Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Challenges
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envc

Pocket parks towards more sustainable cities. Architectural,

environmental, managerial and legal considerations towards an integrated
framework: A case study in the Mediterranean region
Federica Rosso a,b,∗, Francesco Cappa c,d, Rebecca Spitzmiller e, Marco Ferrero b
a
University of Perugia, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Via Goffredo Duranti, 93, 06125 Perugia, Italy
b
Sapienza University of Rome, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Via Eudossiana 18, 00184 Rome, Italy
c
Campus Bio-medico University, Department of Engineering, Via Alvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy
d
LUISS Guido Carli University, Department of Business and Management, Viale Pola 12, 00198 Rome, Italy
e
Roma Tre University, Department of Law, Via Ostiense 161, 00154 Rome, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: Pocket-sized urban parks may contribute to more widely distributing the advantages created by parks in urban
Pocket parks neighborhoods, allowing more citizens to benefit more frequently from park environments. Notwithstanding their
Small urban parks several benefits, including citizens’ psychological, physiological and physical well-being; possibilities for recre-
Construction materials
ational activities; and improved economic attractiveness of a neighborhood, pocket parks (PPs) are not yet widely
Citizens
diffused worldwide. Considering the state of the art of PPs, we identify four main perspectives that characterize
Subsidiarity
Resilience them: architectural, microclimate, managerial and legal. Focusing on a relevant case study, i.e., the Mediter-
ranean context, we analyze the multi-disciplinary challenges – connected to the four identified dimensions – for
their diffusion elsewhere. Finally, we provide a general framework for favoring PPs’ creation and management, as
the original contribution of this work. Besides advancing scientific knowledge about PPs, our results also interest
policymakers and public organizations, as the diffusion of PPs can mitigate urban environmental challenges by
creating pleasant experiences for citizens and favoring economic activities.

1. Introduction ban land consumption and soil sealing, contributing to microclimate

alteration phenomena, such as Urban Heat Island (UHI) and exacer-
“For the benefit and enjoyment of the people” (Roosevelt Entrance Arch, bated heat waves (Kafy et al., 2021; Moriarty and Honnery, 2015). Ur-
Yellowstone, 1903) ban parks proved successful in mitigating all these issues (Lin et al.,
This sentence dominates the entrance arch of Yellowstone National 2017). Previous studies have highlighted the importance of urban parks,
Park, declaring the right of all the people to enjoy its natural environ- demonstrating their role in citizens’ psychological well-being (Kim and
ment, conserved to guarantee access to nature and its related benefits Jin, 2018), lowering the stress and anxiety of urban life (Schnell et al.,
(Knez and Thorsson, 2008; Schnell et al., 2019). Enjoying this pleas- 2019); providing restorative experiences, such as recovery from at-
ant experience is even more crucial nowadays, as citizens increasingly tention fatigue (Kaplan, 1995) as well as acting as recreational des-
live in intensively built cities (Moglia et al., 2018). Current United Na- tination for nearby residents (Liu and Wang, 2021); and allowing
tions (UN) reports state that by 2050 the world population will rise high values of self-reported physical state and life satisfaction (Ayala-
from 7.2 to 9.5 billion and 66.4% to 85.4% of the world population Azcárraga et al., 2019). Studies have also evidenced that parks and na-
will reside in cities, while today the percentage is 54% (United Na- ture in urban areas favor higher housing and hotel-room prices, thereby
tions, 2018). The creation of a healthier urban environment consti- raising an area’s economic attractiveness (Kim et al., 2019). Hedonic
tutes a major policy priority (Foray et al., 2012). Parks and green- studies highlight that urban parks and meaningful urban open spaces
ery in urban areas increase contact with nature, providing crucial re- increase home values (Park and Kim, 2019). Residents, especially se-
lief, considering projections about the increasing stress and number of niors, are willing to pay more for an increased amount of urban parks
work hours, and rising pollution in populated areas (Lederbogen et al., (Kim and Jin, 2018). Thus, the diffusion of urban parks can be extremely
2011). Additionally, urban areas are facing growing pressure due to ur- beneficial.

∗
Corresponding author at: Sapienza University of Rome: Universita degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza Rome, Italy.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Rosso).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100402
Received 28 August 2021; Received in revised form 31 October 2021; Accepted 22 November 2021
2667-0100/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

