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RES EAR CH AR TIC LE Open Access

Factors associated with institutional delivery in

Ghana: the role of decision-making autonomy
and community norms
Ilene S Speizer1,2*, William T Story1 and Kavita Singh1,2

Abstract
Background: In Ghana, the site of this study, the maternal mortality ratio and under-five mortality rate remain high
indicating the need to focus on maternal and child health programming. Ghana has high use of antenatal care (95%)
but sub-optimum levels of institutional delivery (about 57%). Numerous barriers to institutional delivery exist including
financial, physical, cognitive, organizational, and psychological and social. This study examines the psychological
and social barriers to institutional delivery, namely women's decision-making autonomy and their perceptions about
social support for institutional delivery in their community.
Methods: This study uses cross-sectional data collected for the evaluation of the Maternal and Newborn Referrals
Project of Project Fives Alive in Northern and Central districts of Ghana. In 2012 and 2013, a total of 2,527 women aged
15 to 49 were surveyed at baseline and midterm (half in 2012 and half in 2013). The analysis sample of 1,606 includes
all women who had a birth three years prior to the survey date and who had no missing data. To determine the
relationship between institutional delivery and the two key social barriers—women's decision-making autonomy and
community perceptions of institutional delivery—we used multi-level logistic regression models, including cross-level
interactions between community-level attitudes and individual-level autonomy . All analyzes control for the clustered
survey design by including robust standard errors in Stata 13 statistical software.
Results: The findings show that women who were more autonomous and who perceived positive attitudes toward facility
delivery (among women, men and mothers-in-law) were more likely to deliver in a facility. Moreover, the interactions
between autonomy and community-level perceptions of institutional delivery among men and mothers-in-law were
significant, such that the effect of decision-making autonomy is more important for women who live in communities
that are less supportive of institutional delivery compared to communities that are more supportive.
Conclusions: This study builds upon prior work by using indicators that provide a more direct assessment of perceived
community norms and women's decision-making autonomy. The findings lead to programmatic recommendations that
go beyond individuals and involve the broader network of people (husbands and mothers-in-law) that influence
delivery behaviors.
Keywords: Institutional delivery, Ghana, Maternal health, Autonomy, Social support

* Correspondence: [email protected]
1
Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,
Chapel Hill, NC, USA
2
Department of Maternal and Child Health, Gillings School of Global Public
Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

© 2014 Speizer et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain
Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article,
unless otherwise stated.
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Backgrounds Often, the financial and physical barriers are examined

