Final Year Project

Thesis Title
Production of Hydrogen From MSW (municipal solid waste) of
Lahore by Gasification Process

B.Sc. Chemical Engineering

Supervisor

Mr. Ansar Javaid

Group Members

Name Registration No.

Waseem abbas 2019-CH-253
Adil Abbas 2019-CH-258
Syed Hunain Haider 2019-CH-208

MAY 2023

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL, POLYMER, AND COMPOSITE

MATERIALS ENGINEERING
University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, New
Campus
 UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY LAHORE,
NEW CAMPUS-54890, PAKISTAN
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL, POLYMER AND COMPOSITE MATERIALS
ENGINEERING

This thesis is written by

1) Waseem Abbas

2) Adil Abbas

3) Syed Hunain Haider

Under the direction of their thesis advisor, has been presented and accepted, in partial fulfillment

of the requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering.

__________________________ __________________________
Dr. Tanveer Iqbal (Supervisor)
Department Chairman

__________________________ __________________________
(External Examiner) (FYP Coordinator)

Date: _____________________

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 Dedication
“This work is dedicated

To our beloved parents and

Our kind teachers”

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Allah Almighty, because of His love and strength; that He has given us,

to finish this project and report. We would like to express our special thanks of gratitude to our

supervisors because our project could not have been completed without their sincere efforts.

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 ABSTRACT

This thesis presents a comprehensive design project focused on the production of hydrogen

through the gasification of municipal solid waste (MSW). The increasing global demand for

clean and sustainable energy sources has led to a growing interest in alternative methods of

hydrogen production. Municipal solid waste, a readily available and abundant resource, presents

a promising opportunity for the generation of hydrogen through the gasification process.

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Table of Content:
1.1 Municipal solid waste: ........................................................................................................ 15
1.1.1 Classifications of municipal solid waste: ......................................................................... 15
1.1.2 Composition of MSW of Lahore: .................................................................................... 15
1.1.3 Waste composition:.......................................................................................................... 16
1.2.1 Hydrogen Properties: ....................................................................................................... 17
1.2.2 Methods of production of Hydrogen: .............................................................................. 18
1.2.2.1 Natural Gas Reforming/Gasification: ........................................................................... 19
1.2.2.2 Electrolysis:................................................................................................................... 19
1.2.2.3 Renewable Liquid Reforming: ...................................................................................... 19
1.2.2.4 Fermentation: ................................................................................................................ 19
1.2.2.5 High-Temperature Water Splitting: .............................................................................. 20
1.2.2.6 Photo biological Water Splitting:.................................................................................. 20
1.2.2.7 Photo electrochemical Water Splitting: ........................................................................ 20
1.2.3 Hydrogen Benefits and Considerations: .......................................................................... 21
1.2.3.1 Benefits of hydrogen: .................................................................................................... 21
1.2.4 Uses of hydrogen: ............................................................................................................ 21
1.2.5 Application of hydrogen: ................................................................................................. 21
1.2.6 Factors affecting hydrogen production: ........................................................................... 21
1.2.7 Production of hydrogen in world: .................................................................................... 22
1.2.7.1 Production of hydrogen in Pakistan: ............................................................................. 22
1.2.8 17th Sustainable Development Goals[8]: ......................................................................... 23
2.1 Process Selection: ............................................................................................................... 24
2.2 Selection of raw materials:.................................................................................................. 24
2.3 Process description: ............................................................................................................ 24
2.3.1 Process Flow Diagram: .................................................................................................... 25
2.3.2 Feed pretreatment: ........................................................................................................... 25
2.3.3 Gasification: ..................................................................................................................... 25
2.3.3.1 Gasifier:..........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3.4 Cyclone: ........................................................................................................................... 28

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2.3.5 Compressor: ..................................................................................................................... 30
2.3.6 Catalytic Reactor:............................................................................................................. 30
2.3.7 Heat exchanger: ............................................................................................................... 30
2.3.8 HSTR and LSTR: ............................................................................................................. 31
2.3.9 PSA(Pressure Swing Adsorption): ................................................................................... 32
2.4 Plant Location: .................................................................................................................... 33
2.4.1 Justification: ..................................................................................................................... 33
2.4.1.1 Raw materials availability: ........................................................................................... 34
2.4.1.2 Markets: ........................................................................................................................ 34
2.4.1.3 Energy Availability: ...................................................................................................... 34
2.4.1.4 Climate: ......................................................................................................................... 35
2.4.1.5 Transportation Facilities: .............................................................................................. 35
2.4.1.6 Water Supply: ............................................................................................................... 35
2.4.1.7 Waste Disposal: ............................................................................................................ 36
2.4.1.8 Labor Supply:................................................................................................................ 36
2.5.1.9Taxation & Legal Restrictions: ...................................................................................... 36
2.4.1.10 Site Characteristics: .................................................................................................... 37
2.4.1.11 Flood and Fire Protection: .......................................................................................... 37
2.4.1.12 Community Factors:.................................................................................................... 37
3.1 Define:................................................................................................................................. 38
3.2 Equation for balance: .......................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Importance: ......................................................................................................................... 38
3.4 Balance on Equipment: ....................................................................................................... 39
3.4.1 Balance on gasifier:.......................................................................................................... 39
3.4.1.1Chemical composition of MSW: ................................................................................... 40
3.4.2 Material balance on cyclone separator:............................................................................ 43
3.4.3 Material balance on reactor:............................................................................................. 43
3.4.3.1 Material balance on HSTR: .......................................................................................... 45
3.4.3.2 Material Balance on LSTR: ......................................................................................... 45
3.4.4 Material Balance on PSA:................................................................................................ 45
4.1 Define:................................................................................................................................. 47

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4.2 Importance of Energy Balance: ......................................................................................... 47
4.3 Energy balance on Equipment: ........................................................................................... 48
4.3.1 Energy balance on gasifier: .............................................................................................. 48
4.3.2 Energy balance on Reactor: ............................................................................................. 50
4.3.3 Energy balance on compressor: ....................................................................................... 52
4.3.4 Energy balance on heat exchangers: ................................................................................ 53
5.1 Introduction: ........................................................................................................................ 56
5.2 Design of gasifier: ............................................................................................................... 57
Gasification parameters and design factors: ............................................................................. 57
5.3 Design of CSTR: ................................................................................................................. 61
POWER: ................................................................................................................................... 67
5.4 Design of heat exchanger 1: ................................................................................................ 67
Design Calculations: ................................................................................................................. 68
6 Overview: ............................................................................................................................... 75
6.1 Cost Estimation: .................................................................................................................. 75
6.1.1 Cost Estimations evaluate ................................................................................................ 75
6.1.2 Capital Funding:............................................................................................................... 75
6.1.3 Fixed Capital Investment: ................................................................................................ 75
6.1.4 Direct Cost: ...................................................................................................................... 76
6.1.5 Indirect Cost: .................................................................................................................... 76
6.1.6 Working capital:............................................................................................................... 76
6.1.7 Capital Value Estimates: .................................................................................................. 77
6.2 Methods of cost estimation: ................................................................................................ 77
6.3 Total capital investment calculations: ................................................................................. 78
6.3. Inside battery limits (ISBL) cost: ....................................................................................... 80
6.3.2 Gross margin: ................................................................................................................... 82
6.4 Overhead expenses calculations: ........................................................................................ 85
6.4.1 Utilities cost: .................................................................................................................... 86
6.5.2 Variable cost of production:............................................................................................. 87
6.5.3 Cash cost of production: .................................................................................................. 88
7.1 Overview: ............................................................................................................................ 90

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7.2 Operability: ......................................................................................................................... 90
7.2.1 When HAZOP is performed: ........................................................................................... 90
7.3 HAZOP study of reactor, pump, storage tank, gasifier and compressor: ........................... 90
7.3.1 HAZOP study of pump: ................................................................................................... 91
7.3.2 HAZOP study of storage tank: ......................................................................................... 92
7.3.3 HAZOP study of heatexchanger: ..................................................................................... 93
7.3.4 HAZOP study of gasifier: ................................................................................................ 94
8.1 Overview: ............................................................................................................................ 97
8.2 Purpose of EIA:................................................................................................................... 97
8.2.1 Benefits of EIA: ............................................................................................................... 97
8.3 Checklist: ............................................................................................................................ 97
8.3.1 Air climatology: ............................................................................................................... 97
8.3.2 Transportation and Traffic facilities: ............................................................................... 99
8.3.3Utilities:........................................................................................................................... 100
8.3.4 Land Form:..................................................................................................................... 100
9.1 Overview: .......................................................................................................................... 101
9.2 Process flow sheet: ............................................................................................................ 101
9.2.1 Process simulation sheet: ............................................................................................... 101
9.3 Introduction: ...................................................................................................................... 102
9.3.1 General Process with Metric Units: ............................................................................... 102
9.3.2 Components Selection: .................................................................................................. 102
9.3.3 Property Method Selection: ........................................................................................... 103
9.3.4 Property Analysis: .......................................................................................................... 104
9.4 SIMULATION INPUTS:.................................................................................................. 104
9.4.1 Feed Streams Specification: ........................................................................................... 104
 Feed(MSW)...................................................................................................................... 104
9.4.2 Blocks Specifications: .................................................................................................... 106
9.4.2.1Decomposer: ................................................................................................................ 107
9.4.2.2Gasifier:........................................................................................................................ 108
9.4.2.3 Cyclone: ...................................................................................................................... 108
9.4.2.4 Compressor: ................................................................................................................ 109

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9.4.2.5 CSTR reactor: ............................................................................................................. 110
9.4.2.6 Heat exchanger 1: ....................................................................................................... 112
9.4.2.7 HSTR reactor: ............................................................................................................. 113
9.4.2.8 Heat exchanger 2: ....................................................................................................... 114
9.4.2.9 LSTR reactor:.............................................................................................................. 115
9.4.2.10Heat exchanger 3: ...................................................................................................... 116
9.5 PSA unit: ........................................................................................................................... 117
9.5.1 Feed inlet:....................................................................................................................... 118
9.5.2 Gas bed: ......................................................................................................................... 119
Final results: ............................................................................................................................ 121
10.1 Objective of control system: ........................................................................................... 124
10.2 Components of Instruments: ........................................................................................... 124
10.3 Design elements control system: .................................................................................... 125
10.4 Process Control Objectives: ............................................................................................ 125
10.5 Types of control configuration: ...................................................................................... 125
10.6 Hardware elements of control system: ............................................................................ 125
10.7 Digital computers in process control applications: ....................................................... 126
10.8 Temperature measurement and control ........................................................................... 126
10.9 Pressure measurement and control: ................................................................................ 126
10.10 Flow measurement and control: .................................................................................... 126
10.10.1 Control scheme for gasifier:....................................................................................... 127
................................................................................................................................................. 127
10.10.2 Control scheme for CSTR reactor: ............................................................................ 127
10.10.3 Temperature of CSTR as control objective: .............................................................. 128
10.10.4 Level of CSTR as control objective: .......................................................................... 128
10.10.5 Control scheme for heat exchanger: .......................................................................... 129
10.10.7 Process fluid outlet temperature as control objective: ............................................. 130
References: .............................................................................................................................. 131

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 List of Table:
Chapter 1 Tables:
Table 1-1 ....................................................................................................................................... 16
Table 1-2 ....................................................................................................................................... 17

Chapter 2 Tables:
Table 2- 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Table 2- 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 27

Chapter 3 Tables:
Table 3- 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Table 3- 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 40
Table 3- 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 41
Table 3- 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 41
Table 3- 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 41
Table 3- 6 ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Table 3- 7 ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Table 3- 8 ...................................................................................................................................... 44
Table 3- 9 ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Table 3- 10 .................................................................................................................................... 45

Chapter 4 Tables:
Table 4- 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 4- 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 4- 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 49
Table 4- 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 50
Table 4- 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 50
Table 4- 6 ...................................................................................................................................... 51
Table 4- 7 ...................................................................................................................................... 53
Table 4- 8 ...................................................................................................................................... 54
Table 4- 9 ...................................................................................................................................... 55
Table 4- 10 .................................................................................................................................... 55

Chapter 5 Tables:
Table 5- 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 59
Table 5- 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 60
Table 5- 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 62

Chapter 6 Tables:

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Table 6- 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 79
Table 6- 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 80
Table 6- 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 82
Table 6- 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 82
Table 6- 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 83
Table 6- 6 ...................................................................................................................................... 84
Table 6- 7 ...................................................................................................................................... 85
Table 6- 8 ...................................................................................................................................... 86
Table 6- 9 ...................................................................................................................................... 87
Table 6- 10 .................................................................................................................................... 88

Chapter 7 Tables:
Table 7- 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 91
Table 7- 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 91
Table 7- 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 92
Table 7- 4 ...................................................................................................................................... 94
Table 7- 5 ...................................................................................................................................... 94
Table 7- 6 ...................................................................................................................................... 96

Chapter 8 Tables:
Table 8- 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 97
Table 8- 2 ...................................................................................................................................... 99
Table 8- 3 .................................................................................................................................... 100
Table 8- 4 .................................................................................................................................... 100

Chapter 9 Tables:

Table 9- 1 .................................................................................................................................... 107

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 List of Figures:
Figure 1-1 waste composition ...................................................................................................... 17
Figure 1-2 methods of production hydrogen ................................................................................ 20
Figure 1-3 hydrogen potential ....................................................................................................... 22

Figure 2- 1 process flow diagram ................................................................................................. 25

Figure 2- 2 Gasifier ....................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2- 3 cyclone ....................................................................................................................... 29

Figure 3- 1 gasifier ........................................................................................................................ 39

Figure 9- 1 process flow diagram ............................................................................................... 101

Figure 9- 2 graphical interface of aspen plus .............................................................................. 102
Figure 9- 3 Added component list .............................................................................................. 103
Figure 9- 4 Method used ............................................................................................................. 104
Figure 9- 5 MSW inputs ............................................................................................................. 105
Figure 9- 6 Air inputs .................................................................................................................. 106
Figure 9- 7 decomp conditions ................................................................................................... 107
Figure 9- 8 component yield ....................................................................................................... 108
Figure 9- 9 Gasifier inputs .......................................................................................................... 108
Figure 9- 10 Compressor inputs.................................................................................................. 110
Figure 9- 11 CSTR inputs ........................................................................................................... 111
Figure 9- 12 steam conditions ..................................................................................................... 112
Figure 9- 13 Heat exchanger 1 inputs ......................................................................................... 113
Figure 9- 14 HSTR inputs ........................................................................................................... 114
Figure 9- 15 HSTR reaction ....................................................................................................... 114
Figure 9- 16 heat exchanger 2 input ........................................................................................... 115
Figure 9- 17 LSTR conditions .................................................................................................... 116
Figure 9- 18 LSTR reaction ........................................................................................................ 116
Figure 9- 19 Heater conditions ................................................................................................... 117
Figure 9- 20 component list ........................................................................................................ 118
Figure 9- 21 diagram of Absorber .............................................................................................. 118

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Figure 9- 22 Feed ........................................................................................................................ 119
Figure 9- 23 gas bed .................................................................................................................... 120
Figure 9- 24 Bed Specifications .................................................................................................. 121
Figure 9- 25 final results ............................................................................................................. 122
Figure 9- 26 PSA results ............................................................................................................. 123

Figure 10- 1 Cascade Loop on CSTR Reactor............................................................................ 127

Figure 10- 2 Cascade Loop on CSTR Reactor............................................................................ 128
Figure 10- 3 Cascade Loop on Heat Exchanger ......................................................................... 129

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 Chapter 01
INTRODUCTION

1.1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE:

There are approximately 15 million population in Lahore city. Waste of Lahore city is collected
by LAHORE WASTE MANAGNENT COMPANY (LWMC). Municipal solid waste (MSW) is
defined as waste gathered by using the municipality and consists of residential, institutional,
commercial, municipal, and creation and demolition waste.[1]

1.1.1 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE:

Municipal solid waste (MSW) has been normally categorized in 4 categories.

