TAKORADI TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

Course: MINI PROJECT IV

Code: BEE 335
Programme: B.Tech. I (TOP UP)
Lecturers: E.A. WILLIAMS & ING. I.A.
MENSAH
Email: [email protected] &
[email protected]
1
 SUBSTATION DESIGN

4
 CHOICE OF SUBSTATION
 Selection of a substation site and its capacity will depend on:

 The number of HV feeder circuits

 The future loads on each feeder

 And how feeders relate to other parts of the distribution

system

 Substation basic ratings and optimum locations can often be

determined by the use of distribution planning software or load
flow calculations on spreadsheets.
5
 GEOGRAPHICAL LOAD DENSITY
 Load density, typically defined in MW/km2 will be one of the
factors used to determine where a primary substation needs to be
located and the substation’s MVA rating.

 When load density is above a defined level, it may be advisable to

investigate the possibility of constructing more than one primary
substation.

 Other factors that can influence substation location are the

number of HV feeders, the length of feeders and where the loads
are on each feeder.

6
 LOAD GROWTH DATA
 Load growth data should be carefully examined to determine how
it will affect transformer loadings. For example, some industrial
or commercial loads may only add demand during working hours.

 If substation maximum demand is predominantly due to

domestic/residential loads, the peak substation loading will not be
increased.

 However, if existing substation transformers are already running

near to their permissible loadings, substation expansion,
transformer replacement or other measures may be required

7
 SUBSTATION SIZING
 Ideally, the best size and spacing of substations is that which
results in the least annual cost of the sum of fixed charges on
substations and feeders, operation and maintenance, and losses.

 Increasing the number of substations for a given load density

tends to increase the substation installation costs.

 On the other hand, increasing the number of the substations

reduces the cost of feeders and feeder losses. The least total annual
cost is a function of substation and feeder cost, capacity of feeder
and load density.

8
 SUBSTATION SIZING
 Fault levels are another parameter for consideration, while
selecting station sizes. The larger the transformer installation, the
greater the secondary fault level.

 This problem can be overcome by increasing the impedance of

transformers, but this in turn leads to a high reactive demand on the
primary side.

 Consequently excessive range of tap changers will be required to
overcome the poor voltage regulation across the transformer.

 This eventually leads to a more expensive transformer and more

losses
9
 SUBS. BUS CONFIGURATIONS
 Substation Layout

10
 SUBSTATION DESIGN
 A substation is a point within a power system where an
assembly of switchgear components are used to:
 direct the flow of electrical energy in the power system

 ensure supply security through protective equipment

 provide alternative routes

 raise voltage levels for transmission

 lower voltage to safe levels

 Provide switching operations

11
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
Types of Substations
 Step-up or Step-down substations
 Primary or secondary substations
 Indoor (I/D) or Outdoor (O/D) substations
 Pole Mounted (PMT) or Ground Mounted (GMT)
General Design Considerations
 Site or location of substation (& space requirements)
 Equipment rating (nominal operating voltage &
capacity)
 Environmental
 The availability or unavailability of land (space requirements) and
ROW for circuits may dictate the location and type of design
configuration
12
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 The material building blocks needed for the construction of a
typical indoor or outdoor primary substation include:
 The 33kV equipment/switchgear (Indoor or Outdoor)
 The 11kV equipment/switchgear (always indoor)
 Power transformers (33/11kV)
 Substation Building or Substation Control Room
 Auxiliary equipment, etc.

 These equipment can be put into three categories namely:

 Civil structures
 Safety equipment
 Electromechanical equipment

13
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 The civil structures include:
 Control building
 Cable trenches, equipment foundation
 Access road and switchyard chippings
 Fence
 Drains, water tanks,
 Security gate ( if necessary)

 The safety equipment in a substation include smoke detectors, first

aid box and fire extinguishers.