As we approach 2015 and the deadline for attainment of together to capture issues around transportation and
the Millennium Development Goals (MDG), increased distance to a facility as well as costs to reach or use the
attention and effort are being given to reaching the target facility [13.15-17]. Ghana has implemented the National
populations with specific programmatic strategies, especially Health Insurance Scheme in an effort to reduce these
in countries that are not on track to attain the types of financial barriers. Recent studies from Ghana
MDGs. In Ghana, the site of this study, where the maternal have found that women with health insurance were
mortality ratio (MMR) remains high at 350 maternal deaths more likely to have an institutional delivery [18-20] and
per 100,000 live births [1] and under-five insurance was associated with better mother and child
Mortality is estimated at 82 deaths per 1000 live births health outcomes [20]. Cognitive barriers are related to
[2], there has been increased attention to initiatives to misconceptions about services offered and concerns
improve maternal, infant, and child health services. To about quality of services [17]. Organizational barriers are
help in the attainment of improved infant and child focused on the role of the providers in terms of attitude,
health (MDG 4) and improved maternal health (MDG availability, and services offered [17,21]; these
5), programs in Ghana and elsewhere promote skilled at- have been found to be particularly important from qualitative
tendance at delivery; in many low income countries, this studies in Ghana [14,21]. Finally, psychology
is equated with institutional (also called facility) delivery and social barriers are related to community norms and
[3]. Skilled attendance at delivery means having an attitudes toward facility delivery and toward the staff at
accredited health professional, including a midwife, doctor, the facility [3,17]. These barriers to health care have
or nurse, who has been trained in the skills needed been demonstrated in various cultural contexts including
to manage a normal or uncomplicated pregnancy and Bangladesh [22], Cambodia [17], Nepal [23], rural Kenya
childbirth and to support the woman in the immediate [13], and Northern Ghana [10] mostly use qualitative
postpartum period. This person should also be able to data or nationally representative data from Demographic
identify, manage and refer complications experienced by and Health Surveys.
the woman or the newborn [4]. Social barriers to institutional delivery, such as community
Numerous studies have demonstrated that in sub- attitudes towards institutional delivery and levels
Saharan Africa, including Ghana, there is often high use of decision-making autonomy among women, have received
of antenatal care services but lower use of institutional much less attention in the literature [24]. Community beliefs
delivery [2,5,6]. For example, the 2008 Ghana Demo- and attitudes about maternal health
graphic and Health Survey (GDHS) showed that more Behaviors have been shown to influence a woman's
than 95% of women who had a birth in the last five years individual decision to seek care. For example, in a study of
received antenatal care from a skilled provider prior to six countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Stephenson and col-
birth [6]. As compared to high antenatal care use, only leagues [25] found that community norms about facility-
57% of women had an institutional delivery and only based delivery and women's decision-making autonomy
59% delivered with a skilled attendant present [6]; simi-lar were potential pathways that influenced the decision to
distinctions are found in the 2011 Multiple Indicator deliver a child in a health facility. In rural Tanzania,
Cluster Survey [2]. Wide variability in institutional delivery community beliefs that facility delivery is important for the
and skilled attendance at delivery was observed by health of the mother and baby were associated with use of
region of residence with the Northern region having the facility-based delivery [26]. In a separate study among the
lowest percentage of women delivering in a facility and same population in Tanzania, male partners' opinions
the Central region falling in the middle on percentage of about institutional delivery were associated with actual in-
births in a facility [6]; these are the two regions covered stitutional delivery, such as that spouses who disagreed about
in this study. the importance of institutional delivery were less likely to
A number of studies using the GDHS demonstrated have one compared to spouses who agreed that delivering
important demographic- and policy-level factors associated in a health facility was important [27]. In rural Mali,
with institutional delivery [7-9]. Recent global studies have mothers-in-law's beliefs and attitudes were demonstrated
examined common barriers to antenatal care to have an influence on their daughters-in-law's maternal
and institutional delivery [3,10-17]. Much of this research health care-seeking behaviors [28].
has focused on transportation, distance, and cost Previous studies have also shown that women's
[13,15,16]. A recent qualitative study by Matsuoka and decision-making autonomy is associated with the use
colleagues in Cambodia (2010) demonstrated five types of health facilities for delivery. In Nigeria, women with
of barriers to utilization of government maternal health greater decision-making autonomy were more likely to be
services [17]. These barriers were: financial; physical; delivered in a health facility, which may indicate that these
cognitive; organizational; and psychological and social. women were better able to advocate for and access a