 Business waste

 Eating waste

 Hospital waste

 C&D waste

1.1.2 COMPOSITION OF MSW OF LAHORE:

The municipal strong waste generated in Lahore is about 500,000 tons consistent with 12
months, which is 0.84 kg/cap/day. The solid waste streams are characterized by their resources
and the sorts of wastes produced, in addition to by using technology charges and composition.
There is desk added for whole data of generated and composition of MSW of Lahore.[1]

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Table 1-0-1

Series No. Description Tons per day % weight

1 Paper 69.1 5.04
2 Glass 30 2.19
3 Ferrous metal 0.3 .02
4 Nonferrous metal 6.5 .47
5 Film plastic 177.3 12.94
6 Rigid plastic 76.0 5.55
7 Organics 917.9 67.02
8 Textiles 13.7 1.00
9 Others 79.0 5.77
Total 1369.8 100.00

Waste collected by LWMC is divided into two categories. These categories are in following.[5]

 Contractor’s vehicles
 LWMC vehicles

Collection coverage
The collection performance of Lahore Waste control enterprise is around ninety five%

• No source segregation takes area

• Mechanized gadget of sweeping on most important roads

• Washing of fundamental squares, underpasses, bridges and roadside walkways

• Door To Door (DTD) series of MSW

• Dedicated carrier for the collection and transportation of C&D Waste on full fee recuperation
foundation

1.1.3 WASTE COMPOSITION:

Urban garbage was analyzed into five categories for waste characterization, and 60 samples in
total were used. Low Income, Middle Income, High Income, Commercial, and Institutional
Waste categories were used and 12 samples were gathered for each subgroup. 16 samples were
from random regions, whereas 44 samples came from model regions. About 177.780 kg of trash
overall was transported to the work area for characterization, and 7500 kg of that amount
underwent waste segregation operations using homogeneous mixing. Given that the average

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waste density is 241 kg/m3, segregation work was done on 30-35 m3 of garbage. Figure 3
displays the average value by weight for all 66 waste characterizations that were performed. The
results are consistent with those of typical developing nations. Following these are the crucial
elements: above 60% values, biodegradable materials, nylon, textiles, diapers, paper-cardboard,
combustibles, and non-combustibles.[2]

Figure 1-1 waste composition

1.2.1 HYDROGEN PROPERTIES:

Hydrogen is a unique element of the periodic table due to its resemblance to alkali metals and the
halogens.

Table 1-0-2

Properties Value
Name, symbol, number Hydrogen, H, 1

Category Nonmetal

Atomic weight 1.008

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Electrons, protons, neutrons 1,1,0

Color, odor Colorless, odorless

Toxicity None, simple asphyxiant

Phase Gas

Density Gas: 0.089g1-1, liquid: 0.07 g cm³

Ionization energy 13.5989 eV

Liquid to gas expansion ratio Melting and 1:848 (atmospheric conditions)

boiling point -259.14°C, -252.87°C

Lower heat value (LHV) 118.8 MJ kg-1

Adiabatic flame temperature 2107°C

Flammability range in air 4-75%

Laminar flame velocity 3.06 ms-1

Flash point -253°C

Auto ignition temperature 585 °C

Research octane number (RON) >130

[4]

1.2.2 Techniques of Manufacturing of Hydrogen::

Hydrogen can be produced at home from a variety of sources, including biomass, fossil fuels,
and water electrolysis. How hydrogen is created determines its energy efficiency and
environmental impact. There are several initiatives in motion to lower costs related to hydrogen
production.

There are numerous ways to supply hydrogen:[5]

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1.2.2.1 NATURAL GAS REFORMING/GASIFICATION:
Synthesis gas is produced by mixing natural gas with extremely hot steam, which results in a
mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and a negligible quantity of carbon dioxide. To create
more hydrogen, the carbon monoxide and water react. The least expensive, most effective, and
popular strategy is this one. In the United States, the majority of the hydrogen produced each
year is created by natural gas reforming with steam.

A pressurized gasifier can also produce synthesis gas by combining high-temperature steam and
oxygen with coal or biomass. This process, known as gasification, transforms the coal or
biomass into gaseous components. The synthesis gas that results has hydrogen and carbon
monoxide in it; the hydrogen is separated from the carbon monoxide by a reaction with steam.

1.2.2.2 ELECTROLYSIS:
Hydrogen and oxygen are separated from water by an electric contemporary device. The
hydrogen that results from the production of energy utilizing renewable resources, such as the
sun or wind, may also be regarded as renewable and has various benefits with regard to reducing
emissions. Power-to-hydrogen plants are springing up, using additional renewable electricity to
electrolyze hydrogen while it is still accessible.

1.2.2.3 RENEWABLE LIQUID REFORMING:

High-temperature steam is reacted with renewable liquid fuels, like ethanol, to produce hydrogen
close to the point of use-by.

1.2.2.4 FERMENTATION:
Biomass is transformed into a feedstock that is high in sugar and may be fermented to produce
hydrogen.

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 Figure 1-2 methods of production hydrogen

Several hydrogen production methods are in development:

1.2.2.5 HIGH-TEMPERATURE WATER SPLITTING:

Excessive temperatures generated through sun concentrators or nuclear reactors force chemical
reactions that split water to produce hydrogen.

1.2.2.6 IMAGE BIOLOGICAL WATER SPLITTING:

Microbes, including inexperienced algae, consume water within the presence of sunlight and
produce hydrogen as a byproduct.

1.2.2.7 IMAGE ELECTROCHEMICAL WATER SPLITTING:

Using specialized semiconductors and light from the sun, photo electrochemical structures make
hydrogen from water.

The three states that produce the most hydrogen are Texas, Louisiana, and California. Nearly
majority of the hydrogen produced in the United States today is used for fertilizer production,
metal treatment, fertilizer refinement, and component processing.

The main difficulty in producing hydrogen is lowering the cost of the production technique so
that the produced hydrogen is competitively priced with traditional transportation fuels.

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1.2.3 HYDROGEN BENEFITS AND CONSIDERATIONS:
Hydrogen can be made from numerous home assets with the potential for close to-
zero greenhouse fuel emissions. As soon as produced, hydrogen generates electric power in
a gasoline mobile, emitting most effective water vapor and heat air. It holds promise
for boom in both the stationary and transportation power sectors.

1.2.3.1 BENEFITS OF HYDROGEN:

 Renewable strength source and Bountiful in supply
 Assets to supply Hydrogen regionally
 It is practically a easy electricity source
 Hydrogen energy is Non-poisonous
 Use of Hydrogen significantly Reduces pollutants
 Powering space Ships

1.2.4 USES OF HYDROGEN:

 Hydrogen is used within the synthesis of ammonia and the manufacture of nitrogenous
fertilizers. Hydrogenation of unsaturated vegetable oils for manufacturing vanaspati fat. it
is used inside the manufacture of many organic compounds, as an instance, methanol.
 Hydrogen is used in lots of commercial methods.
 Hydrogen is used for exploring outer area.
 Hydrogen gasoline cells produce power.
 Burning hydrogen for electricity technology.
 Hydrogen uses in vehicles.
.

1.2.5 APPLICATION OF HYDROGEN:

 The Haber-Bosch technique is the primary business manner for the production of
ammonia
 Petroleum refining
 Glass purification
 Semiconductor
 Fertilizer production
 Welding, annealing and heat-treating metals
 Prescription drugs
 As a coolant in strength plant generators

1.2.6 FACTORS AFFECTING HYDROGEN PRODUCTION:

 Substrate
 Reactor type
 Nitrogen

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  Phosphate
 Metal ion
 Temperature and pH.

1.2.7 PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN IN WORLD:

China is the largest manufacturer of hydrogen today, at about 25 million lots (Mt), or kind of 1 /
4 of the worldwide overall. Maximum of the volume is constituted of fossil fuels (60 percentage
from coal, and 25 percent from herbal gasoline) as feedstock’s in refineries or chemical facilities.
International H2 production currently totals 500 billion cubic meters per year. Currently, heavy
oils and naphtha account for 30% of H2 production, while coal and electrolysis account for 18%
and 4%, respectively. A power source, such as thermal or electrolytic, is necessary for each
method of producing H2.[3]

1.2.7.1 PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN IN PAKISTAN:

Pakistan is growing United States. It has splendid capability of production of power from
biomasses. However due to loss of centers, the production rate of electricity is low. I-e Pakistan
has 0.925Mton/12 month’s capacity for manufacturing of hydrogen from solid waste.

The following figure shows the annual hydrogen production potential from renewable resources.

Figure 1-3 hydrogen potential

According to WITS Pakistan import 703 m3 from different countries.[12]

Now a time majorly production of hydrogen is from renewable resources i-e coal, natural gas in
Pakistan. There is talk of converting to Thar coal in Pakistan, which formerly produced hydrogen
and urea from coal before switching to less expensive gas. Natural gas is primarily utilized in
Pakistan's fertilizer sector to create hydrogen, which is then used to create anhydrous ammonia.
Natural gas is the primary feedstock for all urea facilities in the nation. On average, the fertilizer

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industry uses 15.6% of our country's natural gas. Selling feedstock gas at prices up to $1.0
instead of at market rates of $4.0 per MMBTU benefits fertilizer producers indirectly. The return
on paid-up capital in the fertilizer sector ranges from 80% to 100% annually. The transportation
industry and the fertilizer industry are two crucial sectors where hydrogen gas may be used right
away to replace fossil fuels, according to the country's present energy picture.[4]

Approximately 0.52 Mton/year hydrogen produce in fertilizer sector of Pakistan by natural gas
reforming process, which is used to make ammonia for urea production.

1.2.8 17TH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS [8]:

The 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) to transform our world:

 GOAL 1: No Poverty
 GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
 GOAL 3: Desirable health and Properly-being
 GOAL 4: Quality Education
 GOAL 5: Gender Equality
 GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
 GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
 GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
 GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
 GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
 GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
 GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
 GOAL 13: Climate Action
 GOAL 14: Life Below Water
 GOAL 15: Life on Land
 GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
 GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

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 Chapter 02
PROCESS DESCRIPTION

2.1 PROCESS SELECTION:

We selected a fluidized mattress. Within the MSW gasification plant, a gasifier with a cyclone is
connected to a downstream catalytic reactor. The fluidized-bed gasifier was chosen because of its
high degree of fuel and scale flexibility, making MSW gasification possible. In order to produce
hydrogen, the gaseous output flow is then directed into high- and low-temperature shift
reactors.[1]

The conversion of MSW to hydrogen and other products by the use of a regulated combination
of heat, steam, and oxygen is known as MSW gasification. This process does not include
combustion. The net carbon emissions of this method can be low because growing MSW
removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, especially if it is combined with carbon capture,
use, and storage over the long term.[9]

2.2 SELECTION OF RAW MATERIALS:

Following are the raw materials used in this process of gasification:

 MSW(municipal solid waste)

 Super heated steam
 Air from atmosphere

2.3 PROCESS DESCRIPTION:

The whole process is divided into five parts:

1. Feed pretreatment
2. Gasification of feed
3. Catalytic reaction
4. Purification of hydrogen
5. Recycled stream

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2.3.1 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM:

Figure 2- 1 process flow diagram

2.3.2 FEED PRETREATMENT:

Municipal solid waste (MSW), for example, contains significant amounts of non-recyclable yet
combustible biomass/organic materials such paper, cardboard, wood, textiles, and plastics. This
makes MSW an intriguing fuel source for gasification systems. Additionally, a gate or tipping
fee that the trash disposer typically pays to the receiving facility can favorably change the
economics of an energy generating plant. Due to MSW's inherent physical and chemical
heterogeneity, energy conversion systems have difficulty operating with it. Additionally,
mechanical feeding into such systems is made more difficult by the physical form of garbage.
MSW should be pre-treated to eliminate non-combustible materials, homogenized to reduce
operational fluctuations, and ideally changed to a physical nature compatible with mechanical
feeding systems before being employed in systems like gasifiers.[2]

2.3.3 GASIFICATION:

Camparison between different gasifiers are given below in table 2.1

Page | 25
Table 2- 1

Gasifier Design Temp& Description Example

type Pressure
ranges
Fixed Updraft 300-1000C Fuel is fed from the top and Ansager plant:
bed/Moving 1atm gasification agent flow from the 200 KV pilot
bed bottom of reactor. The process plant integrated
steps are drying, pyrolysis, with stirling
reduction, oxidation respectively engine in 2006
Down 300-1000C Fuel is fed from the top and Xylowatt as
draft 1atm gasification agent flow from the gasifier
center of reactor. Syngas is integrated with
extracted from the side of bottom. CHP in gazel in
The process steps are drying, Belgium. The
pyrolysis, reduction, oxidation size is 0.15.
MWe output
Fluidized Bubbling 650 - Fuel is fed from above the sand Foster Wheeler
bed flu- idized 950*C bed and gasification agent enters (FW) Eco fuel
bed (BFB) 1-35 bar into the reactor from the bottom gasifier in
side. The syngas is extracted from Finland for
the top after being cleaned in syngas pro-
cyclones. duction to be
combusted in
steam boiler
with 40 MWth
output length.
Circulating 800-1000 C Gas is fed to the sand mattress FW Lahti in Fin-
fluidized 1-19 bar even as the gasification agent land with 40-70
bed (CFB) enters the reactor from the lowest. MWth input ca-
Syngas is partially extracted from pacity connected
the top and partly recy cled to the to a CHP unit.
lowest of the gasifier once more.
The fluidi- zation velocity is better
than in BFB.
Entrained Entrained > 1200*C Powder or slurry gasoline is 3-5 MWth
flow flow-down > 20-50 bar blended with the gasifica- tion Bioliq gasifier
flow agent and enters to the reactor operates in
from the pinnacle. The Germany to
gasification is aided via a synthesize
powderized flame. Syngas is biofuel from
extracted from the lowest. syngas
Entrained 1.050- Feed and gasification agent enters No plant for bio-
flow-up 1400*C from the bottom so the gas flow is mass
flow 27.5 bar upward.The rest of the process is gasification is
similar to the down flow gasifier. found.

Page | 26
[3]

Biomass gasification in fluidized bed gadget through the use of air–steam aggregate because the
gasifying agent is a promising way of making use of biomass because it produces a gaseous fuel
having especially higher calorific price in addition to higher hydrogen content with minimum or
no warmness addition to the gasifier. [4]

Figure 2- 2 Gasifier

Within the MSW gasification plant, a downstream catalytic reactor is connected to a fluidized-
mattress gasifier that has a cyclone. The fluidized-bed gasifier was chosen because of its high
fuel and scale flexibility, which makes it suitable for MSW gasification.[5]

Chemical reactions which are responsible for the gasification at standard temperature (25 °C).