14
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 The electromechanical equipment can be grouped into:

 33kV Bus bar arrangement/configuration

 33kV Feeder bay or panel

 33kV Transformer bay or panel

 11kV panels (feeder, transformer, bus coupler, etc)

 Power transformers (33/11kV)

 Auxiliary power supply arrangement

 Instrument transformers (i.e. CTs & VTs)

15 Earthing systems (earth grid or equipment earthing, etc)

 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Circuit Breakers: Standard CB ratings are:
 33kV feeder bay/panel: 800-1250A (Outdoor /Indoor)
 33kV transformer panel/bay : 800A (Outdoor /Indoor)
 11kV transformer panels: 2000A (Indoor)
 11kV feeder panels: 630A (Indoor)
 Bus and Line Isolator: The earth switch on the feeder is for earthing
the feeder for maintenance. The standard rating is 1250A (33kV)
 Bus Sectionalizer or coupler: It is used to separate different sections
of a bus bar. Rating is the same as that of the bus bar.
 Neutral Grounding/Earthing Resistor (NGR/NER): This connects
the neutral of the LV side of the substation’s power transformer to
earth.
16
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Feeder/Transformer Protection & Metering Panel:
 They contain relays for feeder protection (OC & EF) and
transformer protection (EF & Differential).

 Earthing Transformers: To provide neutral point for grounding

and limiting fault currents.
 Auxiliary or Station Service Transformers: It is used to supply
LV for use at the station for security lights and power circuits.
The standard size for most of substations is 50kVA (33/O.433kV
or 11/0.433kV).
 Power Transformer: This is used to transform power from 33kV
to 11kV. standard ratings at primary substations are 20/26MVA
(ONAN/ONAF) in urban areas and 1.25MVA to 15MVA in other
areas.
17
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Current & Voltage Transformers: It is required at a substation to
lower current and voltages for protection and metering.

 On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC) Panel: It provides a means of

operating the OLTC function of a power transformer.

 Auxiliary Transformer Panel (33kV or 11kV): To provide means

of controlling the Auxiliary transformer. Does not have a CB, but
rather a fuse (6A fuse switch)

 Substation Lightning Mast: It provides protection for the

substation equipment by providing a shield against lightning.

18
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 DC Power Supply System: This is made up of the battery,
rectifier and DC Board. It serves as standby power to the
substation during emergency and also provide DC supply to the
relays and CBs.

 Standard ratings at primary stations 60VDC at 150-200Ah (to

provide about 8hrs standby power)

 Substation Class Lightning Arrestor: Installed on the outdoor

support structures (i.e. 33kV and 11kV sides of the power
transformer as well as the 33kV outdoor bays)

19
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Rural Distribution substation

20
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Sub-urban distribution substation

21
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Voltage Regulators — in the substation or on feeders — can

adjust primary voltage

 Distribution utilities have several ways to control steady-state

voltage. The most popular regulation methods include:

 Substation load tap-changing transformers (LTCs)

 Substation feeder or bus voltage regulators

 Line voltage regulators

 Fixed and switched capacitors

22
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Most utilities use LTCs to regulate the substation bus and
supplementary feeder regulators and/or switched capacitor banks
where needed.

 The substation LTC or bus regulator controls the voltage at the

source.

 Voltage Improvement at Substations

 When Shunt Capacitors are installed at Substations, the
voltage
Improvement with the substation transformer carrying full load is
calculated as follows:
23
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Voltage Improvement at Substations
% Voltage Improvement = ckVAr * Z 
tkVA
Where Z= % transformer Impedance
tkVA= Transformer kVA rating &
ckVAr = Total Capacitor kVAr

 E.g. A 3600 kVAr capacitor bank is connected to a substation

having a power transformer of rating 20 MVA & Z = 9.8 % .
Estimate the percentage Improvement in Voltage;
% Voltage Improvement = (3600)*(0.098)/(20000) = 1.76%

24
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Substation Ratings (ECG)
33 kV Switchgear
Rated Voltage: 36 kV rms
Rated short time withstand current. Is 31.5 kA rms
Rated short circuit making current 79 kA peak
Rated short circuit breaking current (circuit breaker only) 31.5 kA rms

11 kV Switchgear
Rated Voltage: 12kV rms
Rated short time withstand current, Is 25 kA rms
Rated short circuit making current. 50 kA peak
Rated short circuit breaking current (circuit breaker only) 25 kA rms

25
 SUBSTATION DESIGN (contd.)
 Nominal Continuous Current Ratings (ECG)
Location Urban Rural

33KV Switchgear

Primary substation incoming 1250A 800A

Primary substation outgoing 1250A 800A
Feeder breaker 800A 630A
33/11 kV transformer circuit 25:)QA. 630A
Primary substation bus coupler 2500A 800A

11 kV Switchgear
Feeder breaker 630A 400A
33/11 kV transformer circuit 2000A 800A
26 Bus coupler 2000A 800A
An underground cable consists of one or more
conductors covered with some suitable insulating
material and surrounded by a protecting cover.
The cable is laid underground to transmit
electric power.
Although several types of cables are available, the type of cable to
be used will depend upon the working voltage and service
requirements. In general, a cable must fulfil the following necessary
requirements :

