Manual on

MUSSEL FARMING
 MANUAL ON MUSSEL FARMING

by

Wilfredo G. Yap, Adam L. Young

Celia E. F. Orano and Ma. Teresa de Castro

Mollusc Research
Aquaculture Department
Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This manual is the end product of three

years of work which was made possible with

the generous assistance of the Government of

New Zealand in the form of materials, exper­

tise and training.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. Biology of the green mussel ......................................................... 1

A. Species suitable for farming .............................................. 1

B. Life cycle ............................................................................ 1
1
1
E. Reproduction ............................................................... 2
F. Feeding............................................................................... 2
G. Predators..................... .......................................................

II. Review of Mussel Farming Techniques ........................................ 2

III. Basic Principles of Mussel Farming .............................................. 4

A. Spatfall........................ ....................................................... 4
B. Site selection....................................................................... 5
C. Selection of suitable collector materials .......................... 5

IV. Farm Construction and Operation.............................................. 6

A. Basic considerations .......................................................... 6

B. Raft or suspension culture ................................................ 6

1. The frame work........................................................ 7

2. Floats or buoys ........................................................ 8
3. Rope for collection and growing of mussels ........ 8
4. Construction of collector ropes and growing ropes 8
5. Pointers for raft farm construction ....................... 10
6. When to hang collector ropes ................................. 11
7. General farm management ..................................... 11
8. Harvesting ................................................................. 12

C. Fixed structures ................................................................. 13

V. Economic Aspects of Mussel Farming ....................................... 13

VI. References .................................................................................... 14

MANUAL ON
MUSSEL FARMING

I. Biology of the Green Mussel Perna B. Life cycle

viridis L. (formerly Mytilus smarag­
dinus) Adult mussels live attached to solid
substrates by means of byssal threads.
When sexually mature, mussels spawn or
A. Species suitable for farming release their eggs and sperms freely into
the water where fertilization takes place.
The green mussel, or tahong, Perna Fertilized eggs develop into larvae within
viridis (formerly Mytilus smaragdinus ) is 24 hours and remain free-swimming for
the species of mussel farmed commer­ 15-20 days before they mature and are
cially in some areas in the Philippines. ready to settle and attach themselves to
This mussel should not be confused with solid substrates. This event is called
the brown mussel, or amahong, a more spatfall and the attached young mussels
widely distributed species common in are called spats.
many shallow bays throughout the
Philippines. The brown mussel belongs to C. Habit
another genus — Modiolus, of which there
are 2 species: Modiolus metcalfei and In the water, mussels live attached
Modiolus philippinarum. It is easily dis­ to solid objects by means of byssal
tinguished from the green mussel by its threads. These threads are secreted by the
brown color and hairy appearance. Un­ foot and serve to attach the mussel firmly
fortunately, the brown mussel is not to its substrate. If these byssal threads are
suitable for farming because it is not damaged or cut, the mussel can secrete
known to attach to rope or bamboo but new threads within a few hours. More­
only on living adults growing in dense over, by using both foot and these byssal
mats on the muddy bottom. The brown threads, the mussel can crawl around and
mussel is widely distributed, occurring change its position. This ability to move
in Luzon, most Visayan islands, and around sets it apart from the oyster (dys­
Mindanao. In contrast, the popularly ters remain cemented to their substrate
cultured green mussel has a more res­ for life) and allows for thinning and trans­
tricted distribution and occurs only in planting operations in mussel farming.
Bacoor and Manila Bays in Luzon; Panay
Negros and Samar Islands in the Visayas, D. Growth
with no confirmed occurrence in Min­ Growth rates of green mussels ave­
danao. rage 1 cm a month, allowing it to reach

