in production was Ford,
which used it for the 1974 Mustang II and the 1974 Pinto. While AMC adopted the system
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soon after for the 1975 Pacer, GM and Chrysler would not manufacture cars with rack and
pinion steering until the 1980s. Cog Railways
In 1811, English engineer John Blenkinsop invented a system that would increase the traction
of lightweight railroad locomotives. In Blenkinsop’s system, the steam engine drove a geared
wheel that engaged a geared rail on one side of the track. This rack and pinion system pulled
the engine along the track, allowing it to more efficiently transmit its power to the rails and
move up steep inclines. The system worked well, and the basic design is still in use on
modern cog railways.
European auto manufacturers began to use rack and pinion steering systems, in which the
pinion is turned by the action of the steering wheel and the car’s wheels are moved by the
corresponding movement of the rack, in the 1930s. These systems replaced recirculating-ball
steering systems, which are more complex than rack and pinion systems and more expensive
to build. American automakers
were slow to adopt rack and pinion steering technology, and the first American production
cars to use the systems, the Ford Mustang II and Pinto, debuted in 1974.
A shortcoming of basic rack and pinion steering is that it tends to be overly sensitive when
used at high speeds, causing small steering inputs to result in potentially dangerous
movements of the wheels. In 1973, Australian engineer Arthur E. Bishop patented a variable
ratio rack and pinion system that attempted to solve this problem. Bishop’s system uses a
rack with varied tooth spacing along its length, with closely spaced teeth at the ends and more
widely spaced teeth near the center. The effect is that movement of the steering wheel causes
relatively little movement of the wheels at the beginning of a turn and more movement of the
wheels as the steering wheel is moved further.
Moving a car’s wheels with a basic mechanical system can be difficult, and since rack and
pinion mechanisms provide less mechanical advantage than systems such as a recirculating-
ball mechanism, they require even more effort to operate. By the 1960s, American
automakers offered power-assisted steering as an option or standard equipment on most of
their models. Power steering systems use a hydraulic cylinder to help move the rack, and the
cylinder is actuated by input from the steering wheel. Early power steering systems suffered
from oversensitivity at high speeds, and in the 1980s manufacturers developed electronic
control systems that limited power assist as the vehicle’s speed increased.
5.6 Problem statement
Trolley is most important equipment in many manufacturing factory.During my internship
time I saw some defects on existing trolley in the shop,these are;
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  Height of trolley is difficult to load work piece on saddle.
 The saddle was welded on top of trolley and fixed type.
 Man labour needed to load work piece on top of trolley.
 It moves place to pleace by external push.
Mostly I focused on saddle body defects and reduction man labour during loading or
landing different work piece.
5.5 Objectives of Modified Trolley Machine Project
5.5.1 Main Objectives of the Project
The general objective of this project is modifiying trolley by changing and modifiying its
parts,like hydraulic cylinder,rack pinion and magnetic holder.
5.5.2 Specific Objective of the Project
 To design each part of the modified trolley,like hydraulic cylinder and rack pinion.
 To understand the properity and application of different material.
5.6 Scope and Significance of the Project
5.6.1 Scope of the Project
This project mainly focused on modifiy the existing trolley.In order to design I use
hydraulic cylinder,rack pinion and maginetic holder.
5.6.2 Significance of the Project
Modified trolley machine have great importance in SHBG wor shops
 It used to transport sheet metal in sheet metal machine shop.
 It used to loading and landing work piece in automotive(auto shop) and
 It also used to transport different weighted load in th SHBG compound.
5.7 Material Selections
The selection of material to design ahydraulic cylinder and rack pinion must be approved by
engineers.Mostly economic material at the lowest cost or lowest maintenance cost that will be
satisfactory under working conditon.There are many factors supported by experience and
labaratory tests result that must be considered in selecting in the most suitable material. Here
are some key criteria to consider:
Strength and Durability
Choose materials with high tensile strength to withstand the forces and pressures exerted
during hydraulic operations. Consider materials with good fatigue resistance to ensure
longevity and durability over repeated cycles.
Corrosion Resistance

