Center of Mass and Geometric Center

• Center of mass is defined as the point through which the whole

weight of the object seems to act.

 For simple rigid objects with uniform density, the center of mass is
located at the centroid. For example, the center of mass of a uniform
disc shape would be at its center. Sometimes the center of mass
doesn't fall anywhere on the object. The center of mass of a ring for
example is located at its center, where there isn't any material.
 The equilibrium condition is affected by the position of object’s center
of mass.

 When the center of mass of an object is at its lowest possible position,

then it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
 The equilibrium is unstable if the center of mass is at its highest
possible position.
 The equilibrium is neutral if the center of mass is neither lowered
nor raised when the object is slightly disturbed.
 Center of geometry is different from a center of mass. They may be
the same if the object has a homogenous density; otherwise, they are
different.
 The center of geometry is located at the geometric center of the
object. It is the average position of all the points of an object.

 In the figure, the center of geometry is at the geometric center of the

figure, while the center of mass is at a lower position. This is because
the density of the object is not homogenous. The greater mass is
located at the lower portion of the object.
 Momentum

In our study of mass and inertia, we learned that the mass of a

body is the measure of the inertia at rest. We learned from experience that
the more mass a body has, the greater its tendency to stay at rest. For
bodies in motion, there is a corresponding quantity called inertia in
motion. We will now focus on the inertia of moving objects.
Momentum can be defined as “mass in motion” or “inertia in
motion”. It is expressed in terms of the product of a body’s mass and
velocity. Mathematically,
p=mv
where: p = momentum
m = mass of the body
v = velocity
The greater the mass and the velocity of an object, the more difficult
it is to change the object’s speed and direction. Momentum is a vector
quantity whose direction is the same as the velocity. The units of
momentum are kg.m/s or g.cm/s.

Which has greater momentum?

If we are going to compare a small car and a massive truck moving at

the same speed, the small car, since it has a lesser mass, has a smaller
momentum than the truck because the truck has a larger mass. On the
other hand, a shipping vessel out at the ocean can have a large
momentum even when it is moving at a small velocity because it is
massive. Likewise, a very small bullet moving at a very high speed can also
have a large momentum.
To change the momentum of an object, either the mass or the velocity
is changed, or both the mass and the velocity are changed. However, it is
often the case that the mass remains unchanged or constant, in which
case the velocity changes. So we can calculate the change in momentum,
Δp, as the product of the mass m and the change in velocity Δv. In
equation form, it is written as

Δp = m(Δv)
The greater the net force applied to the object, the greater the change in
velocity, and hence the change in momentum.
Sample Problems

1. Find the momentum of a 100-kg object traveling at a

speed of 20 m/s.
Given: m = 100 kg
V = 20 m/s
Find: p
Solution:
p=mv
= 100 kg (20 m/s)
= 2 000 kg.m/s

2. The velocity of a 2-kg object is increased from 2. 0m/s to

4.0 m/s by a constant force. Find the change in
momentum of the object.
Given: m = 2 kg
vi = 2 m/s; vf = 4 m/s
Find: Δp
Solution:
Δp = m(vf-vi)
= 2 kg (4 m/s – 2 m/s)
= 4 kg.m/s

Impulse and Momentum

• According to Newton’s second law, Fnet=ma.

v f −vi ∆v
• Acceleration is defined as a= or a= t
t
• Substitution of this expression of a in Newton’s second law gives
vf − v m∆v
F=m i
or F= t
t
• By rearrangement,
Ft =m v f -m v i or Ft =m ∆ v
• The left side of the equation, Ft, or the force when multiplied by the
time of application to the object gives a product called impulse.
• I = Ft
• The unit of impulse is Ns. Impulse is a vector quantity and its
direction is the direction of the applied force.
• To increase the change in momentum of an object, we have to apply
the greatest force we can apply, and we have to extend the time of
contact as much as possible.
 Impulse Changes Momentum

• The impulse provided by a boxer’s jaw counteracts the momentum of the punch.
– The boxer moves away from the punch
– The boxer moves toward the punch. Ouch!

Sample Problem
1. A tennis ball with a mass of 0.06 kg was served with a velocity of 22
m/s. After being hit by the racket, the ball rebounded, moving at 28
m/s. It stayed in contact with the racket for 5.0 milliseconds.
Calculate
a. the change in the momentum of the ball; and
b. the average force that the racket exerted on the ball.