1
marketable size (40-50 mm) in 4-6
Scylla serrata is the principal predator, al­
months. Growth rates vary, however, though there are a few other species
with the availability of food in the water. which also prey on mussels. Crabs are ca­
They can reach a size of 150 mm or more
pable of cracking their shells and large
but adults generally average 50-60 mm in adult can easily consume a dozen or more
length. At these sizes the uncooked meat
mussels every day.
comprises 4045 percent of the total
weight (whole unopened mussel). Next to crabs, starfishes are also a
serious enemy of mussels although certain
E. Reproduction
methods (e.g. raft method) of farming
make it less easy for them to invade the
1. Sexual dimorphism
stocks.
The sexes in the green mussel are sepa­
Various other organisms are asso­
rate. One cannot tell a male from a fe­ ciated with the green mussel in one way
male just by looking at the shells, al­ or another. Potentially harmful associates
though the color of the meat inside may include fouling organisms that attach to
be used to tell the sex of a mature animal. the shells (e.g. barnacles, filamentous
The meat or mantle of a male mussel is ge­
algae, bryozoans and tunicates), ectopara­
nerally milky white to creamy white in
sites that live on the shell and endopara­
color, while that of a mature female is
sites that live within the tissues of the
orange to red orange. The ratio is gene­ mussel. These fouling organisms and para­
rally 1:1.
sites may stunt the growth of the mussel,
decrease the weight of the meat or affect
2. Maturity
its taste.
Perna viridis is sexually mature at
20-30 mm in length. Mussels of this size II. Review of Mussel Farming Techniques
range are easily stimulated to release their in the Philippines
eggs and sperms and very suitable for use
as transplants for increasing natural In the Philippines, mussels were ori­
mussel stocks. ginally regarded as "pests" by oyster far­
mers and bamboo fish-trap operators in
F. Feeding Cavite, as they competed with the oysters
for space as well as for food. It was only
The green mussel is a filter-feeder
in the 1950's that their value as a primary
(ciliary-mucoid feeder). It has 4 rows of
crop in itself was recognized by the Bu­
gills which serve as both respiratory or­
reau of Fisheries biologists and technolo­
gans and the filter-feeding apparatus, deri­
gists at the Binakayan Oyster Experimen­
ving both oxygen and food from the
tal Station in Cavite. The earliest record­
water.
ed commercial mussel farm was a 300-
square-meter farm in 1955. It was not till
The food of the green mussel con­
1959 that another farm was established.
sists of microscopic plants and animals
From this very slow start, mussel farming
(phytoplankton and zooplankton) sus­
suddenly proliferated in the early 1960's.
pended in the water. Feeding activity is
affected by temperature, salinity, and the
The method used in Bacoor Bay is
concentration of food particles in the
very simple. Bamboo poles sharpened at
water.
the thick end are simply staked deep into
the soft muddy bottom in waters aS deep
G. Predators, parasites, and associates
as 10 meters. The bamboo stakes are spa­
ced from one to two meters apart. From
Juvenile and adult mussels have one
observations on the appearance of young
main enemy, the crab. The alimango,
mussels during the initial first year of cul-

2
ture the Cavite mussel farmers generally U.S. Peace Corps Volunteer through the
install their stakes before April and per­ auspices of the Capiz provincial govern­
haps again before November. The mussels ment. This method consisted of a web of
are harvested by divers in six to ten polypropylene rope made up of two 5-
months. Generally the mussels are strip­ meter lengths of rope positioned two
ped and the bamboo stakes allowed to rot meters apart and from which a 40-meter
in place and new stakes are laid alongside long rope was tied in a zig-zag fashion at
the old. 40 cm intervals. The free ends of the
ropes at each of the four corners were
In 1974, a new method was tried then fastened to bamboo plots staked
successfully in Sapian Bay, Capiz by a into the bottom, Fig. 1.

Figure 1. The rope-web method employed in Sapian Bay, Capiz.