35
Hydraulic cylinders often operate in environments where they are exposed to moisture and
various chemicals. Select materials with excellent corrosion resistance to maintain
performance and prevent degradation over time.
Wear Resistance
The components of hydraulic cylinders, especially the seals and sliding surfaces, are subject
to wear. Opt for materials that exhibit good wear resistance to minimize the impact of friction
and abrasion, thereby extending the lifespan of the cylinder.
Machinability
Choose materials that are easily machinable to facilitate the manufacturing process. This is
particularly important for producing precise components and achieving tight tolerances.
Heat Resistance
Hydraulic cylinders may generate heat during operation. Select materials that can withstand
elevated temperatures without losing their mechanical properties or compromising
performance.
Cost
Consider the overall cost of materials, including raw material costs, manufacturing expenses,
and potential maintenance costs. Balancing cost with performance is crucial for cost-effective
design.
Weight
Keep the weight of the material in mind, especially in mobile hydraulic systems where
weight is a critical factor. Lighter materials can contribute to improved efficiency and
reduced energy consumption.
Compatibility with Hydraulic Fluids
Ensure that the selected materials are compatible with the hydraulic fluids used in the system.
Some materials may react with certain fluids, leading to degradation or failure.
Ease of Welding and Assembly
If welding or assembly processes are involved in the manufacturing of the hydraulic
cylinder, consider materials that are easily weldable and can be assembled with minimal
difficulty.
Availability and Sourcing
Ensure that the chosen materials are readily available in the market. Consider sourcing
challenges, lead times, and potential supply chain issues.
Hydraulic cylinders are essential components in hydraulic systems, providing linear force
and motion. The choice of materials for manufacturing hydraulic cylinders depends on
36
factors such as the application, operating conditions, and desired performance. Here is a list
of materials commonly used in the manufacturing of hydraulic cylinders:
5.7.1 Carbon Steel
Steel is one of the most commonly found and important metals for mankind. When you look
around you, you will see that almost everything in your house has some element of steel in it.
Similarly, there are different types of carbon steel which serve different purposes. If we look
at it particularly, we will see that its characteristics make it very useful in different sectors.
Carbon steel is a steel alloy that contains anything ranging from 0.12% to 2% of carbon. Any
steel can also be called the same if it does not contain the certified minimum amount of major
materials.
Advantages and Disadvanteges
In comparison to other materials, carbon steel show many benefits:
 Carbon steel is extremely durable.
 The shock resistance makes such steel grades very popular for the construction
industry.
 The resistance to fires, earthquakes and hurricanes makes carbon steels a great
material for building homes and houses.
 The fact that carbon steel is very easy to recycle makes it environmentally friendly.
 Compared to other materials, carbon steel can be made very thin. As a consequence, it
is very cost effective.
On the other hand, however, there are some disadvantages.
 Due to the low weldability,
 carbon steels can be difficult to work with.
 Furthermore, other steel grades often show better corrosion resistance.
5.7.2 Stainless Steel
Stainless steel, also known as inox, corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) and rustless steel, is an alloy of
iron that is resistant to rusting and corrosion. It contains at least 10.5% chromium and usually nickel,
and may also contain other elements, such as carbon, to obtain the desired properties. Stainless steel's
resistance to corrosion results from the chromium, which forms a passive film that can protect the
material and self-heal in the presence of oxygen.
The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications.
Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware,
cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances, vehicles, construction material in large buildings,

37
industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and
tankers for chemicals and food products.
The biological cleanability of stainless steel is superior to both aluminium and copper, and
comparable to glass. Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use
of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.

Steel has a number of properties, including: hardness, toughness, tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation, fatigue strength, corrosion, plasticity, malleability and creep. The
properties that are most important in wear and abrasion-resistant steel are:

HARDNESS is the material’s ability to withstand friction and abrasion. It measures how
resistant the steel is to wear and tear. It is worth noting that, while it may mean the same as
strength and toughness in colloquial language, this is very different from strength and
toughness in the context of metal properties.

TOUGHNESS is difficult to define but generally is the ability to absorb energy without
fracturing or rupturing. It is also defined as a material’s resistance to fracture when stressed.
It is usually measured in foot lbs. per sq. in or Joules per sq. centimeter. It is important to
distinguish this from hardness as a material that severely deforms without breaking, could be
considered extremely tough, but not hard.

Yeild Strength is a measurement of the force required to start the deformation of the material
(i.e. bending or warping).
TENSILE strength is a measurement of the force required to break the material.
ELONGATION (or Ductility) is the “Degree” to which the material can be stretched or
compressed before it breaks. It is expressed as a percent of the length being tested and is
between the tensile strength and yield strength (i.e. what percent does the material bend
before breaking).
Advantages of Stainless Steel
 It also has a high tensile strength, meaning it won’t easily break or crack under
pressure. stainless steel is non-magnetic and highly recyclable
 stainless steel is its aesthetic appeal. This metal can be polished to a mirror-like shine
or brushed for a more subtle finish
 Stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, and other metals.

38
  It is highly resistant to corrosion and staining.
 It is easy to clean and maintain.
 It is durable and has a long lifespan.
 It is a versatile material that can be used for a variety of applications.
Disadvantages of Stainless Steel
 It can be very expensive.
 It is not as durable as some other materials.
 It can be difficult to clean.
 It is susceptible to scratches and dents.
 It is not magnetic, so it cannot be used with magnets.
5.7.3 Aluminium
Aluminium is a silvery-white metal, the 13 element in the periodic table. One surprising fact
about aluminium is that it's the most widespread metal on Earth, making up more than 8% of
the Earth's core mass. It's also the third most common chemical element on our planet after
oxygen and silicon.
Key Characteristics of aluminum
Aluminum extruding is a versatile metal-forming process that enables designers, engineers,
and manufacturers to take full advantage of a array of physical characteristics:
Light Weight
Aluminum has specific gravity of 2.7 and weighs only 0.1 pound per cubic inch. It weighs
less by volume than most other metals. In fact, it is about one-third the weight of iron, steel,
copper, or brass. Lightweight aluminum is easier to handle, less expensive to ship, and is an
attractive material for applications in fields such as aerospace, high-rise construction, and
automotive design. When used in the transportation field it can yield significant benefits in a
reduction of fuel usage.
Strong
Aluminum profiles can be made as strong as needed for most applications. When temperature
falls, it becomes even stronger, so it is most commonly used material in cold area
High Strength-to-Weight Ratio:
Aluminum offers a unique combination of lightweight and high strength. Higher strengths
can be obtained by adding one or more of the following: manganese, silicon, copper,
magnesium, or zinc. Increases can also be accomplished by specialized heat treatments.