As further evidence of the relevance of urban parks, the Intergov- framework for favoring wider adoption of PPs; and Section 5 reports the
ernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Sustainable Development conclusions of our study.
Goals (SDG) (United Nations, 2015), adopted by UN Member States to-
wards a more sustainable future, highlight the Grand Challenges, i.e., 2. Pocket park features and benefits
the pressing environmental and social problems deeply affecting society
worldwide. Specifically, Goal 11 of the SDGs states that in cities, each PPs are also known as vest pocket parks, referring to the small pock-
citizen should have convenient access to open public space within 400 ets on vests, indicating their reduced dimensions. Faraci (1967) claims
m walking distance from their residences (Morakinyo and Lam, 2016). such parks require a “minimum expense, but a great deal of imagina-
Currently, only 21% of the world’s urban population has such proximity tion.” He finds the roots of their success in their low cost and greater
to decent open public space (United Nations, 2015). These data moti- accessibility, given their widespread presence in many neighborhoods.
vate the interest of researchers, policymakers and organizations towards No standard dimension exists to define “pocket” parks; rather, “the ac-
the diffusion of parks. tual size is determined by availability of land rather than pre-established
While introducing large urban parks is complex in consolidated standards” (Faraci, 1967). Paley Park (1967) and Greenacre Park (1971)
urban areas, inserting smaller parks in residual spaces is more eas- in NYC are among the most famous and first PPs, exemplifying PP ty-
ily implemented throughout neighborhoods (Delgado-Capel and Car- pology. The key elements of PPs are: i) their small/pocket dimension,
iñanos, 2020). In dense urban areas, outdoor spaces are usually charac- usually lot-size, built in residual spaces; ii) their visibility and diffusion
terized by paved surfaces, with little space left for nature (Fischer et al., in each neighborhood; iii) the inclusion of greenery and water elements;
2018). Small (or pocket) urban parks could effectively contribute to iv) accessibility and presence of furniture for pedestrians.
more widely distributing their advantages, allowing more citizens to While urban parks have been widely investigated, PPs have not, de-
benefit more frequently from park environments (Zhou et al., 2021). spite recent research highlighting their importance towards resilience;
Tailoring solutions to implement “small,” – or “pocket” – parks in big to date, no overarching framework exists that considers PPs’ diffusion.
cities may increase citizens’ wellbeing, allowing more frequent encoun- Because resilience fosters adaptive capabilities to maintain complex ur-
ters with nature and possibilities for comfortable, relaxing experiences ban systems, and because resilience is intrinsically multi-disciplinary
in daily life. Studies have shown that citizens in residential settings pre- (Cobbinah and Poku-Boansi, 2018), an overall perspective on PPs as
fer smaller parks over large urban parks (Kim et al., 2019) and small open spaces fostering urban resilience requires multi-disciplinary lenses.
neighborhoods parks have higher visiting intensity than larger parks Moreover, the improvement of the urban environment also plays a role
(Zhang and Zhou, 2018). Having green spaces at a walking distance from in the development of economic activities and social interactions, as it
home/work positively affects citizens’ satisfaction and the frequency favors spending more time outside. Therefore, the diffusion of PPs is
of use of outdoor spaces (Hadavi et al., 2018). Hadavi and colleagues crucial as they can benefit all three pillars of sustainability, i.e., social,
(Hadavi et al., 2015) highlight how residents appreciate nearby nature environmental and economic (Cappa et al., 2020b).
settings and small green spaces. We will hereinafter refer to small ur- Previous publications on PPs are scarce, and have considered one
ban spaces that are open to public and include greenery as “pocket specific aspect of them at a time. For example, Lin and colleagues
parks” (PPs). (Lin et al., 2017), investigated PPs’ role in high-density environments
Given the global call for increasing parks in urban areas, and the for Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect reduction and demonstrated their
benefits brought about by PPs, we seek to address how to favor their efficacy. Considering that UHIs and heat waves will exacerbate in the
diffusion worldwide. Today, PPs are mainly present and widespread in near future (Falasca et al., 2019), PPs could be extremely helpful. In-
countries characterized by specific climates, a high civic sense of belong- stead, Xue and colleagues (Xue et al., 2017) focused on the effects of
ing (Albanesi et al., 2007), a developed institutional framework and effi- different types of small parks in high-density Asian cities on micro-
cient law enforcement (e.g., the USA). However, it is not clear how they climate, and demonstrated the efficacy of PPs embedded in buildings
can be effectively applied in different contexts, considering specific ar- to improve comfort conditions. Amaya-Espinel and colleagues (Amaya-
chitectural, microclimate, managerial and legal dimensions. Therefore, Espinel et al., 2019) and Strohbach et al. (2009) highlighted the im-
the aim of this study is to address the following research question: How portance of small urban parks towards the conservation of bird com-
can the diffusion of PPs be successfully and effectively favored? munities. Their findings have been subsequently confirmed by Delgado-
Starting from the exemplificative and successful PPs in New York Capel and Cariñanos (2020), whose study highlight the ecosystem ser-
City (NYC), USA, as they are the archetypal PPs and among the first to be vices that PPs are able to provide, such as regulating microclimate,
designed and developed with specific design criteria as “pocket parks.” allowing for pollination and biodiversity, reducing flooding from rain
we analyze the benefits that they provide and their main features. Then, events and improving air quality. With respect to the latter, Xing and
we highlight the challenges in developing PPs in the Mediterranean re- Brimblecombe (Xing and Brimblecombe, 2019) considered small urban
gion, taken as a relevant case study of a different context in which to parks specifically for pollution reduction, evidencing how their separa-
implement PPs, considering its peculiar architectural, environmental, tion from the street could aid in reducing traffic-derived air pollutants
managerial and legal environments. In greater detail, we have focused and noise. These studies highlight the potential of a broader diffusion of
on Italy for its barycentric geographical position in the Mediterranean PPs in urban areas, with respect to ecosystems services, which are much
area, noting also that the Italian National Strategy and Plan Towards needed in urban areas. Mutiara and Isami (Mutiara and Isami, 2012)
Adaptation to Climate Change highlights the critical importance of out- highlighted that involvement in urban parks help people be “happier
door open space in urban areas. Finally, from the NYC example and the and healthier.” Roberts and colleagues (Roberts et al., 2019) found that
Italian case study, we tailor the general framework for designing and usability is associated with park satisfaction, and that park satisfaction
developing PPs in urban areas, as this work’s original contribution to- is negatively related to incivility, the main factor on which to focus to
wards more sustainable and resilient urban areas. Indeed, the effective improve parks’ use. Delgado-Capel and colleagues traced urban green in-
creation of PPs could aid in mitigating urban challenges and improv- frastructures as nature-based solutions to mitigate climate change, and
ing urban resilience, for safer, healthier and more pleasant urban open confirm the potential for the development of PPs in compact Mediter-
spaces. ranean cities, while observing that as of now they are not diffused in
The manuscript is organized as follows: Section 2 reports the ori- such areas (Delgado-Capel and Cariñanos, 2020). The variety of the
gins and defines the phenomenon of PPs, considering architectural, mi- above studies evidences the numerous benefits stemming from PPs and
croclimate, managerial and legal features; in Section 3 we highlights the different lenses through which they can be considered.
the challenges for their diffusion in different contexts, focusing on the If replicable, PP’s could impart advantages worldwide. Indeed, they
Mediterranean region; in Section 4; in we discuss a proposed integrated are prevalent only in parts of North America and northern Europe