3
 Other methods used are basically very thin shells which make them easy
modifications of the stake method in prey for crabs and fishes.
terms of providing the stakes with hori­
zontally structured support or staking
eight bamboo poles around a circle slant­ In France, a country with a long his­
ed towards the center so that the top ends tory of mussel culture, commercial farm­
meet and are fastened in a "wigwam" ing of mussels also started with the stake
fashion. method, with branches interwoven bet­
ween the stakes. This method promoted
All the above methods of farming so much siltation and degradation that
mussels have one common drawback: — they are now banned. Today, while the
the heavy dependence on bamboo poles "bouchots" still consist of tree-trunks
or stakes, and this has many disadvanta­ (oak or pine) 4-6 m long, horizontal bran­
ges. Firstly, the cost of bamboo poles has ches are no longer interwoven in between
become quite prohibitive, and this is ac­ the poles, and the poles are spaced 15-20
centuated by the fact that the poles are m apart to lower the rate of siltation in
driven into the mud, the parts in the mud the area.
(approximately 10-20 percent ), near the
mud (another 10 percent), and the water In Spain, the biggest producer of
surface (exposed at low tide) respective­ farmed mussels, the culture system uses
ly are wasted. Also, mussels growing on ropes suspended from rafts moored in
bamboo stakes are preyed upon by all fairly deep waters of more than five me­
types of crawling organisms such as drills, ters. In order to prevent the build-up of
and other harmful gastropods, starfishes, silt beneath the farm the rafts are trans­
crabs and sea urchins. The xanthid crabs ferred from one area to another after each
which nest inside submerged bamboo harvest. In New Zealand a system of
poles have also been observed to be capa­ buoys and long lines adopted from the
ble of toppling bamboo stakes when the Japanese system of oyster culture has
stakes have been in the water beyond six been successfully applied.
months. Managing a stake-method mussel
farm is difficult due to the fact that regu­ Mussel farming using floating struc­
lar maintenance and inspection can be car­ tures has several advantages: 1) faster
ried out only when the tide is sufficiently growth of mussels; 2) possibilities for
low to permit easy diving. Other draw­ regular thinning; 3) ease in harvesting in­
backs in using bamboo poles include the dependent of tidal conditions; 4) rafts
crowding of mussels over certain portions can be moved around, thus preventing silt
only, and the difficulty in timing staking accumulation; 5) rafts can be constructed
operations to coincide with spatfall. out of durable materials capable of lasting
several years; 6) predation by crawling
Perhaps the greatest objection to bottom organisms is minimized; 7) great­
the use of bamboo stakes is the increased er production per unit area.
rate of siltation of areas occupied by such
stake-farms. This is brought about by the III. Basic Principles of Mussel Farming
fact that bamboo stakes, especially when
they are quite close to each other, hinder A. Spatfall
the flow of the water allowing suspended
organic and inorganic matter to settle. Mussel farming depends entirely on
Such increased siltation not only makes one natural phenomenon: spatfall. This is
the farming area too shallow, but also ad­ the period when mussel larvae are deve­
versely affects the ecology of the river loped enough to cease their floating exis­
due to the build-up of organic matter. tence, settle, and attach themselves to
As a result, growth of the mussels is re­ solid surfaces. Successful collection of
tarded. Furthermore they may develop these spats is essential for mussel farming.

4
While the technology to artificially pro­ 6. The site should be sufficiently
duce the spats in controlled conditions is enclosed to effectively retain the larvae.
available, it is not yet economically viable (Offshore areas and exposed areas are
and is probably not necessary considering usually poor areas for collecting young
the abundance of natural spats. The mus­ mussels because the mussels are carried
sels need not be grown in the same area out to sea before they have a chance to
where the spats are collected, and in some settle on collectors).
cases it is actually more desirable to have
a separate growing area. Here in the Phi­ 7. The site should be relatively
lippines, however, all successful mussel deep. (At least 2 meters at low tide.
farming ventures have been conducted in
the spatfall areas. Thus, at the moment, 8. The site should not be too far
the presence of natural mussel spatfall upriver as to be subject to salinity drop
should be considered a primary criterion during rainy season. Generally salinity
in determining the viability of a potential decreases with increasing distance from
mussel farming project. Other parameters the sea.
for the site selection are given below.
B. Site selection 9. The site should be near the mar­
ket or at least, should be near the road so
The following must be considered that the mussels can easily be transported
when selecting a site for the mussel farm: to market.