(i) The conductor used in cables should be tinned stranded copper or

aluminium of high conductivity. Stranding is done so that conductor
may become flexible and carry more current.
(ii) The conductor size should be such that the cable carries the desired
load current without overheating and causes voltage drop within
permissible limits.
(iii) The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give
high degree of safety and reliability at the voltage for which it is
designed.
(iv) The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so
that it may withstand the rough use in laying it.
(v) The materials used in the manufacture of cables should be such that
there is complete chemical and physical stability throughout.
 CABLES

31
Cables for underground service may be classified in two
ways according to
(i) the type of insulating material used in their
manufacture
(ii) the voltage for which they are manufactured.
However, the latter method of classification is
generally preferred, according to which cables can
be divided into the following groups :
A) Low-tension (L.T.) Cables......upto 1000V .
B) High-tension (H.T.) Cables....upto 11000V.
C) Super-tension (S.T.) Cables....from 22kV to 33kV.
D) Extra-high Tension (E.H.T) Cables.......from 33kV
to 66 kV.
E) Extra Super Voltage Cables.........beyond 132 kV.
 In direct laying method, the
cables with steel tape or wire
armouring are laid directly as
they afford excellent protection
from mechanical injury. This
method of the laying
underground cables is simple and
cheap and in much use. In this
method of laying, a trench about
1.5 m deep and 45cm wide is dug
through out the route of the
cable. The trench is covered
with a layer of fine sand and the
cable is laid over this sand bed.
The purpose of sand is to
prevent the entry of moisture
from the ground and thus
protects the cable from decay.
This method of cable laying is
suitable for congested areas
where excavation is expensive
and inconvenient, for once the
conduits have been laid, repairs
or alterations can be made
without opening the ground.
In this method, a line of
conduits or ducts are of the
glazed stoneware cement or
concrete.
After laying conduits or ducts, the cables are put into the
position from man-holes or brick pits spaced at regular
intervals.
Figure shows section through four way underground duct line.
Three of the ducts carry transmission cables and the fourth
duct carries relay protection connection, pilot wires.
 In this system the cable is laid in open pipes
or troughs dug out in earth along the cable
route.
 The troughing is of cast iron or treated wood
 Troughing is filled with a bituminous after
cables is laid.
 It provides good mechanical strength.
 It has poor heat dissipation conditions.
 It requires skilled labour and favorable
weather conditions.
 It is very much expensive system.
 t
I
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tl 1 ·-soocm-·--····-··-····--·····--···--····3
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l------·--····-····----- -------------·--·-··---···-··--··--····--···-···--·····-····--··--······-··--·····..,.·-····------.J
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 CABLES
 Fault Detection and Localization
 Once utility companies receive any alarms or interruptions of
their cable network operation via the SCADA system
 a maintenance crew will proceed to the affected substations to
perform isolation of the faulty cable and perform off-line fault
localization.
 A general procedure is typically set out to manage the fault
location in a systematic manner as follows;
 Fault indication
 Fault analyses and insulation test
 Cable fault pre-location
 Cable route tracing
 Pinpointing of the cable fault
32  Cable identification
 Cables are generally laid in the ground or in
ducts in the underground distribution system.
For this reason, there are little chances of
faults in underground cables. However, if a
fault does occur it is difficult to locate and
repair the fault because conductors are not
visible. Nevertheless, the following are the
faults most likely to occur in underground
cables
1) open circuit fault
2) short circuit fault
3)earth fault
 When there is a break in the conductor of a cable,
it is called open circuit fault.
 The open circuit fault can be checked by megger.
For this purpose, the three conductors of the 3-core
cable at the far end are shorted and earthed.
 The resistance between each conductor and earth is
measured by a megger and it will indicate zero
resistance in the circuit of the conductor that is not
broken.
 However, if the conductor is broken, the megger
will indicate infinite resistance in its circuit
 When two conductors of a multi-core cable come
in electrical contact with each other due to
insulation failure, it is called a short circuit
fault.
 Again, we can seek the help of a megger to
check this fault.
 For this purpose the two terminals of the megger
are connected to any two conductors.
 If the megger gives zero reading, it indicates
short circuit fault between these conductors.
 The same steps is repeated for other conductors
taking two a time.
 When the conductor of a cable comes in
contact with earth, it is called earth fault or
ground fault.
 To identify this fault, one terminal of the
megger is connected to the conductor and
the other terminal connected to earth.
 If the megger indicates zero reading, it
means the conductor is earthed. The same
procedure is repeated for other conductors
of the cable.
S.No. Particular Overhead system Underground system

