AEN-88

The Global Positioning System

Tim Stombaugh, Doug McLaren, and Ben Koostra

Introduction cies. The civilian access (C/A) code is transmitted on L1 and is

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is quickly becoming freely available to any user. The precise (P) code is transmitted
part of the fabric of everyday life. Beyond recreational activities on L1 and L2. This code is scrambled and can be used only by
such as boating and backpacking, GPS receivers are becoming a the U.S. military and other authorized users.
very important tool to such industries as agriculture, transporta-
tion, and surveying. Very soon, every cell phone will incorporate Using Triangulation
GPS technology to aid first responders in answering emergency To calculate a position, a GPS receiver uses a principle called
calls. triangulation. Triangulation is a method for determining a posi-
GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system. Users any- tion based on the distance from other points or objects that have
where on the surface of the earth (or in space around the earth) known locations. In the case of GPS, the location of each satellite
with a GPS receiver can determine their geographic position is accurately known. A GPS receiver measures its distance from
in latitude (north-south), longitude (east-west), and elevation. each satellite in view above the horizon.
Latitude and longitude are usually given in units of degrees To illustrate the concept of triangulation, consider one satel-
(sometimes delineated to degrees, minutes, and seconds); eleva- lite that is at a precisely known location (Figure 1). If a GPS
tion is usually given in distance units above a reference such as receiver can determine its distance from that satellite, it will have
mean sea level or the geoid, which is a model of the shape of the narrowed its location to somewhere on a sphere that distance
earth. Because these positions are based on an earth-referenced from the satellite. To further narrow its position, the receiver
coordinate system, the positions are universal and repeatable, will measure its distance from a second satellite. This second
which means you can identify a location with latitude, longitude, distance measurement will place the receiver somewhere on a
and elevation, and anyone should be able to go to that location circle that is the intersection of the two spheres (Figure 1). You
or find it on any map. can visualize this concept by picturing two pieces of string that
Even though GPS is becoming more and more common, the are tied to two known fixed objects. If you hold the ends of those
basis of the technology is still a mystery to most. The purpose two strings together at one point, keeping both strings tight, you
of this publication is to explain in simplified terms how GPS could swing the intersection of those strings through a circle.
works, the different kind of receivers that are available, some of
the limitations of the technology, and some interesting activities
that people can do with GPS receivers.