1. There should be sufficient 10. The site should be free from

pollution and sewage. Pollution consti­
breeding stock and spatfall in the area to
produce enough young mussels for the tutes a double threat to the mussel indus­
try for even if the mussels are not harmed
farm.
by pollutants, they may concentrate and
2. The site should be protected accumulate pollutants in their flesh and
from strong winds and waves. become unfit for human consumption.
Discharges from fishponds using pesti­
cides specially molluscicides, are parti­
3. The tidal range of the site
should be enough to change the water cularly deadly to mussels.
completely and frequently. The greater
the tidal exchange, the faster the growth
as more food is brought to the suspended
mussels and wastes are more easily flushed C. Selection of suitable collector
away. materials

4. The water should contain Mussel farming depends largely on

enough food for the mussels. (Generally, placing the right type of collector surface
"clean" or "clear" waters do not contain in the right place at the right time or sea­
enough food to sustain optimum growth son to collect young mussels or spats. In
of mussels. A greenish color in the water this regard, the choice of the collector
is one indication of food availability). materials is very important. Therefore,
the following must be considered in
5. The tidal currents should be choosing the type of collector to be used:
strong (no less than 2 cm/sec). Weak or
slow water movements result in poor 1. It should be "attractive" to mus­
growth of mussels due to the slow reple­ sel larvae. At the end of their larval
nishment of food. Furthermore, weak period, mussel larvae all settle on filamen­
currents promote the settling of organic tous objects, later moving on to more
and inorganic particulate materials in the solid substrates are effective in "attract­
water. ing" mussel larvae.

5
 2. It should be easily available 4. Clusters of mussels on a rope
locally. should be adequately spaced so as to
avoid any possible contact with each
3. It should be easy and inexpen­ other especially through wave action.
sive to prepare.
5. Structures must always be so po­
4. It should be durable (should last sitioned as not to obstruct navigation and
till harvest at least). should be properly marked.

So far, the only material which sa­ 6. The cultures should be laid per­
tisfies almost all of the above four criteria pendicular to wave action and parallel to
is coconut husk. Due to its hairy, fibrous current flow, (i.e. lined up in the direction
nature coconut husk is a very attractive of current flow).
substrate for mussel larvae to settle on.
Furthermore, coconut husks are readily 7. The environment of a mussel
available in the Philippines and are easy to farm degrades with continued use. It is
prepare. The husk is stripped from the advisable to have an area two or three
coconut shell and shredded. The only times larger than the actual culture site.
difficulty with coconut husk, however, This would allow the farm to be moved
is that it does not last long in the water, from one section of the area to another
so that usually the mussels will have to be from year to year.
"re-laid" or transplanted.

In accordance with the above guide­ B. Raft or suspension culture:

lines for the choice of collector materials, Materials and Design
other suitable materials are cabo negro,
old frayed ropes, etc. Suspension culture of mussels con­
sists of growing mussels on ropes hung
from rafts or other similar floating struc­
tures. "Collectors” (coconut husk) are
IV. Farm Construction and Operation inserted into the lay of ropes to collect
mussel spats. These spats are allowed to
A. Basic considerations grow for 4-5 months and are harvested
when they reach 37-60 mm in length.
1. Cultures are always under water
even at low tide. This is because green The raft consists of 2 compart­
mussels have a natural preference for ments:
living below the lowest tidal level. Those
mussels which manage to attach and sur­ a rigid framework (or lattice struc­
vive above the lowest tide level are gene­ ture) from which the ropes are
rally stunted or deformed. hung. This framework should be
kept above water.
2. Cultures should always be in an
off-bottom position. This is to prevent buoyant objects to keep the rigid
potential predators such as starfish, crabs, framework floating.
snails and other organisms from crawling
up the culture ropes. 1. The framework
Materials used for the rigid frame­
3. Materials used should be durable work should be strong enough to support
enough to last at least until the mussels the weight of the mussels, but should not
are harvestable. Durable materials, while be so heavy as to require a great number
generally more expensive initially, will of buoys to keep it afloat. In this regard,
pay off in terms of number of crops they there are 2 choices: bamboo and lumber.
can be used for. Although bamboo breaks easily, it does

6
have the advantage of being cheap and rally will not last long in the sea. If wood
widely available. Lumber, on the other or lumber is used, it should be treated
hand, unless of the hardwood variety with marine anti-fouling paints. A basic
(those used for bridges and piers), gene­ raft design is sketched in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Construction detail of a mussel raft using bamboo framework and floats.