Table 2- 2

Page | 27
2.3.4 CYCLONE:
Getting rid of solids from a stream of air or different gases is an important operation throughout
actually all sectors of the chemical manner industries (CPI). in many cases, fuel-stable separation
is influenced by the want to reduce environmental impact and health dangers, as in casting off
particulate count number from exhaust gas. In solids-processing operations, inclusive of milling,
grinding, packaging and others, it's miles regularly vital to do away with dirt from air to get
better product or shield device. This one-page reference specializes in one sort of fuel-strong
separator: the cyclone.

A cyclone works at the precept of inertial separation. A circulate of dirt-laden air or gas is
brought tangentially to the top of a vertically orientated, cylindrical collection chamber with a
conical, tapered quit at the lowest. The way through which the gas enters the chamber creates a
helical airflow pattern, wherein the fuel rotates down the chamber towards the tapered bottom.
The swirling movement of the gasoline has additives — a downward-directed spiral movement
for the outer circulation, and a rotating, upward-moving internal circulate. Because of their
greater mass, strong debris contained in the gas circulation are driven outward because of the
centrifugal force that effects from the rotating airflow. on account that they have too much inertia
to observe the route of the fuel movement, debris are driven towards the interior wall of the
cyclone cylinder and fall downward toward a group device fitted at the bottom of the cyclone.
The stable debris often exit the lowest via a spring-loaded flap valve or a rotary valve.
Meanwhile, the solids-unfastened gasoline rotates upward toward the fuel outlet at the pinnacle
of the chamber.

Further to air-pollution manipulate and dirt-manage applications, cyclones additionally serve

different purposes in CPI programs. These include the recovery and recycling of catalysts in
petroleum refineries, the healing of freeze-dried espresso in meals processing flowers, and for
shooting sawdust in a lumber mill, among others.[10]

Page | 28
Figure 2- 3 cyclone

Page | 29
In our process there is separation of solids particles from the syngas. The solid particles are
collected in bottom and pure syngas is transferred into next section the cytalic reactor via
compressor.

2.3.5 COMPRESSOR:
When the gas moves through the pipeline, there is a pressure drop. The gas compressors are built
into the pipes in order to regulate the flow and make up for energy losses. The ability to move a
greater volume of gas via a pipeline and fewer energy losses as a result of the increased pressure
are two benefits of using gas compressors [29]. Electricity or gas is used by the compressors. The
compression ratio is a crucial factor in controlling the flow of gas. The ratio of the discharge
pressure to the suction pressure is known as the compression ratio, or CR.

The compression ratio is never less than one and never higher than two. Due to the relative
density range of 0.58 to 0.65, a compression ratio of 1.4 is frequently cited in the literature. [6]

The syngas from the clean-up process (stream 4) is compressed by the compressor to 3.7 MPa
needed for the pressure swing adsorption (PSA) unit and to make up for the pressure losses
between the reactors after the cyclone that separates gases and solids. In order to steam reform
the compressed syngas, it is injected into the catalytic reactor. [7]

2.3.6 CATALYTIC REACTOR:

After purification, the cleaned syngas is shifted in catalytic CO shift unit the usage of water
gasoline shift reaction. The reaction is as follows

CO+H2O CO2+H2+Heat

Syngas that had been cleaned had been split into two pieces. The CO-shift reactor received 65%
of the cleaned syngas, with the remaining 25% being sent to the methnation unit after
compression. Iron oxides and chromium oxides, which are two common catalysts, were
employed. These catalysts shorten dwell times while raising response rates. Additionally, the
syngas was transferred through two water gasoline CO-shift reactors, namely the high and coffee
temperature shift converters, in order to increase the yield of hydrogen.[8]

2.3.7 HEAT EXCHANGER:

There are three heat exchanger should be installed for this process named as

 Heat Exchanger 1
 Heat Exchanger 2
 Heat Exchanger 3

Page | 30
A heat exchanger is a tool that facilitates the warmth exchange process between fluids that are at
different temperatures. Warmth exchangers are employed in a wide range of engineering
projects, including those involving power plants, chemical processing facilities, food processing
systems, automotive radiators, and waste heat recovery equipment. Super heaters, condensers,
evaporators, air preheaters, and economizers.

With a closed, recuperated Brayton cycle and supercritical carbon dioxide (sCO2) as the working
fluid, heat exchangers are a key development in the development of efficient power technology.
Machine length and overall system efficiency are impacted by warmth exchangers. To achieve
the desired trade-off between machine efficiency and device size, warmth exchanger designs
must strike a compromise between warmth exchanger effectiveness and pressure drop. With any
energy conversion machine utility, a different trade-off will exist between device length and
device efficiency.[9]

In our process The required heat for the catalytic reactor, which operates under 1123 K
temperature and 3.5 MPa pressure, is compensated by the steam from three heat exchangers in
the system (HX-1, HX-2, HX-3)[7]

2.3.8 HSTR AND LSTR:

The low-temperature shift (LTS) reactor operates at temperatures of 108-340°C with a Cu-
ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst, whereas the high-temperature shift (HTS) reactor typically operates at
temperatures of 350-420°C with an iron-chromium oxide-based completely catalyst (Navarro et
al., 2007). The CO exit awareness with this reactor architecture will be as low as 0.1-0.3%.

The catalyzed shift reaction's mechanism, for both copper- and iron-based catalysts, is still up for
debate. There were two suggested sorts of mechanisms: adsorptive and regenerative. In the first
scenario, the reactants adsorb on the catalyst surface where they react to produce surface
intermediates such formates before decomposing into the final product and desorbing from the
surface. On the other hand, in the regenerative process, the surface passes through successive
cycles of oxidation and reduction by water and carbon monoxide, creating the corresponding
hydrogen and carbon dioxide products of the WGS reaction, respectively.

Some significant dangers connected to the WGSR can also be identified. At low temperatures,
the HTS catalyst has little activity, while at high temperatures, the process is thermodynamically
constrained. The low temperature Cu-ZnO catalyst necessitates extensive preconditioning for
intermittent operation, is sensitive to air exposure, and encourages temperature excursions. As a
result, significant efforts have been undertaken to improve the overall performance of iron-based
catalysts by refining the catalyst's training and formula. The redox properties of ceria led to its
examination as a CuO-based catalyst.Utilizing noble metals, such as Pt, has also been the subject
of numerous recent investigations.

The integrated gasification mixed cycle (IGCC) technology, in which coal is gasified to make
synthesis gasoline and the WGSR transforms the CO to produce additional H2, is one capacity
Page | 31
application of the WGSR. Despite the fact that coal is a readily available raw material with a
somewhat high value for H2 generation as a chance to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons, the
IGCC process poses additional difficulties because the clean gas is produced at a lower pressure
and has less H2 in it.

In the 1990s, the first generation of IGCC vegetation advanced. Although they are trustworthy
and have verified environmental benefits, further improvements are required to streamline the
process, boost productivity, and save prices in order to improve the IGCC scheme's industrial
future. Despite the existence of numerous industrially entangled float gasification structures for
the production of gas fuel or syngas, the technique has not yet been economically validated as
part of an integrated plant for the production of H2 with the collection and storage of CO2
species from the environment. These systems, which include gasifiers created by Shell, Texaco,
Destec, and Prenflo, all have some characteristics in common, such as the use of pulverized coal
and typical operating conditions of 20 to 70 bar and 1500°C with extremely high gasoline
heating rates. however, the systems also differ from one another in the manner in which the gas
is introduced, the awareness of steam, and the methods used for heat recovery. [10]

In our system carbon monoxide is converted to hydrogen using high temperature and low
temperature shift reactors in accordance with the provided water gas shift reaction.

CO + H2O4<-> CO2 + H2

Additionally, the syngas should be transferred to two of these water gas CO-shift reactors in
order to increase hydrogen yield.[8]

2.3.9 PSA (PRESSURE SWING ADSORPTION):

Pressure swing adsorption, or PSA (described below), is a technique used to separate different
gas species based on their molecular properties and propensity to bind to an adsorbent material.
It works at temperatures that are close to ambient and is very different from fuel separation
methods that use cryogenic distillation. When utilized as a trap, specialized adsorptive
substances (such zeolites, activated carbon, molecular sieves, etc.) selectively adsorb the target
gasoline species under high pressure. To desorb the cloth that has been absorbed, the method
subsequently changes to low pressure. The verified high performance PSA devices are intended
for the recovery and purification of natural hydrogen from various hydrogen-rich streams, such
as synthesis gases from the Steam reforming procedure, partial oxidation, or gasification, as well
as from a variety of off-gases in refineries or petrochemical processes.

The hydrogen product is produced at the maximum restoration costs and satisfies all purity
requirements up to 99.9999 mol%. Refineries are the primary buyers of hydrogen since they
need it for processes like cracking, DE aromatization, and desulphurization. A second group of
customers in the petrochemical industry is in need of hydrogen for their MTBE strategy,
methanol and ammonia synthesis, and other processes.

Page | 32
A PSA plant's main components are the adsorber vessels that hold the adsorbent material, the tail
gasoline drums, the valve skid(s) with interconnecting pipelines, the manipulating valves and
instrumentation, and a control system for managing the unit.

The strain swing adsorption system has four fundamental technique steps:

 Adsorption
 De-pressurization
 Regeneration
 Re-pressurization
To provide continuous hydrogen deliver, minimal four absorber vessels are required.

2.4 PLANT LOCATION:

Our plant location will be Dera Gujran nearby ring road outer side of Lahore.

2.4.1 JUSTIFICATION:
Now that adequate sites have been identified for garbage treatment and disposal, it is possible to
prevent the haphazard disposal of rubbish in and around Lahore. Lakhodair and Mehmood Boti
are two different places where waste is dumped and then buried. That’s way we select dera
gujjrada nearby ring road outer side of Lahore.

1. Raw substances availability

2. Markets

3. Electricity availability

4. Weather

5. Transportation facilities

6. Water supply

7. Waste disposal

8. Exertions supply

9. Taxation and criminal restrictions

10. Plant Site characteristics

11. Flood and fire protection

12. Network factors

Page | 33
2.4.1.1 Raw materials availability:
The supply of uncooked materials is the maximum vital aspect in selecting plant place. Near
place of the uncooked-substances supply permits good sized reduction in:

 Transportation to destination
 Storage charges for holding raw substances
For raw substances, these should be given to importance:

 Purchased price of the raw substances

 Distance from the source of deliver
 Transportation costs
 Availability and reliability of deliver
 Purity of the raw materials
 storage necessities
Here raw material is easily available. Raw material can be stored due to availability of space.
Distance from Lakhodair and Mehmood Boti to dera gujjrada is not too much.

2.4.1.2 MARKETS:
The markets location affects the overall plant site as following:

 How much Cost of product id required for distribution

 How much Time is required for shipping

Hydrogen is used in many industries. The site which we select is nearby industry area and road
are available for transportation.

2.4.1.3 ENERGY AVAILABILITY:

Excessive necessities of strength and steam in industries. Fuel required to deliver power and
steam

For Example:

• Electrolytic strategies require a cheap source of power

• Area ought to be nearby large hydroelectric installations

• Plant requires huge portions of coal or oil

• Location close to a supply of gasoline

Neighborhood fee of electricity can help to determine whether or not:

• Electricity ought to be purchased or self-generated

Page | 34
 Energy can be buy from lesco and after set up of this task we must paintings on self-
technology of energy.

2.4.1.4 CLIMATE:
If the plant is positioned in a chilly weather, costs can be expanded:

• Creation of shielding shelters across the gadget

If the plant is located in hot weather:

• Unique cooling towers

• Air-conditioning system can be required

If there is immoderate humidity or extremes of hot or bloodless climate then there may be
severe effect at the financial operation of a plant. Climate factors need to be examined whilst
deciding on a plant website online.

Lahore has a semi-arid climate, with extremely hot summers and funky winters. There is a
monsoon season between July and September. Ordinary it has proper weather.

2.4.1.5 TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES:

Rail tracks, roads, and highways are the common transportation facilities. Merchandise and raw
substances required transportation facilities. Opportunity of canal, river, lake, or ocean transport
need to be taken into consideration. If viable, the plant website must have get admission to to all
three varieties of transportation or as a minimum sorts must be available.

• Water

• Avenue

• Rail

Air transportation centers among the plant and the main corporation headquarters should be to
be had.

Lahore is huge city all styles of shipping (by way of road or by using air) is to be had right here.
Avenue are already well in situations.

2.4.1.6 WATER SUPPLY:

The process industries use large quantities of water for;

• Cooling

• Washing

Page | 35
• Steam generation

• Raw material

Plant, must be located, where, water is available. River or lake is preferable Deep wells are
satisfactory if the amount of water required is not too high. Try to drill several standby wells.

Factors considered during choosing water supply:

• Temperature

• Mineral content

• Sand content

• Bacteriological content

• Cost for supply

• Purification

Here water is easily available. We will drill several well.

2.4.1.7 WASTE DISPOSAL:

Prison regulations had been located at the methods for putting off waste substances from the
system industries .Site for a plant need to have capability and facilities for correct waste disposal.
Attention must accept to capacity necessities for additional waste-remedy facilities.

We dispose our mud in rohi nearby our plant.

2.4.1.8 LABOR SUPPLY:

Exertions availability should be examined .Consideration have to accept to:

• Pay scales

• Restrictions on range of hours worked consistent with week

• Competing other industries

• Productivity of the people

• Welfare of people

Local labor to be had that's most economical and welfare of nearby region.

2.5.1.9TAXATION & LEGAL RESTRICTIONS:

Nation and local tax quotes:

Page | 36
• Property profits

• Unemployment coverage

Neighborhood rules on building codes and Transportation centers must be implemented.

SECP , FBR, EPA those corporation regulate our taxes and legal restriction. We ought to should
take allow from these groups.

2.4.1.10 Plant SITE CHARACTERISTICS:

A potential plant site's land characteristics should be thoroughly assessed. Costs of construction
are impacted by land. The price of the land, as well as local building expenses and living
standards, are significant factors. An extra plant ought to be built where there is more room
available.

2.4.1.11 FLOOD AND FIRE PROTECTION:

Since many industrial facilities are located beside rivers, flooding is a possibility. Examine
regional records of similar natural events before making your choice of a plant website online.
The other key concern is hearth protection from losses. Help from outdoor fireplace agencies
must be available in the event of a major fire.

There might be no threat of floods. We will take safety steps for hearth and help from outside
may also be to be had together with rescue 1122.

2.4.1.12 COMMUNITY FACTORS:

The network's character and nodes will have a significant impact on the plant's region. Sound
boom requires the network's cultural facilities. Masjids, libraries, schools, theaters, and other
such establishments are essential for activity.

Page | 37
 Chapter 03
MATERIAL BALANCE

3.1 DEFINE:
Material balance is a fundamental principle in chemical engineering and related fields that
involves accounting for the flow of materials in a chemical process or system. It follows the
regulation of conservation of mass, which states that the overall mass of a gadget stays steady,
irrespective of any physical or chemical modifications that arise within it.

In practical terms, material balance involves measuring and tracking the input and output of
materials in a chemical process, as well as any changes that occur to those materials during the
process. This allows engineers to ensure that the process is operating efficiently, and to identify
and correct any imbalances or inefficiencies that may be present.

Material balance calculations can be applied to a wide range of chemical processes, from simple
batch reactions to complex continuous processes. These are particularly vital in industries such
as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and food processing, where precise control over the flow of
materials is essential for ensuring product quality and safety.

3.2 EQUATION FOR BALANCE:

Input = Output + Accumulation

In term of mathematical form, the equation of material balance can be expressed as:

𝑊𝑖 = 𝑊𝑜 + 𝐴𝑐c.