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health facilities for childbirth [29]. In Bangladesh, house-holds Multiple survey instruments were used at baseline and
in which husbands made decisions alone were associated midline, including a household survey, a community leader
with less use of antenatal care and skilled delivery surveys, and facility surveys (with clients, providers, traditional
care compared to households that practiced joint decision- birth attendants, and chemical sellers). This analysis
making [30]. The relationship between women's decision- focuses on the household survey data. The purpose of the
making autonomy and use of maternal health services may household survey was to obtain information on knowledge,
be due to women's power to realize their preferences, attitudes and practices regarding maternal and child health
which includes a stronger preference for ensuring their services.
own health [31]. Although some studies have demonstrated The household survey used the 30-by-N cluster sample
the importance of community norms and women's design; this method is commonly used in child survival
decision-making autonomy on the decision to deliver in a programs [25,32]. Cluster sampling is efficient
health facility, there have been several studies that have looked sampling method because it provides a means to obtain
at the two pathways together and examined the ways in a representative sample from the region without under-taking
which community norms and household decision-making a census of households in the community. How-ever, cluster
autonomy interact with one another. sampling leads to biased standard errors
This study contributes to our understanding of autonomy due to the correlation between observations from the
and social barriers to institutional delivery in Ghana same cluster. We explain our approach to accounting
using recently collected quantitative data from two regions of for the biased standard errors in the analysis section.
Ghana. Because the focus of the study was to The overall sampling strategy was designed to meet the
obtain information on barriers to institutional delivery evaluation objectives for the Maternal and Newborn Re-ferrals
and women's referral experiences, this study includes a Project [18]. At baseline, the goal was to include
large sample of women who recently delivered a child, a large sample of recently pregnant women (pregnant in
providing rich information on barriers to institutions the last 12 months) to identify their experiences with
delivery in these regions. The objectives of this study are pregnancy, childbirth, and newborn health. Thus, we
to examine whether women's decision-making roles and used a 30-by-7 sampling approach to identify thirty clusters
their perceptions about social support for facility delivery, per region (thirty from the three districts in the
measured at the individual and community levels, Northern region and thirty from the three districts in
are associated with women's actual place of delivery in the Central region), and seven recently pregnant women
Ghana. Next, we examine how the relationship in each cluster were randomly selected for interview.
between community-level attitudes and institutional delivery Random selection of clusters was undertaken from an
differences for households in which women have a say exhaustive list of communities in the six study districts.
in their own health care and those that don't. The recently pregnant women were randomly sampled
from a list of all recently pregnant women in the community
Methods (determined through interviews with community
Data collection leaders and health workers in the community). To supplement
The cross-sectional data for this study came from base-line the sample of 210 recently pregnant women per
and midline surveys that were used during the region, we also included 14 nearby neighbor women
evaluation of the Maternal and Newborn Referrals Project of (ages 15–49) who may or may not have been recently
Project Fives Alive in the Northern and Central pregnant to permit an examination of maternal and
Regions of Ghana. The Maternal and Newborn Referrals newborn health knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of
project is being implemented by the Institute for Healthcare women in the community. At midline, the same 30-by-N cluster
Improvement (IHI), the National Catholic Health Service design was employed, however, a new sample
(NCHS) and the Ghana Health Service (GHS). The evaluation of communities was drawn from the same districts. US
is being led by the University of North Carolina at with the baseline survey, in all selected clusters, seven
Chapel Hill and the University of Ghana. Baseline data were recently pregnant women were surveyed as well as 14
collected between May and June 2012 to help design the nearby neighbors.
project and midline data were collected between October For the purpose of this study, which uses baseline and
and November 2013 to help strengthen project implementation. midline data, and accounting for plausible design effects,
Since the focus of this study is not significant our sample size is adequate to obtain precise estimates
affected by the interventions implemented as part of the of our key outcomes (institutional delivery). A total of
Maternal and Newborn Referrals Project and there 2,527 women were interviewed in the two rounds of data
were delays in project initiation until July, 2013, the collection (1,267 women were interviewed at baseline
baseline and midline data were merged to provide a large and a new sample of 1,260 women were interviewed at
cross-sectional sample. midline). This analysis of institutional delivery focuses
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on a sub-sample of the 2,527 women interviewed, which These community-level responses were calculated by