Given: m = 0.06 kg
vi = 22 m/s
vf = -28 m/s (opposite direction)
t = 5.0 ms = 5x10-3 s
Find: a. Δp
b. F
Solution:
a. Δp = m(vf-vi)
= 0.06 kg (-28 m/s – 22 m/s)
 = -3 kg.m/s
b. Ft=mΔv
Ft= Δp
F= Δp
t
= -3 kg.m/s
5x10-3 s
= -600 kg.m/s2 or -600 N
The average force exerted on the tennis ball by the racket was 600 N,
the same direction as that of the rebound.

• The center of mass is the same as the center of gravity.

• The center of geometry is the geometric center of a plane figure.
This is different to center of mass in irregular bodies and objects with
non-uniform density.
• Linear momentum is the tendency of a body to continue in uniform
motion along a straight path.
• Momentum is the product of the mass of the object and its velocity.
• Impulse is the product of the force and the same time the force is
applied. It is also defined as the change in momentum of an object.

Task 1. Solve the problems below. Round-off your final answer into two decimal
places.

1. A 2-kg mass is acted upon by a force of 50 N for

10 s. Find (a) the impulse and (b) the change in velocity of the
object.
2. A car that weighs 7,000 N is accelerated from rest to a velocity of
25 m/s eastward by a force of 1,000 N. (a) What was the change in
momentum of the car? (b) How long did the force act to change the
momentum of the car?
3. A driver is driving his jeepney. It suddenly goes out of control. The
driver has a choice between slamming his vehicle into either a
stack of sacks of charcoal or a concrete wall. If you were the
driver, which will you choose? Why?

Law of Conservation of Momentum

Momentum, like energy, can be transferred from one object to

another, usually during contact. A cue ball colliding with stationary
billiard ball transfers its momentum to the ball.
 The law of conservation of momentum tells us that during an
interaction (such as a collision), the total momentum is unchanged, or

In an isolated system, the total momentum of a system

before an interaction is the same as the total momentum
of the system after the interaction.

An isolated system is one that is free from the action of external

forces.
How is momentum conserved then in a game of bowling?

The 10 pins are initially stationary while the heavy ball is rushing
toward them with a large momentum. Thus, at the start, all the
momentum of the system comes from the ball. When the ball hits any of
the pins, each pin it hits takes some of its momentum, which the pin then
transfers to the pin it collides with, and so on. The total momentum after
collision, which is the momentum of all the pins and the ball, is just the
momentum of the ball at the start of the game.
In symbols, the law of conservation of momentum is written as
∑ pi =∑ pf
p1 + p2 ¿ p1’ + p2’
m1 v 1+ m2 v 2=m1 v1 ’ +m2 v 2’

Sample Problems
 1. A marble of mass m1=0.04 kg moving with a speed of v1=2.0 m/s
strikes a second marble, initially at rest, of m 2=0.04 kg. As a result of
the collision, the first marble comes to rest and the second one moves
in the opposite direction. What is the velocity of the second marble?
Given: m1 = 0.04 kg
m2 = 0.04 kg
v1 = 2.0 m/s
v2 = 0
v 1’ = 0 (‘ read as prime like v1 prime
indicates the velocity of the object
after collision)
Find: v2’

Solution:
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
p1 + p2 = p1’ + p2’
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1’ + m2v2’
(0.04 kg)(2.0 m/s) + (0.04 kg)(0) = (0.04 kg)(0) + (0.04 kg)(v 2’)
0.08 kg.m/s + 0 = 0 + 0.04 kg (v2’)
0.08 kg.m/s = 0.04 kg (v2’)
0.04 kg 0.04 kg
v2’ = 2 m/s