7
 2. Floats or buoys to keep the rigid above water. Bamboo, metal drums, plas­
framework above water tic drums, styrofoam blocks, and ferro­
concrete buoys are some of the materials
that may be used as buoys. The final
Buoys made of various materials choice should be based on availability, du­
may be used to keep the rigid framework rability and cost.

Type Durability Cost Availability

Bamboo 2 years at most Low Generally available

Metal Drum 1 - 3 years Medium Generally available
Plastic Drum 2 - 4 years Medium Limited availability
Styrofoam blocks 2 - 5 years High Needs special order
Ferro-concrete at least 10 years High Materials for construction widely available

3. Ropes for collection and grow­ netting or simple weights made of cement
ing of spats may be used for this purpose (Fig. 3).

Ropes made of polypropylene or

polyethylene, cabo negro, and abaca may
be used. Although they are quite expen­
sive the first two materials can last as long
as ten years or even longer. Cabo negro
and abaca are not as expensive as ropes
made of synthetic materials and will last
longer if treated with coal tar (coal tar
should be thinned by adding one part
kerosene to four parts coal tar). Ropes
dipped in thinned coal tar should be all­
owed to drip dry for 3-4 days before use.

4. Construction of collector ropes

and growing ropes

In the suspension culture of mus­

sels, spats may be collected with collector
ropes and later re-laid or transplanted to
growing ropes or spats may be collected
and grown on the same rope, without
transplanting.

Collector ropes are usually shorter

and thinner in diameter than growing
ropes. Polypropylene and polyethylene
ropes of 5 mm diameter may be used for
collector ropes. Coconut husk pieces
should be inserted into the lay of the rope
at 50-60 mm intervals. Since both the
rope and the husk are quite buoyant, it
is necessary to tie a heavy object to the
end of each rope to keep it weighted Figure 3. Detail of one (1) growing rope
down. Stones wrapped in pieces of old (2.0 m long)

8
 Collector ropes should be hung should be broken gently into smaller clus­
approximately half a meter apart. Spats ters. In order to attach these small clus­
or young mussels collected on collector ters (10-20 mussels per cluster) to the
ropes to prevent over-crowding once they growing rope, the rope should be stretch­
have grown to a length of 10-15 mm. ed between 2 persons while a third person
fixes or binds the cluster to the rope by
Cabo negro, abaca, polypropylene means of a thin cotton string or abaca
and polyethylene ropes 12-20 mm dia­ twine. Alternatively, strips of cotton
meter may be used as growing ropes. A gauze may be used in place of string espe­
very important feature of growing ropes cially when the clusters are small or the
are the "pegs" — thin bamboo pieces spats are loose. To avoid crowding, a
about 25 cm long and 1.5 cm wide inser­ maximum of 300 mussels should be
ted into the lay of the rope at 30 cm in­ allowed per meter of growing rope. Since
tervals. These pegs prevent the heavy load mussels are capable of crawling and secre­
of rapidly growing mussels from slipping ting new byssal attachments, the young
off by taking the weight of the mussels in mussels will attach themselves to the
the section of the rope immediately growing rope a few days.
above. This is likely to occur during bad Growing ropes — in contrast to col­
weather, during the lifting of the ropes for lector ropes — should be hung at least one
regular inspection, or during harvest. If meter apart. Length of growing ropes de­
growing ropes are to be treated with coal pends on the depth at low tide. Hanging
tar, the pegs must be inserted into the lay growing ropes too close to each other re­
of the rope before treatment. sults in slower growth of the mussels and
promotes siltation. In deep waters
Collector ropes laden with young (3-5 m) the ropes may be suspended indi­
mussels can be thinned by hand. As much vidually from the bamboo frame. In shal­
as possible, the clump of mussel spats at­ lower waters, however, ropes may be sus­
tached to each coconut husk collector pended as in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Fixed structure mussel farm using bamboo plots.