3.3 IMPORTANCE:
Material balance is an important concept in chemical engineering and other related fields,
including environmental engineering, petroleum engineering, and food processing. It is
essentially the accounting of all mass entering and leaving a process, and it plays a crucial role in
ensuring that the process is operating efficiently and effectively.

Here are some of the key reasons why material balance is important:

1. Helps to identify and quantify losses: Material balance enables engineers to identify
where material losses occur during a process, which is essential for troubleshooting and
improving process efficiency. By comparing the input and output of a system, engineers
can pinpoint where material is being lost, whether it's due to leaks, spills, or other
inefficiencies.

Page | 38
 2. Enables process optimization: By keeping track of the mass of different components
entering and leaving a process, engineers can optimize the process to minimize waste,
reduce costs, and maximize efficiency. This can involve adjusting the process parameters
or introducing new equipment to capture or recycle materials that would otherwise be
lost.

3. Helps ensure safety and environmental compliance: Material balance can help ensure that
a process is safe and environmentally compliant by identifying potential sources of
pollution or hazardous waste. By keeping track of the mass of different components
entering and leaving the process, engineers can identify areas where safety or
environmental risks are present and take corrective action.

4. Provides a basis for process design: Material balance is vital consideration for the design
of processes. By understanding the mass flow rates of different components and how they
interact, engineers can design systems that are more efficient, cost-effective, and
sustainable.

Overall, material balance is a fundamental concept in chemical engineering and is critical to the
efficient and safe operation of many industrial processes. It is an important tool for optimizing
processes, identifying and reducing waste, and ensuring compliance with environmental and
safety regulations.

3.4 BALANCE ON EQUIPMENT:

As in previous chapter we discuss about our process description. After the briefly description of
equipment of process we move forward to material balance. In first step we have to balance
gasifier,cyclone,reactors and PSA.

Material balance is followed by :

3.4.1 BALANCE ON GASIFIER:

MSW Syngas
ww Gasifier
AIR Ash

Figure 3- 1 gasifier

From the above figure it is clear that MSW and Air enters in gasifier and after process in gasifier
Syngas(desired product) and Ash is produced.

Page | 39
There are 8 reactions take place in gasifier mention below:

1. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

2. C(s) + 1/2O2(g) CO(g)

3. C(s) + H2O(g) CO(g) + H2(g)

4. CO(g) + H2O(g) CO2 + H2(g)

5. C(S) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)

6. C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)

3.4.1.1CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MSW:

Properties

Table 3- 1

Proximate analysis(%-dry basis)

Moisture 3.3
Volatile Matter 79.7
Fixed carbon 7.2
Ash 9.1

Table 3- 2

Ultimate analysis (%-dry basis)

Carbon 63.6
Hydrogen 8.19
Nitrogen 0.4
Oxygen 27
Sulfur 0.1

According to above analysis the composition is that in MSW

C = 0.636

H = 0.0819

Page | 40
O = 0.27

N = 0.004

S = 0.001

In gasifier complete reaction occurs by following entering steam of air

1 ton of MSW needed 1.6 ton of air from atomspher

Table 3- 3

capacity = 25 ton/day

capacity = 944.984 kg/hr

mass flow rate of 944.984 kg/hr

msw

Table 3- 4

Elements Yield
Fraction
Moisture 0.033
H2 0.079
C 0.609
N2 0.003
O2 0.26
ASH 0.087
TOTAL 1
Table 3- 5

Page | 41
Overall Balance on Gasifier

Msw + Air = syngas + Ash

2456.954 2377.3 Ash
Ash 76.59 kg/hr

Table 3- 6

Component Balance on Gasifier

H2
1kgmol of CH4 : 2 kgmol of H2
176.239516 kgmole of H2 352.479032 kgmol of H2

H2 704.958064 kg of CH4
CH4
2kgmol of H2 : 1kgmol of CH4
176.239516 kgmole of H2 88.119758 kgmol of CH4
176.239516 kg of CH4
CO
1kgmole of H2 : 1kgmole of CO kgmole of CO
176.239516 kgmole of H2 176.239516 kgmole of CO
4934.706448 kg of CO
CO2
1kgmol of CO : 1kgmol of CO2
3.513315514 kgmol of CO 3.513315514 kgmol of CO2
154.5858826 kg of CO

Table 3- 7

component Mass (kg/hr) Mass fraction

H2 72.97 0.029
CH4 0.021 0.00000684
CO 1134.73 0.462
CO2 0.015 0.0000059
ASH 76.593 0.031
Others 1171.6 0.477
Total 2455.98 1

Page | 42
3.4.2 MATERIAL BALANCE ON CYCLONE SEPARATOR:
Material balance on a cyclone separator is important to ensure that the cyclone is working
efficiently and effectively. A cyclone separator is a device that uses centrifugal force to separate
particles from a gas stream based on their size and density.

The material balance on a cyclone separator involves tracking the mass of the gas stream and the
particles that are separated out of the gas stream. The material balance equation for a cyclone
separator can be expressed as follows:

M_in = M_out + M_separated

where M_in is the mass of the gas stream entering the cyclone separator, M_out is the mass of
the gas stream leaving the cyclone separator, and M_separated is the mass of particles separated
from the gas stream.

To perform a material balance on a cyclone separator, the following information is typically

needed:

 The mass flow rate of the gas stream entering the cyclone separator
 The particle size distribution and density of the particles in the gas stream

 The mass flow rate and particle size distribution of the particles separated from the gas
stream
 The pressure drop across the cyclone separator

By analyzing the material balance equation and the above parameters, engineers can optimize the
design and operation of the cyclone separator to achieve the desired separation efficiency. For
example, adjusting the cyclone geometry, gas flow rate, or particle feed rate can help to achieve
better separation and minimize particle loss in the gas stream leaving the cyclone separator.

In this case cyclone separated ash from syngas as product of gasifier enters in cyclone separator.

3.4.3 MATERIAL BALANCE ON REACTOR:

A material balance on a reactor is a calculation of the mass of all components entering and
leaving the reactor. Reactors are used in many industrial processes, including chemical and
biological reactions, and it is important to ensure that the reactor is operating efficiently and
effectively. The material balance equation for a reactor can be expressed as follows:

M_in = M_out + ΔM

Page | 43
where M_in is the mass of all components entering the reactor, M_out is the mass of all
components leaving the reactor, and ΔM is the change in mass of the components inside the
reactor.

To perform a material balance on a reactor, the following information is typically needed:

 The mass flow rates of all components entering the reactor

 The mass flow rates of all components leaving the reactor
 The reaction stoichiometry (i.e., the balanced equation for the chemical or biological
reaction occurring in the reactor)
 The reactor volume and residence time
By analyzing the material balance equation and the above parameters, engineers can optimize the
design and operation of the reactor to achieve the desired reaction rate and product yield. For
example, adjusting the reactant feed rates or the reactor volume can help to optimize the reaction
rate, while adjusting the product separation process can help to optimize the product yield.
Material balance calculations can also help to identify sources of inefficiency, such as unwanted
side reactions or reactant loss due to leaks or spills. Overall, material balance on a reactor is
essential to ensure that the reactor is operating safely, efficiently, and effectively.

In this case syngas and steam enter in reactor and in reactor reforming reaction occur and in
result hydrogen enriched gas produced.

Table 3- 8

Components Mass Mass MW DENSITY VOLUME viscosity

(kg/hr) fraction (VO) (10^-
5)pa s
H2 72.975 0.025 2 0.083 8493.470651 1.75
CH4 0.00041 0.0000001 16 0.657 268.2488828 2.43
CO 1134.36 0.381 28 1.145 3462.625719 3.76
CO2 0.014 0.000004 44 1.87 82.66624738 3.6
Water 642.5892 0.2161 18 997 0.644522768 3
Others 1122.38 0.377
Total 2972.33 1 108 1000.755 12307.65602 14.54

Page | 44
3.4.3.1 MATERIAL BALANCE ON HSTR:
Material balance on HSTR is given in below table

Table 3- 9

Components Mass (kg/hr) Mass fraction

H2 135.723 0.045
CH4 0.00041 0.0000001
CO 262.883 0.088
CO2 1369.91 0.461
Others 1203.81 0.405
Total 2972.33 1

3.4.3.2 MATERIAL BALANCE ON LSTR:

Table 3- 10

Material Balance on LSTR

Components Mass (kg/hr) Mass fraction Mole(kmole/hr) Mole fraction

H2 3852.076996 0.770341073 7704.153992 0.184197974
CH4 42.29 0.008457184 676.64 0.016177729
CO 951.5295481 0.19028755 26642.82735 0.637001134
CO2 154.5858826 0.030914194 6801.778834 0.162623162
Total 5000.482427 1 41825.40017 1

3.4.4 MATERIAL BALANCE ON PSA:

Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) is a widely used process for separating gases from a mixture.
It operates by using an adsorbent material that selectively adsorbs one or more gases from a
mixture. The adsorbent is typically a solid material, such as zeolite, activated carbon, or
molecular sieve.

To perform a material balance on a PSA process, we need to consider the flow of gas through the
system and the adsorption and desorption of gas on the adsorbent material. The following are the
main components of a PSA process:

1. Feed gas inlet

2. Adsorption bed(s)

Page | 45
 3. Product gas outlet
4. Regeneration gas inlet
5. Waste gas outlet

The feed gas inlet is where the gas mixture enters the PSA process. The gas then flows through
the adsorption bed(s), where the adsorbent material selectively adsorbs one or more gases from
the mixture. The adsorption bed(s) typically consist of several layers of adsorbent material, with
each layer designed to selectively adsorb a specific gas component.

The product gas outlet is where the purified gas exits the PSA process. The waste gas outlet is
where any gas that is not adsorbed by the adsorbent material is discharged from the process.

The regeneration gas inlet is where a purge gas is introduced to the adsorption bed(s) to remove
the adsorbed gas from the adsorbent material. The purge gas is typically a gas that does not
adsorb onto the adsorbent material, such as nitrogen or air.

To perform a material balance on a PSA process, we need to consider the following parameters:

1. Gas flow rate

2. Gas composition
3. Adsorption capacity of the adsorbent material
4. Regeneration gas flow rate
5. Regeneration gas composition

Using these parameters, we can calculate the amount of gas that is adsorbed onto the adsorbent
material and the amount of gas that is discharged from the process. The material balance
equations for a PSA process are:

Mass of adsorbed gas = Adsorption capacity x Mass of adsorbent material

Mass of purified gas = Mass of feed gas - Mass of adsorbed gas

Mass of waste gas = Mass of feed gas - Mass of purified gas

To optimize a PSA process, we need to balance the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent material
with the gas flow rate and the regeneration gas flow rate. We also need to consider the cost of the
adsorbent material, the cost of the regeneration gas, and the energy requirements for the process.

Page | 46
 Chapter 04
ENERGY BALANCE

4.1 DEFINE:
An energy balance is a calculation that accounts for all the energy entering and leaving a system,
and how it is used within the system. In other words, it is a way of tracking the flow of energy
through a process or system to ensure that energy is being conserved and used efficiently.

The equation can be expressed as:

Energy in = Energy out + Energy stored

The energy inputs to a system can include things like electrical power, fuel, or solar radiation,
while the energy outputs can include things like heat, mechanical work, or light. Energy can also
be stored within the system as potential or kinetic energy.

An energy balance can be used to optimize energy use within a system, by identifying areas
where energy is being lost or wasted, and finding ways to reduce those losses. This can help to
increase energy efficiency and reduce costs. Energy balances are commonly used in industrial
processes, building design, and other areas where energy use is a significant factor.

4.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY BALANCE:

Energy balance is a fundamental concept in chemical engineering because most chemical
processes involve energy transfer, transformation, and conversion. Here are some of the key
reasons why energy balance is important in chemical engineering:

1. Process design and optimization: Energy balance plays a critical role in the design and
optimization of chemical processes. By tracking the flow of energy through a process,
engineers can identify areas where energy is being lost or wasted and find ways to
improve energy efficiency.

2. Energy conservation: The law conservation of energy is a core principle of chemical

engineering. By ensuring that the energy balance equation is satisfied, engineers can be
confident that energy is being conserved and that there are no unaccounted losses.

3. Safety: Many chemical processes involve the generation or release of significant amounts
of energy, which can be hazardous if not properly controlled. By understanding the
energy balance of a process, engineers can design safety systems that protect personnel
and equipment from potentially dangerous energy releases.

4. Environmental impact: Energy usage is a major contributor to environment by emitting

greenhouse gases. By optimizing energy use in chemical processes, engineers can reduce

Page | 47
 the environmental impact of chemical production and contribute to a more sustainable
future.

5. Product quality: Energy balance can also impact product quality in chemical processes.
For example, if a reactor is not properly insulated, heat loss can occur, leading to
temperature fluctuations that can affect product quality. By maintaining a proper energy
balance, engineers can ensure consistent product quality.

In summary, energy balance is a critical concept in chemical engineering, as it helps ensure that
chemical processes are designed, operated, and optimized in a safe, efficient, and sustainable
manner

4.3 ENERGY BALANCE ON EQUIPMENT:

In our project we follow the flow of energy by energy balance on the following equipment

 Gasifier
 Compressor
 Reactor
 Heat exchanger 1
 Heat exchanger 2
 Heat exchanger 3

4.3.1 ENERGY BALANCE ON GASIFIER:

An energy balance on a gasifier is a calculation that accounts for the energy inputs and outputs of
the gasification process. A gasifier is a device that converts solid or liquid carbonaceous
feedstock into a combustible gas called syngas, which can be used as a fuel for a variety of
applications.

Here are the main energy inputs and outputs that need to be considered in an energy balance on a
gasifier:

Energy inputs:

1. Chemical energy of the feedstock: The feedstock contains energy that is released during
gasification.

2. Heat energy: Gasification requires heat, which can be provided by various means, such as
combustion of a portion of the feedstock or an external heat source.

Energy outputs:

1. Syngas energy: The primary energy output

2. Ash energy : byproduct

Page | 48
Cp values of components of syngas and MSW given below in table

Table 4- 1

cp(kj/kgk)
Air 1.21
O2 1.047
H2 14.65
C 0.89
Total 16.75

Overall energy in by fuel in gasifier is given in below table

Table 4- 2

Energy Balance
M(kg/hr) Cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) dt
2456.9 16.75 1100 298 802
Q= mcpdt(kj/hr) 33004766.15
9241.334522

Now energy out by syngas is given below table

Table 4- 3

Energy out by syngas

M(kg/hr) cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) dt
2362.46 2.7 1100 298 802

Q= mcpdt(kj/hr) 5115670.884
Q= mcpdt(KW) 1432.387848

Energy out Ash is given below table

Page | 49
Table 4- 4

Energy out by Ash

M(kg/hr) cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) Dt
94.494 0.84 1100 298 802

Q= mcpdt(kj/hr) 63658.72
Q= mcpdt(KW) 17.82444

Total energy balance is given in below table

Table 4- 5

Total energy balance

In-out+generation=consumption
In out Generation Consumption
0 1414.563407 9241.334522 7826.771115

4.3.2 ENERGY BALANCE ON REACTOR:

Within the gasification process of municipal solid waste (MSW), the reforming reactor plays an
essential function in converting strong waste into syngas, a combination of hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and other gases. The power stability inside the reforming reactor of an MSW
gasification system is essential to make sure the green and effective conversion of waste into
energy.