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

with peculiar climate, social and economic characteristics. These data safe and secure (contain easily accessible paths for ingress and egress,
prompted us to study the potential for adopting PPs in other contexts, visually connected to the street and well lit); comfortable and engaging.
such as the Mediterranean region. Towards this aim, a clear identifi- The suggested shape/configuration is rectangular or square, still allow-
cation of PP characteristics is needed. In the following sub-sections, ing for a certain amount of façade articulation of surrounding build-
their architectural, microclimate, managerial and legal features are pre- ings. Alcoves or niches should be avoided, as visibility is fundamental
sented. Based on this outline we then highlight the challenges for the to achieve openness and safety. Because the connection with the side-
diffusion of PPs and thereafter develop a framework to favor their im- walk is crucial towards parks’ success, the frontage of the park towards
plementation. the sidewalk should be at least 50% free from obstructions, to allow for
circulation paths. Circulation paths should connect the most important
2.1. Architectural-dimension features design features of the park (e.g., sitting areas) (NYC Planning, 2021).
These precise characteristics regarding shape, geometry, location and
The small urban spaces identified as PPs call for precise architec- accessibility, which we recalled and discussed in this section, should be
tural features, which influence pedestrians’ comfort, as well as ecosys- considered as practical design guidelines for successful PPs. Such parks
tem services. Such characteristics comprise specific (i) design features should also possess specific features, to allow for usability and fruition,
(e.g., geometry, furniture, relations with the surroundings); (ii) mate- as a support for citizens’ activities and restoration while inside these
rials usage, in consideration of these small urban spaces’ sustainability spaces.
and resilience; and (iii) location and position of the small urban space However, PPs should not be misconstrued as merely pieces of fur-
within the urban texture, which is fundamental for PP usage. All of these niture, designed solely for humans’ comfort; their benefits go far be-
characteristics, together, are key to PPs definition and success, and are yond simply providing rest and restitution for citizens, which are en-
discussed in this section. hanced by the interaction between humans and nature. They also pro-
PPs are different from the much-used and socially-active squares or vide ecosystem services, hosting and supporting biodiversity in urban
urban and neighborhood parks of Mediterranean cities (Martí et al., areas (Delgado-Capel and Cariñanos, 2020), important aspects which
2017): one crucial difference is size, as pocket parks are necessar- should not be overlooked. As one example, Strohbach et al. (2009) af-
ily small. This characteristic allows them to potentially spread in the firm that PPs slightly increase number of observed bird species. Of
urban context. Indeed, PPs can be placed in vacant lots or lot por- course, these spaces do need to attract citizens, thus broadening their im-
tions in the urban texture, even in compact city centers and, given pact. Therefore, the following description provides indications on how
their dimension, they are easier, with respect to time and cost, to be to make these spaces attractive for socializing, rest or restitution usage
built and maintained (Delgado-Capel and Cariñanos, 2020). Moreover, by citizens, encouraging them to use PPs and benefit from them.
Ayala-Azcárraga et al. (2019) highlighted that the small size of such The most important elements of furnishings are varied sitting
parks allows higher values of self-reported mental state and higher spaces, allowing accommodations for individuals and groups alike
trust in neighborhoods as compared to large urban parks. Thus, the (Whyte, 2001). Additional amenities such as artworks, water features
most prominent design feature of PPs resides in their size: they are de- and food service could further invite restoration sensations in users.
fined as “small” or even “vest-pocket.” No “pre-established standard” Common and crucial features in PPs is the presence of greenery, which
exists; instead, their dimension is defined by the availability of land allows for shading and contact with nature, as well as ecosystem ser-
(Faraci, 1967). Nonetheless, they usually are “substantially” smaller vices, and water elements, which are further discussed in the next sub-
than one acre, approximately 4000 m2 (Faraci, 1967). With respect to sections with respect to their environmental and microclimate benefits.
other size specifications for pocket parks, the more recent Copenhagen Various approaches to material choices include one that could be appli-
PP program (Peschardt et al., 2012) indicates 5000 m2 as the maximum cable to lower-income countries or to citizen-led activities, exemplified
size for PPs, while London recent program for 100 PPs states that most of by the interim plazas in the NYC regulations. These are small, tempo-
these PPs are around “the size of a tennis court” (Department for Com- rary parks built with low-cost and easy-to-find materials that can later
munities and Local Government, 2015; Mayor of London, 2012). Such be transformed into permanent parks (New York City Department of
a size is also confirmed by the guidelines given in the program report Transportation DOT, 2021). Interim plazas generally host greenery in
for the NYC Privately Owned Public Space (POPS), which comprises PPs vases and small trees and constitute good practices for low-budget PPs,
built on privately-owned properties for public use (NYC Planning, 2021) or those intended as trial locations before becoming permanent. Indeed,
and indicates a minimum surface measurement of 185 m2 (2000 square PPs are usually composed of more expensive stone or concrete materials
feet) for PPs. Faraci (1967) underlines the importance of such small and more pervasive green elements. Even if hypothetically less effective
sizes, which favor wider diffusion of parks in neighborhoods, thus nur- with respect to aspects such as ecosystem services, e.g., biodiversity con-
turing citizens’ affection and identification with the parks by enhancing servation, interim plazas are one solution that can be implemented to
their potential to be located in their immediate residential areas. The gradually achieve PPs when it is not possible to directly build a PP, such
importance and peculiarity of the reduced-size feature for PPs is also as when the budget is low. Interim plazas are thus embryonic PPs, with
evidenced by William H. Whyte’s pioneering work (Whyte, 2001): the all the relevant features described in this section, and are still able to
small dimension allows the space to be diffused and easier to build, provide a place for citizens to stop and rest or socialize, detached from
maintain and use. An important reference to PP design, Whyte’s work the street and comprising greenery. In NYC, many interim plazas have
analyzes the success of small urban spaces by observing the social life already been successfully transformed into PPs.
they create, depending on features such as the relation with streets, fur-
niture, greenery and water. The author underlines the importance of 2.2. Microclimate-dimension features
PPs’ strategic location, providing accessibility and visibility from the
street, facilitating usage of the park by passers-by. PPs should be de- To encourage their use, PPs should provide an overall comfort sensa-
signed as a continuation of the sidewalk, separated from it by low, easy tion to users (Chan et al., 2017), while providing improved resilience in
steps, providing a slight elevation. Such elevation should not block visi- the face of increasingly frequent extreme climate events, such as intense
bility or separate the sidewalk from the park (Whyte, 2001). Therefore, rain (Alexander et al., 2019) and heat waves (Lin et al., 2017). Comfort
parallel to the size feature, PPs’ usability and success rely on ease of is a multi-sensory, multi-domain sensation (Castaldo et al., 2018), and
access, but also clear demarcation from the streets, to act as “rest and outdoor comfort is particularly difficult to evaluate, compared to in-
restitution” oases (Peschardt et al., 2012). Again, also NYC POPS de- door thermal comfort, due to rapidly varying microclimate conditions
sign guidelines are in agreement with these indications, and state that (e.g., wind, solar radiation). Comfort assessment entails simultaneous
PPs should be, by design, open and inviting at the sidewalk; accessible; consideration of physical, physiological and psychological variables,