9
 If it is desired to collect and grow Bamboo poles may be lashed to­
mussels on the same rope (without any gether with either monofilament nylon or
transplanting) the ropes may be prepared galvanized wire to form the lattice or
as for growing ropes. Additionally, how­ framework of the raft. Buoys should be
ever, coconut husk pieces should be pro­ lashed securely to the bamboo framework
vided as in collector ropes. The coconut and distributed evenly. Enough buoys
husk pieces should be inserted into the should be used to keep the bamboo
lay of the rope about 15 cm apart. The framework above the water at all times.
ropes should be spaced as for growing
ropes (at least a meter apart).
Rafts may be tied together then
5. Pointers for raft-farm construc­ laid out in a series 34 meters apart with
tion an anchor at each end of the line (Fig. 5).

Figure 5. Methods of mooring a single raft or a series of rafts.

10
 In shallow areas the rafts may be moored ment. In many other countries, this type
to stakes. The whole series of raft should of service is provided by a government
be laid out parallel to the direction of the agency or a fishing industry board. In the
current, taking care not to obstruct navi­ Philippines a spatfall forecast system or
gation or fishing. Markers set conspi­ network has not been established. How­
cuously around the farm will minimize the ever, a pilot project in mussel and oyster
possibility of damage to the rafts when spatfall forecast has been started this year
bumped by vessels. (1979) in Himamaylan, Negros Occidental
6. When to hang collector ropes under the auspices of the SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department.
Settlement of mussels on collector
ropes depends on the spawning habits of 7. General Farm Management
local adult population. Random spawning
occurs throughout the year with peak sea­ A raft-farm is easy to maintain due
sons during which a greater proportion of to its independence from the tide. The
mussels spawn. The precise time of peak most important thing to watch for is time­
seasons varies greatly with locality, water ly laying of collectors. Once the mussel
temperature, salinity, weather, tide, etc. spats have settled on the collector ropes,
If the collector ropes are set out too much maintenance of the farm consists of the
in advance of spawning, large numbers of following procedures:
barnacles and other undesirable organisms
will attach to the collectors and make the a. Thinning out collector ropes and
collectors unattractive to mussels. On the transplanting the young mussels to grow­
other hand, if the collector ropes are set ing ropes.
out too late, only very few spats will be The thinning and transplanting ope­
collected. rations should be carried out before the
coconut husk collectors start to decay.
As stated earlier, spatfall period can During transplanting operations, the
be predicted with a fair degree of accu­ young mussels must be protected from
racy after a few years of observation. the heat of the sun and from the wind,
Thus in Bacoor Bay, farmers generally lay while they are out of the water. For this
their stakes before April and in Novem­ purpose, a small hut may be constructed
ber. In Sapian Bay, the periods of highest on the raft.
spatfall intensity have been observed to
b. Adding additional buoys when­
occur from February to March and again
ever necessary.
from September to October. In Hima­
maylan River the spatfall period has been As the mussels grow, the ropes be­
observed to occur during the month of come heavier so that additional buoys
March with a lower intensity spatting on must be provided to keep the bamboo
October. Generally, for greater chances framework above water and to prevent
of spat settlement, the collectors or ropes the ropes from sinking to the bottom
should then be installed not earlier than mud. The weight of mussel submerged in
February but not later than March to water is only 20 percent of its weight in
catch the first spatfall which is usually the air. This is because the internal water be­
heavier one. For the secondary spatfall, comes part of the external water when
ropes should be laid not earlier than Sep­ submerged. Thus when weighed under
tember but not later than November, water only the shell and flesh weight are
weighed. Once taken out of the water,
The most precise way of forecasting however, the water trapped inside the
spatfall period is by monitoring mussel mussel becomes part of its total weight.
larval abundance in the water daily. This c. Protecting the mussels from pre-
type of activity can be conducted only by dators/ridding them of parasites, pests,
trained technicians using special equip­ and silt.

