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with Microgrid Applications
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Anjan Bose Saeid Nahavandi Ahmet Murat Tekalp
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Peter (Yong) Lian Thomas Robertazzi
with Microgrid Applications
Arindam Ghosh PhD

Curtin University
Australia
Firuz Zare PhD

Queensland University of Technology
Australia
IEEE Press Series on Power and Energy Systems

Ganesh Kumar Venayagamoorthy, Series Editor
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Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

Dedicated to my wife, Supriya, and my son, Aviroop, and in loving memory of
my parents.
Arindam Ghosh
Dedicated to my lovely family, my wife, Leila, and my son, Farzan.

Firuz Zare
vii
Contents
Author Biographies xv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to Power Electronics 4
1.2 Power Converter Modes of Operation 7
1.3 Power Converter Topologies 9
1.4 Harmonics and Filters 10
1.5 Power Converter Operating Conditions, Modelling, and Control 12
1.6 Control of Power Electronic Systems 14
1.6.1 Open-loop Versus Closed-loop Control 14
1.6.2 Nonlinear Systems 16
1.6.3 Piecewise Linear Systems 17
1.7 Power Distribution Systems 18
1.8 Concluding Remarks 20
References 20
2 Analysis of AC Signals 23
2.1 Symmetrical Components 24
2.1.1 Voltage Unbalanced Factor (VUF) 25
2.1.2 Real and Reactive Power 26
2.2 Instantaneous Symmetrical Components 27
2.2.1 Estimating Symmetrical Components from Instantaneous
Measurements 29
2.2.2 Instantaneous Real and Reactive Power 34
2.3 Harmonics 37
2.4 Clarke and Park Transforms 39
2.4.1 Clarke Transform 39
2.4.2 Park Transform 40
2.4.3 Real and Reactive Power 41
viii Contents
2.4.4 Analyzing a Three-phase Circuit 43

2.4.5 Relation Between Clarke and Park Transforms 45
2.5 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 46
2.5.1 Three-phase PLL System 47
2.5.2 PLL for Unbalanced System 50
2.5.3 Frequency Estimation of Balanced Signal Using αβ Components 52
Problems 54
Notes and References 56
3 Review of SISO Control Systems 59

3.1 Transfer Function and Time Response 60
3.1.1 Steady State Error and DC Gain 60
3.1.2 System Damping and Stability 62
3.1.3 Shaping a Second-order Response 63
3.1.4 Step Response of First- and Higher-order Systems 65
3.2 Routh–Hurwitz’s Stability Test 66
3.3 Root Locus 69
3.3.1 Number of Branches and Terminal Points 70
3.3.2 Real Axis Locus 71
3.3.3 Breakaway and Break-in Points 73
3.4 PID Control 76
3.4.1 PI Controller 77
3.4.2 PD Controller 78
3.4.3 Tuning of PID Controllers 81
3.5 Frequency Response Methods 83
3.5.1 Bode Plot 85
3.5.2 Nyquist (Polar) Plot 89
3.5.3 Nyquist Stability Criterion 91
3.6 Relative Stability 95
3.6.1 Phase and Gain Margins 95
3.6.2 Bandwidth 101
3.7 Compensator Design 104
3.7.1 Lead Compensator 104
3.7.2 Lag Compensator 108
3.7.3 Lead–lag Compensator 108
3.8 Discrete-time Control 110
3.8.1 Discrete-time Representation 110
3.8.2 The z-transform 111
3.8.3 Transformation from Continuous Time to Discrete Time 112
3.8.4 Mapping s-Plane into z-Plane 112
Contents ix
3.8.5 Difference Equation and Transfer Function 113

3.8.6 Digital PID Control 115
Problems 116
4 Power Electronic Control Design Challenges 123

4.1 Analysis of Buck Converter 123
4.1.1 Designing a Buck Converter 126
4.1.2 The Need for a Controller 128
4.1.3 Dynamic State of a Power Converter 133
4.1.4 Averaging Method 133
4.1.5 Small Signal Model of Buck Converter 135
4.1.6 Transfer Function of Buck Converter 136
4.1.7 Control of Buck Converter 136
4.2 Transfer Function of Boost Converter 140
4.2.1 Control of Boost Converter 141
4.2.2 Two-loop Control of Boost Converter 144
4.2.3 Some Practical Issues 150
Problems 151
5 State Space Analysis and Design 153

5.1 State Space Representation of Linear Systems 154
5.1.1 Continuous-time Systems 154
5.1.2 Discrete-time Systems 155
5.2 Solution of State Equation of a Continuous-time System 156
5.2.1 State Transition Matrix 156
5.2.2 Properties of State Transition Matrix 158
5.2.3 State Transition Equation 159
5.3 Solution of State Equation of a Discrete-time System 160
5.3.1 State Transition Matrix 161
5.3.2 Computation of State Transition Matrix 161
5.3.3 Discretization of a Continuous-time System 162
5.4 Relation Between State Space Form and Transfer Function 164
5.4.1 Continuous-time System 164
5.4.2 Discrete-time System 166
5.5 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 167
5.5.1 Eigenvalues 167
5.5.2 Eigenvectors 168
x Contents
5.6 Diagonalization of a Matrix Using Similarity Transform 170

5.6.1 Matrix with Distinct Eigenvalues 170
5.6.2 Matrix with Repeated Eigenvalues 173
5.7 Controllability of LTI Systems 174
5.7.1 Implication of Cayley–Hamilton Theorem 176
5.7.2 Controllability Test Condition 176
5.8 Observability of LTI Systems 178
5.9 Pole Placement Through State Feedback 180
5.9.1 Pole Placement with Integral Action 183
5.9.2 Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR) 185
5.9.3 Discrete-time State Feedback with Integral Control 187
5.10 Observer Design (Full Order) 187
5.10.1 Separation Principle 188
5.11 Control of DC-DC Converter 190
5.11.1 Steady State Calculation 192
5.11.2 Linearized Model of a Boost Converter 195
5.11.3 State Feedback Control of a Boost Converter 196
Problems 201
6 Discrete-time Control 207

6.1 Minimum Variance (MV) Prediction and Control 208
6.1.1 Discrete-time Models for SISO Systems 208
6.1.2 MV Prediction 209
6.1.3 MV Control Law 212
6.1.4 One-step-ahead Control 214
6.2 Pole Placement Controller 218
6.2.1 Pole Shift Control 222
6.3 Generalized Predictive Control (GPC) 225
6.3.1 Simplified GPC Computation 233
6.4 Adaptive Control 234
6.5 Least-squares Estimation 235
6.5.1 Matrix Inversion Lemma 237
6.5.2 Recursive Least-squares (RLS) Identification 238
6.5.3 Bias and Consistency 242
6.6 Self-tuning Controller 244
6.6.1 MV Self-tuning Control 244
6.6.2 Pole Shift Self-tuning Control 248
6.6.3 Self-tuning Control of Boost Converter 249
Problems 253
Contents xi
7 DC-AC Converter Modulation Techniques 257

7.1 Single-phase Bridge Converter 258
7.1.1 Hysteresis Current Control 259
7.1.2 Bipolar Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) 263
7.1.3 Unipolar Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation 265
7.2 SPWM of Three-phase Bridge Converter 267
7.3 Space Vector Modulation (SVM) 271
7.3.1 Calculation of Space Vectors 272
7.3.2 Common Mode Voltage 273
7.3.3 Timing Calculations 274
7.3.4 An Alternate Method for Timing Calculations 277
7.3.5 Sequencing of Space Vectors 279
7.4 SPWM with Third Harmonic Injection 282
7.5 Multilevel Converters 285
7.5.1 Diode-clamped Multilevel Converter 290
7.5.2 Switching States of Diode-clamped Multilevel Converters 291
7.5.3 Flying Capacitor Multilevel Converter 295
7.5.4 Cascaded Multilevel Converter 302
7.5.5 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC) 302
7.5.6 PWM of Multilevel Converters 303
Problems 307
8 Control of DC-AC Converters 311

8.1 Filter Structure and Design 311
8.1.1 Filter Design 313
8.1.2 Filter with Passive Damping 315
8.2 State Feedback Based PWM Voltage Control 315
8.2.1 HPF-based Control Design 318
8.2.2 Observer-based Current Estimation 321
8.3 State Feedback Based SVPWM Voltage Control 323
8.4 Sliding Mode Control 324
8.4.1 Sliding Mode Voltage Control 326
8.5 State Feedback Current Control 330
8.6 Output Feedback Current Control 333
Problems 337
9 VSC Applications in Custom Power 341

9.1 DSTATCOM in Voltage Control Mode 342
9.1.1 Discrete-time PWM State Feedback Control 346
xii Contents
9.1.2 Discrete-time Output Feedback PWM Control 348