39
Nowadays, the aerospace industry and the automotive industry heavily depend on aluminum
as the material.
Corrosion resistance
The excellent corrosion resistance of aluminum is due to the presence of a thin, hard
protective film of aluminum oxide that bonds tenaciously to the surface. This occurs naturally
and can reach a thickness of 0.2 millionths of an inch. Further protection can be done by
applying paint or an anodize finish. It does not rust like steel.
Excellent Thermal Conductor
Aluminum is an excellent conductor of both heat and cold. These factors make aluminum
ideal for applications requiring heat exchangers, refrigerator evaporators, and engine
components. The aluminum extrusion process is ideal in producing custom shapes that make
optimal use of thermal conduction properties.
Excellent Electricity Conductor
Aluminum is the least expensive metal with an electrical conductivity high enough for use as
an electrical conductor. Because of its low density, aluminum will conduct more than twice
as much current as the equivalent weight of copper. Various aluminum alloys have different
electrical conductivity, and can be adapted for special electrical applications, i.e. power
transmission lines.
Nonmagnetic
Because aluminum is non- magnetic it is useful for high-voltage applications, as well as for
electronics. It is also used to shield sensitive electronic devices.

Resilient
Aluminum can be easily formed or reworked into another shape. Aluminum combines
strength with flexibility and can flex under loads or spring back from the shock of impact.
There are a wide variety of different processes to rework aluminum, the more common ones
are: extrusion, rolling, forging, and drawing.
Reflective
Polished aluminum is an excellent reflector of radiant energy through the entire range of
wavelengths. Aluminum’s visible light reflectance (over 80%) has led to its widespread use
as lamp reflectors. It can be used to shield products or areas from light, radio waves, or
infrared radiation.
Non-Combustible

40
Aluminum will not ignite or burn, even when at extremely high temperatures it does not
produce toxic fumes.

Suitable to Extreme Cold

Aluminum is suitable for cryogenic purposes. The strength of aluminum actually increases
under very cold temperatures. This has led to the use of it in outer space, as well as for
aircraft and for construction in high latitudes.
Recyclable
Aluminum can be recycled at a fraction of the initial production costs. It can be recycled over
and over without losing any of its characteristics. This appeals to the manufactures, end uses
and environmental consortiums.
Appealing Appearance
Aluminum has an inherent advantage over most other metals because of its attractive
appearance and good corrosion resistance. There are many different finishing techniques that
can be used. The more common ones are: liquid paint (including acrylics, alkyds, polyesters,
and others), powder coatings, anodizing, or electroplating.
Workability
Complex shapes can be realized in one-piece extruded aluminum sections without having to
effect mechanical joining methods. The resultant profile typically is stronger than a
comparable assemblage, less likely to leak or loosen over time. Applications are: baseball
bats, refrigeration tubing and heat exchangers. Aluminum parts can be joined by welding,
soldering, or brazing, as well as though use of adhesives, clips, bolts, rivets, or other
fasteners. Integral joining methods may be especially useful for certain designs. Adhesive
bonding is used for such jobs as the joining of aluminum aircraft components.
Economical
The tooling or forming parts (dies) are relatively inexpensive and can be made in a short time
frame. The various types of tooling utilized can be changed quickly and often during
production runs, this makes it cost effective for small production runs.
Recycled Aluminum
Historically, aluminum has proven to be one of the most important materials in successful
recycling programs. Aluminum offers high scrap value, widespread consumer acceptance,
and aluminum recycling enjoys significant industry support.
Aluminum can be recycled and reused over and over without losing any of its characteristics.
There is no loss of quality in using recycled aluminum. The recycling of aluminum uses less
41
energy and can offer substantial costs benefits. During many of the manufacturing processes
involving aluminum there is scrap generated. This is usually returned to the smelters or
casting facilities and reused to make the raw material again. Compared to the initial four
pounds of ore to produce one pound of aluminum, every pound of recycled aluminum saves
four pounds of ore.
Disadvantages Of Aluminium
Costly
Unfortunately, aluminum is more expensive than some other materials, such as steel.
Furthermore, because it cannot withstand the same stresses as steel, more of it is required to
ensure the structure’s strength is viable, which means that using it in some designs may cost
more in the long run.
Strength
Second, although aluminium is strong for its weight and resistant to corrosion, it does not
possess the same strength as steel or other heavy-duty structural materials; making it
unsuitable for certain projects where higher load capacity is needed.
Welding difficulty
Regardless of the benefits, the aluminum welding process is still time-consuming. For
starters, it has a lower melting point than other metals. As a result, the material tends to burn
before melting. Second, aluminum has a high thermal expansion coefficient, which causes
serious problems during the welding process. Furthermore, when aluminum is molten, it
absorbs hydrogen, and when it returns to solid form, the bubbles are left behind, making it
porous. Then, because it has a high affinity for oxygen, the oxides must be cleaned before the
welding process can begin. All of these f What is low-carbon steel?
Low-carbon steel, also known as mild steel, has a comparatively low radio of carbon to iron
compared to other steel types. Typically, its carbon content is within the range of 0.05% and
0.32% by weight. This gives low-carbon steel low strength while making it more malleable
and ductile compared to high-carbon steel.actors combine to make aluminum difficult to
work with.
Weak
Although aluminum has a good strength-to-weight ratio, steel takes the lead when only
strength is considered. As a result, steel is used instead of aluminum for projects where
weight is not an issue. Aluminum is also ductile and highly malleable, which is a
disadvantage because structures made of aluminum are easily dented and scratched. Steel is
once again a good choice for projects that require stronger structures.
42
Fastener Joints
Finally, one of the most well-known drawbacks of using aluminium involves fastener joints
that are prone to galvanic corrosion when coupled with dissimilar metals (such as steel). To
prevent this issue from occurring, special anti-corrosion preparations must be used prior to
assembly.
5.7.4 Low-Carbon steel
Low-carbon steel, also known as mild steel, has a comparatively low radio of carbon to iron
compared to other steel types. Typically, its carbon content is within the range of 0.05% and
0.32% by weight. This gives low-carbon steel low strength while making it more malleable
and ductile compared to high-carbon steel. Advantages of Low Carbon Steel
One of the biggest advantages of using low-temperature carbon steel is its strength and
durability in cold weather conditions. This makes it an excellent choice for outdoor structures
and equipment applications, as it will not be damaged by exposure to cold temperatures or
extreme weather conditions. Additionally, low-temperature carbon steel is highly resistant to
corrosion, making it a great choice for applications where strong corrosion resistance is
required.