GPS Basics
GPS was originally designed by the United States Depart-
ment of Defense for military use. It was intended to help locate
and identify troops and equipment as well as provide guidance
signals for tactical weapons such as missiles and smart bombs.
The global positioning system is comprised of 24 satellites Figure 1. Illustration
(plus a few spares) orbiting the earth. The satellites have an of triangulation po-
orbital period of about 12 hours. This means that each satellite sition determination
using one satellite
will circle the earth about twice in a 24-hour period. The satellite (upper left), two sat-
orbits are about 12,500 miles above the earth’s surface. ellites (upper right),
Each GPS satellite transmits radio signals that can be used and three satellites
(bottom).
to compute a position or location. These signals are currently
transmitted on two different radio frequencies: L1 (1575.42
MHz) and L2 (1227.60 MHz). There are two basic codes or
digital information streams that are transmitted on these frequen-
 A distance measurement from a third satellite will reduce than 0.07 seconds to travel from the satellite to the receiver. To
the number of possible locations to one of two points (Figure put this in perspective, consider what would happen if the GPS
1). You can visualize this by considering how the circle we just receiver made an error in computing this transmission time. At
described would intersect a sphere around the third point. The the speed of light, an error of only 0.001 seconds would translate
circle will go into the sphere, which gives one intersection point, to a positional error of 186 miles. Even the least expensive GPS
then comes back out of the sphere at a second intersection point. receivers that can be purchased today will give position accura-
In the case of the GPS system, if we know that we are operating cies to less than 30 feet. This level of precision requires time
somewhere on or near the surface of the earth, one of these two measurements to the tenth decimal place, or more.
points can usually be eliminated because it is not near the earth’s
surface. Therefore, with some assumptions about elevation, a GPS Errors
position can be triangulated using distance measurements from Obviously with such a sophisticated system, many things can
three satellites. A distance from a fourth satellite would allow cause errors in the positional computation and limit the accuracy
complete three-dimensional triangulation of a position. of measurement. These errors include clock errors, ephemeris
Many GPS receivers will actually compute a position with only errors, satellite configuration, atmospheric interference, and
three satellite signals available. Often they will display a message multipath.
such as “2-D GPS Position.” This means that the receiver is only
calculating an actual horizontal position and is making an esti- Clock Errors
mate of the elevation. The elevation estimation is usually based One thing to realize about GPS receivers is that the internal
on a smoothed model of the earth called a geoid that predicts the clocks used to generate the timing information are not nearly
approximate elevation of the surface of the earth at different loca- as accurate as those used on the GPS satellites, nor are they
tions. Position fixes based on this 2-D estimate are not as accurate absolutely synchronized with satellite clocks. This is part of the
as true 3-D positions and should be used with caution. reason that four satellites are needed to achieve a three-dimen-
sional fix. Even though signals from three satellites are all that
Measuring Distance would be necessary to compute a position on the earth’s surface,
How does a GPS receiver measure its distance from a satellite? receivers actually need a signal from a fourth satellite to resolve
The principle used is something that many people commonly do clock ambiguities.
during a thunderstorm. If you can count the number of seconds
between when you see a flash of lightning and when you hear a Ephemeris Errors
clap of thunder, you can determine how far away the lightning Because the satellites are orbiting in gravitational fields,
strike occurred. You see the flash of lightning almost immediately their positions and movements can be known quite accurately.
after it occurs, because light travels very fast. It takes longer for Nevertheless, there still could be some errors in the ephemeris
the sound to get to you because sound travels much more slowly information that is broadcast. There are base stations around
than light. If you know the speed of sound, you can calculate the earth that are constantly monitoring the status of the GPS
how far away the lightning strike was by measuring the time satellites and are updating ephemeris information. Neverthe-
it took for the sound to travel to you. For example, sound will less, ephemeris errors will contribute to inaccuracies in position
travel one mile in approximately 4.5 seconds (depending on the measurement.
air temperature and humidity). If you count approximately nine
seconds between the flash of lightning and the sound of thunder, Satellite Configuration
you know that the lightning strike was about two miles away. Because the satellites are moving relative to the earth, the
GPS receivers use the same principle to measure their distance configuration of the satellite constellation overhead at any point
from a GPS satellite. The satellites send out radio signals that in time can vary significantly. The accuracy of a triangulation
travel at the speed of light—approximately 186,000 miles per computation can be greatly affected by the positions of the satel-
second. The radio signals carry two key pieces of information, lites in the sky. If all the satellites happen to be clumped at one
which are part of the C/A and P codes. First, they transmit their location (Figure 2a), the triangulation computation will not be
ephemeris, which is a set of satellite orbit parameters used to as accurate as if the satellites are spread or distributed evenly
calculate the position and velocity of the satellite. Ephemeris can around the sky (Figure 2b). The configuration of the satellites
be thought of simply as the location of the satellite and is used as at any point in time is quantified by the Dilution of Precision
the reference position for triangulation calculations. GPS satel- (DOP). Smaller DOP values mean better accuracy. A good DOP
lites also transmit an accurate timing signal. Each GPS satellite value would be less than 2. More sophisticated GPS receivers
contains a highly accurate atomic clock that generates a digital will report DOP so that users can make some assessment of
timing signal. GPS receivers compare the timing information how well their position computations may be. Others receivers
transmitted by the satellite to timing information generated by will combine DOP with other parameters to give an estimate of
a clock within the receiver itself to determine the time it took position accuracy. DOP can be predicted with orbital models,
the radio signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver. Since and some users needing utmost precision (survey crews, for
radio waves travel at the speed of light, and the satellite orbits are example) will plan to do field work during the times of the day
about 12,500 miles above the earth, it takes the radio signal less when the satellites will be in the best configuration.

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 buildings and bodies of water. Placing the receiver antenna near
any metallic objects could also increase the chances of multipath.
The user should be careful to scrutinize GPS information when
operating in places where multipath is a potential.