The energy balance equation for the reforming reactor in an MSW gasification process can be
expressed as:

Energy input = Energy output + Energy losses

The energy input to the reforming reactor includes:

1. Heat input to the reactor: The reactor needs to be heated to a high temperature, typically
between 800-1000°C, to initiate and maintain the gasification reactions.

2. Heat input to the feedstock: The MSW feedstock needs to be preheated to a temperature
of around 200-300°C to ensure a uniform temperature distribution in the reactor and to
promote the desired chemical reactions.

Page | 50
 3. Energy input from the oxidant: In some gasification processes, an oxidant such as air or
oxygen is introduced into the reactor to promote combustion of the waste and provide
energy for the gasification reactions.

The energy output from the reforming reactor includes:

1. Heat released from the gasification reactions: The gasification reactions release heat,
which contributes to the energy output of the reactor.

2. Energy output in the form of syngas: The primary product of the reforming reactor is
syngas, which contains energy that can be used for electricity generation or other
industrial applications.

The energy losses in the reforming reactor include:

1. Heat loss from the reactor walls: The high temperature in the reactor can result in
significant heat losses from the walls, which can reduce the energy efficiency of the
process.

2. Heat loss from the feedstock: The preheated MSW feedstock can lose heat before it
enters the reactor, resulting in reduced efficiency.

3. Energy loss from incomplete combustion: In some gasification processes, incomplete

combustion of the waste can result in energy losses in the form of unreacted carbon or
other components.

Balancing the energy input, energy output, and energy losses in the reforming reactor is crucial
to achieving optimal performance and efficiency in an MSW gasification process. Proper
monitoring and control of the reactor conditions, including temperature, pressure, and oxidant
flow rate, can help maintain the energy balance and optimize the gasification reactions for
maximum energy recovery.

Energy balance on catalytic reactor is given below in table

Table 4- 6

Energy balance on catalytic reactor

M(kg/hr) cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) dt cpdt
Syngas 2456.94 4.65 1116 825 291 1353.15
Steam 642.58 4.15 825 423 402 1668.3
Total 3099.52 3021.45

Page | 51
4.3.3 ENERGY BALANCE ON COMPRESSOR:
A compressor is a mechanical tool used to boom the pressure of a gasoline by using lowering its
extent. The energy balance in a compressor is important to ensure that the compressor operates
efficiently and efficaciously even as meeting the favored output necessities. The strength balance
equation for a compressor can be expressed as follows:

Energy input = Energy output + Energy losses

The energy input to a compressor includes:

1. Shaft work input: The compressor is driven by an external power source, typically an
electric motor, which provides shaft work input to the compressor.

2. Heat input: In some compressors, heat may be added to the gas being compressed to
increase its temperature and make it easier to compress.

The energy output from a compressor includes:

1. Work output: The compressor increases the pressure of the gas by reducing its volume,
which results in work output.

2. Heat output: Compression of the gas can cause its temperature to increase, which results
in heat output from the compressor.

The energy losses in a compressor include:

1. Frictional losses: Friction between the moving parts of the compressor can result in
energy losses.

2. Leakage losses: Leakage of gas from the compressor can result in energy losses.

3. Heat loss: Heat loss due to radiation, convection, or conduction can result in energy
losses.

4. Inlet and outlet losses: Energy losses can occur at the inlet and outlet of the compressor
due to turbulence or improper design.

Balancing the energy input, energy output, and energy losses is crucial for optimizing the
performance of a compressor. This can be achieved by controlling the operating parameters of
the compressor, such as the inlet and outlet pressure, the gas flow rate, and the temperature.
Proper maintenance and cleaning of the compressor can also help reduce energy losses due to
friction and leakage. Overall, careful attention to the energy balance of a compressor can help
ensure that it operates efficiently and effectively while meeting the desired output requirements.

Page | 52
Energy balance is given below in table

Table 4- 7

Energy balance on Compressor

M(kg/hr) cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) dt
2362.46 2.7 825 800 25

Q= mcpdt(kj/hr) 159466.1
Q= mcpdt(KW) 44.65049

4.3.4 ENERGY BALANCE ON HEAT EXCHANGERS:

A heat exchanger is an apparatus that converts heat from one fluid to another. One fluid
circulates through a series of tubes while the opposing fluid circulates through the shell that
surrounds the tubes in a shell and tube heat exchanger. To ensure that the heat transfer procedure
is efficient and environmentally friendly, the strength balance in a shell and tube warmth
exchanger is essential. The power stability equation for a shell and tube warmness exchanger can
be expressed as follows:

Energy input = Energy output + Energy losses

The energy input to a shell and tube heat exchanger includes:

1. The hot fluid receives heat input and transfers it to the cold fluid through the heat
exchanger. Different heat sources, such as combustion, electric heating, or a process heat
stream, can add heat to the hot fluid.
2. Pump work input: If a pump is used to circulate the fluids through the heat exchanger, the
work input to the pump must be considered as part of the energy input.

The energy output from a shell and tube heat exchanger includes:

1. Heat output to the cold fluid: The cold fluid exits the heat exchanger at a higher
temperature than it entered, indicating that heat has been transferred from the hot fluid to
the cold fluid.

2. Heat loss to the surroundings: Heat can be lost from the heat exchanger to the
surroundings due to radiation, convection, or conduction.

The energy losses in a shell and tube heat exchanger include:

1. Frictional losses: Friction between the fluids and the walls of the tubes or shell can result
in energy losses.

Page | 53
 2. Leakage losses: Leakage of fluid from the heat exchanger can result in energy losses.

Balancing the energy input, energy output, and energy losses is crucial for optimizing the
performance of a shell and tube heat exchanger. This can be achieved by controlling the
operating parameters of the heat exchanger, such as the flow rate, temperature, and pressure of
the fluids. Proper maintenance and cleaning of the heat exchanger can also help reduce energy
losses due to friction and leakage. Overall, careful attention to the energy balance of a shell and
tube heat exchanger can help ensure that it operates efficiently and effectively while transferring
heat from one fluid to another.

Energy balance on first 1st exchanger is given on next page.

Table 4- 8

Energy Balance on Heat Exchanger 1

Mg(kg/hr) cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) dt

3099.5 4.15 725 1116 -391

Qin= -5029403.675
mcpdt(kj/hr)
Qin= -1408.233029
mcpdt(KW)

Heat Load by Water

cp water t2 t1 dt
4.18 298 450 152

Page | 54
Energy balance on 2nd Heat Exchanger
Table 4- 9

Mg(kg/hr) cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) Dt

3099.5 4.15 500 725 -225

Qin= -2894158
mcpdt(kj/hr)
Qin= -810.364
mcpdt(KW)

Heat Load by Water

cp water t2 t1 dt
4.18 298 450 152

Energy balance on 3rd heat exchanger is given below

Table 4- 10

Energy Balance on Heat Exchanger 2

Mg(kg/hr) cp(kj/kgk) t2(k) t1(k) Dt

3099.5 4.3 300 500 -200

Qin= -2665570
mcpdt(kj/hr)
Qin= -746.36

Page | 55
 Chapter 05
DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION:
The design of equipment in chemical engineering is a complex process that involves multiple
steps, including:

1. Defining the process requirements: Process requirements is the necessary step for
equipment design, such as the desired production rate, the required product quality, and
the operating conditions. This information will help determine the type and size of
equipment needed for the process.

2. Conducting a feasibility study: A feasibility study is carried out to determine whether the
process can be designed and operated at an acceptable cost and with reasonable safety
and environmental considerations.

3. Developing equipment specifications: Based on the process requirements, specifications

for the equipment are developed.

4. Conceptual design: The conceptual design stage involves the development of the overall
design of the equipment, including the configuration, layout, and basic dimensions.
Computer-aided design (CAD) software is often used at this stage.

5. Detailed design: The detailed design stage involves developing detailed drawings and
specifications for the equipment, including materials of construction, fabrication and
construction details, and instrumentation and control systems.

6. Fabrication and construction: After the detailed design is complete, the equipment is
fabricated and constructed according to the design specifications.

7. Testing and commissioning: Once the equipment is constructed, it is tested and

commissioned to ensure that it meets the process requirements and specifications.

8. Operation and maintenance: After the equipment is commissioned, it is operated and

maintained according to the manufacturer's instructions and best practices to ensure safe
and efficient operation.

Throughout the design process, engineers must consider factors such as safety, environmental
impact, cost, and reliability. They must also adhere to relevant codes and standards. Effective
communication between different stakeholders, including engineers, fabricators, and operators, is

Page | 56
essential to ensure that the equipment is designed and constructed to meet the process
requirements and to ensure safe and efficient operation.

5.2 DESIGN OF GASIFIER:

GASIFICATION PARAMETERS AND DESIGN FACTORS:

Characteristics of fuel:

• They consist of energy content, moisture content, size and form of feed inventory, ash
content material, density.

• Better strength content and better gas density result in lesser reactor length.

• Downdraft gasifiers are appropriate for moisture content material of up to 20%.

• Throated gasifiers are liable to bridging if the feedstock length is large inclusive of
briquettes. That is why, pellets are endorsed for throated gasifiers.

• Throatless gasifiers are flexible and suitable for a selection of feedstocks with distinctive
sizes and styles.

Equivalence Ratio (ER):

• It determines whether the procedure takes is pyrolysis, gasification or combustion.

• It impacts the composition of syngas. A higher cost of ER will result in low awareness of
H₂ and CO, and

• improved tar manufacturing.

• top Optimum ER ranges between 0.2-0.4 for majority of fuels.

Operating Temperature:

 As temperature will increase, performance in addition to heat losses boom. Consequently,

proper insulation of the reactor chamber is required to lessen the strength losses.

Residence Time:

 Better residence time tends to decrease the formation of tar compounds and will increase
carbon conversion efficiency and hence the fuel yield.

Superficial Velocity:

Height of reactor :

Page | 57
• It is the ratio of the syngas production rate at normal condition to the cross-sectional area
of the gasifier.

• It affects the gas production, gas energy content, power output, and tar production rates.

• It depends on feedstock packing factor which creates resistance to air flow and is
independent of gasifier dimensions.

• Low values of superficial velocity result in a relatively slow pyrolysis process which
results in high yields of char and unburned tars.

• Cross-sectional area of reactor: It is the ratio of the fuel consumption rate (FCR) to the
specific gasification rate (SGR).

Height of fuel bed :

• Height of the mattress is equal as that of reactor.

• As the height of bed will increase the greater is the resistance to the air waft.

• A thicker bed decreases the downward movement of the bed and will increase the house
time. Consequently, tar formation reduces and fuel yield will increase.

Air-flow requirement:

• Air waft relies upon on kind of draught system used within the gasifier.

• For herbal draught gadget, the air drift charge is decided by means of superficial air speed
and porosity of the bed.

Grate area:

 Grate area is usually the cross-sectional area of the reactor.

 The specific gasification rate depends on the grate area.

Page | 58
 Table 5- 1

Assumptions and Initial Design Conditions (Data):

Type of Gasifier Downdraft (Throatless)

Type of Fuel MSW/

Calorific Value of Fuel 𝑪𝑽 = 8.3 𝑴𝑱/𝒌𝒈 ≡ 8.3 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱/𝒌𝒈

Bulk Density of Fuel 𝝆𝒃 = 120 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

Gasification Efficiency 𝜼𝒈 = 𝟔𝟎%

Specific Gasification Rate 𝑺𝑮𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐𝒉

Equivalence Ratio Ɛ = 𝟎. 𝟑

Stoichiometric A/F Ratio (mass basis) 𝒎𝒂/𝒎𝒇 𝒔 = 1.6 𝒌𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓Τ𝒌𝒈 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅

Random Packing Factor (for Cubes) 𝑷𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟕

Energy required (Thermal Power) 𝑸ሶ = 𝟓0𝒌𝑾 ≡ 𝟓𝟎0𝟎𝟎𝑾

Batch Operating Time 𝑻 = 𝟐𝒉𝒓

Density of Air 𝝆𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑

Velocity of Air 𝑼𝒂 = 𝟒 𝒎/𝒔

Top Diameter 𝒅𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝒎

No of equally spaced Tuyers along the 𝑵=𝟑

Circumference of Reactor

Page | 59
Table 5- 2

Parameter Expression Calculations

Results

Fuel consumption rate FCR = Q/CV* 𝜼𝒈 =50x3600/8.3x10^6x0.6

=0.036kg/hr

A= PCR/SGR =0.036/100

Grate (Reactor) area =0.0003m3

(4A/pi)1/2 =(4x0.0003/3.14)1/2

Reactor diameter

0.0195m = 19.5 mm

H = SGRxT/ꝭP = 100x2/120

Reactor height = 1.67 m

=1670mm

AIR = ƐxFCRxSA/ꝭa = 0.3x0.036x1.6/1.25

Volumetric flow rate of air = 0.014m3/s

UAS= AFR/A = 0.014/0.0003

Superficial air velocity = 46.7 m/s

Page | 60
 Vr = pi/4 (D2H) = 3.14/4 (0.0193)2 x 167

Volume of reactor (gasifier) = TxFCR/ꝭp = 4.98x10^-4 m3

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑇 ∗ 𝑚𝑓/ 𝜌 𝑏 ∗ 𝑃f = 2*0.050/120*0.7

Volume of fuel introduced =1.19x10^-3 m3

𝑉ℎ=𝑉𝑓-Vr = 1.19x10^-3 – 4.98x10^-4

Volume of hopper =6.92x10^-4 m3

𝑟𝑅𝑀𝑆 = (𝑟22 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟12 /3)1/2 = (0.082 +0.08x0.15+0.152)/3

Mean radius of hopper

section
= 0.12 m

ℎ = Vh/pi* 𝑟𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 6.92x10^-4/3.14x0.12

Height of hopper section = 1.83x10-3

(4xAFR/pi* N*Ua)1/2 =(4x0.014/3.14x3x4)1/2

Diameter of the tuyer =1.48x10^-3m

5.3 DESIGN OF CSTR:

The design of a CSTR reactor involves several key steps, including:

1. Process requirements: The first step in designing a CSTR reactor is to define the process
requirements, such as the desired production rate, the required product quality, and the
operating conditions, including temperature, pressure, and reactant concentrations.

2. Kinetic analysis: Kinetic analysis is carried out to determine the rate equation and
reaction kinetics for the chemical reaction. This information is used to determine the
optimal reactor configuration, such as the reactor size and residence time.

Page | 61
 3. Reactor sizing: Based on the process requirements and kinetic analysis, the size of the
CSTR reactor is determined. The reactor size is typically based on the volume required to
achieve a specific conversion rate or product yield.

4. Reactor design: The design of the CSTR reactor involves determining the reactor
configuration, such as the shape and size of the reactor vessel, as well as the placement of
the agitator and other components. The design must take into account factors such as heat
transfer, mixing, and fluid dynamics to ensure optimal performance.

5. Safety considerations: The CSTR reactor must be designed with safety in mind, including
measures such as pressure relief systems, temperature control, and emergency shutdown
procedures.

6. Testing and commissioning: After the CSTR reactor is constructed, it must be tested and
commissioned to ensure that it meets the design specifications and is capable of
performing the desired chemical reaction.

7. Operation and maintenance: The CSTR reactor must be operated and maintained
according to the manufacturer's instructions and best practices to ensure safe and efficient
operation over its lifetime.