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

thus requiring objective and subjective measures (Nikolopoulou and mal and visual comfort in the hot season, thus trees can be employed
Steemers, 2003). Thermal, visual, acoustic comfort are the main sub- to provide shading and cooling, in addition to ecosystem services. In-
fields of overall comfort (Frontczak and Wargocki, 2011). However, the stead, during the cold season, solar radiation is a positive feature, thus,
sum of individual sensations in these fields does not equal the overall deciduous trees are convenient solutions to improve thermal and vi-
consideration of comfort and a gap exists between objective and sub- sual comfort, since they provide shading in summer and allow sun rays
jective comfort assessment, due to the role personal preferences play during winter. In fact, studies have confirmed that trees and grassland
in shaping sensation (Castaldo et al., 2018). Strategies to improve the in urban areas allow shading from solar radiation and decrease mean
“pleasantness” of determined areas can contribute to improving such radiant temperatures (Lee et al., 2016), due to evapotranspiration. Dif-
sensation. The simultaneous consideration of both physical and subjec- ferent articles have considered greenery positioning in dense urban ar-
tive comfort is of paramount importance for optimizing parks’ efficacy. eas: large central parks, PPs, and greenery along streets were considered
Regarding thermal comfort, the main influencing parameters are air (Duarte et al., 2015), where greenery embedded in more densely built
temperature [ °C]; wind speed [m/s]; relative humidity [%]; shortwave areas was shown to be the most effective solution in providing comfort
and longwave radiation [W/m2 ] – respectively, radiation received by conditions. The position of small parks in dense urban areas was in-
pedestrians from the sun or reflected from the built environment and vestigated (Xue et al., 2017), focusing on street-level greenery, sky-rise
radiation exchanged by pedestrians and the environment; human activ- gardens, or courtyards enclosed by buildings. In this last study, greenery
ity [W/m2 or met]; and clothing level [clo] (International Society of positioning influenced thermal comfort conditions, visiting patterns and
Biometeorology, 2021). Studies have also demonstrated that local pop- healing sensation, and showed citizens preferred street-level parks. Lin
ulations, due to physical, physiological and psychological adaptation, and colleagues (Lin et al., 2017) demonstrated that PPs are cooler than
have specific thermal sensation (Salata et al., 2016). their surroundings in Hong Kong and thus help alleviate UHI intensity
Visual comfort is shaped by parks’ light conditions: in daytime, solar at the micro-scale.
radiation is the main variable affecting visual sensation; the main risk
for discomfort is glare. At night, visual comfort depends on the adequacy
2.3. Managerial-dimension features
of artificial light illuminating the park. Sudden contrast between glare
sources and the surrounding environment should be avoided. Night
PPs are spaces owned by public and/or private entities that become
lighting also strongly influences safety perception, and is a fundamen-
green, open areas. Besides the availability of an empty lot, PPs require
tal variable to consider and correctly design (Peña-García et al., 2016).
efforts to plan, implement and manage these spaces towards their suc-
Pleasantness to the eye is one of the main factors influencing visual com-
cess and sustainability over time. To mitigate financial and human-
fort (Rosso et al., 2016), which is shaped by users’ subjective perception.
resources requirements, careful consideration of greeneries and mate-
Finally, acoustic comfort exemplifies the potential gap between ob-
rials that require both suitable maintenance costs and infrequent inter-
jective and subjective sensation. While strong breaker and background
ventions is needed (Colding et al., 2013).
noises deteriorate acoustic comfort (Frontczak and Wargocki, 2011),
Notwithstanding efforts to minimize necessary resources, financial
loud noises can be evaluated positively if they resemble natural sounds
and human efforts are required for PPs’ planning, realization and man-
(such as that of water). Hong and colleagues (Hong et al., 2020) demon-
agement. In the current period of scarce available funding, even more
strated that natural sounds can reduce the perceived loudness of traffic
exacerbated by COVID19 consequences, several advantages of PPs have
and enhance urban soundscapes. Paley and Greenacre Parks are charac-
been evidenced to motivate private and public financing: environmen-
terized by strong water noise, which allows isolating users from strong
tal benefits, due to positive impact on urban microclimate (as described
traffic noise on nearby streets, thus producing a positive effect on pedes-
above); social benefits, in terms of citizens’ wellbeing thanks to in-
trians (Whyte, 2001).
creased diffusion of greenery (Knez and Thorsson, 2008); and eco-
The PPs’ geometry and material choice (e.g., greenery, cool ma-
nomic benefits, shown in increased values of nearby assets (Kim et al.,
terials), considered within the surrounding urban environment, can
2019). PPs thus represent a valuable resource under the Resource-Based
shape comfort sensation and effectiveness with respect to resilience
View theory, i.e., something rare and valuable for the interested parties
improvement (Xiao et al., 2018). Indeed, greenery has direct effects
(Barney, 1991). PPs can be seen as valuable resources that can bene-
on evapotranspiration and shading (Brink et al., 2016; Lobaccaro and
fit the whole area and all stakeholders, thus motivating efforts towards
Acero, 2015; Shrestha and Shimizu, 2021), in addition to providing
their establishment and maintenance. Funding to develop PPs may also
crucial ecosystem services (Delgado-Capel and Cariñanos, 2020), and
come from non-profit organizations or alternative crowd-based financ-
trees can be employed to block traffic noise from streets. Permeable soil
ing sources.
and greenery constitute effective nature-based solutions for decreasing
the risk of runoff from rain, thus contributing to reducing the imper-
viousness of urban surfaces (Pappalardo et al., 2017). Materials, with 2.4. Legal-dimension features
their thermal and optic-characteristics, also contribute in shaping ther-
mal and visual sensation, as well as improving resilience to heat waves The most fundamental legal principle of PPs’ regulatory posture re-
and UHI. Cool materials, e.g., maintain lower surface and air tempera- gards the property rights attached to land parcels where such parks are
tures compared to dark materials. Water elements, such as cascades (as situated when parks are created, and the corresponding property rights
in Paley and Greenacre), are effective in influencing thermal sensation and duties once they are established. Ownership of the land parcels tar-
and acoustic sensation (Imam Syafii et al., 2017). Additionally, the ge- geted for the creation of PPs varies greatly; it can be publicly or pri-
ometry of the park and surrounding urban environment determine wind vately held. Sometimes, ownership of such land may even be difficult to
velocity and solar access, which is the quantity of solar radiation reach- ascertain, presenting a sort of no-man’s-land situation. Once title to the
ing the PP (Ali-Toudert and Mayer, 2006). PPs’ orientation is crucial to property is properly identified, the parcel may be transferred to a range
favor plantings and comfort. of entities, even held jointly by multiple owners that vary across com-
Thus, all these design choices are instruments to improve PPs’ mi- munities, in different cities, states and countries (Kronkosky Charitable
croclimate and environmental conditions and, consequently, their occu- Foundation, 2016).
pants’ comfort sensation and safety for both the occupants and the urban Regardless of the formal ownership status of PPs when first created,
area at large, if PPs are implemented throughout the urban territory. Lo- once they become established within the city’s community life, they ef-
cal climate plays a major role in defining which microclimate variables fectively become what are known as “common goods.” Internationally,
to improve, and in which season. In a cooling-prevalent climate, such as common goods have been defined as goods “that cannot be enjoyed with-
that of the Mediterranean, solar radiation has negative effects on ther- out [their] communal aspect,” and which “gain their quality as goods