9.1.3 Voltage Control Using Four-leg Converter 351
9.1.4 The Effect of System Frequency 353
9.1.5 Power Factor Correction 357
9.2 Load Compensation 360
9.2.1 Classical Load Compensation Technique 360
9.2.2 Load Compensation Using VSC 363
9.3 Other Custom Power Devices 367
Problems 370
10 Microgrids 377
10.1 Operating Modes of a Converter 380
10.2 Grid Forming Converters 381
10.2.1 PI Control in dq-domain 382
10.2.2 State Feedback Control in dq-domain 385
10.3 Grid Feeding Converters 389
10.4 Grid Supporting Converters for Islanded Operation of Microgrids 392
10.4.1 Active and Reactive Over a Feeder 393
10.4.2 Inductive Grid 394
10.4.3 Resistive Grid 398
10.4.4 Consideration of Line Impedances 400
10.4.5 Virtual Impedance 402
10.4.6 Inclusion of Nondispatchable Sources 405
10.4.7 Angle Droop Control 406
10.5 Grid-connected Operation of Microgrid 411
10.6 DC Microgrids 415
10.6.1 P-V Droop Control 417
10.6.2 The Effect of Line Resistances 419
10.6.3 I-V Droop Control 421
10.6.4 DCMG Operation with DC-DC Converters 423
10.7 Integrated AC-DC System 424
10.7.1 Dual Active Bridge (DAB) 425
10.7.2 AC Utility Connected DCMG 429
10.8 Control Hierarchies of Microgrids 430
10.8.1 Primary Control 430
10.8.2 Secondary Control 432
10.8.3 Tertiary Control 433
10.9 Smart Distribution Networks: Networked Microgrids 434
10.9.1 Interconnection of Networked Microgrids 435
Contents xiii
10.10 Microgrids in Cluster 439

10.10.1 The Concept of Power Exchange Highway (PEH) 442
10.10.2 Operation of DC Power Exchange Highway (DC-PEH) 444
10.10.3 Overload Detection and Surplus Power Calculation 445
10.10.4 Operation of DC-PEH 447
10.10.5 Dynamic Droop Gain Selection 448
Problems 457
11 Harmonics in Electrical and Electronic Systems 465

11.1 Harmonics and Interharmonics 465
11.1.1 High-frequency Harmonics (2–150 kHz) 467
11.1.2 EMI in the Frequency Range of 150 kHz–30 MHz 468
11.1.3 Common Mode and Differential Mode Harmonics and
Noises 469
11.1.4 Stiff and Weak Grids 470
11.2 Power Quality Factors and Definitions 471
11.2.1 Harmonic Distortion 471
11.2.2 Power and Displacement Factors 473
11.3 Harmonics Generated by Power Electronics in Power Systems 474
11.3.1 Harmonic Analysis at a Load Side (a Three-phase Inverter) 477
11.3.2 Harmonic Analysis at a Grid Side (a Three-phase Rectifier) 479
11.3.3 Harmonic Analysis at Grid Side (Single-phase Rectifier with and
without PF Correction System) 484
11.3.4 Harmonic Analysis at Grid Side (AFE) 488
11.4 Power Quality Regulations and Standards 491
11.4.1 IEEE Standards 491
11.4.2 IEEE 519 491
11.4.3 IEEE 1547 494
11.4.4 IEEE 1662-2008 494
11.4.5 IEEE 1826-2012 495
11.4.6 IEEE 1709-2010 496
11.4.7 IEC Standards 497
Index 501
xv
Author Biographies
Arindam Ghosh
Arindam Ghosh is a Research Academic
Professor at Curtin University, Perth,
Australia. He obtained his PhD from the
University of Calgary, Canada. He was with
the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
from 1985 to 2006 and a Research Capacity
Building Professor at Queensland Univer-
sity of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
from 2006 to 2013. He was a Fulbright
Scholar in 2003. He is a Fellow of the
Indian National Academy of Engineering:
INAE (2005) and a Fellow of the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: IEEE (2006). He was conferred the IEEE
PES Nari Hingorani Custom Power Award in 2019. He has published over 450 peer
reviewed journal and conference articles and has authored 2 books.
Firuz Zare
Professor Firuz Zare is a Fellow of the
IEEE and Head of the School of Electrical
Engineering and Robotics at Queensland
University of Technology in Australia.
He has over 20 years of experience in aca-
demia, industry, and international stand-
ardization committees, including eight
years in two large R&D centers working
on grid-connected inverters, energy
conversion systems, and power quality
projects. He has been a very active member
and leader in IEC, Danish, and Australian
standardization committees and has been
xvi Author Biographies
a Task Force Leader (International Project Manager) of Active Infeed Converters

to develop the first international standard IEC 61000-3-16 within the IEC stand-
ardization SC77A. Professor Zare has received several awards, such as an Austral-
ian Future Fellowship, John Madsen Medal, Symposium Fellowship, and early
career excellence research award. He was awarded a technology leadership pro-
gram by the Danish Innovation Council to attend a one-year leadership program
delivered by Harvard Business School in Boston, USA in 2015. Professor Zare is a
Senior Editor of the IEEE Access journal, a Guest Editor and Associate Editor of the
IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics, and an Editorial
board member of several international journals.
xvii
Preface
Power converter applications in power systems have a long history. One of the first
installations of high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission systems was on
the Swedish island of Gotland in 1954. Mercury arc valves were used in the project.
These were replaced by thyristor valves in 1967. Since then, other thyristor-based
devices like the static var compensator (SVC), the thyristor-controlled series com-
pensator (TCSC), etc., started finding applications in power transmission systems.
However, with the advance of insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) technology,
voltage source converters (VSCs) have started gaining prominence in power sys-
tem applications. Currently, several VSC-based devices have been used in power
transmission applications, such as in VSC-HVDC, flexible alternating current
transmission systems (FACTS) devices, etc. At the same time, VSC applications
in power distribution systems have been gaining prominence in custom power
technologies and in microgrids.
With increased concerns about climate change, there has been an increased
application of power electronic converters in power systems and an increase in
the use of solar photovoltaic (PV) or wind power generation. Since these renewable
generators are intermittent in nature, energy storage devices (predominantly bat-
tery energy storages) are being used for both storing energy and smoothing power
fluctuations. Since VSCs generate harmonics, they are equipped with output pas-
sive filters. These filters can cause resonance with the rest of the system. Therefore,
the control of power electronic devices has gained prominence in recent times.
A very large number of publications have appeared in different IEEE Transactions
about converter controls and their usages.
The concept of a microgrid has gained much attention in recent times. Micro-
grids are small power systems that have distributed generators (DGs), battery stor-
age units, and customer loads located in close proximity. They can either be
connected to the utility grids or be operated independently in an autonomous
mode. They can provide fuel diversity and can increase the reliability and
xviii Preface
resilience of power delivery systems. Microgrids have been installed in commu-

nities, university campuses, hospitals, manufacturing sites, as well as in military
installations. Moreover, remote area microgrids have the potential of providing
reliable power to locations that are far away from power lines. Even though small
or medium-sized diesel or gas-fired generators can be used in a microgrid, power-
converter-interfaced generators are most prevalent as they interconnect renewable
generators and battery storages. Therefore, power converter control is a very crit-
ical issue for microgrid applications as well.
The aim of this book is twofold: to review the control theories used for smart
power converter control and to review the applications of these control concepts
in power electronic converters used in power distribution systems. A voltage
source converter can have several different control aspects that depend on its
application. However, the basic principles are somewhat common. Therefore, a
systematic approach has been taken for the application-specific converter control
design in the book.
Three chapters in the book cover control theory. Most of the materials that are
presented in these chapters can be used for a senior level undergraduate course or
a junior level graduate course. There are several worked examples and design tips
that can be used in MATLAB®, a product of MathWorks. The advantage of using
MATLAB® is that complex control algorithms can easily be tested and verified
using this software. In this book, MATLAB® has also been used for power con-
verter controller design, while the design concepts have been verified through
the Manitoba HVDC Research Center’s EMTDC/PSCAD simulation package.
The book is organized in 11 chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the book. This chap-
ter presents a basic introduction to power electronic components and power con-
verter modes of operation and topologies. The need for harmonic filtering is also
discussed briefly. Since most of the power converters can be modeled as piece-wise
linear circuits, they need be linearized for feedback control design. This is also dis-
cussed in this chapter.
The methods of analysis of AC signals are presented in Chapter 2. Topics such as
symmetrical components (phasor and instantaneous), Clarke and Park trans-
forms, and the principle and use of phase locked loop (PLL) are covered in this
chapter.
Chapter 3 provides an in-depth review of the classical control for single-input,
single-output (SISO) systems. Since most classical control analysis and design
approaches are similar for both continuous-time and discrete-time systems, more
focus has been given to continuous-time systems in the book. Topics such as
Routh–Hurwitz’s criterion, root locus, frequency response methods, Nyquist sta-
bility criterion, relative stability, compensator design, and the PID controller and
its tuning are covered along with several numerical examples. At the end of the
chapter, discrete-time representation and z-transform are discussed.
Preface xix
Power converter control design in classical domain is discussed in Chapter 4.