I. Public safety It is less safe. It is more safe.

2. Initial cost It is less expensive. It is more expensive.
3. Faults Faults occur frequently. Very rare chances of fauJts.
4. Appearance It gives shabby look. Its appearance is good as wires
are not visible.
It is more flexible as new It is not flexible, as new
5. Flexibility conductors can be laid along the conductors are to be laid in new
existing conductors. channels.
Fault point can be easily located. Fault point cannot be easily
6. Location of fault
located.
Can be easily repaired. Cannot be easily repaired.
7. Repair
It can work upto 400 kV. It can work only upto 66 kV due
8. Working voltage to insulation '1ifficu1ty.
 Lightning thunder More chances of being subjected Very little chances of being
9.
to lightning. subjected to lightning.
10. Supply interruption More chances of supply Very little chances of supply
interrruption. interruption.
11. Frequency of accidents More chances of accidents. Little chances of accidents.
12. Interference with It interferes with communication No interference with communi-
systems. cation system.
communication system
13. Insulation cost Less. The overhead conductor More insulation cost. Under•
are bare. Supported on steel ground cables are provided with
towers, insulated from the various wrappings of high grade
towers through insulators. tape etc. Lead sheath is also
provided.
14. Erection cost Much less comparatively Erection cost of high voltage
cable is quite high.
15. Uses This is used for long distance The large charging current on
transmission high voltage limits the use of
long distance transmission.
 UG CABLE NETWORK DESIGN
 Underground Cable Networks
 Cables are either laid directly in trenches or in ducts. The design
parameters for under ground UG circuits are primarily related to
thermal performance and the depth of burial.
Design parameters LV 11kV 33kV
Standard burial depth (m) 0.6 (min = 0.5) 0.9 (min = 0.8) 1.1 (min = 0.9)
Max. allowable conductor
temp in (°C) 90 90

Assumed soil Temperature

30 30
(°C)
Assumed soil resistivity
(°Cm/W) 0.9 0.9

27
 UG CABLE NETWORK DESIGN
 Cable Network Design Criteria
 Cable installation depth – minimum depth for LV, 11kV
and
33kV are 0.5m, 0.8m and 0.9m respectively.
 Service and utility conflicts – standard minimum clearances
must be achieved
28
 UG CABLE NETWORK DESIGN
 Standard Cable Sizes and their Ratings
 11kV Cable loading

Cable size Max Recommended Maximum MVA

thermal Max. load limit Loading Limit
rating (A) (15 % safety factor) (A) (MVA)
3x95 mm2 Al 275 233 4.5
3x185 mm2 Al 392 333 6.3
1x240 mm2 Al 509 432 8.2
1x300 mm2 Al 566 481 9.2
1x300 mm2 Cu 729 620 13.8

29
 UG CABLE NETWORK DESIGN
 33kV Cable Loading

Cable size Max thermal Recommended Maximum MVA

rating (A) Max. load limit (15 Loading Limit
% safety factor) (A) (MVA)

Single circuit of
3x 1C 240mm2 Al 519 441 25.2
Double circuit2of
3x 1C 240mm Al 935 795 45.0
Single circuit of
3x 1C 240mm2 Cu 670 570 32.6
Single circuit of 3
x 1 C 500 mm2 946 804 46.0
Single circuit of 3
x 1 C 630 mm 2 750 590 33.0
30
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 The components of an OHL network include:
 conductors, support structures (e.g. wooden poles, steel tubular
poles, concrete poles and towers),insulators, Cross-arms,
 Miscellaneous items (e.g. stays, arrestors, danger plates, etc.)
 Support Structures for Overhead Lines:
 Structures for overhead line design range from wood poles to steel
tubular Poles and steel lattice towers.
 The most economical structure type used within the ECG
subtransmission network is steel lattice towers.
 Pole Construction Types
 Intermediate pole, Light Angle Pole, Section Pole, Medium/Heavy
Angle Pole, Terminal Pole, Tee – off Pole type.
33
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN

 Conductors (Carry Power from Sending end station to receiving end

station)

 Supports (Provide Support to Conductors & keep those @ suitable

level above the ground)

 Insulators (Provide Electrical Isolation to Poles)

 Cross-Arms (These provide Support to the Insulators)

 CONDUCTORS
 COPPER CONDUCTOR ( 97.4 % )
 High conductivity + Greater tensile strength .
 Also called Ideal Conductor for T/M .
 Reason to it’s high conductivity .
 Costly & Non-availability for T/M .