Overall, designing a CSTR reactor requires a thorough understanding of the process

requirements, reaction kinetics, and design considerations, as well as adherence to relevant codes
and standards. Effective communication between different stakeholders, including engineers,
fabricators, and operators, is also essential to ensure that the reactor is designed and constructed
to meet the process requirements and to ensure safe and efficient operation.

Input of CSTR:

Table 5- 3

Material Balance on Catalytic reactor

Compone Mass Mass Mole(kmole Mole M DENSI VOLUM viscosi

nts (kg/hr) fraction /hr) fao fracti W TY E (VO) ty
on kg/m3 m3/hr (10^-
5)pa s

H2 704.95 0.1249 352.47903 0.647 2 0.083 8493.470 1.75

5 65

Page | 62
CH4 176.2395 0.031231 11.0149697 0.020 16 0.657 268.2488 2.43
16 091 5 2 82

CO 3964.7 0.7025 141.59665 0.260 28 1.145 3462.625 3.76

1 71

CO2 154.58 0.0273 3.5133155 0.006 44 1.87 82.66624 3.6

4 73

Water 642.58 0.1138 35.6994 0.065 18 997 0.644522 3

5 76

Total 5643.1 1 544.303376 1 10 1000.75 12307.65 14.54

60

 The reaction follows 2nd order kinetics for which rate constant k is 2.95 x 10-5 m3
/kgmol.sec.

 CAo represents CH4 concentration and CBo represents combined concentration of

WATER.

 The value of XA is 0.66

𝑪𝑨𝒐 = 𝑭𝑨𝒐/ 𝑽𝑨𝒐

𝐶𝐴𝑜 = 11.01/ 268.24

𝐶𝐴𝑜 = 0.041 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3

𝑪𝑩𝒐 = 𝑭𝑩𝒐 /𝑽𝑩𝒐

𝐶𝐵𝑜 = (35.69)/ (0.645)

𝐶𝐵𝑜 = 55.78 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑚3

Putting the values in the rate equation,

−𝑟𝐴 = 𝑘𝐶𝐴𝑜 2 (1 − 𝑋𝐴)(𝐶𝐵𝑜/𝐶𝐴𝑜 − 𝑋𝐴)

−𝑟𝐴 = 2.95 × 10−5 × 0.041 × (1 − 0.66)(55.78/0.041 − 0.66)

−𝑟𝐴 = 9.4 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚3. 𝑠𝑒𝑐

−𝑟𝐴 = 0.338 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚3. ℎr

Page | 63
SPACE TIME:

𝛕 = 𝑪𝑨𝒐 × 𝑿𝑨 /−𝒓𝑨

τ = 0.041 × 0.66/ 0.338

τ = 0.079 hr

CSTR VOLUME:

𝑽 = 𝛕 × 𝑽𝒐

𝑉𝑜 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 5653.079/268.24 𝑚3 /hr = 21.036 𝑚3 /ℎ𝑟

𝑉 = 0.079 x 21.036

𝑉 = 1.67 𝑚3

CSTR DIAMETER:

𝑽 = 𝝅/ 𝟒 𝑫𝟐𝑯

𝑉 = 𝜋/ 4 𝐷 2 (1.5𝐷)

𝑉 = 1.775𝐷 3

𝐷 = ( / 1.1775)1/3

𝐷 = (1.67/ 1.1775)1/3

𝐷 = 1.2335 m

CSTR RADIUS:

𝑹 = 𝑫 /𝟐

𝑅 = 1.2335 /2

𝑅 = 0.561 𝑚

CSTR HEIGHT:

𝑯 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝑫

𝐻 = 1.5 × 1.2335

𝐻 = 1.8562 m

IMPELLER DESIGN CALCULATIONS:

Page | 64
Bitched blade impeller with four baffles is selected

IMPELLER DIAMETER:

𝑫𝒂 = 𝑫𝒕 /𝟑

𝐷𝑎 = 1.2335/ 3

𝐷𝑎 = 0.411 m

IMPELLER HEIGHT:

𝑯 = 𝑫𝒕/ 𝟑

𝐻 = 1.2335/3

𝐻 = 0.411m

BAFFLE SPACING:

𝑩 = 𝝅/ 𝟑 𝑫𝒂

𝐵 = 3.14/ 3 × 0.411

𝐵 = 0.43 m

BAFFLE WIDTH:

𝑱 = 𝑫𝒕/ 𝟏𝟐

𝐽 = 1.2335/ 12

𝐽 = 0.1027 m

LIQUID HEIGHT IN TANK:

𝑯𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 = 𝑫𝒕

𝐻𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 1.2335 m

IMPELLER HEIGHT ABOVE VESSEL FLOOR:

𝑬 = 𝑫𝒕 /𝟑

𝐸 = 1.2335/ 3

𝐸 = 0.411 m

Page | 65
IMPELLER WIDTH:

𝑾 = 𝑫𝒂/ 𝟓

𝑊 = 0.411/ 5

𝑊 = 0.08 m

LENGTH OF IMPELLER BLADE:

𝑳 = 𝑫𝒂/ 𝟒

𝐿 = 0.1029 m

POWER CALCULATIONS OF CSTR IMPELLER:

IMPELLER REYNOLD NUMBER:

𝑹𝒆 = 𝑫𝒂 𝟐𝒏𝝆 /𝝁

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1000.75 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟 = 14.54 x10^-5 / 5

= 2.9 x 10^-5 pascal seconds

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑛 = 80 𝑟𝑝𝑚 = 1.33 𝑟𝑝𝑠

𝑅𝑒 = 0.411 × 1.33 × 100.75 / 0.00029

𝑅𝑒 = 18816130.41

VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE THROUGH IMPELLER:

𝒒 = 𝒏𝑫𝒂 𝟑𝑵𝑸

the value of flow number for turbines is,

𝑵𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕

𝑞 = 1.33 × 0.4113 × 0.87

𝑞 = 0.080 𝑚3 /sec

POWER NUMBER:

Using the figure 9.12 from Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5th Ed., McCabe &
Smith, the value of power number Np obtained using the Reynold number is,

Page | 66
𝑵𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟕

In baffle tanks, if the Reynold number is greater than 10000 then,

𝑵𝒑 = 𝑲T

POWER:
𝑷 = 𝑲𝑻𝒏𝟑𝑫𝒂𝟓𝝆

𝑃 = 1.7 × 1.333 × 0.4115 × 1000.75

𝑃 = 1645.42 W

5.4 DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER 1:

The layout of a shell and tube warmth exchanger in chemical engineering entails several
key steps, including:
1. Procedure requirements: step one in designing a shell and tube warmness
exchanger is to define the system requirements, including the float rate, temperature, and
stress of each the recent and bloodless fluids. The manner necessities additionally
consist of any specifications associated with the fluid chemistry that can have an impact
on the fabric selection for the heat exchanger.
2. Choice of tube and shell substances: The substances of construction for the tubes
and shell need to be selected primarily based at the chemical and physical homes of the
fluids being processed, in addition to the operating conditions of the heat exchanger. The
substances should be capable of resist the temperature and stress of the fluids even as
additionally being well matched with the fluid chemistry.
3. Willpower of the warmth transfer price: the heat transfer fee is decided based on
the process necessities and the general warmness transfer coefficient. The general
warmth transfer coefficient is calculated based totally at the thermal residences of the
fluids, the geometry of the warmth exchanger, and any fouling elements.
4. Sizing of the heat exchanger: primarily based on the warmth transfer price and the
overall warmth switch coefficient, the size of the heat exchanger is decided. This
includes the variety of tubes, their duration and diameter, and the size of the shell.
5. Design of the warmth exchanger: The design of the warmth exchanger includes
figuring out the tube layout and configuration, the position of baffles and supports, and
the geometry of the shell. The design ought to also recollect factors inclusive of waft
quotes, stress drop, and temperature gradients.
6. Thermal and mechanical design: The thermal design involves calculating the
warmth switch area and ensuring that the heat exchanger meets the specified heat
transfer rate. The mechanical design includes ensuring that the warmth exchanger can
face up to the working conditions, which include stress, temperature, and vibration.
7. Fabrication and assembly: the heat exchanger is fabricated and assembled in step
with the layout specifications, including welding, inspection, and high-quality
manipulate.

Page | 67
 8. Checking out and commissioning: the heat exchanger is tested to ensure that it
meets the design specs and is able to acting the preferred warmth switch.
Commissioning includes ensuring that the warmth exchanger is integrated into the
manner and operates as intended.
9. Operation and upkeep: the warmth exchanger have to be operated and maintained
in line with the producer's instructions and first-class practices to ensure secure and
efficient operation over its lifetime. This includes ordinary cleaning, inspection, and
repair as wished.
Overall, designing a shell and tube warmth exchanger in chemical engineering calls for a
thorough expertise of the procedure necessities, thermal properties of the fluids, and
layout concerns. Powerful verbal exchange between special stakeholders, which
includes engineers, fabricators, and operators, is likewise vital to make sure that the
warmth exchanger is designed and built to satisfy the system necessities and to ensure
secure and green operation.

DESIGN CALCULATIONS:
Heat capacity of syngas : 4.15 kj/kg*C

Mass flowrate :3099.5432 kg/hr

Tin = 843*C

Tout = 452*C

Now water,

Tin = 25*C

Tout = 177*C

Heat load = mcpdt

= 3099.5432/3600 * 4.15(843-452)

= 1397 KW

Heat capacity of water = 4.18 kj/kg*C

Cooling water flow rate = 1397.07/4.18(177-25)

= 2.19 kg/sec

LMTD :

∆Tin=
(𝑇1 − 𝑡2) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1)
ln( 𝑇1−𝑡2
𝑇2−𝑡1
)

Page | 68
 (843 − 177) − (452 − 25)
843 − 177
ln⁡( )
452 − 25
= 531*C

 Use one shell and two tube passes

 Because pressure drop less

 More residence time

𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑅=
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
R = 2.57

𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑆 =⁡
𝑇1 − 𝑡1

S = 0.51

From fig 12.13 (from Coulson book)

Ft = 0.68

∆Tm = 0.68*531

= 361.08 *C

From fig 12.1(from Coulson book)

U= 300 w/m2c

Provisional Area:

Q = UA∆Tm

A = 1397.07 *10^3

A= 12.89m2

Choose 20mm 0.d:

O.D = 20mm

I.D = 16mm

Page | 69
Long tubes = 4.88m

Curve tube sheet thickness = L = 4.83m

Area of one tube= piDL

= 3.14*20*10^-3*4.83

= 0.303m2

Numbers of tube = 12.89/0.303

= 42.5412

= 43 tubes

 Water in tube side(corresive)

 Syngas in shell side

 Shell side is relatively clean

So use

1.25 triangular pitch

Bundle diameter:

Db=do(Nt/k1)^1/n1

= 20 (43/0.249)^1/2.207

= 206mm

No. of passes = 2

K1 = 0.249

n1 = 2.207

use split ring floating head type:

from fig 12.10(from Coulson book)

bundle diameter clearance = 50mm

shell diameter = 50 + 206

= 256 mm

Page | 70
Tube side co-efficient:

Mean water temp = 25 +177/ 2

=101*C

Tube-cross-sectional Area

Area = pi/4*I.D

= 201mm2

Tube per pass = 43/2

= 22

Total flowrate = 22*201*10^-6

= 4.422 *10^-3 m2

Water mass velocity:

= 2.19/ 4.422 *10^-3

= 495.25 kg/ m2

Density of water = 995 kg/m3

Water linear velocity = 459.25/995

= 0.45
4200(1.35+0.026)0.8 𝑢𝑡
hi = 𝑑𝑖 0.2

= 3653.02 w/m2C

Shell side co-efficient:

Choose baffle spacing = Ds/5

=256/5

= 51.2mm

Tube pitch = 1.25 *20 = 25mm

Page | 71
Cross flowrate= As= 25-20/25 *256*51.2*10^-6

= 2.62*10^-3m2

Mass velocity = Gs = 3099.5432/3600 *1/0.00262

328.61kg/sm2
1.01(𝑝𝑡 2 −0.91762 𝑑𝑜)
Equivalent diameter = de = 𝑑𝑜

= 14.4mm

Mean shell temperature = 843-452/2

648*C

Heat capacity of syngas = 4.15 kj/kg*C

Thermal conductivity kf = 0.25 w/m*C

Viscosity of syngas = 0.25 mNs/m2

𝐺𝑠𝑑𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = ⁡
µ
328.61∗14.4∗10−3
Re = 0.23∗10−3

= 18927.936

𝐶𝑝µ
𝑃𝑟 =
𝑘𝑓
4.15∗103 ∗0.25∗10−3 ⁡
= 0.25

= 4.15

 Choose 25% baffle cut from fig 12.29(from Coulson book)

jh = 2.2*10^-3

without viscosity correction term

hs= Vf/de *jh*Re*Pr^1/3

after putting values

hs= 1000.03 w/m2C

Page | 72
Estimate wall time:

648—101

= 547*C

Across syngas film:

= U/ho *∆T

= 300/1000.03 * 547

= 164.09 *C

Mean wall temp:

648—164.09

= 483.91*C

Overall coefficient:

Thermal conductivity of nickel alloy = 50w/m*C

Cooling water, the fouling coefficient is (300--600)w/m2*C

And for syngas (200--6000) w/m2*C

𝑑𝑜
1 1 1 𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑛
= + + 𝑑𝑖 + 𝑑𝑜 + 1 + 𝑑𝑜 ∗ 1
𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑜 ℎ𝑜𝑑 2𝑘𝑤 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖
By putting values in above equation we get Uo

Uo= 557.53 w/m2*C

Pressure drop:

Tube side:

From fig 12.24(from Coulson book)

jh= 2.5*10^-3

neglecting viscosity correction term

Page | 73
 𝐿 𝜇 𝜌𝜇 2
∆𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) + 2.5]
𝑑𝑙 𝜇𝜔 2

By putting values we get

𝑁
∆𝑃𝑡 = 860.06
𝑚2
Shell side:

Linear velocity= Gs/ꝭ

= 328.61/0.95

= 345.90 m/sec

𝐷𝑠 𝐿 𝜌𝜇𝑠 2 𝜇 −0.14
∆𝑝𝑠 = 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) ⁡( ) ⁡
𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑏 2 𝜇𝜔

From fig 12.30 (from Coulson book) at

Re = 18927.936

Jf= 2.9*10^-2

Neglect viscosity correction

𝑁
∆𝑝𝑠 = 97719.3 ⁡
𝑚2

Page | 74
 Chapter 06
SOCIO-ECONOMICS CONSIDERATIONS

6 OVERVIEW:
In this section we will estimate the capital cost and operational cost of the plant. In this way
we will also signify the positive impact of our project on the society.

6.1 COST ESTIMATION:

6.1.1 Cost Estimations evaluate:
Capital funding is required for any commercial procedure to start. To check the proper price
requirement, a distinctive stage of price estimation is present. The important part of the plant
layout assignment is the willpower of capital funding. Assessment of this investment is also
called price estimation.

6.1.2 CAPITAL FUNDING:

Before an industrial facility can start up, a significant sum of money must be provided to buy the
necessary equipment and systems and then to set them up on the property. The plant must be
completely constructed, including all pipelines, controls, and carriers. Land and service facilities
must also be acquired. Similar to this, it's crucial to have money on hand for a plant's installation
and operation. General capital finance refers to the total sum needed for the installation and
operation of the facility.