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

only in connection to a community” and that “typically take a com- factor that must be considered for parks’ design. Another density indi-
munity to create and to sustain.” (Marmor, 2001). As such, common cator is the Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor Area Ratio (FAR), which
goods require collaboration between cities and citizens, comprising ac- defines building intensity. By considering density indicators it is possi-
tivities that, taken individually, are in most cases of modest importance. ble to verify a significant difference between the density of Manhattan
However, if the principle of subsidiarity (i.e., autonomous initiatives of – taken as the exemplificative case, and by extension that of other large
citizens towards activities of general interest) is correctly interpreted North American cities – and Mediterranean cities’ densities. FSI indi-
and widely implemented, small daily activities of a few active citizens cates the ratio between built surface (the sum of the surface of each
appear capable of initiating wider processes of revitalization of demo- floor of buildings on a lot) and the lot’s surface area. As exemplificative
cratic, constitutional models aimed to enrich expressions of community values, Manhattan has an FSI of 7.8 as a mean value, but up to 12–15 in
engagement and leading to popular sovereignty. the high-rise neighborhoods where the famous PPs are (Brueckner and
All common goods, including PPs, require regular maintenance, as Singh, 2020). In Rome, Italy, instead, only the very core of the city cen-
they are subject to normal wear and tear and vulnerable to acts of van- ter reaches an FSI up to 5–10; other parts of the city have FSI values be-
dalism. To maintain parks in good order and combat the effects of van- tween 0.75 and 5 (García Martín, 2013). This implies that PPs in Rome,
dalism, such spaces largely depend on a well-developed sense of respect Italy, would have different SVF and FSI than USA benchmarks, and thus
for common goods and civic duty among local inhabitants and on effi- different scales between PPs and their surroundings.
cient law enforcement to prevent malicious or destructive acts. There- Population density is itself a useful indicator for building density
fore, both a strong sense of civic responsibility and efficient law enforce- (Salomons and Berghauser, 2012), and for identifying possible chal-
ment are among the essential elements needed to sustain PPs: where lenges for PPs: while Rome’s population density is equal to 2236
either element is lacking, urban security is not guaranteed, and parks persons/km2 , Manhattan’s population density is a different order of
cannot be maintained clean and safe, leading to lesser usage. measure, equal to 28,154 persons/km2 (Lee and Braham, 2017). While
In addition to property and ownership rights, local and national reg- population density gives an immediate idea of different configurations
ulatory schemes play an important role in the legal landscape charac- of urban layouts, FSI/FAR is useful in defining the morphology of
terizing PPs. Zoning and land use laws regulate the way land may be the urban built environment, which determines the shape, position
used, and are often employed to encourage, through concessions and and solar access of PPs regarding their surroundings ( Fig. 2). Pre-
other advantages, the creation of green areas or public spaces aimed vious studies show that Mediterranean cities are mainly defined as
at collective use (NYC Planning). However, it should be stressed that open mix-rise; more precise information on this data is available on-
even detailed provisions in urban planning standards are inadequate to line (Copernicus Land Monitoring Service, 2021) and in other studies
guarantee the effective implementation of sufficient public spaces. (García Martín, 2013). These differences translate into generally higher
solar access in Mediterranean urban areas than in Manhattan exempli-
3. Multi-disciplinary challenges for the diffusion of PPs in other ficative parks, which could be both a positive or negative factor on mi-
contexts: a case study croclimate, depending on the design of the PP itself; and into lower
attendance, which calls for effective strategies to reduce vandalism and
Today, PPs are mainly diffused in North American and northern Eu- provide safe areas.
ropean regions, as is shown in the exemplificative features presented in Another challenge arises from the many historical sites and vast built
the previous sections. Such contexts bear peculiar microclimate and ur- heritage in Mediterranean regions and in Italy (Mazzarella, 2015). This
ban conditions, financial resources, institutional quality and civic sense. circumstance calls for careful design, in accordance with cultural her-
While delineating a general approach that could apply to different con- itage protection, but also creates opportunities to incorporate viewpoint-
texts, we selected a relevant case study for in-depth analysis of pos- synergies between PPs and such sites. Finally, scarce availability of re-
sible challenges and solutions towards the development of successful sources in such regions (Cappa et al., 2020a) highlights the need to use
PP models in other areas, specifically, Mediterranean countries. Such low cost, durable materials and components for PPs’ construction and
countries also have peculiar characteristics that must be considered to maintenance.
reveal the full potential of developing small urban land parcels. Italy
represents a relevant case study, for its barycentric geographical po-
3.2. Managerial-dimension challenges
sition in the Mediterranean basin. Thus, we evidence an integrated,
multi-disciplinary methodological approach that could be adopted to
3.2.1. Public and private organizations’ involvement
implement PPs in Italy. We thoroughly discuss each specific, multi-
Depending on whether PPs are built on public and/or private space,
disciplinary challenge, against the characteristics of the exemplificative
public and/or private organizations are accountable for their manage-
case (NYC), previously evidenced as significant for successful PPs. Then,
ment. Private entities receive the right and duty to manage PPs in ex-
we propose solutions, which are finally considered together in an overall
change for other permits. Enforcement of public and/or private orga-
framework, illustrated in section 4.
nizations’ duties regarding PP maintenance is not equally strong in all
contexts; that of the case study is weaker than that of the exemplificative
3.1. Architectural- and microclimate-dimension challenges
case in the USA (Ahuja and Yayavaram, 2011).
Mediterranean urban areas present morphological configurations
with lower densities than those of certain North American urban areas 3.2.2. Citizen participation
(e.g., Manhattan), where most successful and famous PPs are located. Citizens’ proper behavior and involvement in urban spaces are cru-
Density of construction plays a significant role in PPs’ design, material cial to facilitate PPs’ maintenance and lower costs, especially when parks
selection and usage. Indeed, construction density influences PPs’ solar are not constantly guarded. Outside the USA, greater difficulties arise in
access, and thus their microclimate conditions, while population density maintaining such spaces because of lower control enforcement and dif-
affects how many persons they will serve. ferent levels of inhabitants’ civic sense and participation (Ahuja and
One of the most important variables deriving from density is the sky- Yayavaram, 2011). Citizens’ involvement in maintaining other types
view factor (SVF), which is calculated as the portion of visible sky from a of public goods have been evidenced to be effective (Cappa et al.,
determined position, considering surrounding buildings. The maximum 2020b). Because PPs are more numerous than larger parks, organizing
SVF is 1, while if sky is not visible at all, the SVF is 0: the taller the their maintenance is more complex and should not be left exclusively
buildings, the lower the SVF; the denser the area, the lower the SVF to governmental funds and agencies; in accordance with the subsidiar-
(Mirzaee et al., 2018). Lower SVF means lower solar access, which is a ity concept, active-citizenship involvement can aid in park maintenance