2. A car has a mass of 1 800 kg. It is traveling at a velocity of 17 m/s

northward. A gravel-and-sand delivery truck with a mass of 3 000 kg
moving at 20 m/s southward collided head-on with the car. They stick
together upon colliding with each other. Find their common velocity
after the collision.
Given: m1 = 1 800 kg
m2 = 3 000 kg
v1 = 17 m/s
v2 = -20 m/s (- southward)
Find: v’ (v1’ = v2’)
Solution:
p 1 + p2 = p 1 ’ + p 2 ’
m1 v 1 + m 2 v 2 = m 1 v 1 ’ + m 2 v 2 ’
(1 800 kg)(17 m/s) + (3 000 kg)(-20 m/s) = (1 800 kg)(v’) +
(3 000 kg)(v’)
30, 600 kg.m/s + (-60, 000 kg.m/s) = (1 800 kg + 3 000 kg)(v’)
-29, 400 kg.m/s = 4, 800 kg (v’)
-29, 400 kg.m/s = 4, 800 kg (v’)
4, 800 kg 4, 800 kg
V’ = -6.13 m/s 0r 6.13 m/s,

southward

Momentum and Collision

• In a perfectly elastic collision,
the moving object moves or
bounces to the same position at
which it started and continues to
bounce indefinitely.
• When each subsequent bounce is
lower than the previous one, the
collision is partially elastic.
 • When the objects do not separate after they collide, their collision is
perfectly inelastic.

Collisions may be described according to how elastic they are, which

is due to the properties of the materials involved in the collision. A
collision may be elastic or inelastic or somewhere in between. To
quantify how elastic a collision is, its coefficient of restitution is
computed.

Coefficient of Restitution
• The coefficient of restitution e of the moving object is the ratio of
its outgoing speed to its incoming speed
outgoing speed
e=
incoming speed
• A value of 1 indicates that all the collision energy of the moving object
is conserved (converted back to kinetic energy).
• A ball with e equal to 1 or nearly 1 would bounce to the same height
(or almost the same height) at which it started.
• A value of 0 for e indicates an inelastic collision: none of the energy of
collision is recovered as kinetic energy. A ball with e = 0 does not
bounce at all.
• The coefficient of restitution may also be computed by using the
following formula:
e=
√ KE rebound
KE collision
where: KE col = kinetic energy of the object as it
approaches the floor
KE reb = kinetic energy of the object as
left the floor

e=
√ mgy rebound
mgyapproach

e=
√ y reb
y app
 Thus, this coefficient tells us something about how much energy is
“lost” during an impact. The lower the value of e, the more energy is
lost.

Sample Problems

1. A dropped baseball with a mass of 0.459 kg approached the floor with

a speed of 4.43 m/s and rebounded with a speed of 3.54 m/s.
Calculate the (a) coefficient of restitution, (b) collision energy, and (c)
rebound energy of the ball.
Given: m = 0.459 kg
vin = 4.43 m/s
vout = 3.54 m/s
 Solution:
outgoing speed 3.54 m/s
a. e= incoming speed = 4.43 m/s = 0.799

b. The collision energy is the kinetic energy of the ball as it

approached the floor.
1
KE col= m( v ¿ )2
2
1
= 2 (0.459 kg)(4.43 m/s)2
= 4.50 J
c. The rebound energy is the kinetic energy of the ball as it
left the floor.
1
KE reb = m(v out )2
2
1
= 2 (0.459 kg)(3.54 m/s)2
= 2.88 J

2. A rubber ball is dropped on the ground from a height of 150 cm and on

its second rebound reaches a height of 50 cm. Find the coefficient of
restitution.
Given: yapp = 150 cm
yreb = 50 cm
Find: e
Solution:
e=
√ √
y reb
y app
=
50 cm
150 cm
= 0.577

• The law of conservation of momentum states that the total

momentum of a system before collision is equal to the total
momentum of the system after collision.
• For perfectly elastic collisions, the total energy of the system
remains the same.
• For inelastic collisions, the total energy of the system before
collision is not equal to the total energy of the system after collision.
• The coefficient of restitution is the ratio of the relative velocities of
the bodies after collision to the relative velocities of the bodies before
collision.
 Task 2. Solve the problems below. Round-off your final answer into two
decimal places.

1. A ball of mass 0.200 kg moves with a velocity of 0.30 m/s. This ball
collides with a second ball of mass 0.100 kg moving along the same
line at a velocity of 0.10 m/s. After collision, the velocity of the
second ball is 0.26 m/s. Find the velocity of the first ball.

2. A mass of 4 kg is moving at a speed of 10 m/s on a frictionless

surface. It collides with a 3 kg mass moving in the same direction at
5 m/s. What is the final velocity of the system after the collision?

3. A steel ball bearing is dropped on a steel plate from a height of 2.0 m.

If the coefficient of restitution is 0.97, find the height to which the
ball rebounds.