excludes women who did not have a birth in the last time creating an average value of all women living in the cluster,
three years, were not in union, or had missing information removing each individual woman from the calculation. A
on the key variables of interest. Thus the final analysis similar approach was undertaken for the community-level
sample was 1,606 women. men's attitude and the community-level mother-in-law's
Ethics review approval for the study was obtained by attitude.
the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the All models control for demographic factors previously
Ghana Health Service. Informed consent was obtained found to be associated with facility delivery including
from all study participants. age, education, ethnicity, employment status, religion,
parity, wealth, region, and time period (baseline or mid-line)
Variables [24]. See Table 1 for a description of these variables.
The key dependent variable for this analysis is the place of The wealth variable was created based on three house-
delivery of the last birth in the last three years. Women hold characteristics: type of toilet, type of fuel used in
who delivered in a health facility are coded one, whereas the household, and location of the kitchen. Households
all women who delivered at home or in the home of with a non-improved toilet facility (as defined in the
Ghana DHS), that use wood for their source of fuel, and
someone-one else (eg, a relative or a health worker) are coded zero
(ie, non-institutional delivery). that have a kitchen outside their household were coded as
The main independent variables for this analysis focus being the poorest household. Households with two out of
on decision-making autonomy and attitudes toward three of these lower quality scenarios were considered to
institutional delivery. First, all women were asked: “Who be medium, and household with none or just one of these
usually makes decisions about health care for you?” lower quality scenarios were considered to be the richest.
Women who reported that they made the decisions This is the same approach that was used in an earlier
alone or make the decisions jointly with their partner analysis of health insurance effects on facility delivery using
were the reference group (high decision-making autonomy), these same data [18]. In the full sample, based on this
and were compared to women who reported that classification, about 40% of the women were in the poorest
their partner makes the decision alone (low decision-making category, 40% in the medium category, and only 19% were
autonomy). A third category was also created for in the richest category (see Table 1). It's worth noting that
the small number of women who reported that someone use of antenatal care (ANC) during the pregnancy was not
else makes the decision. The other independent variables included as an independent variable in the reduced form
of interest are attitudes toward institutional delivery, models presented. Previous research has demonstrated
represented by three separate questions. First, all women that use of ANC is endogenous and would introduce bias
were asked: “How many women do you think in your into the models presented [33].
community deliver their baby in a health facility?” Re-sponse
options were: none, some, most, and all (coded Analysis
1–4); the small number of women who reported “don't We use bivariate analyzes to examine the association be-
know” (n = 114) were dropped from the analysis. Second, tween the key independent variables and institutional de-
women were asked: “In your opinion, what percentage livery, controlling for key demographic variables described
of men in your community are supportive of facility delivery?” earlier and adjusting for the clustered survey design. Be-
Response options were: no men, few men, some cause the dependent variable of interest (institutional deliv-
men, most men, and all men (coded 1–5); the 149 ery) is binary, and we are interested in both individual and
women who reported “don't know” were dropped from community-level attitudes, we use multi-level logistics
the analysis. Finally women were asked: “In your opinion, regression models. To examine if the relationship between
what percentage of mothers-in-law in your community is community-level attitudes and institutional delivery differ
supportive of facility delivery?” Response options by women's decision-making autonomy, we use models
were: no mothers-in-law, some mothers-in-law, most with cross-level interactions between community-level
mothers-in-law, and all mothers-in-law (coded 1–4); the attitudes and individual-level autonomy. Since the interactions
172 women who reported “don't know” were dropped cannot be evaluated by looking at the sign, magnitude, or
from the analysis. statistical significance of the odds ratio for nonlinear
To examine community-level attitudes toward facility models [34], we plot the interaction using the margins
delivery, we also created comparable variables at the command in Stata 13. All regression analyzes adjust for the
community-level for each of the three attitude questions. clustered survey design by including robust standard errors
In particular, for each woman, we calculated the average in Stata 13 statistical software. Regression results are pre-
response on how many women in the community she sent by showing the odds ratios and the 95% confidence
perceived had delivered their baby in a health facility. intervals.
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Table 1 Characteristics of total sample (baseline and midline), recent birth sample, and analysis sample from Ghana
evaluation of Maternal and Newborn Referrals Project, 2012, 2013
Characteristics Full samples Recent birth sample (birth in the Analysis sample (in union, birth in the last
last 3 years) 3 years, no missing information)