Another advantage of using low-temperature carbon steel is its ability to retain its form at
lower temperatures. This means that there is less risk of cracking or other forms of damage
when exposed to cold temperatures or extreme weather conditions. Finally, low-temperature
carbon steel can be relatively inexpensive compared to other types of steel, making it an
affordable option for many projects or applications.

 Is more ductile than other types of steel.

 Is less brittle than other types of steel.
 Is less likely to crack or shatter under impact.
 Is more resistant to corrosion than other types of steel.
 Is easier to weld than other types of steel.

Disadvantages of Low Carbon Steel

Low Strength

43
One of the primary disadvantages of low-temperature carbon steel is that it has lower strength
than other types of steel. This means that it is less suitable for use in applications where high
levels of strength are required, such as in the construction of buildings or bridges.
Reduced Ductility
Another downside to low-temperature carbon steel is that it has reduced ductility. Ductility
refers to a material’s ability to deform under stress without breaking. This makes low-
temperature carbon steel less suitable for applications where ductility is important, such as in
the automotive industry.
Increased brittleness
Another disadvantage of low-temperature carbon steel is that it is more brittle than other
types of steel. This means it is more likely to break or shatter under impact or stress. This can
make it dangerous to use in certain applications, such as in the construction of buildings or
bridges.
Corrosion Issues
Low-temperature carbon steel is also prone to corrosion issues. This means it may rust or
corrode when moisture or certain chemicals are exposed. This can make it unsuitable for use
in many industries, such as the food and beverage industry.
Difficult to Weld
Another issue with low-temperature carbon steel is that it is difficult to weld. It may be hard
to combine two pieces of low-temperature carbon steel using traditional welding methods.
This can make fabricating or repairing products made from this type of steel difficult.
5.8 Working Enviroment

5.8.1 Working Temperature

The permissible operating temperatures of our hydraulic cylinders range from -20°C to +
80°C, as standard.The main reason for this is the optimal function and high durability within
these temperature ranges of the sealing materials we use. In general, at higher or lower
temperatures, an accurate view of the entire plant and its use is necessary in order to develop
a good solution. The media used are also influenced by the temperatures. Low temperatures
cause high viscosities that can impair the functionality, and too high temperatures can destroy
materials.
If the temperature is too high, the medium can also be damaged. Nucleation or a change in
the chemical composition can alter the properties and affect the overall system. Constructed