(a.) (b.)

Figure 2. Satellite configurations showing poor (a) and good (b) DOP.

Atmospheric Interference
As radio waves enter the earth’s atmosphere, they can be Figure 4. Multipath errors in GPS transmissions.
bent or refracted much the same way light is refracted when
it passes through a water surface (Figure 3). Their speed can GPS Accuracy
also be altered by the ionosphere. If the radio waves are bent, Just how accurate are GPS positions? The GPS system was
they will have to travel a longer path to get from the satellite designed so that users anywhere on the earth’s surface would
to the receiver. The atmosphere has a greater effect on satel- always be able to see at least four satellites and be able to com-
lites lower on the horizon. Because of this, many receivers will pute their position to within about 100 feet. Most GPS receivers
ignore or mask satellites that are located below a certain angle will track up to 12 satellite signals at the same time if that many
above the horizon. On more sophisticated GPS receivers, this are visible above the horizon. Using multiple satellite signals,
mask angle can be selected by the user. Typical values for a most GPS receivers can compute a position to within at worst
mask angle may range from 8° to 14° above the horizon. The about 30 feet of the absolute known location.
trade-off here is that eliminating satellites low on the horizon Most manufacturers will report at least basic accuracy specifi-
means that there are fewer satellite signals available, and that cations for their GPS receivers. Users should be aware of several
the ones that are available are bunched closer to the top of the general issues regarding GPS accuracy. For one, GPS positions
sky, thereby increasing DOP. tend to drift with time, which means that the accuracy is better
in the short term than in the long term. In other words, if a user
marks a location with a GPS receiver, leaves that location and
actual path then returns to it within approximately 15 minutes, they should
be fairly close to the original point. If they try to return to the
expected path
same point a day later, they may not be as close.
Another key point to realize is that while most GPS receivers
report elevation information, errors in vertical measurements are
two to three times greater than horizontal. Although not always
stated explicitly, the accuracy specifications given by manufac-
turers are usually based on horizontal accuracy only.
One final minor note on accuracy is that, because of GPS
satellite orbit patterns, GPS receivers in general are slightly
more accurate in east-west measurements than in north-south
Figure 3. Atmospheric effects on radio signals. measurements.

Differential GPS
Multipath Errors To achieve higher position accuracy, most GPS receivers uti-
Multipath errors occur when the same radio signal is received lize what is called Differential GPS (DGPS). A DGPS receiver
at two different times. This will happen when the radio signal utilizes information from one or more stationary base-station
bounces off some object. For example, a GPS transmission could GPS receivers at accurately known locations (Figure 5). The
come straight to the receiver and also bounce off a building caus- base-station GPS receiver calculates a position from the satellite
ing the same signal to arrive at the receiver a short time after signals. This position will not be the same as the known loca-
the first (Figure 4). This multipath effect is the same thing that tion, but since the absolute location is known, the error from the
causes ghosting on television broadcasts. Multipath errors can GPS satellite signals can be computed. This error information is
cause significant problems with GPS receivers especially when transmitted to the rover GPS receiver. The rover receiver com-
operating around objects that reflect radio waves such as metal putes positions from the GPS satellites and then improves the
accuracy using the error or differential correction information.

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 )) ) )
) )

Figure 5. Local area (left) and wide area (right) DGPS systems.