Percent Number (n = 2527*) Percent Number (n = 1840*) Percent Number (n = 1606)

Age:

<19 7.8 196 7.5 138 4.7 76

20-24 23.7 597 25.4 468 23.4 375

25-34 44.7 1,127 48.7 896 51.9 833

35-49 23.9 604 18.4 338 20.1 322

Education:

None 47.4 1,199 45.3 835 50.0 803

Primary 20.1 508 20.5 378 18.4 295

Secondary or higher 32.4 819 34.2 629 31.6 508

Ethnicity:

Will 47.9 1,210 50.3 926 45.6 732

Mole-Dagbani 32.1 811 30.8 568 34.5 554

Konkomba 9.6 242 8.9 164 9.3 150

Other 10.4 264 10.0 184 10.6 170

Working status:

Unpaid/unemployed 58.3 Self 1,474 59.3 1,092 57.7 927

employed 38.1 964 37.1 684 38.7 622

Paid work 3.5 89 3.6 66 3.6 57

Religion:

Christian 56.0 1,414 58.1 1,071 54.4 874

Muslim 29.8 752 28.1 517 30.7 493

None/traditional/other 14.3 361 13.8 254 14.9 239

Marital status:

Not currently in union 15.1 381 12.7 234 0.0 0

Currently in union 84.9 2,146 87.3 1,608 100.0 1606

Parity:

0 4.9 124 0.0 0 0 0

1 20.8 526 23.2 427 18.4 296

2 15.7 397 17.9 329 17.3 277

3 14.0 352 14.9 275 16.2 260

4 12.7 322 13.1 242 14.2 228

5 9.6 242 9.9 183 10.9 175

6+ 22.3 564 21.0 386 23.0 370

Regions:

Central 50.1 1,267 52.6 968 48.0 770

Northern 49.9 1,260 47.5 874 52.1 836

Wealth category

Poorest 40.4 1,022 40.5 745 41.5 667

Medium 40.3 1,019 40.3 742 39.3 631

Richest 19.2 486 19.3 355 19.2 308

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Table 1 Characteristics of total sample (baseline and midline), recent birth sample, and analysis sample from Ghana
evaluation of Maternal and Newborn Referrals Project, 2012, 2013 (Continued)
Time

Baseline 50.1 1,267 45.7 841 45.8 735

Midline 49.9 1,260 54.3 1011 54.2 871

*The sample size is slightly smaller for some variables that had missing data.