44
electronic components such as switches or displacement transducers are generally not capable
of withstanding high temperatures.
For extreme applications, however, The working temperature of rack and pinion gears
depends on various factors, including the materials used, lubrication, and operating
conditions. In general, common working temperatures for rack and pinion gears can range
from -40°C to 150°C (-40°F to 302°F). However, these values can vary based on the specific
application and the type of lubrication used. It's crucial to follow the manufacturer's
recommendations for temperature limits and ensure proper lubrication to maintain the
efficiency and longevity of the rack and pinion gear system.here are individual solutions that
can be used accordingly, e.g. special sealing materials that withstand temperatures of up to
200°C.
5.8.2 Working Pressure
Pascal’s law shows that:
Force = Pressure x Area
Within a hydraulic system, the pressure is given by a HPU (Hydraulic Pumping Unit). The
area is the size of the hydraulic piston. These two components determine the force that can be
exerted by the cylinder.
Therefore, the weight that can be pushed or lifted by a hydraulic cylinder is equal to the
pressure provided by the pump multiplied by the size of cylinder rod.
Most pumps have a standard range; usually from 3000 psi to 10,000 psi (210 to 690 Bar). The
average tends to be at the lower end of the range; around 210 Bar. A pump can lift an infinite
amount of weight, depending on how big the cylinder is. Increasing the PSI may require
adjusting the seals, valves and cylinder design to cope with increased pressure.
The pump also dictates the speed at which the cylinder can operate, as it provides hydraulic
fluid at the necessary flow rate.
5.8.3 Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic fluid is a non-compressible oil or liquid which will be used to transfer power
within hydraulic machinery and equipment.
This hydraulic fluid can be made of many elements but it is mainly mineral or petroleum
based, water based or synthetic.
It is very important that the fluid be incompressible to have an efficient hydraulic system.
These fluids can be:
Petroleum-based or mineral-based fluids

45
Petroleum-based or mineral-based fluids are the commonly used fluids today. They
commonly provide a low-cost, high quality, readily available selection. The properties of a
mineral based hydraulic fluid are dependent on the additives, quality of the virgin crude oil,
and the process that refined it. Common hydraulic fluid additives include rust and oxidation
inhibitors (R&O), anti corrosion agents, demulsifiers, anti-wear (AW) and extreme pressure
(EP) agents, VI improvers, and defoamants. Additionally, the lubricants can contain colorful
dyes, which help in identifying leaks. Because leaks in hydraulics are so costly, this minor
characteristic is important in extending the life of the equipment and saving money and
resources.
Water-based fluids
Water-based fluids are not as cost-efficient as petroleum-based fluids. They have drawbacks
which include the lowering of wear resistance. This must be weighed in contrast with the
advantage of fire-resistance. Fluids based on water are used for fire-resistance due to their
high-water content. They are usually available as oil in water emulsions, water in oil
emulsions, and water glycol blends. Water based fluids can provide appropriate lubrication
characteristics but need to be monitored closely to avoid problems. Since water based fluids
are used in applications where fire resistance is desirable, these systems and the atmosphere
around the systems can be hot. High temperatures can cause the water in the fluids to
evaporate, which raises the viscosity. Sometimes, distilled water will have to be added to the
system to rectify the balance of the fluid.
Synthetic fluids
Synthetic fluids are man-made lubricants that offer excellent lubrication characteristics in
high pressure situations as well as high temperature systems.
Synthetic fluids have advantages like:
 They are fire-resistant e.g phosphate esters
 They lower friction
 Thay have thermal stability
The drawback to these types of fluids
 Is that they are usually costlier than conventional fluids,
 They may be slightly toxic and need special disposal, and
 They are usually not compatible with standard seal material.

46
5.9 Magnetic Holder
A magnetic holder is a device that attracts objects by magnetic force and holds and fixes
them. Many products have a magnetic force enhanced by combining a metal and a magnet.
The metals used for the material include iron and steel, and the magnets include alnico
magnets, neodymium magnets, and cobalt magnets.
Magnetic holders have become an indispensable part of our everyday life. This not only
includes large magnet systems that are used, for example, as load lifters in industry -
magnetism can also and especially be used in a practical way in everyday life. For example,
with the help of holding magnets, fastening options for knives, tools and everyday objects of
all kinds can be tinkered with in no time at all. Magnetic mobile phone holders are also
selling like hot cakes, as they are more reliable than simple, non-magnetic attachments.

Figure 5.18. Magnetic Holder

There are almost no limits to your imagination when using it. You can get an overview of the
most popular magnetic holders below.
Advantages of Magnetic Holders
Magnetic mounts are available in many different colors, shapes, and materials. Each one has
different advantages and disadvantages.
Neodymium brackets, for example, hold particularly firmly and reliably, but can only be
removed with difficulty - and are also susceptible to corrosion.
Ferrite, on the other hand, is more weather-resistant and cheaper than neodymium, but
weaker.
In general, magnetic holders are characterized by their adhesive force and, finally, their
robustness. While ordinary holders often wear out - especially those made of plastic or other
fragile materials - magnets retain their properties for years unless they are demagnetized.