Specifically, DC-DC converters, such as buck and boost converters, are analyzed
in detail. The process of deriving models of these converters using averaging meth-
ods and then designing classical controllers using these linearized models are
explained. It also shows that a simple output voltage control is not sufficient for
a boost converter since it has a right-half s-plane zero. A two-loop control design
is also presented.
State space analysis and control design in both continuous- and discrete-time
domains are presented in Chapter 5. Different topics such as the representation
of a SISO system in state space domain, solutions of state equations, eigenvalues,
and eigenvectors are covered in this chapter. Also, modal analysis using diagona-
lization, controllability, and observability are discussed. A state feedback control
design using pole placement and a linear quadratic regulator is explained. The
process of eliminating any steady state error using an integral control action is also
described. At the end of the chapter, the process of deriving a DC-DC boost con-
verter model using state space averaging as well as designing a controller that has a
much superior performance are demonstrated.
Chapter 6 discusses control system design in the discrete-time domain, where
prediction-based controllers are explained. Topics that are covered in this chapter
include minimum variance prediction and control, pole placement in the polyno-
mial domain, generalized predictive control, and self-tuning adaptive control that
combines recursive parameter estimation with control design. A numerical exam-
ple of the self-tuning control of a boost converter is also presented.
The open-loop control of DC-AC converters is covered in Chapter 7, where hys-
teretic current control and sinusoidal pulse with modulation (SPWM) for both
bipolar and unipolar modulations are discussed. The concept of space vectors
and space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) are also presented in this
chapter. It also discusses how the performance of SPWM can be improved through
a third harmonic injection. Different multilevel converters – such as diode-
clamped, flying capacitor, cascaded, and modular – are also discussed in this chap-
ter, along with the SPWM methods that can be used in multilevel converter output
voltage modulation.
Chapter 8 presents several techniques of closed-loop control of DC-AC conver-
ters, and discusses both voltage and current controllers. To eliminate the harmo-
nics generated by voltage source converters, they are equipped by output passive
LC or LCL filters. First, a typical filter design principle is discussed. This is followed
by a discussion of the state feedback based PWM and SVPWM voltage control of
VSCs and sliding mode voltage control. Current control, using both state feedback
and output feedback, is also discussed.
Power conditioning devices that are used for power quality improvements in
power distribution networks use DC-AC converters that need to be controlled
xx Preface
in some specific manner to achieve their goals. Such devices are discussed in
Chapter 9, where, in particular, the structure and operating principles of a distri-
bution static compensator (DSTATCOM) are presented. The chapter demonstrates
that this device can be used for both voltage control, where a distribution bus volt-
age can be controlled against the load harmonics and unbalance, and for current
control for load compensation. The associated converter control method is also
presented.
Chapter 10 discusses microgrids. Both DC and AC microgrids are considered.
The primary control applications in these microgrids are in the form of droop con-
trollers, which are covered in detail in this chapter. Examples of different converter
control principles that can be used for renewable energy integration are included
in this chapter as well as the evolving smart power distribution systems that may
contain several microgrids. Some of the possible connection and operating princi-
ples of microgrid networks are discussed. Specifically, the power exchange
between the connected microgrid through a dedicated feeder is discussed in detail.
With the increased usage of power converters in power systems, higher-
frequency harmonics have been causing concerns for the operational health of
power components and appliances. In Chapter 11, some of the aspects of harmonic
analysis and the harmonic propagation aspects in distribution system are high-
lighted. Furthermore, the standards that are evolving to tackle the harmonic prob-
lem are also presented.
Arindam Ghosh
Firuz Zare
xxi
Acknowledgments
I thank two of my best friends and collaborators – Professor Gerard Ledwich and
Professor Avinash Joshi – for the many hours of discussions that I have had with
them over the last three decades. Many concepts in this book have been formu-
lated or clarified through such discussions. The book is also a product of my
long-time friendship and collaboration with Firuz and the enthusiasm that we
both have about the applications of power electronics in power systems. I also
thank Professor Saikat Chakrabarti for being a source of encouragement and sup-
port over the last ten years.
I have been very blessed to have some outstanding PhD students. The critical
discussions that I have had with them have enriched my knowledge in the diverse
areas covered in this book. In particular, I thank Professor Mahesh Mishra,
Professor Rajesh Gupta, Professor Anshuman Shukla, Dr Amit Jindal, Dr Ritwik
Majumder, Dr Manjula Dewadasa, Dr Alireza Nami, Associate Professor Pooya
Davari, Dr Megha Goyal, Dr Ehsan Pashajavid, Dr Amit Datta, and Dr Blessy John
for helping to clarify doubts and for their contributions in the formulation of sev-
eral concepts that have been included in the book.
I thank my wife, Supriya, for carefully proofreading the entire manuscript and
my son, Aviroop, for making critical comments about several technical elements
in the book. I also thank them for providing me with mental and moral support
during the stressful times in the process of writing this book.
Arindam Ghosh
I know many people in industry, academia and standardization committees who

have contributed to the development and the creation of knowledge in power elec-
tronics, harmonics, and power quality standards. I would like to start by thanking
my PhD supervisor and colleague Professor Gerard Ledwich for his advice and
contribution during my PhD program and later as a collaborator. I have known
Professor Frede Blaabjerg since 2001 when I moved to Denmark. I would like
to thank him for his contribution and technical discussions on several joint
projects.
xxii Acknowledgments
Many thanks to my post-docs and PhD students. We have worked together

on different topics and industry-based projects. In particular, I would like to
thank to Dr Alireza Nami, Dr Jafar Adabi, Dr Pooya Davari, Dr Jalil Yaghoobi,
Dr Abdulrahman Alduraibi, Dr Davood Solati Alkaran, Dr Hamid Soltani,
Mr. Arash Moradi, Mr. Amir Ganjavi, and Mr. Kiarash Gharani Khajeh for their
contribution and development of new ideas on multil-level converters, grid-
connected inverters, harmonics, and electromagnetic interferences.
It was a great opportunity to work in two large R&D centers in Denmark. Many
thanks to my colleagues at the Danfoss and Grundfos companies where we worked
on different challenging electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) and harmonic miti-
gations for low- and high-power converters. My special thanks to Dr Dinesh
Kumar at Danfoss: we have had interesting technical discussions on many pro-
jects, product developments, and proof of concepts.
I would like to thank my professional colleagues and technical experts on IEC,
Danish, and Australian standardization committees. We have been working on the
development and maintenance of several standards and compatibility levels
since 2013.
Finally, I would like to thank Professor Arindam Ghosh, my mentor, colleague,
and friend whom I have known since 1999 when I was a PhD student at QUT. He
has inspired and helped me with generous support and advice at several stages of
my career with unforgettable memories on many joint projects, and professional
and social activities. It has been an honor working with him and contributing to
the preparation of this book.
Firuz Zare
1
Introduction
Power electronic converters are used in myriad applications. Some of these are
adjustable speed motor drive systems, high-voltage direct current (HVDC) power
transmission, flexible alternating current transmission systems (FACTS), power
conditioning custom power devices, and microgrids. Several power electronic
installations use traditional thyristor-based naturally commutated power conver-
ters, which have been in use for over half a century. However, with the advent of
high-power insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), voltage source converters
(VSCs) have become increasingly popular in almost all the applications mentioned
above.
With the present-day concerns about climate change and its effects on the well-
being of all living creatures of our planet, an increased amount of renewable
energy sources has been integrated with modern power systems. Traditionally,
power is generated through large turbo alternators that are rotated at a fixed
speed. Note that the system frequency is directly related to the generator speed
(n = 120 f/P, n is the generator speed in rpm, f is the frequency in Hz, and P is
the number of poles). Usually, these turbogenerators have large inertia that help
in maintaining synchronism during faults or transient disturbances. Renewable
generators, on the other hand, provide low inertia and are often integrated through
power electronic converters and therefore cannot maintain system frequency. Spe-
cial control strategies are therefore adopted for the integration of renewable
generators.
Renewable energy, as the name signifies, is a form of energy that is replenished
constantly. For example, our sun is an abundant source of energy, and it shines
throughout the year in all parts of the world. Similarly, wind blows all the time,
while its speed depends on the time of day and the terrain. These two are the most
prominent types of renewable energy that are used for electricity generation. An
excellent resource for renewable energy is the book by Masters [1].
Control of Power Electronic Converters with Microgrid Applications, First Edition.

Arindam Ghosh and Firuz Zare.
© 2023 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2 1 Introduction
The other forms of renewable energy sources are water (e.g. hydro, wave, and
tidal), geothermal, etc. Out of these, hydro and geothermal plants are location
dependent. Hydropower is the production of electrical power using the gravita-
tional force of falling or flowing water, where electricity is produced by placing
a turbine generator in the path of the flowing water. For this, catchment areas,
water heights, and a continuous flow of water are required. Usually, hydro plants
are placed in mountainous terrains. Hydropower is the most common form of
renewable energy, which accounts for about 16% of the world’s electricity gener-
ation. The total installed capacity of hydropower in 2020 is 1330 GW [2].
A powerful form of natural energy is generated by the gravitation of the moon
and the sun, which causes low and high tides almost twice per day. The movement
of the rising and falling sea level alters the potential energy of water that can be
converted into electricity by the operation of a power plant. To use this energy, a
dam wall is created to enclose a certain amount of seawater in an artificial bay
serving the purpose of a reservoir, just like a hydropower plant. When the tide
rises, the water enters the reservoir through a turbine which produces electric
energy until the seawater inside the reservoir is almost as high as the outside water
level. At low tide, the reverse process occurs and the water inside the reservoir exits
into the sea through the turbine. Note that these two separate processes are not
continuous as there is a pause of about two hours between these two. The tidal
power has tremendous potential; however, it is still in the experimental stage of
development due to the excessive cost involved. Other forms of waterpower that
are also in the experimental stage are ocean current and wave power plants.
Geothermal energy comes from the core of our earth. The center of the earth is
6400 km below the surface. Since the temperature there is about 4200 C, it is hot
enough to melt rock into magma. The molten rock forms the outer core. The heat
from the core rises to the earth’s mantle, which is the layer that surrounds the core.
It is this energy that powers volcanoes, geysers, and hot springs. In a geothermal
plant, water is pumped into the earth’s mantle and the resultant steam that rises is
used for electricity generation using steam turbines. Geothermal plants, however,
have a finite lifetime. The energy production ceases when the mantle at the loca-
tion of the plant cools down due to the continuous extraction of heat energy.
There are two possible ways of generating solar power: through photovoltaic
(PV) array and through concentrated solar power (CSP), which is also known
as solar thermal power. In CSP, power is generated using mirrors and lenses to
concentrate sunlight over a large area onto a receiver. The concentrated light then
produces heat energy, which drives steam turbines to produce electricity using
thermal generators. It is to be noted that water is not the only source that can
be used for heat extraction from CSP: molten nitrite salt and hydrides are also con-
sidered for their higher heat retention properties. Spain is the leading country in
CSP installation, followed by the United States.
1 Introduction 3
Most of the technologies mentioned above use rotary generators to produce