Differential Correction Sources

Although they could, most GPS users do not set up their
Cincinnati, OH
own differential correction base station. They usually receive
the differential correction information from another source.
St. Louis, MO
Differential correction sources can be classified as either local Louisville, KY
area or wide area broadcasts (Figure 5). Local area differential
corrections are usually broadcast from land-based radio towers
and are calculated from information collected by a single base double coverage
station. The most common local area differential correction single coverage Hartsville, TN
source is a free service maintained by the United States Coast operational site
Guard. These Coast Guard beacons are generally located near planned site
Dandridge, TN
major navigable bodies of water. In Kentucky, there are Coast
Memphis, TN
Guard beacons located along the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers
giving good coverage in the western and north central parts of
Hackleburg, AL
the state (Figure 6).
Wide area differential corrections are broadcast from geosta- Figure 6. United States Coast Guard DGPS correction coverage in
tionary satellites and are based on a network of GPS base stations Kentucky.
spread throughout the intended coverage area. A common source
for different corrections used by many low-cost GPS receivers
is the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS). WAAS is a Receiver Classifications
satellite-based differential correction system that was maintained GPS receiver technology can be divided into four broad clas-
by the Federal Aviation Administration. There are other satel- sifications (Table 1). Low-cost GPS receivers include receivers
lite-based differential correction systems available in the United that are commonly purchased at department stores or sporting
States. Many of these services charge an annual fee to receive goods stores or through many Internet suppliers for recreational
the differential correction information. Examples of the systems use. They could also include some dedicated receivers that are
include Omnistar, Racal, and Starfire. intended to be connected to a laptop computer or handheld com-
Another option for obtaining differentially corrected positions puters called Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs). These receivers
is to post-process the data. Instead of receiving the differential typically cost less than $500 and will give position accuracies
correction information in real time, users will collect only GPS somewhere between 3 and 15 feet. They almost exclusively use
information in the field. Then they obtain the differential correc- the WAAS differential correction service. This is because the
tion data from a base station and combine it with their field data WAAS differential correction signal is broadcast on the same
using proper software to correct the positions. While the obvi- radio frequency as the GPS signals; therefore, the receivers do
ous disadvantage of post-processed DGPS data is that the user not need a separate antenna tuned to a different frequency to
cannot perform real-time tasks in the field with the receiver, the receive the correction signals.
corrections can be more accurate than real-time systems. Post- Sub-meter GPS receivers will give reliable position accura-
processing is commonly used for data collection and mapping cies to within 3 feet. They could use a variety of local area or
functions. wide area differential correction services. Naturally, they are
more expensive, but the increased accuracy lends them to more
applications.