47
They can also be easily detached from surfaces and therefore represent an interesting
alternative to other materials that must be fixed with screws or nails.
Types of Magnetic Holders
As already described, magnets are used in different areas. Examples of popular uses include:
Magnetic knife strips
Magnetic knife holders are an ideal complement to the kitchen equipment. The holders
usually consist of a magnetic rail - optionally equipped with wood - to which knives of all
types and sizes can be easily attached. The holding power ensures they stay in place.
Knife strips are a worthwhile investment, especially for large knives. These often don't fit in
drawers but can easily be hung on the wall.
Magnetic strips for tools
Tool strips with a magnetic top or bottom work in a similar way to knife strips but are
primarily used in workshops or tool rooms. The advantage is that you can arrange tools by
size, type and weight and place them as clearly as possible. Thanks to the magnetic tool
holder, you no longer must search for individual hammers, saws or the like when doing
handicrafts.
Magnetic phone holders
Magnetic holders for mobile phones are primarily used in cars. They are particularly handy
because they usually don't take up much space and hold your smartphone or iPhone securely
so that it doesn't slide around in the car while driving.
Usually, a metal base plate is glued to the back of the cell phone, which then attaches to the
magnetic holder.
Magnetic holder for the cupboard
AMagnetic holders also prove their worth on cupboards of all kinds. The practical furniture
magnets are available in different versions - for example as discmagnets to screw on or as a
stop with round pole faces.
They can easily be attached to the inside of a cabinet door - the counterpart on the door frame
- to hold it in place. This is worthwhile, for example, if you want to prevent small children
from opening certain doors or drawers. Depending on the version, some force is required to
detach the magnets from each other.
Magnetic fire door holder
Special magnet holders are used for fire protection doors. These are usually equipped with an
electronic device that keeps the doors open during normal operation.

48
The closing process is initiated with the aid of a brief electrical impulse to safely lock off the
endangered rooms. The magnets are bombproof.
Magnetic holder for smoke detectors
A simple and very practical holding device is the magnetic attachment for smoke detectors.
The latter usually must be attached to the wall with dowels and screws. The practical
magnetic holders, on the other hand, can simply be stuck to the wall if they have self-
adhesive undersides. The smoke detector is then held securely but can also be detached at any
time if necessary.
Permanent load lifting magnets
This form of magnetic holder is used in industry and trade. Lifting magnets, for example,
hold steel blocks, pipes, signs and more or are used during transport. Many come with a ring
so they can be easily attached to cranes or other fixtures. You can also simply pick up lighter
holding magnets and use them to fix steel or iron parts to magnetic surfaces.
Magnetic holders are versatile and useful tools
Magnets as holding devices open a wealth of possible uses. It is crucial that you check
exactly which type of magnet is best suited for your purposes and how much magnetic force
you need before you use it.
If you handle magnets that are too strong or too weak - especially in the work environment -
this can quickly lead to injuries. So, invest some time in finding the ideal model.
5.10 Design of Hydraulic Cylinder
In the design of mechanical systems, the choice of material plays a huge role in the
functionality of the system. There are various types of materials used for constructing
hydraulic cylinder, and the selection largely depends on the requirement of the hydraulic
cylinder. But in the case of this research, low carbon steel (BS 970070M20) as shown in was
chosen as the material for the hydraulic cylinder because it combines the required light
weight with very good yield strength, tensile strength, corrosion resistance and good surface
hardness for wear resistance.
It has minimum yield strength of 215 Mpa, minimum tensile strength 430 Mpa, 21%
elongation, with acomposition of 0.2% of carbon(c) and 0.7% of manganese (Mn) and
normalized condition. BS 970070M20 is avery common form of steel because of its low price
and its acceptable material properties notwithstanding. It isneither brittle nor ductile and low
carbon steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable.

49
Its surface hardness can be improved by carburizing. It is mostly used for large quantity
needs, for example,structural steel. The density of low carbon steel has been found to be
approximately 7.85g/cm3, and Young's modulus is 210,00Mpa.
The material chosen will be used for the construction of the hydraulic cylinder components
such as thecylinder, piston rod, piston, the end caps and tie rods. The method adopted for the
selection of the material was from (Materials selection in mechanical design, Prof. M F
Ashby.) First and foremost, it took into account the basic parameters of Materials selection in
mechanical design-which are, strength, toughness, and weight. The basic function for
designing the system (double acting hydraulic cylinder) is for it to be able to produce 10KN
and that velocity of cutting stroke should not exceed 1.5m/s. The Constraint of the cylinder is
the performance and limiting factor i.e. strength of the material BS 970 070 M20(low carbon
steel) -if it can be able to withstand the high pressures built up inside the cylinder.
5.10.1 Part Design Assumption
The following assumptions were taken into the consideration of the design of the cylinder, piston,
piston rod and
seals in the hydraulic cylinder.
 Working fluid is mineral oil
 Available pressured Pa =300bar= 300* 105pa
 Atmospheric pressure = 1.0135 * 105pa
 Stroke length= 60cm = 0.6m = 600mm
 Cylinder output force =10KN = 1000N
 Cutting stroke=1.5m/s
 Material for cylinder calculation low carbon steel BS970 070M20
 Tensile stress of material is = 430mPa
 Yield stress of material is = 215mPa
 Factor of safety = 3
 Young modulus of the material used is = 210GPa, for BS 970 070M20 (low carbon steel)
 End fixing factor = K = 0.7 is chosen because of maintenance purpose, in a case of adjustment i.e.
in the case of increasing stroke length.
5.10.2 Design Of Piston Rod
The piston rod of a hydraulic cylinder is highly stressed, and therefore it should be able to resist the
bending, tensile and compressive forces that it may encounter during the operation without
buckling. In practice,the rod is more likely to fail by buckling under the compressive load than by
bending. In this case, the rod behaves like a column and is subjected to buckling. The rod diameter
can be related to critical load. Therefore Euler’s formula in the equation below for long column can
be used to obtain the piston rod diameter.