energy without any requirement of power electronic converters. This, however,
is not the case for solar PV and wind generators as they require power electronic
converters. A PV array produces power at DC voltage, which is then boosted
through a DC-DC converter. The DC-DC converter is also often used for maximum
power point tracking. The DC-DC converter output is converted into AC through a
VSC for grid connection.
There are several types of wind turbines. These are [3]:
• Type 1: Fixed speed in which a squirrel-cage, self-excited induction generator is

directly connected to the grid through a transformer. The turbine speed is syn-
chronized with the grid frequency and is therefore (nearly) fixed.
• Type 2: Limited variable speed in which a wound rotor induction generator is

connected directly to the grid through a transformer. The generator contains
a variable resistor in the rotor circuit, which can control the rotor current
quickly to keep the power constant, even during grid or wind disturbance.
• Type 3: Variable speed with partial power electronic conversion using doubly fed
induction generator (DFIG). In this, there are a pair of VSCs that are connected
back-to-back on the DC side through a capacitor. The grid side converter
exchanges power with the grid and holds the DC bus voltage, while the rotor
side converter can almost instantaneously control the magnitude and angle of
rotor current. The major advantage of the DFIG is that it can bring about a large
control of power in the stator circuit while using converters that have a much
smaller rating than the machine.
• Type 4: Variable speed with full power electronic conversion in which a perma-
nent magnet synchronous generator is connected to the grid through full-rated
back-to-back converters. The turbine, in this case, is allowed to rotate at its opti-
mal aerodynamic speed harnessing maximum power. Also, the need of a bulky
gearbox is eliminated since the machine speed is separated from the grid fre-
quency. The turbine side converter converts the generator voltage into DC
and the grid side inverter injects power to the grid at rated or prevailing grid
frequency.
Recently, several offshore windfarms have been installed. The power from these
plants is supplied to the mainland through either submarine DC cables at high
voltage or through multiterminal HVDC systems. All of these employ VSCs for
power conversion.
There are several smaller generators that are deployed in power distribution sys-
tems, though not all of them necessarily use renewable energy. The most prevalent
among these are the rooftop solar PV systems, which generate power with an out-
put DC voltage level. These are then converted into AC through DC-AC power
converters. There are others such as wind, fuel cells, and microturbines that
4 1 Introduction
use power electronic converters. Collectively these generators are called distribu-
ted generators (or DGs) because they are distributed throughout power distribu-
tions systems and are placed close to where the energy is consumed. Many of
the renewable sources (e.g. solar and wind), however, are intermittent in nature.
Therefore, storage systems are required to maintain continuity of the power flow.
The DGs, together with the energy storage systems, are usually called distributed
energy resources (or DERs). The most common energy storage such as battery
energy storage systems (BESS) require power converters for converting DC voltage
into AC.
From the above discussion, it is evident that power electronic converters play a
very crucial role in the modern-day operation of power systems. Therefore, the
control of these converters is also very crucial for the smooth and stable operation
of power systems. Section 1.1 presents a brief introduction to power electronics.
1.1 Introduction to Power Electronics
Power electronics essentially is power processing. It is the application of electron-

ics, control, and signal processing to adjust, regulate, or control electrical energy.
Power electronics consists of power and electronic circuitry. In the power circuitry,
DC or AC energy sources are converted to regulate or adjust voltage or current
waveforms in the form of DC or AC with specific amplitude or frequency suitable
for different applications. Figure 1.1 shows a schematic diagram of a power elec-
tronics system, which consists of an input source, a power converter, a load, and a
controller.
The input source can be DC (e.g. BESS, solar PV, fuel cell, etc.) or an AC (e.g.
grid, wind turbine, etc.). In some applications, the DC source can be in the form of
vin(t) vout(t)
Power
Source Load
Converter iout(t)
iin(t)
Control
Signals
Controllers
and
Gate Drives Measurement
Signals
Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of a power electronic circuit.

1.1 Introduction to Power Electronics 5
capacitors that can store energy. Furthermore, in an AC system, the input can be
single- or three-phase. The loads can be either AC or DC. They can operate at
either high or low voltage, where the frequency can be variable in the case of
AC applications. For example, in home applications, power electronics is used
in battery chargers (cell phones, laptops/desktops), electric motors, and induction
cooking devices among others.
The power converter consists of semiconductor switching devices and passive
elements, such as magnetic devices and capacitors. The semiconductor switching
devices, such as MOSFETs (metal oxide silicon field effect transistor) or IGBTs,
can operate at high voltage and current ratings that are suitable for different
applications.
The controller unit consists of (i) measuring devices including input and
output voltage and current signals to monitor and protect the system, (ii) a micro-
controller with signal processing capability, and (iii) digital and analog electronic
circuits. The controller synthesizes signals in the form of pulses suitable for the
power converter to convert the input energy suitable for a load. The interface
between the controller and the power converter is through gate drives, which take
the control signals based on a pulse pattern and turn the semiconductor switches
on and off at high voltage and current amplitudes.
Overall, the main aim of modern power electronic systems is to convert and
deliver input power with maximum efficiency, high quality, minimum cost, and
weight, in an integrated and high-power density circuit.
The main components used in the controller and the gate drive units are shown
in Figure 1.2. As the voltage and current ratings of the controller and gate drives
Figure 1.2 The main active and

passive components used in
controllers and gate drive units. Integrated Resistors
Circuits
Circuit
Elements
Inductors
Capacitors
and
Tranformers
Switched Linear
Mode Mode
6 1 Introduction
Power Diodes Figure 1.3 The main active and

passive components used in
power converters.
Circuit
Elements
Inductors
Capacitors
and
Tranformers
Power
Switches
are very low compared to the power converters, resistors, and operational ampli-
fiers (OPAMPS), linear mode switches are used in these units without any loss due
to their high efficiency. On the other hand, their circuitry and design are very com-
plex as the total power electronics system needs to be monitored and controlled
through these units.
The power converter consists of four main components, as shown in Figure 1.3.
Resistors and power switches in linear mode are not used in the power converters,
because they incur significant losses when currents pass through these compo-
nents. The energy conversion is usually based on a pulse width modulation
(PWM) method where a desired signal is generated by pulse patterns at higher fre-
quencies. The switching devices chop the input voltage or current (at high voltage
and/or current rating) based on the control signals synthesized by the controller.
Thus, the major issues of the power electronics system are (i) the generation har-
monics and high-frequency noises which should be controlled and mitigated using
filters and (ii) conduction and switching losses.
Figure 1.4 shows four different configurations of power converters that can con-
vert energy from DC or AC sources to adjustable and regulated DC or AC current
or voltage waveforms suitable for different loads. Figure 1.4a shows a DC-DC con-
verter that has an input DC voltage source (e.g. battery or PV). The output voltage
can be adjusted (increased or decreased) during the operation, as in a DC motor
control or regulated power supplies. In Figure 1.4b, the energy from an AC source
(fixed or variable amplitude or frequency), can be changed into an AC signal with
adjustable amplitude and frequency, as in variable speed motor drive systems, or
with regulated amplitude and frequency, as in grid-connected renewable energy
1.2 Power Converter Modes of Operation 7
(a) (b)
DC AC
DC AC
(c) (d)
AC DC
DC AC
Figure 1.4 Four different configurations of power converters: (a) DC-DC, (b) AC-AC,
(c) AC-DC, and (d) DC-AC.
systems. Figure 1.4c shows a power converter can transfer the energy from an AC
source (e.g. grid or wind generator) to an adjustable or regulated DC signal (e.g. DC
grids, power supply). The input source can be either a single-phase or a three-
phase for low- or high-power applications. In the last configuration, shown in
Figure 1.4d, a DC source is connected to a power converter and the output AC sig-
nal amplitude and frequency can be adjustable (e.g. induction heating and weld-
ing) or regulated (e.g. uninterruptable power supply or controllable AC sources).
1.2 Power Converter Modes of Operation
While designing a power converter, its modes of operation should be determined

according to the system operation and the load characteristics. The instantaneous
values of the load current iout(t) and voltage vout(t) can either be positive or negative
in amplitude. These values represent four modes of operation for the power con-
verter, as shown in Figure 1.5. The converter topology will be different when it
(a) (b) iout

iin(t) iout(t)
Mode II Mode I
+ +
Power
vin(t) Converter vout(t) Load vout
–
–
Mode III Mode IV
Source
Side Load Side
Figure 1.5 (a) Power converter supplying a load and (b) four quadrants of operation.
8 1 Introduction
(a) (b) iout