 STEEL CORE COPPER CONDUCTOR (SCCC) :

 Steel is used in the center surrounded
by the copper conductors .
 Tensile strength + Flexibility increases .
 High cost , Low Availability .
 CONDUCTORS
 All Aluminum Conductor ( AAC ) ( 61% )
 Only Aluminum Is used .
 Has Low conductivity as compared to “CU” .
 Low tensile strength because of light in weight .
 Cheap
 CONDUCTORS
 Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR )
 To increase tensile strength , Steel is reinforced in Aluminum
conductors .
 Diameter increases & Corona loss is reduced as compare to Cu .
 Weight = 75% of Cu .
 Suitable for Transmission Lines .
 CONDUCTORS
All Aluminum Alloy Conductor ( AAAC )
 Mg + Si with Al Conductor .
Provides better tensile strength
 but less conductivity .
 Suitable for populated urban areas and populated industrial
areas
 LINE SUPPORTS
 Supporting Structure of T/M Lines consists of Poles & Towers .

 Function of Line Supports are :

i) Maintaining proper spacing between conductors .

ii) To provide min: ground clearance of conductor & earth .

 Line Supports should have these properties .

i) High mechanical strength .

ii) Cheap in cost

iii) Longer Life

iv) Easy availability

 TYPES OF LINE SUPPORTS
 Wooden Poles ( SUITABLE FOR 11kV )

 Cheapest among all line supports .

 Can be used for short distance up to 50m T/M or distribution .
 Highly insulated because of wood . That’s why mostly used for
distribution .
 But have shorter life time & requires periodical inspection .
 Two types of wooden poles are used , shown below :
i) Single Pole Shaped ii) Double Poles Shaped
 TYPES OF LINE SUPPORTS
RCC Poles
 Recently have become more popular
because of High Mechanical Strength .
 Have longer lives due to little deterioration .
 Require little maintenance
 Also have insulating property .
 But they are suitable for 11KV .
 High cost of transportation due to heavy
weight .

.
 TYPES OF LINE SUPPORTS
 Steel Poles
 Have good mechanical strength .
 Longer life and can be used for longer distance than wooden poles .
 Suitable usage is for High Voltage & Extra High Voltage .
 Double Circuited Steel Poles provide
Continuity of Supply during
breakdown situation .
 OVERHEAD LINE INSULATORS
 Overhead Insulators are used to isolate electrically the conductors

from towers .
 Also prevent leakage current from conductor to cross arms .

 An Insulator should have properties :

i) High Electrical Resistance .

ii) Non-porous .
 Electrical Failure of Insulators occurs due to :
i) Puncture
ii) Flash over
 TYPES OF LINE INSULATORS
 Pin Type Insulators :
 Earliest developed overhead insulator .
 used in power network up to 33KV system.
 In 11 KV system we generally use one part type insulator .
 Beyond 33 KV , Pin Type Insulators become bulky
& uneconomical .
 TYPES OF LINE INSULATORS
 Suspension Type Insulators

 Consists of number of Porcelain discs , connected

in series to form a string .
 Used for Voltage > 33 KV .
 Each disc is designed for low voltage ,
say 11KV .
 The number of discs used depend upon
working voltage .
 Suppose for 66 KV working voltage ,
6 discs in series will be provided on string .

13-EL-42
 TYPES OF LINE INSULATORS
 Strain Type Insulators
 Consists of assembly of suspension type insulators .
 Used When there is a dead end or there is a sharp corner in
transmission line .
 Used for higher transmission .
 Used in parallel arrangement .
 TYPES OF LINE INSULATORS
 Shackle Type Insulators
 Similar to strain type insulators , but used for low voltage .
 1st these type of insulators were used as Strain type. Later on these
were only used for distribution.
 These are single Porcelain material , mounted horizontally or
vertically .

13-EL-42
 CROSS-ARMS −TYPES
 Line Arms−they hold the transmission conductor
 Straight line form .
 Mounted equally weight distributed to poles .
 Used for Short Transmission, but mostly used for Long
Transmission
( Double Circuited Transmission System ) .
 CROSS-ARMS −TYPES
 Side Arms

 Also called Braced Horizontal arms .