11
 Growing ropes should be inspected to which the meat shrinks after cooking.
regularly for crabs, sea urchins and other A "fat" mussel is full-bodied and attrac­
predators, These may be removed by tive in appearance; males have a rich,
hand. Other parts growing on the shells creamy appearance while females are
of the mussels or on the ropes may be re­ filled with bright-orange eggs in almost
moved by scraping them off with a knife every part of its body. The flesh of fat
or by exposing the ropes for a short per­ mussels shrinks only slightly after cook­
iod during the early morning or late after­ ing.
noon when the heat of the sun is not too
intense. In contrast, the flesh of thin mus­
sels is "watery" and transparent. There is
Pests and other foulers growing on
the mussels or on the ropes reduce yield very little distinction between males and
females and the flesh shrinks to less than
through crowding or smothering newly
half its original size after cooking. Mus­
settled spats, or by reducing movement of
sels cultured on ropes grow very rapidly
water and food for the mussels. Further­
due to the abundance of food and the
more, these organisms add to the weight
of the mussels and represent extra ex­ absence of crawling predators. These
off-bottom mussels generally taste better
pense in terms of additional buoys or
floats. Likewise, the ropes may have to because they do not contain mud.
be shaken periodically to dislodge silt
Transplanted mussels grow faster
settled on the shells of the mussels.
than mussels which settled and grew on
the same surface. They may be harvested
Perhaps the greatest harm that can
be done to a mussel farm is caused by 4-6 months after spatfall. Mussels ideally
human poachers. As the raft method of measure 40-60 mm at harvest.
culture allows for easy harvest, by the
same token it is also easily poached. To When detaching mussels from the
discourage poaching, the farm must be rope, care must be taken not to injure
guarded at all times, especially when the them by pulling out their byssus threads.
mussels have grown to marketable size. These threads are very important part of
In this regard, the raft-hut used for trans­ their bodies and they die within a few
planting operations may serve as a floating hours if these threads are so violently
guardhouse. pulled out as to include the muscular
supports. For this reason, the mussels
d. Replacement of pegs should be scraped with a sharp knife or
bolo and should never be pulled off the
The growing ropes should be ins­ ropes. Alternatively, the mussels may be
pected regularly to see if the pegs are taken off the ropes by grasping their
still doing the job of supporting the mus­ byssal attachment rather than the mussels
sel clumps. Decayed pegs should be re­ themselves when pulling them off the
placed. If necessary, additional pegs may rope. If possible, the mussels should be
be provided to support exceptionally large harvested and transported to market in
mussel clusters. clusters as clustered mussels effectively
conserve moisture and thereby live longer.
8. Harvesting Removing clustered mussels from the rope
is relatively easy as the cluster readily
The mussels should be harvested slips off. During transport to market, the
before they grow too big to be acceptable mussels should be kept in moistened jute
in the market (consumers actually prefer sacks protected from the heat of the sun.
medium or "bite-size" mussels). Also, The mussel clusters should be broken up
the mussels should not be harvested when just before they are displayed for sale,
they are too thin. "Thinness" or "fat­ again with a sharp knife or a pair of
ness" of mussels is indicated by the degree scissors.

12
 At least 10-15 percent of the mussels V. Economic aspects of mussel fanning
should remain after harvest to serve as
breeding stock to produce spats for the A mussel farm need not be large.
following season. Unlike other forms of aquaculture such as
pond culture of milkfish or prawns, one
need not think in terms of hectares. The
C. Fixed structures size can be scaled down to fit the eco­
nomic capability of a prospective farmer.