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

Fig. 1. Paley Park (left) and Greenacre Park (right).

(Cappa et al., 2021). Moreover, citizens’ involvement can also be lever- culties by having the public works of urbanization carried out directly
aged to enhance their experiences by directly involving them in data and by the private sector, but further problems with this approach exist.
idea collection through crowd-based phenomena (Franzoni and Sauer- Another challenge in Italy is citizens’ commonly-held belief that they
mann, 2014). Strategies to empower citizens across a broad range of the can simply delegate authority to the public administration to take care
demographic spectrum – even marginalized portions of society – are of of all routine, maintenance and emergency situations requiring action
paramount importance in pursuing civic engagement and citizens’ par- across all sectors of public life. Even with the outbreak of the corona-
ticipation vis-à-vis common goods (Coggan et al., 2021; Elelman and virus pandemic, which has spurred a surge in civic awareness and com-
Feldman, 2018). Examples in Italy are citizen-science projects, where munity spirit, active citizenship and true participatory democracy are
citizens contributed data to effectively monitor invasive plant species still in their adolescence. Despite increasingly involving citizens in de-
(Mannino and Balistreri, 2018). The positive cycle of change serves to cisions and initiatives, the public administration struggles to handle the
inspire others with the encouraging results achieved, in accordance with vast range of matters requiring regular attention and emergency man-
the self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000): seeing their ac- agement in the public domain, including maintenance and care of public
tions’ results makes citizens more willing to devote their efforts to active- spaces such as parks (Spitzmiller, 2019). Many areas suitable for creat-
citizenship actions because of the intrinsic pleasure of contributing to ing PPs have fallen into abandonment, or worse, have become havens
actions that effectively benefit the public good. for illegal activity. The recent rise in popularity of direct, online par-
ticipation in public administration actions symbolize the experimental
changes that have been occurring in Italy recently and the desire for
3.2.3. Funding
increased citizen involvement (Floridia and Vignati, 2014).
Financial resources are extremely difficult to obtain especially in
In North American and northern-European contexts (the exemplifica-
countries where private and public funds are lacking. With Tactical Ur-
tive cases), PPs often rely on citizen participation in the management of
banism, actions to improve the urban environment at low costs can be
public goods, especially of urban public goods for collective use – or
identified (Silva, 2016). This approach comprises short-term, low-cost,
common goods. This practice is based on the principle of subsidiarity,
and scalable interventions to catalyze long-term change inside cities,
which is crucial to overcome legal difficulties inherent to diffusing PPs.
and can be led by governments, non-profits, grassroots groups, or resi-
Subsidiarity was established relatively recently as a legal principle in
dents. Different models, e.g., sponsorship and patronage, can be adopted
Italy, demonstrating that the general legal framework could embrace
to collect funds from private organizations. The former allows private
other change as well. The term “subsidiarity” also expresses one of the
organizations to use PPs also for private events, the latter does not. Re-
key principles of European law, as established in the 1992 Treaty of
cent advancements in fund-raising – public-private partnerships and al-
Maastricht and currently formulated under the 2009 Treaty on Lisbon.
ternative sources of financing – can help satisfy financial requirements.
In both the EU and in Italy, this principle helps distribute and allocate
In the first typology, private and public organizations can partner up
administrative resources and functions throughout governmental frame-
to finance and manage PP construction and maintenance. The second
works. Through subsidiarity, and together with state and/or local reg-
typology, defined as “crowdfunding,” allows instead exploiting citizens’
ulations, management of public goods (such as PPs) for collective use
active involvement for fund-raising by collecting small sums from nu-
are being implemented by directly and actively involving citizens, in-
merous dispersed individuals through online platforms (Centobelli et al.,
dividuals or associations. Citizens can propose interventions of care or
2016).
regeneration of public spaces (green areas, squares, streets, sidewalks,
etc. and other public spaces, public property or property subject to pub-
3.3. Legal-dimension challenges lic use) and municipal buildings in even partial disuse or dilapidation.
Faced with the need to shift societal responsibility and organi-
In Italy, the lack of public resources together with new rules on zation, citizens have begun to form groups, such as neighborhood
expropriation for public benefit (Repubblica Italiana 2020) have con- organizations and other active-citizenship associations, which enable
tributed to worsen difficulties municipalities face to create urban spaces them to contribute to caring for common goods. One such group is
for collective use. An attempt has been made to overcome these diffi- (Retake Roma, 2021), a volunteer association that empowers citizens