 Three single arms are used on poles, fitted alternatively .
 Used for Single Circuit Transmission .
 Mostly used for Short Transmission .
13-EL-42
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Tower Types and their Functions
 Dead end (DE) tower - for dead end structure positions and for line
deviation between 20o and 60o
 Anti-casting (AC) tower - for line deviation between 3o and 20o and
for anti cascading function.
 Suspension (SS) tower - for intermediate structure positions and
for line deviation less than 3o

 Tower Strength/Loading
 The strength of a tower depends on its maximum wind span and
weight span .

50
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Mechanical Design – considers determination of ROW, tower/pole
spotting, sag & tension, equivalent span and vibrations due to wind
loading.

 Electrical Design – looks at voltage selection, conductor loading

capacity, spacing between conductors, selection and arrangement of
ground wires.

51
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Basic line design definitions

 Span length – horizontal distance between two supporting

structures

 Section - Portion of OHL between two dead-end or section support

structures

 Weight (vertical) span - Horizontal distance between minimum

turning points of conductor on both sides of a support structure

 Wind (horizontal) span - Sum of half the span lengths on both

sides of a support structure.

52
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Weight and wind spans for structures on level and undulating
terrain

53
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Weight spans of conductors at different weather conditions

54
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Sag and Minimum Clearance

sag

L
Min Clear nce

1
 L
6
2ft + 10% L

55
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Sag and Tension
wl 2
T
8s

where: T = horizontal tension in conductor (kg) ≤ 20% of UTS

w = effective force acting on conductor per unit length (kg/m)
S = mid-span sag (m)
l = span length (m)

 The value of w, effective force acting on conductor per unit

length
is found as follows:
w  w1 2 w2  d 2
where,
w1 = conductor weight (kg/m)
 w2 = wind pressure on conductor (kg/m²)
d = conductor diameter (m)
56
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Supports at an Unequal Level

𝑊 ��12
�
1 = ����22
2� �
2 =
2�

 A 132kV transmission line has the following data:

Weight of conductor=680kg/km; length of span=260m
Ultimate strength=3100kg; safety factor=2
Calculate the height above ground at which the conductor should be
supported. Ground clearance required is 10m.
57 -Tension, T=ultimate strength/safety factor
 OH LINE NETWORK DESIGN
 Sequence in OHL Design and Construction
 Route selection.
 Detailed survey and profiling of route to determine x, y and z
coordinates of all survey points along line route.
 Spotting design for support structures.
 Procurement of support structures.
 Erection of support structures and stringing of conductors.
 Computerized OHL Design (Available software programs)
 PLSCADD – for the optimum design of an entire overhead line.
 PLS-POLE – for the design and analysis of wood, concrete or
steel tubular pole support structures.
 PLS-TOWER – for the design and analysis of steel lattice
towers.
58
 CORONA DISCHARGE
 An alternating potential difference is applied across two
conductors
whose spacing is large as compared to their diameters
 There is no apparent change in the condition of atmospheric air
surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low.
 However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called
critical disruptive voltage ,the conductors are surrounded by a faint
violet glow called corona.
 The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound,
production of ozone, power loss and radio interference.
 The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous
envelope becomes, and greater are the sound, the power loss and the
radio noise.
59 23-Nov-17
 CORONA DISCHARGE
 If the applied voltage is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over
will occur between the conductors due to the breakdown of air
insulation.
 The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of
ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona.
 If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be
uniform throughout the length of the conductors, otherwise the
rough points will appear brighter.
 With D.C voltage, there is difference in the appearance of the two
wires.
 The positive wire has uniform glow about it, while the negative
conductor has spotty glow.
60 23-Nov-17
 THEORY OF CORONA FORMATION
 Some ionised particles (i.e.,free electrons and +ve ions) and
neutral molecules always present in air
 When a p.d. is applied between the conductors, potential gradient
is set up in the air which will have maximum value at the
conductor surfaces.

 Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing free

electrons acquire greater velocities.

 The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential gradient
and more is the velocity of free electrons.

61 23-Nov-17
 THEORY OF CORONA FORMATION
 When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about
30 kV per cm (max. value), the velocity acquired by the free
electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough
force to dislodge one or more electrons from it.

 This produces another ion and one or more free electrons, which in
turn are accelerated until they collide with other neutral molecules,
thus producing other ions.