Results of men's opinions of facility delivery indicates that the

Table 1 presents the descriptive characteristics of three majority of women (about 70%) believe that most men
sample populations: the full sample (n = 2,527), the sample or all men are supportive of facility delivery. About 30%
of women who had a recent birth (n = 1,840), and of women report that no men, few men and some men
the final analysis sample of women in union who had a are supportive of facility delivery. Third, women's perceptions
recent birth and had non-missing information on all of mothers-in-law's opinions are similar to
study variables (n = 1,606). Women who weren't in women's perceptions of men's opinions of facility deliv-ery.
union were dropped from the analysis since one of the Fourth, about half of the women report that they
key independent variables on autonomy was specifically Alone, or with their partner, make decisions about themselves
about decision-making in union. The only difference observed own health care. Forty-seven percent of women report
between the full sample and the final analysis that their husband alone makes these health care decisions
sample is that the analysis sample is made up of a and only 4% report that someone else makes these
greater percentage of women from the midline sample. decisions. When comparing the attitude and autonomy
At midline, the study recruited a greater number of recently variables by whether or not the woman has a facility delivery,
pregnant women in the neighbor sample, increasing the a significant difference is found in the expected
proportion of the sample from midline in the direction, such that those women who have a delivery facility
recently pregnant sample. More than two-fifths of the have attitudes that are more supportive of facility
women surveyed for this study were uneducated, and delivery than those women who do not have a facility
more than two-fifths are of Akan and one-third is of delivery.
Mole-Dagbani ethnicity. More than half of the women Table 3 presents the odds ratios and 95% confidence
are unemployed or doing unpaid work. More than half intervals for the analysis of having a delivery facility compared
of the sample is Christian, and a little less than a third is to not having a delivery facility among women in
Muslim. In the analysis sample, all women had at union who had a birth in the last three years. The key
least one birth (since the outcome is the place of delivery of variables of interest to this analysis are at the bottom of the
the last birth) with about equal proportions having one, table. Note that because of high correlation between the
two, or three births. Twenty-three percent of the women attitude variables (eg, attitudes about facility delivery for
have had six or more births. Finally, the full sample is all women, attitudes about men's support for facility delivery
evenly divided between the Central and Northern regions, and attitudes about mother-in-law's support for facility
whereas the analysis sample includes a larger delivery), models were run separately for each of these in-
percentage of women from the Northern region; this may dependent variables.
be suggestive of more pregnancies among women in Model 1 demonstrates that women who perceive that
union in the Northern region. To assess if differences be- a greater number of women in their community deliver
tween the baseline and midline samples are influencing in a facility are significantly more likely to have delivered
the results, we re-ran the regression analyzes with only the their last birth in a facility (OR: 1.83; 95% CI: 1.53-2.19)
baseline sample; the results were similar for the key compared to women who think fewer women deliver in
independent variables of interest (results not shown). a facility. Furthermore, women who report that someone
Table 2 presents the distribution of the key independent other than herself or her spouse makes decisions about
variables (perceptions about facility delivery and her own health care were more likely to deliver in a facility
decision-making autonomy) in the analysis sample and (OR: 2.22; 95% CI: 1.09-4.53) compared to women
then by whether or not the woman has a facility delivery. who are involved in the decision-making process. This
First, women's attitudes toward how many women variable is not significant in the other models and may
deliver in a health facility indicates that more than half of merit consideration in future analyses. Community-level
women report that most women deliver in a health facility attitude toward facility delivery is also significant in
(52%), and another 13% report that all women deliver Model 1 indicating that, controlling for the woman's own
in a facility. About 35% of women report none or some attitude toward the number of women who deliver in a facility,
women deliver in a facility. Second, women's perceptions women who live in communities where more women
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Table 2 Attitudes toward facility delivery and who makes decisions in the household and distribution by whether the
woman had a delivery facility in Ghana 2012, 2013
Characteristics Analysis samples Distribution by whether
(in union with Had a delivery facility for
recent birth)* last birth

Percent Number Non-facility delivery Delivery facilities

(47.0%) (53.0%)

How many women do you think in your

community deliver their baby in a health facility?

None 5.7 87 10.7 1.3

Some 29.1 446 40.1 19.7

Most 52.4 803 43.4 60.1

All 12.9 197 5.8 18.9***

In your opinion, what percentage of men in your

community are supportive of facility delivery?

No. men 1.9 29 4.0 0.1

Few men 11.5 174 17.7 6.2

Some men 17.0 257 20.8 13.7

Most men 52.8 797 46.9 57.9

All men 16.8 253 10.6 22.1***

In your opinion, what percentage of mothers-in-laws in your community are

supportive of facility delivery?

No mothers-in-law 3.9 59 7.6 0.8

Some mothers-in-law 29.8 446 37.4 23.2

Most mothers-in-law 51.2 767 44.0 57.4

All mothers-in-law 15.1 227 11.1 18.7***

Who usually makes decisions about health care for you:

Woman alone/both partners 49.3 791 39.9 57.5

Husband only 46.6 748 57.7 36.7

Other 4.2 67 2.4 5.8***

*Note, those who reported “don't know” to the attitude questions were dropped, this was 114 for the question on community attitudes; 149 for the question on men's
attitudes; and 172 for the question on mothers-in-law attitudes. Significance testing compares facility delivery to non-facility delivery. ***F-test p value ÿ0.001.