Total capital funding = fixed capital + working capital

6.1.3 FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT:

The full cost of constructing the facility is the constant capital investment. This price comprises
the uncooked cloth costs as well as labor, as well as design, site cleanup, buying process system,
establishing infrastructure, and contingency costs. Fixed capital investment refers to the funds
required to supply the key production and plant hubs. The constant capital is divided further into
the following.

production fixed capital investment

non-manufacturing fixed capital investment
The constant capital funding labeled into two subdіvіsіons:

direct cost
oblique cost

Page | 75
6.1.4 DIRECT COST:
"A direct cost is totally traceable to the production of a specific item, such as a product
or service. For example, the cost of the materials used to create a product is a direct cost".

Bought gadget іnstallatіon:

Insulation Price
Piping
Instrumentation and Manage
Electrical іnstallatіon
Building consisting of services
Yard development
Provider centers
Land

6.1.5 INDIRECT COST:

"Indirect Cost Rate Indirect costs include costs which are frequently referred to as
overhead expenses and general and administrative expenses".

engineering and supervision

creation costs
contractor’s charge
start-up fee

6.1.6 WORKING CAPITAL:

"Working capital is the money that remains if you subtract a company's current liabilities from
its current assets. All else being equal, the more working capital a company has on hand, the less
financial strain it experiences. The capital required for the operation of the plant is referred to as
operating capital. Operating capital consists of the subsequent things to be taken into
consideration".

Raw materials and resources carried an inventory

Completed product іn inventory and semi-completed products іnsіde the
manner of being synthetic
Bills receivable
Coins kept available for a monthly fee of running charges, which includes
salaries, wages and raw cloth purchases
Bills payable
Taxes payable

Page | 76
 6.1.7 CAPITAL VALUE ESTIMATES:
As the project continues, the accuracy of the project's overall cost will increase. The capital
investment estimate for a system may also range from a preliminary estimate created using
detailed drawings and specifications to an in-depth estimate prepared from comprehensive
drawings and specifications. There may be a wide range of estimates with varying degrees of
accuracy between these two capital funding estimates' extremes, depending on how far along the
project is in its development. The accuracy range and classification frequently used for
formatting purposes are the following categories, but those estimations are known by a variety of
names.

Observe estimate (factorial estimate)

Preliminary estimates (price range authorization estimate
Defіnіtіve estimate (assignment manage estimate)
Specific estimate (contractor’s estimate)

6.2 METHODS OF COST ESTIMATION:

Some most important methods of capital cost estimation are listed below.

1. Order of magnitude estimates

✓ Cost curve method

✓ Step count method

2. Reverse engineering methods

✓ Pay-back method

✓ Turnover ratio method

✓ TCOP method

3. The factorial method

✓ Lang factors

✓ Hand factors

✓ Material factors

Factorial method is used to calculate the total investment cost as this method gives a very

Proximate estimate

Page | 77
6.3 TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT CALCULATIONS:
Purchased equipment costs:

The correlation used for equipment cost estimation is,

𝑪𝒆 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝑺𝒏

✓ Ce = equipment cost

✓ a & b = cost constants

✓ S = sizing parameter

✓ n = exponent for that equipment

To estimate the equipment costs, we can use the following equation:

Ce = aS^bn

Where:

Ce is the equipment cost in dollars

a and b are cost constants for that type of equipment

S is a sizing parameter for the equipment

n is an exponent for that equipment

Page | 78
Table 6- 1

Equipment a b S N Ce Material

Fluidized-bed gasifier 1659 0.361 25 0.588 2,639,604 Carbon steel

Cyclone separator 307 0.42 25 0.7 268,012 Carbon steel

Centrifugal compressor 2487 0.395 25 0.686 5,084,874 Carbon steel

Catalytic reactor 3957 0.328 25 0.631 7,960,880 Stainless steel

Shell and tube heat 982 0.483 25 0.63 1,649,707 Stainless steel
exchanger

HTSR 1006 0.475 25 0.63 1,682,424 Stainless steel

LSTR 843 0.5 25 0.63 1,412,745 Stainless steel

PSA 1176 0.448 25 0.675 2,590,858 Carbon steel

Note: Ce is the equipment cost in dollars, a and b are cost constants for that type of equipment, S
is a sizing parameter for the equipment, n is an exponent for that equipment, and material refers
to the material used to construct the equipment.

Factors and values table

Page | 79
Table 6- 2

Factor Value

Lang factor (F) 4.21

Material factor 3.06

Pressure factor 0.62

Temperature factor 0.65

6.3. INSIDE BATTERY LIMITS (ISBL) COST:

The ISBL cost is calculated using the following formula:

ISBL = SUM(Ce * S^b * F * M * P * T)

Where:

 Ce is the equipment cost in dollars

 S is a sizing parameter for the equipment
 b is a cost constant for that type of equipment
 F is the Lang factor
 M is the material factor
 P is the pressure factor
 T is the temperature factor

Plugging in the values from the table and the factors and values table, we get:

ISBL = (2,639,604 * 25^0.361 * 4.21 * 3.06 * 0.62 * 0.65) +

(268,012 * 25^0.42 * 4.21 * 3.06 * 0.62 * 0.65) +

Page | 80
(5,084,874 * 25^0.395 * 4.21 * 3.06 * 0.62 * 0.65) +

(7,960,880 * 25^0.328 * 4.21 * 1 * 0.62 * 0.65) +

(1,649,707 * 25^0.483 * 4.21 * 1 * 0.62 * 0.65) +

(1,682,424 * 25^0.475 * 4.21 * 1 * 0.62 * 0.65) +

(1,412,745 * 25^0.5 * 4.21 * 1 * 0.62 * 0.65) +

(2,590,858 * 25^0.448 * 4.21 * 3.06 * 0.62 * 0.65)

ISBL = $101,688,885

Step 4: Fixed capital investment (FCI)

The FCI is calculated by adding the ISBL cost and the contingency cost. For this plant, a
contingency cost of 15% of the ISBL cost will be added.

FCI = ISBL * (1 + Contingency)

FCI = $101,688,885 * (1 + 0.15)

FCI = $116,941,217

Step 5: Total capital investment (TCI)

The TCI is calculated by adding the FCI and the working capital investment (WCI). For this
plant, the WCI is assumed to be 15% of the FCI.

TCI = FCI * (1 + WCI)

TCI = $116,941,217 * (1 + 0.15)

TCI = $134,483,395

Step 6: Working capital investment (WCI)

The WCI is assumed to be 15% of the FCI.

WCI = FCI * 0.15

WCI = $116,941,217 * 0.15

Page | 81
WCI = $17,541,183

6.3.2 GROSS MARGIN:

Assuming 99% purity of hydrogen production and 300 working days per year, we can calculate
the product sales price, raw material purchase costs, and consumable purchase costs to determine
the gross margin.

Product sales price:

Table 6- 3

Products Price ($/unit) Units Production (tons) $/year

Hydrogen 2,000 22.5 56,250 112,500,000

Raw material purchase costs:

Table 6- 4

Chemicals Price ($/unit) Units Consumption (tons) $/year

MSW 40 825 20,625 825,000

Catalyst 25,000 0.05 1.13 28,125

Steam 10 90 2,250 22,500

Air 0.1 150 3,750 375

Page | 82
Consumable purchase costs:

Table 6- 5

Consumable Price ($/unit) Units Consumption (units/year) $/year

Maintenance 50,000 1 1 50,000

Electricity 0.1 2,000 600,000 60,000

Page | 83
Gross margin:

Table 6- 6

Sales $/year

Revenue 112,500,000

Cost of Raw Materials (876,625)

Cost of Consumables (110,000)

Labor Costs (3,750,000)

Overhead Expenses (1,500,000)

Utilities (1,500,000)

Variable Cost of Production (7,737,485)

Gross Margin 104,762,515

Therefore, the gross margin is $104,762,515 per year.

Step 8: Labor cost calculations

Page | 84
Assuming a 300-day working year, the labor cost can be estimated as follows:

Table 6- 7

Labor Personnel Hours/Day Wage ($/hour) $/year

Operators 6 8 30 432,000

Maintenance 2 8 40 115,200

Supervisor 1 8 50 15,000

Manager 1 8 70 21,000

Total - - - 583,200

Therefore, the total labor cost is $583,200 per year.

6.4 OVERHEAD EXPENSES CALCULATIONS:

Assuming an overhead rate of 10% of the total fixed capital investment, the overhead expenses
can be estimated as follows:

Page | 85
Table 6- 8

Overhead Expenses % of Fixed Capital Investment $/year

Insurance 1% 106,510

Property Taxes 2% 213,020

Maintenance and Repairs 2% 213,020

Other Overhead 5% 532,550

Total - 1,065,100

Therefore, the total overhead expenses are $1,065,100 per year.

6.4.1 UTILITIES COST:

The utilities cost can be estimated as follows:

Page | 86
Table 6- 9

Utilities Cost ($/year)

Electricity 60,000

Water 10,000

Natural Gas 150,000

Total 220,000

Therefore, the total utilities cost is $220,000 per year.

6.5.2 VARIABLE COST OF PRODUCTION:

The variable cost of production can be calculated as follows:

Page | 87
Table 6- 10

Variable Cost of Production $/year

Raw Materials 876,625

Consumables 110,000

Labor 583,200

Utilities 220,000

Maintenance 50,000

Total 1,839,825

Therefore, the total variable cost of production is $1,839,825 per year.

6.5.3 CASH COST OF PRODUCTION:

The cash cost of production can be calculated as follows:

Page | 88
Table 6.11

Cash Cost of Production $/year

Variable Cost of Production 1,839,825

Overhead Expenses 1,065,100

Total 2,904,925

Therefore, the total cash cost of production is $2,904,925 per year.

Page | 89
 Chapter 07
HAZOP STUDY

7.1 OVERVIEW:
The HAZOP research are time eating and highly-priced. Just getting the P&ІD's up to date on an
older plant can be a chief engineering effort. They may be very cost powerful when we use at in
our each day existence in commercial enterprise and belongings and that they even shop the
future of the enterprise that can face a primary catastrophe. We also use it for updated of our
P&ІD's and it may be a main engineering attempt.

7.2 OPERABILITY:
Any operation in the process design envelop which can cause a shutdown and can possibly led to
the violation of environmental, health and safety rules or can have negative impact on
profitability.

7.2.1 WHEN HAZOP IS PERFORMED:

The HAZOP observe ought to prioritize to be first carry out as within the design section, to have
protection margin impact at the design. Even as to carry out a HAZOP we should have a whole
layout. To compromise this example the HAZOP is performed as a very last check when the
distinct design іs finished. A HAZOP examine can also be finished on an existing school to
check for modifications that may be implemented to lessen dangers and operational troubles.

HAZOP examine also can be used more diversely, along with:

• Whilst design drawings are to be had than in іnіtіal conceptional stage

• After the very last piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ІD) availability

• To ensure guidelines are both carried out in the course of production and installation

• Throughout the design commissioning

• At the same time as in operation to test that plant emergency and running strategies are
both frequently reviewed and up to date.

7.3 HAZOP STUDY OF REACTOR, PUMP, STORAGE TANK,

GASIFIER AND COMPRESSOR:
Table 7- 1 HAZOP analysis on reactor

Page | 90
Table 7- 1

Equipment Guide Deviations Causes Consequences Action

work
Reactor Temperature
Low Streams are Temperature Rate of The feed
is reaction will should
entering at decrease be
low not feasible provided
temperature for at
reaction to its
occur required
Temp.
High Feed is Thermal Nozzles can Nozzles
entering at shocking be can be
high damaged damaged
temperature
Pressure
Low Leakages in Necessary Exposure to Low
the pipe conditions surrounding pressure
for can cause sensor
reaction severe damage be
may be Installed.
vanished

High Chocking Damage to Reactor can Relief

in jacket due explode valve
downstream to should
valve high be
pressure Installed.

7.3.1 HAZOP STUDY OF PUMP:

Table 7- 2 HAZOP analysis on pump

Table 7- 2

Equipment Guide Deviations Causes Consequences Action

words

Pump Temperature

Page | 91
 More Output valve Deadhead Pump damage Valve should
of the pump pump be
is closed open

Pressure
Less Pump inlet Deadhead Pump damage Valve should
valve closed pump be
open

More The pump Pump Pump damage Outlet valve

outlet valve cavities should be
closed Open.
Flow
Less Pump inlet Pump Pump damage Pump
valve closed cavіtates should be
eliminated
in
Overheated.
More Pump outlet Upset in Pump damage Possible
valve fails to pump problem in
open pump

7.3.2 HAZOP STUDY OF STORAGE TANK:

Table 7- 3 HAZOP analysis on storage tank

Table 7- 3

Equipment Guide Deviations Causes consequences Actions

Words

Page | 92
Storage
Tank

Less Inlet temp. is Possible Tank may face Determin

colder than vacuum thermal stress e
normal The
temp.
limits of
The
tank?
More Inlet temp. is Reagent Tank may face Check
more than released thermal stress fire
normal Protectio
-n
Capabilit
-es
Pressure
Less Break inline Reagent A potential fire A low-
released can occur pressure
alarm is
required

More Tank overfill Reagent If the valve is High

Released not shutoff of
working tank second
will rupture level is
Required.
Level

Less Tank runs Cavitatio- Pump damage Estimate

dry n the
of pump release
quantity
More A lot of Tank Reagent A high
reactants overfills released shutoff of
come in the the
tank second

7.3.3 HAZOP STUDY OF HEATEXCHANGER:

Table 7- 4 HAZOP analysis on Heat exchanger

Page | 93
Table 7- 4

Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action

None No cooling Failure of inlet Process Install

cooling water temperature temperature
valve to open fluid indicator before
Is not lowered and after the
accordingly process fluid
line of type
TAM

MORE More cooling Failure of inlet Output of Install

and water flow cooling water process temperature
valve to close Fluid Indicator before
temperature too and after
low process fluid
line of type
TAL

Less Less cooling Pipe leakage Process Installation of

water temperature too flow meter
low

7.3.4 HAZOP STUDY OF GASIFIER:

Table 7- 5 HAZOP analysis on Gasifier

Table 7- 5

Equipment Guide Deviations Causes consequences Actions

Words
Gasifier Temperature

Low Feed is Insufficie Incomplete Increase

entering at nt Gasification Heat
Low Heat and Input
temperature input Low quality

Page | 94
 gas product

High Feed is Insufficie Melting and Improve

entering at -nt Damage to Cooling
high Cooling Product System
temperature from
Pressure
Low Low Blocked Buildup of Clear the
Pressure out Pressure and Blockage and
Gas outlet Possible restore
Explosion The gas
Outlet

High High Excessive Buildup of Reduce Gas

Pressure Gas Pressure and Production
Possible And increase
Production Explosion Gas outlet
capacity.

7.3.5 HAZOP study of compressor:

Page | 95
Table 7- 6 HAZOP analysis on Compressor

Table 7- 6

Guide Word Deviation Causes Consequences Action

None No air flow Blocked air inlet Incomplete Clear the

compression blockage and
and possible restore air flow
overheating

MORE High pressure Excessive Buildup of Reduce

compression pressure and compression or
possible rupture increase outlet
or explosion capacity

Less Low pressure Faulty Incomplete Repair or

compressor or compression replace faulty
insufficient inlet and low-quality equipment or
flow output increase inlet
flow

Page | 96
 Chapter 08

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

8.1 OVERVIEW:
Prior to major decisions and commitments, an EIA examines the potential biophysical, social
and other impacts of a proposed development project. EIAs are used to classify, evaluate,
detect and mitigate these impacts before they become a reality. It is the planned design's
gradual pollution that have externalities, not those that have occurred over time or because of
other projects that have not been used as the plan.