 Thus, the process of ionization is cumulative. The result of this

ionization is that either corona is formed or spark takes place
between the conductors

62 23-Nov-17
 FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA
 The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the
atmosphere as well as by the conditions of the line.
 ATMOSPHERE: As corona is formed due to ionization of air
surrounding the conductors, it is affected by the physical state of
the atmosphere.
 In a stormy weather, the number of ions are more than normal and
as such corona occurs at much less voltage.
 CONDUCTOR CONDITION: The corona effect depends
upon the shape and conditions of the conductors.
 The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona
because unevenness of the surface decreases the value of
breakdown voltage. Thus a stranded conductor has irregular surface
and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
63 23-Nov-17
 FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA
 SPACING BETWEEN CONDUCTORS: If the spacing
between the conductors is made very large as compared to their
diameters, there may not be any corona effect.
 It is because larger distance between conductors reduces the electro-
static stresses at the conductor surface, thus avoiding corona
formation.
 LINE VOLTAGE: The line voltage greatly affects corona.
 If it is low, there is no change in the condition of air surrounding the
conductors and hence no corona is formed.
 However, if the line voltage has such a value that electrostatic
stresses developed at the conductor surface make the air around the
conductor conducting, then corona is formed.

64 23-Nov-17
 ADVANTAGES OF CORONA
 In the correct design of a high voltage overhead line, a balance
should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.

 Advantages
 Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor
becomes conducting and hence virtual diameter of the conductor
is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic
stresses between the conductors.

 Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.

65 23-Nov-17
 DISADVANTAGES OF CORONA
 Disadvantage
 Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the
transmission efficiency of the line.

 Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the

conductor due to chemical action.

 The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and

hence non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the line. This may
cause inductive interference with neighbouring communication
lines.

66 23-Nov-17
 REDUCING CORONA EFFECT
By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs
is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced.
 This is one of the reasons that ACSR conductors which have a
larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission lines.

By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage at

which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be
eliminated.
 However, spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost
of supporting structure (e.g., bigger cross arms and supports) may
increase to a considerable extent

67 23-Nov-17
 BONDING
 Bonding is simply the act of joining two electrical conductors
together.

 These may be two wires, a wire and a pipe, or these may be

two
Equipment.

 Bonding has to be done by connecting all the metal parts that are
not supposed to be carrying current during normal operations to
bringing them to the same electrical potential

 No current flow can take place between two bonded bodies

because they have the same potential.
 68
 BONDING
 Bonding, itself, does not protect anything. However, if one of
those boxes is earthed there can be no electrical energy build-up. If
the grounded box is bonded to the other box, the other box is also at
zero electrical potential.

 It protects equipment & Person by reducing current flow between

pieces of equipment at different potentials.

 The primary reason for bonding is personnel safety,

 So someone touching two pieces of equipment at the same time
does not receive a shock by becoming the path of equalization if
they happen to be at different potentials.
 Bonding is there to allow a breaker to trip and thereby to terminate
a fault.
 69
EARTHING CONCEPTS
 Earthing in a EHV Substation
 Providing adequate ‘Earthing’ in a
substation is an important safety measure.
 Earthing means connecting the electrical
equipment to the general mass of earth of
low resistance.
 Objective is to provide under and around
the substation a surface of uniform
potential
-- At near zero or absolute earth potential
2
 Earthing in a EHV Substation
1. Objective:
 The touch and step potential shall be within
limits under all conditions including fault
condition
 Grounding resistance shall be lower.
 Effective earthing system shall aim at
providing protection to life and property
against dangerous potentials under fault
conditions

3
 Earthing System
Points to be earthed in a substation
 The neutral point of each separate system
should have an independent earth, in turn
interconnected with the station grounding mat.
 Equipment frame work and other non-current
parts (two connections)
 All extraneous metallic frame works not
associated with equipment ( two connections)
 Lightning arrestors should have independent
earths, in turn connected to the station
grounding grid.

6
 Earthing System
Points to be earthed-cont’d
 Over head lightning screen shall also be
connected to main ground mat.
 Operating handles of Isolators with a auxiliary
earth mat underneath, if necessary.
 Peripheral fencing
 Buildings inside the switch yard.
 Transformer Neutrals shall be connected
directly to the earth electrode by two
independent MS strips
7
Earthing and grounding -distinction

 Grounding:- connection of current carrying parts

to ground. Ex :Generator or transformer neutral.
 This is for equipment safety.
 In a resistance grounded system it limits the
core damage in stator of rotating machines.
 In solidly grounded system substantial ground
fault current flows enabling fault detection and
faster clearance.