In shallow water, the cost of float­ With all its disadvantages mention­
ing structures like rafts may be economi­ ed earlier, stake culture of mussels has the
cally undesirable. A cheaper alternative is distinct advantage of being the cheapest
to use fixed structures — bamboo poles to set up. A100 sq m area using 50 stakes
staked to the bottom to serve as the will cost only a few hundred pesos depen­
framework for hanging the culture ropes ding on the cost of bamboo within a lo­
(Figure 3). As mentioned earlier, in as cality. Harvest will be around 20-30 kg
much as the mussel farm environment de­ mussels per meter of growing surface
teriorates with continuous culture on when fully settled. Generally however
account of silt accumulation and there­ not all the bamboos will be settled fully
fore has to be transferred to a new site so that at the most only 1000 kg can be
every now and then, transferring a fixed expected from the entire 100 sq m area
structure farm would mean starting from after 6-8 months.
scratch every time. This is one of the dis­ A mussel raft will cost more to put
advantages of using fixed structures. Ge­ up but has all the advantages mentioned
neral management and harvesting prac­ earlier. The cost in constructing one unit
tices are similar to those employed in the of mussel raft is detailed in the following
suspension method of mussel culture. table:

Cost Estimate for one unit mussel raft (6 m x 8 m)

18 Bamboo P 7.00/pc P 126.00

4 pcs Styrofoam buoys 200.00/pc 800.00
2 kgs Nylon monofilament No. 150 26.00/kg 52.00
4 rolls Polypropylene rope, 12 mm 0,
200 m/roll 500.00/roll 2,000.00
3 sacks Coconut husk 5.00/sack 15.00
1 bag Cement 28.00/bag 28.00
1 cu m Sand 20.00/cu m 20.00
Labor (1 laborer at P15/day for
2 man days to help construct
the raft) 30.00
Municipal Permit (variable from
town to town, very minimal)

Total P 3,071.00

13
 While the initial investment is high, bility of the materials used. Over a five
this cost is non-recurring due to the dura- year period the following cash flow can be
attained:

Five-Year Cash Flow Projection for One Unit Mussel Culture Raft (8 m x 6 m)

1 2 3 4 5

Initial Investment P3,071 ---- ---- ---- ----

Maintenance* ---- 300 300 300 300
Gross Earnings (Min.) 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000 8,000
Net Earnings 4,929 7,700 7,700 7,700 7,700

*10 percent of initial investment on the assumption that only portions of the bamboo raft will
be replaced.

Assumptions:

1. The farm shall be constructed and operated by fisherman-owner who already owns a boat.
2. One meter of rope can hold at least 5 kg of mussels and possibly 15 kg thus 800 meters of
rope will yield 4,000 kg -12,000 kg of mussels.
3. The gross earnings of P8,000 is based on a medium production level at a market price of
P1.00 per kg.

References

Bardach, J. E., J. H. Ryther and W. O. McLarney. 1972. Aquaculture — The Farming and
Husbandry of Freshwater and Marine Organisms. Wiley Interscience, New York, N.Y.,
868 pp.

Escritor, G. L. 1966. Tahong. Phil. Fish. Yearbook. 1966.

Librero, A. R., R. A. Calio, S. P. Dizon and E. R. Pamulaklakin. 1976. Oyster Farming in the
Philippines: A Socio-economic Study. SEAFDEC-PCARR, Socio-economic study of the
Aquaculture Industry in the Philippines. Research Paper Series 6.

Korringa, P. 1976. Farming marine organisms low in the food chain. Elsevier Scientific Pub­
lishing Company, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York. 264 pp.

PCARR. 1977. Philippines Recommends for Mussels and Oysters. Philippine Council for Agri­
culture and Resources Research, Los Banos, Laguna.

Yap, W. G. 1976. The Farming of mussels in the Philippines. PFFPI Convention Proceedings:
August 1976 (mimeo).

Yap, W. G. 1978. Settlement preference of the brown mussel, Modiolus metcalfei and its
implication on the aquaculture potential of the species. Fisheries Research Journal of
the Philippines 3(1):65-70.

14
Freshly harvested green mussels (Tahong} ready for market.

Brown mussels, Modiolus metcalfei

 Bamboo rafts for mussel culture. These were set up by the SEAFDEC
Aquaculture Department in Himamaylan, Negros, Occidental.

A close up of the floating structure. Note the ferrocement buoys used as floats.
The traditional stake method of culturing green mussels.