iin(t) iout(t)
Pin P Mode II Mode I

+ + out
vin(t) Power
vout(t) Load vout
– Converter
–
Mode III Mode IV
Source
Side Load Side
Figure 1.6 (a) Power converter in unidirectional power flow and (b) two modes of
operation.
operates in one, two, or four quadrants. These conditions and operating modes are
explained in this section.
Figure 1.6 shows a power converter with a unidirectional power flow in which
the power is controlled and processed from the input side and transferred to the
output side. The converter may operate either in quadrant I (when both voltage
and current values are positive) or in quadrant III (when both voltage and current
values are negative), or both these quadrants.
A power converter with a bidirectional power flow can operate in four different
quadrants and the power can be transferred from the source to the load (consump-
tion) or from the load to the source (regeneration). The converter may operate in
any quadrant, based on the instantaneous voltage and current values and the load
operating modes, as shown in Figure 1.7. The operating modes of a power con-
verter with different topologies and semiconductor switches (type and configura-
tion) will be explained in the following section.
(a) (b) iout

iin(t) iout(t)
Pin Pout Mode II Mode I

+ +
Power
vin(t) vout(t) Load vout
– Converter
–
Mode III Mode IV
Source
Side Load Side
Figure 1.7 (a) Power converter in bidirectional power flow and (b) four modes
of operation.
1.3 Power Converter Topologies 9
1.3 Power Converter Topologies
Several different topologies are utilized in energy conversion systems. The most
common systems are shown in Figure 1.8 and are classified as:
• Low-frequency (at grid frequency 50 or 60 Hz) power converters such as diode

rectifiers or controlled rectifiers with slow power switches, such as diodes or sil-
icon-controlled rectifiers (SCR). These converters rectify AC signals (single-
phase or a three-phase) to a DC form. These are shown in Figure 1.8a–d.
• High-frequency (at a switching frequency in kHz range) power converters are

based on fast semiconductor switching devices such as MOSFETs or IGBTs.
These converters are controlled based on PWM signals (modulated signals)
and are used in different DC-DC or DC-AC energy conversion systems. The size
of passive components utilized in these converters can be reduced if the switch-
ing frequency of the PWM signal is increased. This is shown in Figure 1.8e.
• A cascaded topology is based on a combination of a few low- and high-frequency

power converters. For example, in Figure 1.8f, two power converters are in
(a) (b)
iin iout ia iout
Half/Full + + va ib Half/Full +
vin + Wave vout Load Wave vout Load
Rectifier vc ic Rectifier
– –
AC Side DC Side vb AC Side DC Side
(c) (d)
Control Control
Circuit Circuit
iin iout ia iout

+ + va ib +
vin + vout Load vout Load
– vc ic
Controlled Controlled –
AC Side Rectifier DC Side vb AC Side Rectifier DC Side
(e) (f)
iin
DC DC or AC
vin Load Pin Storage Pout
Converter-1 Converter-2
Power Converter
Figure 1.8 Power converter topologies: (a) and (b) low-frequency diode rectifiers, (c) and (d)
lower frequency-controlled rectifier, (e) high frequency power converters, and (f ) cascade
power converter.
10 1 Introduction
cascade with a storage element to convert an AC signal into a DC form and then
the resulting DC signal back into an AC signal with adjusted or regulated ampli-
tude and frequency. This is also called back-to-back (B2B) connection.
1.4 Harmonics and Filters
Harmonics and high-frequency noises are the two main aspects of power conver-
ters which have a negative impact on the quality and efficiency of the overall sys-
tem. These phenomena are caused due to low- or high-frequency switching
transients of the semiconductor switches in power converters. For example, to
change a DC voltage to a desired level that is suitable for a load, a pulse train is
applied to a DC-DC converter with a controlled duty cycle in such a way that
the average voltage over each switching cycle can be controlled, as shown in
Figure 1.9. The DC-DC converter is shown in Figure 1.9a. For the converter,
the duty cycle is generated by comparing a reference signal (vref) with a sawtooth
signal (vst) and a gate signal is generated, as shown in Figure 1.9b. It is to be noted
(a) (b)
L Filter Sawtooth
S vst
waveform
vref
+
Vin + D C R Vout
Ts
ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF
tON tOFF Gate Signal
PWM vref t
t0 t1 t2
t
Gate Drive
(c)
Vout
Duty Cycle = 50%
Average Output
Voltage
t
Ts
Vout
Average Output
Voltage
f
fs
Figure 1.9 (a) A DC-DC converter, (b) its modulated signal, and (c) the output signal in time
and frequency domain.
1.4 Harmonics and Filters 11
that the cycle time is Ts = tON + tOFF. The switching frequency is fs = 1/Ts, and the
percentage duty cycle is defined as d = (tON/Ts) × 100%.
Let us assume that the duty cycle is controlled at 50% and the converter is
designed such that the average value of the output voltage (Vout) for this duty ratio
is 50% of the DC value (Vin). Although the pulse train is synthesized to control the
average value of the output voltage, the proposed pulse waveform has harmonics,
as shown in Figure 1.9c. This signal in time domain is not suitable for interfacing
with electronic systems and the high-frequency harmonics should be filtered using
an LC filter, as shown in Figure 1.9a.
Figure 1.10a shows a single-phase AC-DC converter where the input voltage is
supplied from a low-voltage grid. The line current is not sinusoidal, and it is dis-
torted due to the diode rectifier operation and its DC link filter (capacitor). The
current harmonic amplitudes must be reduced according to international standar-
dizations. There are several active or passive methods to mitigate current harmo-
nics at the grid side.
Based on the above discussion, a general block diagram of a power electronics
system is shown in Figure 1.11, where two filters – one at the grid side and the
(a) (b)
vin(t)
iin(t)
0
vin(t) Load
iin(t)
Figure 1.10 (a) A diode rectifier connected to a DC-AC converter and (b) voltage and
current waveforms of the diode rectifier.
Line and EMI

Filter Output Filter
vin(t) vout(t)
Power
Filter Filter Load
iin(t) Converter iout(t)
Control
Signals
Controllers
and
Gate Drives Signals
Figure 1.11 A general block diagram of a power electronic system with different filters.
12 1 Introduction
other one at the load side – are utilized to mitigate low- and high-frequency har-
monics. The grid side filter consists of two different types of filters: harmonics and
electromagnetic interference (EMI) filters. A harmonic filter is designed to miti-
gate low-order harmonics below the order of 40th or 50th harmonics depending
on standardization limits. The EMI filter is designed for high-frequency harmo-
nics, mainly above 150 kHz to suppress conducted emission noise.
1.5 Power Converter Operating Conditions, Modelling,

and Control
Power electronics systems are nonlinear as there are several semiconductor

switching devices which are turned on and off thereby splitting a power converter
circuitry into sub-circuitries. The system might have more subsystems when the
inductor current is not continuous during the operation. Figure 1.12 shows all
operating conditions of a DC-DC converter, which can operate in either a contin-
uous conduction mode (CCM) or a discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). The
steady state analysis is used to design a power converter under different load con-
ditions. This includes the selection of passive and active elements, switching fre-
quency, losses, and quality analysis. The system can be simplified when internal
parasitic and stray components are neglected, including the voltage drops across
the diodes or switches, the internal resistance of magnetic elements, or the stray
inductance of the interconnections.
Dynamic behavior of a power converter takes place when a change occurs in the
reference signal or input voltage or the load. This includes the startup condition
when a power converter is turned on, as shown in Figure 1.13. In this case, the
instantaneous value of the inductor current is increased from zero. The inductor
current at the beginning and at the end of each switching cycle is not the same.
DC-DC
Converter
Dynamic
Steady State
Modelling
Ideal/Real
CCM/DCM Componets
Control
Design
Figure 1.12 Operating conditions of DC-DC converters.

1.5 Power Converter Operating Conditions, Modelling, and Control 13
Figure 1.13 The time

domain behavior of inductor
current of a DC-DC converter.
Ts
iL(t) Steady
State
Ts
Dynamic
However, when it reaches a steady state after several switching cycles, the inductor
current at the beginning and the end of each switching cycle is the same. Thus, the
dynamic behavior of a power converter, i.e. reaching the steady state value with
minimum transient time, error, and overshoot, can be improved using a proper
control system.
The general approach of designing a controller is to find the transfer function of
a system. Most power electronics systems are nonlinear with discrete operating
modes. For example, Figure 1.14a shows a buck or step-down DC-DC converter
operating in CCM where the current through the inductor is always continuous.
When the switch is turned “ON” or “OFF,” the converter circuitry is changed into
two different equivalent circuits, as shown in Figure 1.14b,c. As the power con-
verter is switched on in the frequency range of kHz, it has different subsystems
(a) L
S
iL
+ +
Vin D C R vout
– –
(b) L (c) L
iL iL
+ + +
Vin C R vout C R vout
– – –
Figure 1.14 (a) A buck converter, (b) when the switch is turned ON, and (c) when the switch
is turned OFF.
14 1 Introduction
that cannot be modeled and analyzed based on conventional control theory. Thus,
small signal modeling, averaging approach, and linearization techniques are
required to model a power converter as a continuous system. In this book, different
power converters based on the averaging method and stability analysis of power
converters are studied at the device and system levels. Discrete modeling is a help-
ful step to recognize the delays in control.
1.6 Control of Power Electronic Systems
In this section, the concept of feedback control is briefly discussed and the appli-
cation of control on a simple power electronic circuit introduced. Our discussion
starts with the advantage of feedback control.
1.6.1 Open-loop Versus Closed-loop Control