8
Earthing and grounding -distinction


Earthing:- connection of non current
carrying parts to ground. Ex : Metallic
enclosure.
 This is for human safety.
 Earthing system plays no role under
balanced power system conditions.
 Under ground fault conditions, enables
ground fault current to return back to source
without endangering human safety.
9
 Basics of Earthing
Resistivity of earth
Resistivity of earth:-
 Mother earth is a bad conductor.
 Resistivity is normally around 100 ohm – mt.
 GI of 65x10mm section will have same resistance
as copper of 25x4mm section.
 Corresponding figure for earth is 800x800mt
(158acres)
 Metallic conductor is a preferred alternative to
earth to bring the fault current back to source.
10
 Substation Earthing
Soil resistivity
 To design most economically and technically
sound earthing system accurate data of soil
resistivity and its variation with in substation soil
is essential.
 Resistivity of soil in many substations has been
found varying -at times between 1 and 10,000
ohm – meters.
 Variation in soil Resistivity with depth is more
predominant as compared to variation in
horizontal distances.

21
 Substation Earthing
Soil resistivity
Large variations in stratification of earth layers will
result in large variations in earth resistivity.

Highly refined techniques for the determination of

resistivity of homogeneous soil( non – uniform soil)
is available.

As resistivity of soil varies widely based on moisture

content earth resistivity readings to be obtained in
summer or dry season.

Weiner's 4 electrode method is generally adopted for

testing.

22
 Substation Earthing- Soil resistivity
Weiner's 4 electrode method
 Earth resistivity tests shall be carried out at least
in 8 directions
 If results obtained indicate wide variation, test
shall be conducted in more number directions.
 Four electrodes are driven into earth along a
straight line at equal intervals.
 Current is passed through two outer electrodes
and earth.
 Voltage difference is measured between two
inner electrodes.
23
 Substation Earthing
Soil resistivity
 Current flowing through the earth
produces are electric field proportional to
current density and resistivity of soil.
 Voltage measured is proportional to the
ratio of voltage to the current i.e R
ρ= 4sΠR - s
1+ 2s √s²+e²

√s²+4e²
24
 Substation Earthing
Soil resistivity
 Wh e r e
ρ= Resistivity of soil in ohm-meter
s= Distance between two successive electrodes
in meter
R= Ratio of voltage to current or electrode
resistances in ohm
e= depth of burial of electrodes in meters
 In case depth of burial of the electrodes in the
ground (e) is negligible compared to electrodes
spacing. This formula is the adjusted ρ=2ΠsR
(This formula is normally adopted in AP Transco Ltd.)

25
 Earthing System
Permissible resistance of earthing system

 Primary requirements : Impendence to ground

(resistance of earthing system)
 Small substations – 2 Ohms
 EHV substations up to 220 kV– 1 Ohm
 Power stations and 400 kV substations – 0.5 Ohms
 Distribution transformer - 5 Ohms.
 In order to avoid abnormal shift of the neutral
potential, earth resistance of the station earthing
system shall be normally less than or equal to 1ohm.
28
 Substation Earthing
Step and touch potential
 Step potential - Difference in surface
potentials experienced by a man bridging a
distance of 1 mt with his feet, with out
contracting any other grounded object.
 Touch potential- potential difference between
the earth potential raise and the surface
potential at the point where a person is
standing touching an earthed structure.
 Tolerable touch potential of human body is
less than tolerable step potential.

29
 Substation Earthing
Step and touch potential-contd
 In any switch yard, chances of exposure to
‘Touch potential’ is higher than that to ‘step
potential’.
 Resistance offered by the feet of a person
against ‘Touch potential’ is much less
compared to that against ‘Step potential’.
 Hence ‘Touch potential ’ is more critical for
design while Step potential is usually
academic.

30
 REFERENCES
 George Eduful Ceng Miet, Design of Power Delivery System
 Ghana Energy Development & Access Project (GEDAP),ECG
Distribution Design Manual
 Insulators BY: Raviteja Damerla,EEE. Department, B V C
ENGG COLLEGE
 Darya Khan Bhutto, Mechanical Design of Overhead and
Transmission Lines, M.E (Energy systems) (291-17-0010 )
 Jatinder Singh, Underground Power Cables. B.TECH EE-7th
CTIEMT,SHAHPUR,JALANDHAR

70