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Table 1. Classification of GPS receivers. Suggested GPS Activities
Low-Cost Sub-Meter Decimeter RTK* Given the range of GPS equipment that is available, the uses
Cost $100-300 $1K – 4K $5K-10K > $25K for the technology are limited only by the user’s imagination.
Accuracy 3-15 ft. < 3 ft. < 6 in. < 1 in. Here are some ideas of simple things you can do with a handheld
Diff. correction WAAS Various Omistar HP, Your Own GPS receiver.
Starfire II
One of the most basic things that a GPS receiver can do is
* RTK = Real time kinematic (RTK) receivers.
to record specific locations, which are often called waypoints.
Waypoints are latitude, longitude, and possibly elevation co-
ordinates of points of interest. Boaters and anglers often use
A relatively new class of receivers provides position accura- waypoints to record the location of fishing hotspots or their
cies to the “decimeter” (4-inch) level. These receivers must make origin slip or launch ramp. Hikers and backpackers often record
use of select subscription-based wide area differential correction trailhead or base camp locations so they can always find their
services such as Omnistar HP and Starfire II. The hardware will starting location. Amateur and professional photographers use
obviously be more expensive than sub-meter receivers, and an- GPS technology to record the location of individual or groups
nual subscription fees for the differential corrections typically of pictures that they have taken. Waypoints can be transferred
range between $800 and $1,500 per annual license. to and from GPS receivers either manually or electronically.
Real time kinematic (RTK) GPS receivers are the most ex- Most handheld GPS receivers will help you navigate to way-
pensive and most accurate class of GPS receivers. Some RTK points by telling you what direction to travel and how far it is
receivers can give position accuracies to within 1/2 inch, mak- to the destination. Many will also estimate your time of arrival
ing them useful even for surveying. To achieve that accuracy, based on your travel speed. Handheld GPS receivers with more
users must create their own differential correction signal with a sophisticated mapping data will even route to destinations by
base-station receiver and radio link. In general, the user cannot roads and trails, telling you when and where to turn. As you
be more than a couple of miles from the base station to achieve travel, most receivers will record your trip statistics such as
the highest accuracy levels. There are efforts under way to create distance traveled, travel time, average speed, etc.
local area RTK networks, but these are currently confined to a GPS receivers can give a new twist to an old game. For ex-
few select states and are generally focused toward metropolitan ample, GPS technology has revolutionized the game of scavenger
areas. hunts. Again, we use the basic concept of latitude and longitude
locating points and then turn it into a game. The game master
GPS Interfacing will set out the objects to be found or formulate questions to be
One of the useful things about GPS receivers is that many answered at certain locations. Many scavenger hunts that use
can be connected to other electronic devices. For example, many GPS technology will use a theme of the event such as popular
low-cost GPS receivers with mapping capabilities can be con- movie titles or even a school sports or class activity. Those
nected to a computer to transfer maps, routes, and waypoints to looking for the objects will be given the latitude and longitude
and from the receiver. They can also be connected to portable along with any additional clues needed to find the object. After
computers or PDAs with specialized software to do real-time setting the correct latitude and longitude coordinates into their
navigation and data collection. Different receivers may have dif- individual GPS units, they are off on the hunt.
ferent communication ports available including serial ports, USB, There is an official and very popular GPS scavenger hunt
CAN (Controller Area Network common on new agricultural established on the Internet called “geocaching” (www.geocach-
machinery), and Bluetooth wireless. Others can be connected ing.com). “Cache” refers to hidden items, and “geo” refers to
directly to a Compact Flash, PCMCIA, or SDRAM slot in a the geography involved in their locations. The Web site lists
laptop or a PDA. locations of geocaches that anyone can search for. Only a few
years after the Internet site was established, thousands upon
GPS Modernization thousands of geocaches have been registered in more than 200
GPS is a very active and dynamic system. Over the next countries. There are many different types of geocaches, but the
several years, the system will undergo a series of updates and most popular is a container filled with trinkets and a log sheet.
improvements called GPS modernization. These improvements Finders will typically sign the sheet, take something from the
will include the addition of a new C/A code broadcast on L2 and cache, and leave something else in it. Once you have become
the addition of third broadcast frequency (L5) at 1176.45 MHz, a master at locating these sites, you can become registered and
which will also carry a C/A code. Many of these improvements then set up hidden caches for others to find.
are intended to add robustness and redundancy to the system Many receivers will also perform distance and area computa-
so it can be used for commercial aircraft navigation, but it will tions. If you record two waypoints, your GPS unit will calculate
likely mean increased accuracy and functionality to receivers the straight line distance between those two points. By setting
available to the general public. a series of waypoints, you can determine the total or segmented
distances of a complex path such as a race course that was
run on a series of streets or a sailboat race that passed around
several buoys or floating markers. Some receivers will even
compute areas within boundaries created either by connecting

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waypoints around the boundary or by traversing the boundary This list of ideas only begins to scratch the surface of the
with the receiver. This feature is particularly useful to farmers potential for GPS technologies. In fact, there are entire publica-
for measuring the acreage in their fields. tions dedicated to GPS information and innovative uses of all
Teachers in middle and high schools are finding new ways to levels of GPS technology (gpsworld.com, for example).
incorporate handheld GPS technologies into educational activi- Like many other new technologies, GPS is continually chang-
ties. Now math can be taught with a practical hands-on approach. ing with upgrades to the satellite infrastructure as well as im-
Using the tracking and waypoint options of GPS, students can proved receiver devices. The fundamental concepts of how GPS
calculate and verify measurements of distance, direction, and works have not changed, but new technologies will allow users
area. This is a great way to learn the old fundamentals of trigo- to utilize GPS for many innovative applications. Using GPS, we
nometry and geometry with exciting new technologies. have the ability to improve safety and security, develop more
efficient transportation systems, improve agricultural production,
and impact many other areas that affect our everyday lives.

Educational programs of Kentucky Cooperative Extension serve all people regardless of race, color, age, sex, religion, disability, or national origin. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of
May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, M. Scott Smith, Director of Cooperative Extension Service, University of Kentucky College of Agriculture, Lexington, and Ken-
tucky State University, Frankfort. Copyright © 2005 for materials developed by University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension. This publication may be reproduced in portions or its entirety for educational or
nonprofit purposes only. Permitted users shall give credit to the author(s) and include this copyright notice. Publications are also available on the World Wide Web at www.ca.uky.edu.
Issued 8-2005