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

Fig. 2. Manhattan (exemplificative case) and Rome (Italy, case study for application in the Mediterranean Region) building height; Manhattan in # of floors; Rome
in meters (Urban Atlas).

to take care of common goods through a grassroots movement spread- in Italy, the idea would likely arise through a grassroots demand from
ing across Italy. Retake Roma is a non-profit, non-governmental, non- citizens, perhaps through a movement such as Retake. Thus, subsidiar-
partisan organization founded in 2010, currently comprised of some 80 ity and civic engagement constitute both the challenge and solution to
self-organizing neighborhood sub-groups in Rome alone. The volunteers increase PPs in urban areas.
aim to bolster civic pride, personal responsibility and empowerment The problems facing all common goods, and therefore also PPs,
while raising awareness and lobbying city administrators to improve have been labelled the “Tragedy of the Commons” in Hardin’s sem-
normal and extraordinary maintenance operations. They educate citi- inal work (Hardin, 1968). These difficulties fit within scenarios de-
zens about their duty to respect the public places and influence public scribed in game theories such as “Flood and Dresher’s prisoners’
opinion through first-hand engagement, social media amplification, en- dilemma” – where cooperation would inevitably lead to the best
dorsements and testimonials from key opinion leaders; they organize outcome, but individuals generally end up worse off because they
clean-up events that engage citizens in the democratic processes of car- choose options based on self-interest alone. The Retake movement
ing for and defending common goods; they gain support and action from and active-citizenship movements in general reinterpret the role of
public authorities and private sectors. For PPs to catch on and take hold citizens as passive by-standers, converting them into active protago-

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

Fig. 3. Dimensions of the PPs.

nists, collaborating with and stimulating institutions to do their work in Manhattan (NYC, USA, the exemplificative case study) (Urban Atlas)
better. could be exploited to positively contribute to thermal comfort during
As noted above, PPs have developed mainly in places, such as United cold seasons, while shading from deciduous greenery or movable ele-
States, that possess a robust institutional framework and efficient law ments can be designed for hot seasons (Lee et al., 2020). Solutions for
enforcement; hence they have strong ratings regarding the rule of law. PPs include suitable, sturdy, low cost materials, e.g., high-albedo materi-
The World Justice Project Rule of Law Index 2020 (The World Justice als. Such materials would allow maintaining visual comfort (Rosso et al.,
Project, 2020) counts qualities such as “institutional framework,” “ab- 2016), which could be further valorized by exploiting viewpoints on
sence of corruption” and “law enforcement” among the eight main fac- historical heritage (Castaldo et al., 2018). Greenery would also allow
tors contributing to measure and rank countries worldwide regarding to insulate and absorb traffic sounds (Azkorra et al., 2015; Salah and
the rule of law. Italy stands behind USA and other European countries Romanova, 2021). Finally, safety, leading to overall comfort, should be
for the three above-mentioned dimensions. provided by allowing park closure at night and by providing suitable
This overview of Italy’s placement as compared to the countries lighting at sunset (Nasrollahi and Shokri, 2016). The materials, besides
where PPs are flourishing provides insights as to the areas needing im- being suitable for achieving comfort and including greenery and possi-
provement from a legal standpoint. Recent Italian legislation permits bly water, should be durable and low-cost, in case of scarce resources,
pacts between public institutions and private stakeholders to promote but allow for successive interventions (New York City (DOT)).
urban security, illustrating Italy’s need to strengthen and link civic en- Different funding sources for construction and maintenance are needed
gagement and law enforcement, and represents a step toward that goal. due to scarcity of public resources nowadays. Public–private partner-
ships or crowd-based initiatives can be helpful. Public-private part-
4. An integrated framework for diffusing pocket parks nerships allow sharing benefits, resources and risks among partners
while leveraging the strengths of all parties involved (Morea and
Based on the above discussions of successful PP features and chal- Balzarini, 2019). Public-private partnerships for PPs may mirror the
lenges, we propose an overall, comprehensive framework towards PP balance of interests between the private and the public benefiting all
diffusion in Italy, a relevant case study for the Mediterranean area. stakeholders: parks benefit social wellbeing, thus serving public inter-
We identified four dimensions crucial to PP design, implementation ests, while also benefiting the private sector’s economic-prosperity in-
and sustainability over time - architectural, microclimate, managerial terests.
and legal - which must be jointly considered to achieve the diffusion of Crowd-based initiatives, comprising all those that actively involve
successful, effective PPs (Fig. 3). citizens in the creation of new knowledge (Cappa et al., 2020a) can also
In response to challenges that may arise in each of these dimensions, be beneficial. Crowdfunding (Centobelli et al., 2016), e.g., gathering
this research has identified practices that can be implemented to miti- funds for PPs by collecting small sums from dispersed individuals, could
gate the highlighted challenges and facilitate enjoyment of PPs’ benefits be effectively run in PPs by citizens living nearby, who may be willing
by citizens, policymakers and organizations, summarized in Fig. 4. to donate towards their care.
The first two dimensions, architectural and microclimate challenges, Other active-citizen initiatives can be leveraged in PPs, including
can be mitigated through approaches that can be defined as comfort crowd-based initiatives, such as citizen science (Sauermann et al., 2020)
by design. A conscious design of architectural features, from geometry and crowdsourcing (Natalicchio et al., 2017). Through citizen science,
to materials, would allow achieving overall, multi-sensory comfortable citizens without any specific knowledge for collecting data to tackle
conditions (Schweiker et al., 2020), suitable for specific contexts. Con- environmentally-related issues. Once PPs are established, public orga-
sidering Italy’s climate, greater solar access due to lower density than nizations and research entities can effectively manage citizen-science