2
π E
P= 2 2
[I ]
L K
Where:
P = Buckling load (N)
L = the column length (m)
I = Moment of inertia (m4)
E = Young's Modulus of Elasticity for the column material (Pa)
K = the end fixing factor

50
E = Young’s modulus of the material used in this design calculation is 210 (Gpa) for BS 970 070M20
(Low
carbon steel).
P = cylinder force * factor of safety = 10000 * 3 = 30 * 103N
L = total stroke length =600mm = 0.6m
K = 0.7, Reason for choosing k = 0.7 is for maintenance purposes in case of adjustment i.e. in case of
increase in
the Substitute into the equation;

2 9
π ×210 × 10 × I
30×10 3= 2 2
0.6 × 0.7

I=2.555884620065×10−9 m4
The moment of inertia and the maximum permissible stress to avoid buckling is dependent on the
type of end fixing of the cylinder. The moment of inertia (I) can be found from the formula below

4
πd
I=
64
Therefore;

4
πd
I=2.555884620065×10−9 m4=
64

Making d4 the subject we have

4 −9 4
d =2.555884620065×10 m × 64 /3.142

d=15.107mm
Hence diameter of the piston rod required, d = 15.1mm Finally,ISI standard has suggested following
sizes of piston rod. 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40, 45, 50, 56, 63, 70, 80, 90, 100,
110, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 220, 250, 280, 320, 360. Up-to 70mm size of piston rods are available
in ground and hard chromplated condition in market for other calculations and in a case of
construction, the diameter of the piston rod used will be 16mm, for safety and because from ISI
Standard.Corporation catalog of metric rod wipers and piston seals the nearest standard rod seal
diameter is 16mm.

51
Figure 5.19. Design Parameter of Hydraulic Cylinder
Push side cylinder force, F 1= A1 × P

Pull side cylinder force, F 2= A2 × P

A1; Push side piston pressurized area(mm2)

A2 : Pull side piston pressurized area(mm2)

D; Cylinder bore (mm)

d; Diameter of piston rod (mm)
P; Operating pressure (kg/mm2)
π 2
A 1= D
4

π
A2= ( D2−d 2 ¿
4

Conversions:
F force: 1 kN = 1000 N, 1 kN = 98.1 kp
P pressure: 1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 0.1 N/mm2 = 0.1 MPa
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 (1 Pascal)
π = 3,141
The minimum diameter of a piston, which is required for a necessary
push force at a stipulated pressure, can be calculated as follows:
The next largest standardised piston diameter is selected.

d min [ cm ]=
√
The following graph shows the relation between oil pressure,
F [ KN ] × 400
π× P¿¿
¿

52
piston force and piston diameter.

Figure 5.20. Table of Piston Force and Piston Diameter

From above chart I selected piston diameter 25mm based on our piston force 10KN and oil pressure
300bar. catalog of metric rod wipers and piston seals the nearest standard rod seal diameter is
16mm.
5.10.3 Design of the piston
The hydraulic piston design must not be complicated. It must be designed for ease of assembly and
disassembly for maintenance purposes. A study was done to find out if a solid piston can withstand
the
compressive force that a piston rod is subjected to. The main failure point was the edges of the
piston and kind of seals used at tolerances between the piston and the cylinder wall. They all have
minimum factor of safety of 3. Let A be the full area of the piston. The force produced is given in the
equation below.
π 2
F 1= A1 × P and A 1= D,
4
π 2
F 1=P× D , then find D
4
D=21.856509473mm

Hence diameter of piston required d = 21.8 mm. Finally, for other calculations and construction, the
diameter of

53
the piston is taken to be 25mm. Because from Baym Hydraulics Corporation catalog of metric rod
wipers and
piston seals, the nearest standard rod seal diameter is 25mm.

π 2
A 1= D
4

2
A2=490.65 mm

π
A2= ( D2−d 2 ¿
4

A2=¿289.665mm 2

Push side cylinder force, F 1= A1 × P , F 1=14..72 KN

Pull side cylinder force, F 2= A2 × P F 2=8.6898 KN

5.10.4 Design of the cylinder Outside Diameter

Let OD = outside diameter of the cylinder.
Tensile stress of BS 970 070M20 = 430mpa
Factor of safety (N) = 3
Determine the maximum working stress (σm) is given as;
Tensile stres of material σ t
σ m= =
Fod N

σ m=143.3∗106 pa

Applying lame’s equation to determine OD;

2
D (
2
OD = σ + P)
σ−P

2 0.0252 [ 1436 + 2005 ]