Consider a first-order system given by the differential equation
y t + αy t = u t 11
where y(t) is the output, u(t) is the input, and α is a scalar. Assume that the system
is at rest, i.e. y(t)|t ≤ 0 = 0 and a control input u(t) = K × us is applied at time t = 0,
where us is a unit step and K is a scalar constant. Then the system response will be
given by
K
yt = 1 − e − αt , t≥0 12
α
If α > 0, the exponential term will tend toward zero as t ∞. Therefore, the steady
state value of y(t) as t ∞ will be K/α. If, on the other hand, α < 0, the output will
tend toward infinity as time progresses, resulting in an unstable system. The sche-
matic diagram of the open-loop system is shown in Figure 1.15a.
The main aim of a control system is to follow a reference input yr(t) asymptot-
ically. To achieve this, a negative feedback of the output is used to form the control
law as
u t = K yref t − y t = Ke t 13
(a) (b)
+ e(t) u(t)
yref (t) K ∫ ẏ (t) dt y(t)
u(t) –
us K ∫ ẏ (t) dt y(t)
Figure 1.15 (a) Open-loop control system and (b) feedback control system.
where e(t) is defined as the tracking error. Substituting (1.3) in (1.1) and assuming
u(t) = Ke(t), we have
y t + K + α y t = Kyref t 14
The closed-loop system is shown in Figure 1.15b. Let us assume that the refer-
ence input is a unit step. Then, the output is given by
K
yt = 1 − e− K+α t
, t≥0 15
K+α
The closed-loop system will remain stable (bounded) so long as K + α > 0.
If α > 0, then the system will be stable for positive values of K. On the other hand,
if α is negative, K should be greater than |α|. This is one of the advantages of the
feedback control. Another important aspect of the feedback is reference tracking,
where the output y(t) needs to be close to the reference input yref(t) in the steady
state, which can only be achieved if the system is stable. In that case, the steady
state tracking error is defined from (1.5) as
K
ess t = yr t − yr t ∞ = 16
t
K+α
The steady state error can be minimized by choosing a large value of K.
Figure 1.16 shows the behavior of the open- and closed-loop systems for |α| = 0.5.
For the open-loop system, it is assumed that α > 0 and K = 1. This is shown in
(a) Open-loop with α = 0.5 and K = 1

2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(b) Closed-loop with α = 0.5 and K = 5

1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(c) Closed-loop with α = 0.5 and K = 5

1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure 1.16 (a) Open-loop control system, feedback control system (b) with α > 0 and
(c) with α < 0.
16 1 Introduction
Figure 1.16a, where the output reaches its steady state value of 2. The closed-loop
response for α > 0 is shown in Figure 1.16b, while Figure 1.16c shows the closed-
loop response for α < 0. The value of the gain for both these cases is chosen as
K = 5. Even though the open-loop system is unstable for α < 0, the closed-loop sys-
tem is stable in Figure 1.16c since K + α > 0.
1.6.2 Nonlinear Systems

Consider the following system
y t + αy2 t = sin θ 17
This is obviously a nonlinear system. Even though there is a vast amount of liter-
ature dealing with the stability and control of nonlinear systems, usually linear
controllers are designed by linearizing the system around an operating point.
For linearization, Taylor series expansion is performed around an operating point,
where the second- and the higher-order terms are neglected. This aspect is dis-
cussed later in the book. However, we present a simple method here.
Let us assume that the system operates under a steady state operating point of y0
and θ0 such that (1.7) can be written as
y0 t + αy20 t = sin θ0 18
Let us also assume that the system is perturbed with small increments such that
y(t) = y0(t) + Δy(t) and θ = θ0 + Δθ
The substitution of the above two equations in (1.7) yields
2
y0 t + Δy t + α y0 t + Δy t = sin θ0 + Δθ 19
Since the increments Δy(t) and Δθ are very small, the following assumptions can
be made
Δy2(t) ≈ 0, sin(Δθ) = Δθ, and cos(Δθ) = 1
Substituting these in (1.9), we have
y0 t + Δy t + αy20 t + 2αy0 t Δy t = sin θ0 + cos θ0 Δθ 1 10
The following linearized model is obtained by subtracting (1.8) from (1.10)
Δy t + 2αy0 t Δy t = cos θ0 Δθ 1 11
To determine the steady state condition, the first step is to choose a value of θ0.
Once the system attains the steady state, the derivative of the output in (1.8) will
be zero, i.e. y0 t = 0, and therefore, the steady state of the output is obtained as
y0 = sin θ0 α. For example, if α = 2, then the steady state values for θ0 = 10 ,
θ0 = 20 , and θ0 = 30 are 0.2947, 0.4135, and 0.5 respectively. Starting from
Output Response (y) for θ = 10°

0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
Figure 1.17 The response of the nonlinear system with three different values of θ0.
y(t)|t=0 = 0, the response of the system with these values of θ0 are shown in
Figure 1.17. It can be seen that the output attains these values in the steady state.
1.6.3 Piecewise Linear Systems

Consider the buck converter model shown in Figure 1.14a. From Figure 1.14b, the
following equations are obtained when the switch is ON.
dvout 1 1
= − vout + iL
dt RC C 1 12
diL 1 1
= − vout + V in
dt L L
On the other hand, when the switch is OFF, the following equations describe the
system
dvout 1 1
= − vout + iL
dt RC C 1 13
diL 1
= − vout
dt L
Both these sets of equations are linear. However, the behavior of the circuit is con-
trolled by the duty ratio or duty cycle shown in Figure 1.9c. This is best described in
terms of the state space description of the system, which is explained in Chapter 5.
18 1 Introduction
Let us define a state vector as x = [vout iL]T. Then (1.12) and (1.13) can be written
respectively as
x = Ax + BV in 1 14
x = Ax 1 15
where
− 1 RC 1 C 0
A= , B=
−1 L 0 1 L
Now assume that the switch closes at t0, opens at t1, and subsequently closes at t2,
as shown in Figure 1.9b. In the steady state, the duty ratio D is constant, and
therefore
t 1 − t 0 = DT s , t2 − t1 = 1 − D T s 1 16
where D is the duty ratio and Ts is the cycle time. Then the solutions of (1.14) and
(1.15) respectively are
t1 DT s
x t1 = Ax + BV in dt + x t 0 = Ax + BV in dt + x t 0 1 17
t0 0
t2 1 − D Ts
x t2 = Axdt + x t 1 = Axdt + x t 1 1 18
t1 0
In the steady state, we have x(t2) = x(t0). Solutions of (1.17) and (1.18) will yield the
description of the system between t0 and t2, which is dependent on the duty ratio,
which appears in the exponential terms of the solutions of (1.17) and (1.18). Thus,
even if the circuit is piecewise linear, the overall behavior of the circuit is nonlin-
ear. Furthermore, the DC-DC converter is controlled by its duty ratio. Therefore,
the system will have to be linearized for control design, as is discussed in Chapter 4
(Section 4.1.5) and Chapter 5 (Section 5.11.2).
1.7 Power Distribution Systems
Power systems’ voltages and currents can be represented either though their
instantaneous components or through their phasor components. The instantane-
ous voltage of the form v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + δ), where Vm is the voltage magnitude, ω
is the angular frequency in rad/s, and δ is its phase angle. Phasor components rep-
resent the sinusoidal steady state, i.e. the voltage (or current) magnitude and its
1.7 Power Distribution Systems 19
angle when the transients have died down and all the quantities in the system
are in a pure sinusoidal state. For the instantaneous voltage given above, the
phasor component is represented in polar of cartesian form as V =
V m 2 ejδ = V m 2 cos δ + j sin δ . A diagram representing the phasors in
a circuit is called the phasor diagram.
One of the main applications of power converters is in power distribution sys-
tems. These applications are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10 of this book. Consider,
for example, the radial power system shown in Figure 1.18a. It contains a source VS
that supplies an RL load with the impedance of ZL. Let us assume that the switch S
is open. The phasor diagram of this system is shown in Figure 1.18b. The lagging
load current (I) has two components: the real component (IR) and the reactive
component (IQ). It is the real component that is doing any practical work, while
the reactive component is present due to the load power factor. However, due
to the reactive component, the current magnitude becomes larger. This causes
more line voltage drop and larger R|I|2 drop in the line that can lead to excessive
heating in the conductors.
When switch S is closed, the capacitor, with a reactance of −jXC, is connected in
parallel with the load bus. This will draw a leading current IC from the system, as
(a) (b)
VL IC
Z
VS
VS
I
VL
S ZL IR
IC
XC
IQ I
(c) (d) VL
Z
VS
I
ZL
VS VSC
IR VL
Figure 1.18 (a) A radial distribution system, (b) phasor diagram when the capacitor is not
connected, (c) phasor diagram when the capacitor is connected, and (d) power factor
correction through a VSC.
20 1 Introduction
shown in Figure 1.18b. If this current is such that IC = IQ, then the source will only
supply the current IR. Then, the load and the capacitor will draw power from the
source at unity power factor, as shown in Figure 11.18c.
The main problem with the above proposition is that the load may change, and
therefore fixing the value of the capacitance with all load changes is not feasible.
A better approach is to connect a VSC in shunt with the load bus. This VSC,
through proper control, can not only correct the power factor but also provide har-
monic compensation, balance the load bus voltage, and regulate the bus volt-
age [4].
A microgrid is a small, localized grid with its embedded control capability. It can
operate along with the main utility grid or can also disconnect from the grid and
work autonomously while supplying power to its local loads. Microgrids are sup-
plied by their local generators with most of them harnessing power from renew-
able energy sources. Additionally, a microgrid may even contain battery storage
systems. These power supply sources are collectively called DERs. Most of the
DERs are connected to microgrids through VSCs and are required to supply power
in the autonomous mode, while regulating its bus voltage and frequency. There-
fore, converter control plays a significant role in the operation of microgrids. Since
microgrids have local generators, they are very suitable for combined heat and
power applications. Microgrids have tremendous potential for remote area power
systems where power lines are not present or have very weak connections. Also,
microgrids are being developed for university campuses, for commercial/commu-
nity buildings, military usage, etc. Microgrids have even been conceptualized for
space applications [5].
1.8 Concluding Remarks
In this chapter, a brief introduction to the book are presented. Topics mentioned in
this chapter are elaborated in subsequent chapters. Specifically, several control
analysis design principles are covered in detail. Furthermore, the control of both
DC-DC and DC-AC converters is covered, along with the applications of these con-
verters to power systems.
References
1 Masters, G.M. (2004). Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems. Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley-InterScience.
2 International Hydropower Association (2021). Hydropower Status Report. https://
www.hydropower.org/status-report (accessed 15 May 2022).
References 21
3 IEEE PES Wind Plant Collector System Design Working Group (2009).
Characteristics of wind turbine generators for wind power plants. IEEE PES General
Meeting, Calgary.
4 Ghosh, A. and Ledwich, G. (2002). Power Quality Improvement Using Custom Power
Devices. New York: Springer Science+Business Media.
5 Ciurans, C., Bazmohammadi, N., Vasquez, J.C. et al. (2021). Hierarchical control of
space closed ecosystems: expanding microgrid concepts to bioastronautics. IEEE Ind.
Electron. Mag. 15 (2): 16–27.
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A CHEAPER MEAT JELLY.
One calf’s foot, a pound and a half or two pounds of neck of veal
or beef, a small onion, a carrot, a bunch of parsley, a little spice, a bit
or two of quite lean ham, dressed or undressed, and five half pints of
water, boiled very slowly for five or six hours will give a strong,
though not a highly-flavoured jelly. More ham, any bones of unboiled
meat, poultry, or game will, in this respect, improve it; and the liquor
in which fowls or veal have been boiled for table should, when at
hand, be used for it instead of water. These jellies keep much better
and longer when no vegetables are stewed down in them.
GLAZE.
This is merely strong, clear gravy or jelly boiled quickly down to