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

Fig. 4. Practices to mitigate the challenges and facilitate enjoyment of PPs.

projects to collect data to further improve them. Similarly, individuals texts where they are most popular. We focus on the Mediterranean area,
can be involved in crowdsourcing calls for ideas, providing researchers which is characterized by peculiar climate and diverse institutional, le-
with ideas regarding PPs. Active-citizenship involvement, based on the gal and civic contexts, concentrating on the case of Italy, due to its
legal concept of subsidiarity and exemplified by associations such as barycentric position. Finally, the paper’s third contribution is evidenc-
Retake Roma, is a crucial factor in PPs’ success. ing interdisciplinary best-practices that can favor PP’s implementation
Improving safety and reducing vandalism is the fifth practice we have and maintenance, which can represent an effective framework for de-
identified. Respect for the rule of law and awareness of citizens’ duty to signers, policymakers, citizens’ associations, and researchers. By exploit-
care for common goods, including PPs, can increase through collabora- ing strategies relevant to multiple PPs’ dimensions, they could be de-
tion between local government and associations, such as Retake, which signed to achieve safe, comfortable conditions, while involving citizens
fosters such goals by educating individuals, public and private sectors in their construction and maintenance to guarantee their sustainability
and other NGOs through innovative, concrete projects. It presents its over time.
philosophy and methodology in schools in its Retake Schools program, Besides advancing scientific knowledge on PPs, the framework pro-
partnering with other civic and legal organizations, such as “Laboratory posed in this study is also of interest to policymakers, urban planners, de-
for subsidiarity” (Labsus, 2021), a think-tank of legal scholars studying signers, governmental and non-governmental organizations and active-
subsidiarity (Zonfrilli, 2013). Education on common goods, subsidiarity citizenship associations.
and democratic principles can increase safety and reduce vandalism. The study is not exempt from limitations, paving the way for fu-
By leveraging these practices, it would be possible to favor broader ture developments. First, when delineating the state of the art, we have
diffusion of PPs, towards allowing access to nature in each neighborhood mainly referred to New York, USA. Future research may consider enrich
of urban areas, improving resilience and sustainability thanks to PPs’ the understanding of PPs by considering other successful implementa-
benefits (discussed in Section 1 and 2) and effectively manage them with tions. In addition, while Italy represents a relevant case study to identify
increased efficiency and efficacy, in order for PPs to be sustained over the challenges and a framework for the diffusion of PPs, future studies
time, by involving citizens and finding alternative financing sources. should consider other countries to further validate the outcomes of this
work and increase the generalizability of its results. Besides considering
5. Conclusions other case studies for identifying the state of the art as well as the chal-
lenges that may prevent the diffusion of PPs, future research direction
This study provides several contributions. First, we contribute to the may consider adopting a multiple case study approach, rather than a sin-
identification of PPs’ characteristics to clearly determine their bound- gle relevant case. Moreover, while we have outlined PPs’ main features
ary conditions, and advance scientific knowledge on this phenomenon, and proposed a framework to facilitate their diffusion, future studies
aiming to nurture future studies around this topic. Secondly, we iden- should empirically test the outcomes of this research, in terms of aiding
tify the main challenges in establishing successful PPs outside the con- the implementation of PPs.

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F. Rosso, F. Cappa, R. Spitzmiller et al. Environmental Challenges 7 (2022) 100402

Declaration of Competing Interest Duarte, D.H.S., Shinzato, P., Gusson, C.S., Alves, C.A., 2015. The impact of vegetation on
urban microclimate to counterbalance built density in a subtropical changing climate.
Urban Clim 14. doi:10.1016/j.uclim.2015.09.006.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Elelman, R., Feldman, D.L., 2018. The future of citizen engagement in cities—The council
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence of citizen engagement in sustainable urban strategies (ConCensus). Futures 101, 80–
the work reported in this paper. 91. doi:10.1016/j.futures.2018.06.012.
Falasca, S., Ciancio, V., Salata, F., Golasi, I., Rosso, F., Curci, G., 2019. High albedo
materials to counteract heat waves in cities: an assessment of meteorology, build-
Acknowledgements ings energy needs and pedestrian thermal comfort. Build. Environ. 163, 106242.
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Faraci, P., 1967. Vest Pocket Parks.
Federica Rosso and Francesco Cappa would like to gratefully ac- Fischer, L.K., Honold, J., Cvejić, R., Delshammar, T., Hilbert, S., Lafortezza, R., Nas-
knowledge Ermenegildo Zegna that supported their research thanks tran, M., Nielsen, A.B., Pintar, M., van der Jagt, A.P.N., Kowarik, I., 2018. Beyond
to the EZ Founder’s Scholarship 2017–2018, 2018–2019, 2019–2020 green: broad support for biodiversity in multicultural European cities. Glob. Environ.
Chang. 49, 35–45. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2018.02.001.
and 2020–2021. Federica Rosso gratefully acknowledges Sapienza Uni-
Floridia, A., Vignati, R., 2014. Deliberativa, diretta o partecipativa? Quad. di Sociol. 65,
versity for supporting the research with the “Starting Grant” num- 51–74.
ber AR21916B891EC11C. The funders had no role in study design, Foray, D., Mowery, D., Nelson, R., 2012. Public R&D and social challenges: what lessons
from mission R&D programs? Res. Policy 41, 1697–1792.
data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the
Franzoni, C., Sauermann, H., 2014. Crowd science: the organization of sci-
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