OD = 6 5
143 × 10 −300 ×10
OD= 0.03087793m= 30.879mm
5.10.5 Cylinder Tube thickness
The tube thickness of a cylinder barrel is a very important factor in the design of a hydraulic cylinder.
The strength of the cylinder tube is proportional to its wall. If a cylinder is too thick or too thin may
pose serious safety, and operational problems and hence the tube thickness of the cylinder has to be
carefully chosen. The wall thickness required for the cylinder can be calculated from the formula in
OD−d
equation (3.9) Thickness (t) =
2

54
Where:
OD, is the cylinder external diameter, 30.897mm and small “d” is the piston seal diameter (cylinder
internal
diameter), 25mm
30.897−25
Thickness (t) =
2
Thickness (t) =2.59mm
5.10.6 Bursting Stress
 To determine the bursting stress of the cylinder we need to apply lame’s equation for thick
cylinder because the ratio of inside diameter t/d is > 1/20.
 When a thick-walled tube or cylinder is subjected to internal and external pressures, hoop and
longitudinal stresses act on the wall.
 The bursting stress can be referred to as the amounts of hoop stress and longitudinal (axial) stress
that are produced in the wall of the cylinder when subjected to internal and external pressures that
may cause the material which the cylinder is made from to fail. This happens if the hoops stress
exceeds the tensile strength of the material.
 In this design calculation, the hoop stress must be lower than a tensile strength of the material
which the cylinder is made from to ensure the safety of the cylinder and personnel during actual
operation.
Material of the cylinder BS 970 070M20 (low carbon steel) Tensile stress = 430 * 106pa. The hoop
stress ( ) of a cylinder can be determined from the Barlow formula as shown in the equation below.
Where:
2 2
do + di
σ H= p 2 2
do −di
p= oil pressure, 300bar = 300 * 105Pa
d
o= outer diameter of cylinder, 30.897mm
di = inner diameter of cylinder, 25mm
Substituting into equation

2 2
5 30.89 +25
σ H =300 × 10 2 2
30.89 −25

σ H =143.913 MP

Also the longitudinal stress is given by:

2 2
P 1 R1 −P2 R 2
σ l= 2 2
R2 −R1

55
Where;
P1 = Internal pressure (300 * 105pa)
P2 = External pressure (atmospheric pressure = 1.0135 * 105pa)
R1 = Internal radius =25mm
R2 = External radius = 30.89mm
Therefore;

σ l=67.854 MP
5.10.7 Oil Volume Required for the Piston Stroke
The oil volume V necessary for a piston stroke is calculated from the effective piston area A and
from the required piston stroke.

Cylinder volume, general:

V [cm3] = A [ cm2 ] * stroke [cm]
= 4.90cm×60 cm
V(cm)=294.4cm2
Cylinder volume of the piston side Vk:

π
VK [cm3] = d2K [cm2 ] * * stroke [cm
4
2 2 π
=2.5 cm × × 60 cm
4
V(cm3 ) = 294.375 cm3

Cylinder volume of the piston rod side VSt:

VSt [cm3] = (d2K - d2St) [cm2] * π/4* stroke [cm]

VSt [cm3] =173.799 cm3

5.11 Design of Rack Pinion

Figure
Figure
FigureMeshing
5.14
5.12.
5.11.
5.22.
Meshing
The
Meshing
Meshing
of Standard
meshing
Figure
ofofStandard
ofStandard
Standard
of
Spur
5.15
5.16
standard
Gear
Spur
Spur
Spur
and
Gear
spur
Gear
Gear
Rack
gear
and
and
and
Rack
and
Rac
Rr 56
Figure 5.21 The Meshing of Standard Spur Gear and
Rack
 Valu
No. Item Symbol Formula
e Spur gear Rack
1 Module m 1.5 1.5
0
2 Reference pressure angle a 20 20 deg
3 Number of teeth z 34 34
–
4 Profile shift coefficient x 0.6 0.6
5 Height of pitch line H 30 – 30.000
0
6 Working pressure angle αw 20 20 deg

7 Mounting distance a 55 .500

8 Reference diameter d zm 50.000

9 Base diameter db d cos α 46.98
50.000 –
10 Working pitch diameter dw

11 Addendum ha 2.4 1.5

12 Tooth depth h 2.25m 3.3750
13 Tip diameter da d + 2ha 54.8
–
14 Root diameter df da – 2h 48.0500
15 Circular pitch p πm 4.71

16 Deddendum hd h a+(0.25× m¿ 2.775

Figure 5.12 The Calculations of Dimensions Profile Shifted Spur Gear And A Rack
One rotation of the spur gear will displace the rack l one circumferential length of the gear’s
reference circle, per the formula :
l=πmz
l=155.43mm
The rack displacement, l, is not changed in any way by the profile shifting

57
Reference
Journal Prabhu, T.J., 2007
Fundamentals of Machine Design. of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research
(JETIR) www.jetir.org

Design and Fabrication of Rack and Pinion Lift A. Thirugnanam, Praphul das and Lenin
Rakesh Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bharath Institute of Science and Technology
Machinery's Handbook 28th Edition 600073, Chennai, IndiaMachinery's Handbook 28th
Edition
Middle-East JS e c o n d E d i t i o n journal of Scientific Research 20 (6): 744-748, 2014

H a n d b o o k o f Practical Gear Design and Manufacture

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