the consistence of thin cream; but this reduction must be carefully
managed that the glaze may be brought to the proper point without
being burned; it must be attentively watched, and stirred without
being quitted for a moment from the time of its beginning to thicken;
when it has reached the proper degree of boiling, it will jelly in
dropping from the spoon, like preserve, and should then be poured
out immediately, or it will burn. When wanted for use, melt it gently
by placing the vessel which contains it (see article Glazing, Chapter
IX.) in a pan of boiling water, and with a paste-brush lay it on to the
meat, upon which it will form a sort of clear varnish. In consequence
of the very great reduction which it undergoes, salt should be added
to it sparingly when it is made. Any kind of stock may be boiled down
to glaze; but unless it be strong, a pint will afford but a spoonful or
two: a small quantity of it, however, is generally sufficient, unless a
large repast is to be served. Two or three layers must be given to
each joint. The jellies which precede this will answer for it extremely
well; and it may be made also with shin of beef stock, for common
occasions, when no other is at hand.
ASPIC, OR CLEAR SAVOURY-JELLY.
Boil a couple of calf’s feet, with three or four pounds of knuckle of

veal, three quarters of a pound of lean ham, two large onions, three
whole carrots, and a large bunch of herbs, in a gallon of water, till it
is reduced more than half. Strain it off; when perfectly cold, remove
every particle of fat and sediment, and put the jelly into a very clean
stewpan, with four whites of eggs well beaten; keep it stirred until it is
nearly boiling; then place it by the side of the fire to simmer for a
quarter of an hour. Let it settle, and pour it through a jelly-bag until it
is quite clear. Add, when it first begins to boil, three blades of mace,
a teaspoonful of white peppercorns, and sufficient salt to flavour it
properly, allowing for the ham, and the reduction. French cooks
flavour this jelly with tarragon vinegar when it is clarified; cold poultry,
game, fish, plovers’ eggs, truffles, and various dressed vegetables,
with many other things often elaborately prepared, and highly
ornamental, are moulded and served in it, especially at large
dejeuners and similar repasts. It is also much used to decorate
raised pies, and hams; and for many other purposes of the table.
Calf’s feet, 2; veal, 4 lbs.; ham, 3/4 lb.; onions, 2; carrots, 3; herbs,
large bunch; mace, 3 blades; white whole pepper, 1 teaspoonful;
water, 1 gallon: 5 to 6 hours. Whites of eggs, 4: 15 minutes.
CHAPTER V.
Sauces.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
The difference between good and bad

cookery can scarcely be more
strikingly shown than in the manner in
which sauces are prepared and
served. If well made, appropriate to
the dishes they accompany, and sent
to table with them as hot as possible,
Bain Marie, or Water Bath.
they not only give a heightened relish
to a dinner, but they prove that both
skill and taste have been exerted in its arrangements. When
coarsely or carelessly prepared, on the contrary, as they too often
are, they greatly discredit the cook, and are anything but acceptable
to the eaters. Melted butter, the most common of all—the “one sauce
of England,” as it is called by foreigners, and which forms in reality
the basis of a large number of those which are served in this country
—is often so ill prepared, being either oiled or lumpy, or composed
principally of flour and water, that it says but little for the state of
cookery amongst us. We trust that the receipts in the present
chapter are so far clearly given, that if strictly followed they will
materially assist the learner in preparing tolerably palatable sauces
at the least. The cut at the commencement of the chapter exhibits a
vessel called a bain marie, in which saucepans are placed when it is
necessary to keep their contents hot without allowing them to boil: it
is extremely useful when dinners are delayed after they are ready to
serve.
TO THICKEN SAUCES.
When this is done with the yolks of eggs, they should first be well
beaten, and then mixed with a spoonful of cold stock should it be at
hand, and with one or two of the boiling sauce, which should be
stirred very quickly to them, and they must in turn be stirred briskly to
the sauce, which may be held over the fire, and well shaken for an
instant afterwards, but never placed upon it, nor allowed to boil.
To the roux or French thickening (which follows), the gravy or other
liquid which is to be mixed with it should be poured boiling and in
small quantities, the saucepan being often well shaken round, and
the sauce made to boil up after each portion is added. If this
precaution be observed, the butter will never float upon the surface,
but the whole will be well and smoothly blended: it will otherwise be
difficult to clear the sauce from it perfectly.
For invalids, or persons who object to butter in their soups or
sauces, flour only mixed to a smooth batter, and stirred into the
boiling liquid may be substituted for other thickening: arrow-root also
used in the same way, will answer even better than flour.
FRENCH THICKENING, OR BROWN ROUX.
For ordinary purposes this may be made as it is wanted for use;

but when it is required for various dishes at the same time or for
cookery upon a large scale, it can be prepared at once in sufficient
quantity to last for several days, and it will remain good for some
time. Dissolve, with a very gentle degree of heat, half a pound of
good butter, then draw it from the fire, skim it well, give time for it to
settle, pour it gently from the sediment into a very clean frying-pan,
and place it over a slow but clear fire. Put into a dredging box about
seven ounces of fine dry flour; add it gradually to the butter, shake
the pan often as it is thrown in, and keep the thickening constantly
stirred until it has acquired a clear light brown colour. It should be
very slowly and equally done, or its flavour will be unpleasant. Pour it
into a jar, and stir a spoonful or two as it is needed into boiling soup
or gravy. When the butter is not clarified it will absorb an additional
ounce of flour, the whole of which ought to be fine and dry. This
thickening may be made in a well-tinned stewpan even better than in
a frying-pan, and if simmered over a coal fire it should be placed
high above it, and well guarded from smoke.
WHITE ROUX, OR FRENCH THICKENING.
Proceed exactly as for the preceding receipt, but dredge in the

flour as soon as the butter is in full simmer, and be careful not to
allow the thickening to take the slightest colour: this is used for white
gravies or sauces.
SAUCE TOURNÉE, OR PALE THICKENED GRAVY.
Sauce tournée is nothing more than rich pale gravy made with
veal or poultry (see Consommé, Chapter IV.) and thickened with
delicate white roux. The French give it a flavouring of mushrooms
and green onions, by boiling some of each in it for about half an hour
before the sauce is served: it must then be strained, previously to
being dished. Either first dissolve an ounce of butter, and then
dredge gradually to it three-quarters of an ounce of flour, and
proceed as for the preceding receipt; or blend the flour and butter
perfectly with a knife before they are thrown into the stewpan, and
keep them stirred without ceasing over a clear and gentle fire until
they have simmered for some minutes, then place the stewpan high
over the fire, and shake it constantly until the roux has lost the raw
taste of the flour; next, stir very gradually to it a pint of the gravy,
which should be boiling. Set it by the side of the stove for a few
minutes, skim it thoroughly, and serve it without delay.
Butter, 1 oz.; flour, 3/4 oz.; strong pale gravy, seasoned with
mushrooms and green onions, 1 pint.
Obs. 3.—With the addition of three or four yolks of very fresh
eggs, mixed with a seasoning of mace, cayenne, and lemon-juice,
this becomes German sauce, now much used for fricassees, and
other dishes; and minced parsley (boiled) and chili vinegar, each in
sufficient quantity to flavour it agreeably, convert it into a good fish
sauce.
BÉCHAMEL.
This is a fine French white sauce, now very much served at good
English tables. It may be made in various ways, and more or less
expensively; but it should always be thick, smooth, and rich, though
delicate in flavour. The most ready mode of preparing it is to take an
equal portion of very strong, pale veal gravy, and of good cream (a
pint of each for example), and then, by rapid boiling over a very clear
fire, to reduce the gravy nearly half; next, to mix with part of the
cream a tablespoonful of fine dry flour, to pour it to the remainder,
when it boils, and to keep the whole stirred for five minutes or more
over a slow fire, for if placed upon a fierce one it would be liable to
burn; then to add the gravy, to stir and mix the sauce perfectly, and
to simmer it for a few minutes longer. All the flavour should be given
by the gravy, in which French cooks boil a handful of mushrooms, a
few green onions, and some branches of parsley before it is
reduced: but a good béchamel may be made without them, with a
strong consommé (see pale veal gravy, page 98) well reduced.
Strong pale veal gravy (flavoured with mushrooms or not), 1 pint:
reduced half. Rich cream, 1 pint; flour, 1 tablespoonful: 5 minutes.
With gravy, 4 or 5 minutes.
Obs.—Velouté, which is a rather thinner sauce or gravy, is made
by simply well reducing the cream and stock separately, and then
mixing them together without any thickening.
BÉCHAMEL MAIGRE.
(A cheap White Sauce.)