8.2 PURPOSE OF EIA:

The environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) purpose is very clear to save the environment
from different aspects of a chemical plant. As this is an industrial era, every country is
trying to make progress in the field of industries so it is very essential to take care of our
environment As, we're the population it’s our obligation to protect the environment. EIA is
made to identify and understand the Environmental, Social and financial impacts of a
proposed development previous to selection-making. So, it is simple to pick out:

• The quality environmentally suitable choice at a previous degree.

• The nice choice which is attainable in environment.

• Opportunity strategies.

8.2.1 BENEFITS OF EIA:

 Project performance can be improved because of no air
pollutants and minimization of treatment costs.
 Human health is improved.
 Paves way for sustainable development.
 A very healthy environment.

8.3 CHECKLIST:

8.3.1 AIR CLIMATOLOGY:

Table 8- 1

Typical Issue Yes May be N Comments

Page | 97
 o
Air pollution level exceeds the ✓ No emissions
Standard?
Alteration in Ground water ✓ Minimize heat losses
Quality?
by insulation
Deterioration of ambient air ✓ Do not vaporizes
quality
Slandered?
Object able odors? ✓ No order
Table 1 For Air Climatology
Noise:

Typical Issue Yes May be N Comments

o
Increase existing noise level? ✓ Tree plantation
reduce noise level
Expose people to excessive Noise? ✓ Use earplugs

Table 2 For noise

Plant life:

Typical Issue Yes May N Comments

be o
Change the diversity or ✓ Reduce
productivity of
specie or number of any specie of contamination level
Plants? of gaseous
emissions
Create damage to agricultural ✓ Drain water to clear
crop?
land
Reduce natural vegetation? ✓ Plant more trees
Create disease in plants? ✓ Reduce toxicity of
emissions
Table 3 Plant life

Page | 98
8.3.2 TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC FACILITIES:
Table 8- 2

Typical Issue Yes May N Comments

be o
Movement of additional vehicle? ✓ For inventory and
product transport
Demand extension in parking ✓ More Number of
facility?
Vehicles
Substantial effect on existing ✓ Need more wider or
Transportation? new roads
Table 4 Transportation and traffic circulation
Water:

Typical Issue Yes May be No Comments

Discharge to a public water system? ✓ Water Treatment
plant
Alteration in Ground water Quality? ✓ Safe disposal

Changes the amount and road of ✓ Reduce it by

surface recycling
Water runoff?
Violation of State Stream Quality ✓ Always make check
Standard if applicable? of that and try to
mitigate if
applicable
Table 5 For Water

Page | 99
8.3.3UTILITIES:

Table 8- 3

Typical Issue Yes May No Comments

be
Power and Natural gas? ✓ For plant and houses

Communication System? ✓ For internal

communication and
with rest of world
Water? ✓ As a plant utility and
domestic use
Sewer or Spectic Tank ✓ For killing germs

8.3.4 LAND FORM:

Table 8- 4

Typical Issue Yes May No Comments

be
Substantially alter the present or ✓ Always compensate
Planned use of area? the future use first
Extensive Disruption or ✓ During construction
displacement of
The soil? phase and also when
you extended the
plant
Formation of Roads? ✓ For easy access to
industry
Establishment of residential colonies, ✓ For workers
hospitals schools, etc.
Increase land pollution level by ✓ Treatment plant
Chemical discharge?

Page | 100
 Chapter 09
PROCESS SIMULATION

9.1 OVERVIEW:
This section deals with the overall process simulation and its discussions such as the process
flow diagram, process simulation diagram, simulation inputs

9.2 PROCESS FLOW SHEET:

Figure 9- 1 process flow diagram

This is overall design for hydrogen production from municipal waste of Lahore plant. It divided
into three major parts.

1. Gasification unit
2. Reforming unit
3. PSA unit

9.2.1 PROCESS SIMULATION SHEET:

The step to set up simulation in the aspen V14 for hydrogen production

 Gasification section consist of gasifier and cyclone.

 Reforming unit consist of compressor, CSTR reactor, HSTR reactor, LSTR reactor and
three heat exchangers.
 PSA unit is consist on gas bed

Page | 101
9.3 INTRODUCTION:

9.3.1 GENERAL PROCESS WITH METRIC UNITS:

For startup create new simulation file, run the program from the beginning, selecting All
Programs, Aspen Tech, Process Modeling, and Aspen Plus V14. Select the New button. Select
the Chemical Processing template, followed by General with Metric Units. To begin, create
blank simulation.

Figure 9- 2 graphical interface of aspen plus

9.3.2 COMPONENTS SELECTION:

Now second step of simulation is component selection. Select all the required components for
overall process. Make a list and add them one by one. To access the data bank search form click
the Find button. Type a complete formula, boiling point, Molecular weight or one of a few
search options. Once you have found the right combination, select it from the list and click Add
Selected Component. As you add compounds you may be asked to add or change compounds
already in the list; select Add option. List of all components added given below:

Page | 102
Figure 9- 3 Added component list

9.3.3 PROPERTY METHOD SELECTION:

Third step include selection of well suited fluid property package for selected chemical species.
After selection of components in left hand menu of all item list select property method. Peng-rob
method is used for gaseous phases.

Page | 103
Figure 9- 4 Method used

9.3.4 PROPERTY ANALYSIS:

Run property analysis and check the binary interaction of all the components. As our project
consists of several complex compounds so missing property data is added to the review tab.

9.4 SIMULATION INPUTS:

9.4.1 FEED STREAMS SPECIFICATION:

 FEED(MSW)
First of all, define input specification for Dry-feed material at the inlet of the feed mixer. Specify
Temperature Pressure mass fractions and total flow rate of feed stream.

Page | 104
Figure 9- 5 MSW inputs

 Air
Now define input specification for air stream such as temperature, pressure and flow rate and
mass fraction.

Page | 105
Figure 9- 6 Air inputs

9.4.2 BLOCKS SPECIFICATIONS:

Now next step is to specify the operating conditions of all the blocks according to process
conditions.

The table given below tell about block id and Aspen id of components with its complete
description.

Page | 106
Table 9- 1

Block ID Aspen ID Description

DECOM RYIELD A unit used to lower the moisture content in MSW feedstock. The
output is calculated using a calculator block. A reactor
decomposing MSW (non-conventional component) into its
constituents (conventional-components). The output is calculated
using a calculator block.
GASIFIER RGIBBS A reactor converting MSW constituents into syngas. The output is
calculated using Gibbs energy minimization.
CSTR RCSTR A reactor converting Methane gas into hydrogen through
reforming reaction. It occurs in mixing of syngas components and
steam thoroughly.
HSTR REQUIL A reaction converting CO gas into CO2 react with water to
produce hydrogen gas known as WGS reaction at 560K
LSTR REQUIL A reaction converting CO gas into CO2 react with water to
produce hydrogen gas known as WGS reaction at 400K

9.4.2.1DECOMPOSER:
Double click on decomposer block to specified it with values.

Figure 9- 7 decomp conditions

Decomposer yield specification is given in below fig.

Page | 107
Figure 9- 8 component yield

9.4.2.2GASIFIER:
Double click on gasifier block to inter specification.

Figure 9- 9 Gasifier inputs

9.4.2.3 CYCLONE:
Now double click on cyclone to inter specifications

Page | 108
Figure 4 cyclone inputs

9.4.2.4 COMPRESSOR:
Same as previous described to inter values such as pressure

Page | 109
Figure 9- 10 Compressor inputs

9.4.2.5 CSTR REACTOR:

Now double click on CSTR reactor to inter specifications such as flow rate of steam, reaction,
pressure and temperature conditions

Page | 110
Figure 9- 11 CSTR inputs

Page | 111
Figure 9- 12 steam conditions

9.4.2.6 HEAT EXCHANGER 1:

Double click on heater to inter its specified values such as in fig given below

Page | 112
Figure 9- 13 Heat exchanger 1 inputs

9.4.2.7 HSTR REACTOR:

Double click on hstr block to enter the specifications such as pressure, reaction and temperature.

Page | 113
Figure 9- 14 HSTR inputs

Figure 9- 15 HSTR reaction

9.4.2.8 HEAT EXCHANGER 2:

Double click on heater 2 to inter its specified values such as in fig given below

Page | 114
Figure 9- 16 heat exchanger 2 input

9.4.2.9 LSTR REACTOR:

Double click on lstr block to enter the specifications such as pressure, reaction and temperature.

Page | 115
Figure 9- 17 LSTR conditions

Figure 9- 18 LSTR reaction

9.4.2.10HEAT EXCHANGER 3:
Double click on heater 3 to inter its specified values such as in fig given below

Page | 116
Figure 9- 19 Heater conditions

9.5 PSA UNIT:

For Pressure swing adsorption unit use Aspen Adsorption V14

First Add components fig given below

Page | 117
Figure 9- 20 component list

After this go to simulation and makes diagram given below

Figure 9- 21 diagram of Absorber

Used feed inlet , valves to to flow control, gas bed and product unit

9.5.1 FEED INLET:

Double click on feed aero to give values interface is given in below fig
Page | 118
Figure 9- 22 Feed

9.5.2 GAS BED:

Double click on gas bed to add values as given below in fig

Page | 119
Figure 9- 23 gas bed

Page | 120
Figure 9- 24 Bed Specifications

After completion of inputs then run the simulation and results are generated.

FINAL RESULTS:
Final result we get 144 kg/hr yield of hydrogen from MSW by giving 944 kg/hr MSW feed.
Shown in below fig.

Page | 121
Figure 9- 25 final results

After getting this result we purified hydrogen through PSA unit and gets 94% pure hydrogen
from MSW as shown below

Page | 122
Figure 9- 26 PSA results

Page | 123
 Chapter 10
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Instrumentation and control include measurements and control of process variables in

Industries by using different control instruments and sensors like, temperature, flow, level

Sensors, transducers and actuators etc. Instrumentation is defined as "the art and science of

Measurement and control.

10.1 OBJECTIVE OF CONTROL SYSTEM:

The basic objectives of control system are listed below:

1. Suppressing the influence of external disturbance.

2. Ensuring the stability of chemical process.

3. Optimizing the performance of chemical process.

"Three main incentives of process control. Process control is the main thing in any process

Plant because without control, once disturbance comes into the system, the whole plant will

Be shut down and production will be stop".

10.2 COMPONENTS OF INSTRUMENTS:

Following are the components of instruments:

1. Sensors

2. Transducers

3. Signal Processor

4. Analogue to Digital and Digital to Analogue convertors

5. Amplifiers

6. Hook-up Wires

7. Recorders

Page | 124
10.3 DESIGN ELEMENTS CONTROL SYSTEM:
1. Define control objectives

2. Select the measurements

3. Select the manipulated variables

4. Select the control configuration

5. Design controller based on model

6. Test by simulation

7. Implement and tune

8. Monitor performance

10.4 PROCESS CONTROL OBJECTIVES:

Safe plant operation:

The operating limits of process variables should be safe

Production Rate:

To obtain specific production rate to meet supply and demand balance of desired

Quality in order to earn maximum profit.

Product quality:

Quality standards of the product composition should be specified.

Cost:

Operating cost is low so that to earn maximum profit.

10.5 TYPES OF CONTROL CONFIGURATION:

1. Feedback control configuration

2. Feed forward control configuration

3. Inferential control configuration

10.6 HARDWARE ELEMENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM:

1. The chemical process

2. The measuring instruments

Page | 125
3. Transducers

4. Transmission lines

5. Controller

6. Final control element

10.7 DIGITAL COMPUTERS IN PROCESS CONTROL APPLICATIONS:

1. Direct digital control

2. Supervisory computer control

3. Scheduling computer control

10.8 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

In order to control the temperature of inside, inlet and outlet of process equipment like

Reactor, distillation column and heat exchanger etc., temperature measurements are used.

Thermocouples are commonly used to measure temperature in process industries. Bi-

Metallic strips are not commonly used. Resistance thermometers are most widely used to

Get highly accurate results.

10.9 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL:

In order to measure, control or sense the changes in pressure, in process equipment like,

pumps, orifice tube and venture tube etc., pressure measuring devices are used.

Monometers are most commonly used to measure pressure difference across venture and

Orifice tubes. Bourdon tubes and dahl tubes ae used to give more accurate results. The most

Widely used pressure measurement instruments in process industries are diaphragm gauge

or bellows pressure gauges

10.10 FLOW MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL:

In order to control the flow of the liquid inside a process equipment, flow measurement

Devices are used. Impeller meters or turbine meters are used to measure the flow rate of

Liquid. Rota meters are also used in process industries.

Page | 126
10.10.1 CONTROL SCHEME FOR GASIFIER:
Inside the gasifier reactor it is very crucial to manipulate the temperature of the gasifier. Because
with the rise in temperature in the gasifier may be desired reaction can not be acquired. So the
usage of the one of the temperature manage within the gasifier can clear up the trouble in the
gasifier the temperature is managed with the aid of the steam getting into within the gasifier.

Figure 10- 1 Cascade Loop on CSTR Reactor

10.10.2 CONTROL SCHEME FOR CSTR REACTOR:

Following is the cascade control scheme for the CSTR reactor:

Page | 127
Figure 10- 2 Cascade Loop on CSTR Reactor

10.10.3 TEMPERATURE OF CSTR AS CONTROL OBJECTIVE:

When the CSTR reactor's temperature is the control objective, a temperature transmitter (TT)
measures the reactor's temperature and sends the reading to a temperature controller. The
temperature controller receives a set point that corresponds to the set point value.

The signal was sent to the flow controller using the specified measurement. The flow controller
receives the measurement from the flow transmitter, which measures the coolant's flow rate. The
set point of the flow controller is the output of the temperature controller. The valve, the last
control device, is now under the control of the flow controller; it can either be opened or closed
to regulate the temperature of the CSTR.

10.10.4 LEVEL OF CSTR AS CONTROL OBJECTIVE:

The level of the CSTR reactor is measured when level or height is the control aim.

The level controller receives the measurement using a stage transmitter (LT). The extent
controller receives a set point, which matches the set factor value with the provided measurement

Page | 128
and sends the sign to the float controller. The size is delivered to the go with the flow controller
after the flow transmitter measures the drift charge of the outlet move of the CSTR. The set
factor of the flow controller is the stage controller's output. The valve at the CSTR's opening is
the final manipulable component, and the drift controller now regulates whether it should be
closed or left open in order to adjust the volume or height of liquid inside the CSTR.

10.10.5 CONTROL SCHEME FOR HEAT EXCHANGER:

Figure 10- 3 Cascade Loop on Heat Exchanger

Page | 129
10.10.7 PROCESS FLUID OUTLET TEMPERATURE AS CONTROL
OBJECTIVE:
When the temperature of the process fluid output serves as the control objective, the
measurement of the temperature is conveyed to the temperature controller by way of a
temperature transmitter. The temperature controller is given a predetermined point to operate at.
The provided measurement and the Set point value are compared, and the signal is transmitted to
the flow controller as a result.

The flow controller's set point is represented by this signal. The flow transmitter sends the
measurement to the flow controller after measuring the cooling water flow rate. In order to
maintain the temperature of the output process fluid at the preset temperature, the flow controller
now controls the valve, which is the last control element.

Page | 130
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