A good béchamel may be made entirely without meat, when
economy is an object, or when no gravy is at hand. Put into a
stewpan, or a well-tinned and thick saucepan, with from two to three
ounces of butter, a carrot, and a couple of small onions, cut in slices,
with a handful of nicely-cleaned mushroom buttons, when these last
can be easily procured; and when they have stewed slowly for half
an hour, or until the butter is nearly dried up, stir in two
tablespoonsful of flour, and pour in a pint of new milk, a little at a
time, shaking the stewpan well round, that the sauce may be
smooth. Boil the béchamel gently for half an hour; add a little salt,
and cayenne; strain, and reduce it, if not quite thick, or pour it boiling
to the yolks of two fresh eggs.
ANOTHER COMMON BÉCHAMEL.
Cut half a pound of veal, and a slice of lean ham or smoked beef,
into small dice, and stew them in butter, with vegetables, as directed
in the foregoing receipt: stir in the same proportion of flour, then add
the milk, and let the sauce boil very gently for an hour. It should not
be allowed to thicken too much before it is strained.
Obs.—Common béchamel, with the addition of a spoonful of
made-mustard, is an excellent sauce for boiled mutton.
RICH MELTED BUTTER.
This is more particularly required in general for lobster sauce,

when it is to be served with turbot or brill, and for good oyster sauce.
Salmon is itself so rich, that less butter is needed for it than for sauce
which is to accompany a drier fish. Mix to a very smooth batter a
dessertspoonful of flour, a half-saltspoonful of salt, and half a pint of
cold water: put these into a delicately clean saucepan, with from four
to six ounces of well-flavoured butter, cut into small bits, and shake
the sauce strongly round, almost without cessation, until the
ingredients are perfectly blended, and it is on the point of boiling; let
it simmer for two or three minutes, and it will be ready for use. The
best French cooks recommend its not being allowed to boil, as they
say it tastes less of flour if served when it is just at the point of
simmering.
Cold water, 1/2 pint; salt, 1/2 spoonful; flour, 1 dessertspoonful: 3
to 4 minutes. Butter, 4 to 6 oz.
MELTED BUTTER.
(A good common Receipt.)

Put into a basin a large teaspoonful of flour, and a little salt, then
mix with them very gradually and very smoothly a quarter of a pint of
cold water; turn these into a small clean saucepan, and shake or stir
them constantly over a clear fire until they have boiled a couple of
minutes, then add an ounce and a half of butter cut small, keep the
sauce stirred until this is entirely dissolved, give the whole a minute’s
boil, and serve it quickly. The more usual mode is to put the butter in
at first with the flour and water; but for inexperienced or unskilful
cooks the safer plan is to follow the present receipt.
Water, 1/4 pint; flour, 1 teaspoonful: 2 minutes. Butter, 1-1/2 oz.; 1
minute.
Obs.—To render this a rich sauce, increase or even double the
proportion of butter.
FRENCH MELTED BUTTER.
Pour half a pint of good but not very thick, boiling melted butter to
the well-beaten yolks of two or three fresh eggs, and stir them briskly
as it is added; put the sauce again into the saucepan, and shake it
high over the fire for an instant, but do not allow it to boil or it will
curdle. Add a little lemon-juice or vinegar, and serve it immediately.
NORFOLK SAUCE, OR RICH MELTED BUTTER WITHOUT
FLOUR.
Put three tablespoonsful of water into a small saucepan, and when

it boils add four ounces of fresh butter; as soon as this is quite
dissolved, take the saucepan from the fire, and shake it round until
the sauce looks thick and smooth. It must not be allowed to boil after
the butter is added.
Water, 3 tablespoonsful; butter, 4 oz.
WHITE MELTED BUTTER.
Thicken half a pint of new milk with rather less flour than is
directed for the common melted butter, or with a little arrow-root, and
stir into it by degrees after it has boiled, a couple of ounces of fresh
butter cut small; do not cease to stir the sauce until this is entirely
dissolved, or it may become oiled, and float upon the top Thin
cream, substituted for the milk, and flavoured with a few strips of
lemon-rind cut extremely thin, some salt, and a small quantity of
pounded mace, if mixed with rather less flour, and the same
proportion of butter, will make an excellent sauce to serve with fowls
or other dishes, when no gravy is at hand to make white sauce in the
usual way.
BURNT OR BROWNED BUTTER.
Melt in a frying-pan three ounces of fresh butter, and keep it stirred

slowly over a gentle fire until it is of a dark brown colour; then pour to
it a couple of tablespoonsful of good hot vinegar, and season it with
black pepper and a little salt. In France this is a favourite sauce with
boiled skate, which is served with plenty of crisped parsley, in
addition, strewed over it. It is also often poured over poached eggs
there: it is called beurre noir.
Butter, 3 oz.; vinegar, 2 tablespoonsful; pepper; salt.
CLARIFIED BUTTER.
Put the butter into a very clean and well-tinned saucepan or

enamelled stewpan, and melt it gently over a clear fire; when it just
begins to simmer, skim it thoroughly, draw it from the fire, and let it
stand a few minutes that the buttermilk may sink to the bottom; then
pour it clear of the sediment through a muslin strainer or a fine hair-
sieve; put it into jars, and store them in a cool place. Butter thus
prepared will answer for all the ordinary purposes of cookery, and
remain good for a great length of time. In France, large quantities are
melted down in autumn for winter use. The clarified butter ordered
for the various receipts in this volume, is merely dissolved with a
gentle degree of heat in a small saucepan, skimmed, and poured out
for use, leaving the thick sediment behind.

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Control of Power Electronic Converters

with Microgrid Applications Arindam

IEEE Press Editorial Board

Jón Atli Benediktsson Andreas Molisch Diomidis Spinellis

Arindam Ghosh PhD

Firuz Zare PhD

IEEE Press Series on Power and Energy Systems

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

Dedicated to my lovely family, my wife, Leila, and my son, Farzan.

2.4.4 Analyzing a Three-phase Circuit 43

3 Review of SISO Control Systems 59

3.8.5 Difference Equation and Transfer Function 113

4 Power Electronic Control Design Challenges 123

5 State Space Analysis and Design 153

5.6 Diagonalization of a Matrix Using Similarity Transform 170

6 Discrete-time Control 207

7 DC-AC Converter Modulation Techniques 257

8 Control of DC-AC Converters 311

9 VSC Applications in Custom Power 341

9.1.2 Discrete-time Output Feedback PWM Control 348

10.10 Microgrids in Cluster 439

11 Harmonics in Electrical and Electronic Systems 465

a Task Force Leader (International Project Manager) of Active Infeed Converters

resilience of power delivery systems. Microgrids have been installed in commu-

Power converter control design in classical domain is discussed in Chapter 4.

I know many people in industry, academia and standardization committees who

Many thanks to my post-docs and PhD students. We have worked together

Control of Power Electronic Converters with Microgrid Applications, First Edition.

Most of the technologies mentioned above use rotary generators to produce

• Type 1: Fixed speed in which a squirrel-cage, self-excited induction generator is

• Type 2: Limited variable speed in which a wound rotor induction generator is

1.1 Introduction to Power Electronics

Power electronics essentially is power processing. It is the application of electron-

Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of a power electronic circuit.

Figure 1.2 The main active and

Power Diodes Figure 1.3 The main active and

1.2 Power Converter Modes of Operation

While designing a power converter, its modes of operation should be determined

(a) (b) iout

(a) (b) iout

Pin P Mode II Mode I

(a) (b) iout

Pin Pout Mode II Mode I

1.3 Power Converter Topologies

• Low-frequency (at grid frequency 50 or 60 Hz) power converters such as diode

• High-frequency (at a switching frequency in kHz range) power converters are

• A cascaded topology is based on a combination of a few low- and high-frequency

iin iout ia iout

1.4 Harmonics and Filters

ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF

tON tOFF Gate Signal

Line and EMI

1.5 Power Converter Operating Conditions, Modelling,

Power electronics systems are nonlinear as there are several semiconductor

Figure 1.12 Operating conditions of DC-DC converters.