perceive higher use of facility delivery are more likely to more likely to have a delivery facility than all others
deliver in a facility than women who live in communities (OR: 3.70; 95% CI: 2.27-6.05). Model 4, which adds an
where women perceive fewer facility deliveries (OR: 4.13; interaction term between women's decision-making
95% CI: 2.49-6.85). The patterns for the key variables of autonomy and men's community-level attitudes, shows that
interest remained the same in Model 2 and there was no the effect of the husband making the decision alone be-
significant interaction between decision-making autonomy comes more important (and remains negative), especially
and community-level attitudes. for women with less male support for facility
Models 3 and 4 tell a slightly different story. In Models delivery at the community-level (OR: 0.04; 95% CI: 0.01-
3, women who perceive that more men are supportive of 0.32). The interaction, depicted in Figure 1, shows that
delivery facilities are significantly more likely to deliver in when husbands make decisions alone and community
a facility (OR: 1.36; 95% CI: 1.18-1.55). Additionally, attitudes toward men's support are low, the predicted
women who report that the husband alone makes probability of facility delivery is low. conversely, when
decisions about her health care are significantly less likely to community attitudes toward men's support are high,
have a facility delivery than women who report that she whether the husbands make decisions alone or not, the
is involved in decision-making (OR: 0.74; 95% CI: 0.58- probability of facility delivery is higher and more similar
0.96). Model 3 also shows that controlling for women's to when the wife is involved in health care decisions.
own attitudes toward men's support for facility delivery, Finally, Models 5 and 6 provide similar findings.
women who live in communities where men are perceived Specifically, Model 5 shows that women who perceive that
to have significantly more positive attitudes more mothers-in-law are supportive of facility delivery
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Table 3 Logistic regression odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals of association between attitudes and
decision-making autonomy and whether a woman delivered a recent birth in a facility, Ghana, 2012, 2013
Characteristics Delivery facilities Delivery facilities Delivery facilities Delivery facilities Delivery facilities Delivery facilities
vs. non-facilities vs. non-facilities vs. non-facilities vs. non-facilities vs. non-facilities vs. non-facilities
delivery delivery delivery delivery delivery delivery

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6

Time

Baseline 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Midline 1.20 (0.80-1.81) 1.21 (0.81-1.81) 0.83 (0.56-1.25) 0.85 (0.57-1.27) 0.84 (0.55-1.28) 0.86 (0.56-1.32)

Age:

<25 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

25-34 1.00 (0.71-1.39) 1.00 (0.71-1.40) 1.06 (0.77-1.46) 1.07 (0.77-1.47) 1.00 (0.73-1.37) 1.00 (0.73-1.38)

35-49 1.17 (0.74-1.85) 1.18 (0.74-1.86) 1.24 (0.79-1.93) 1.26 (0.81-1.98) 1.13 (0.75-1.71) 1.15 (0.76-1.74)

Education:

None 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Primary 1.40 (0.94-2.09)+ 1.41 (0.94-2.10)+ 1.31 (0.92-1.88) 1.32 (0.92-1.90) 1.43 (1.01-2.03)* 1.45 (1.02-2.07)*

Secondary or higher 1.92 (1.27-2.92)** 1.93 (1.27-2.92)** 2.04 (1.40-2.96)*** 2.06 (1.42-2.99)*** 2.21 (1.52-3.23)*** 2.26 (1.55-3.30)***

Ethnicity:

Will 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Mole-Dagbani 1.43 (0.43-4.84) 1.40 (0.41-4.72) 1.25 (0.34-4.61) 1.15 (0.32-4.20) 1.51 (0.45-5.09) 1.47 (0.44-4.93)

Konkomba 5.31 (1.69-16.69)** 5.43 (1.74-16.96)** 3.25 (0.97-10.88)+ 3.33 (1.01-10.95)* 2.34 (0.74-7.36) 2.40 (0.77-7.46)

Other 1.45 (0.60-3.51) 1.45 (0.60-3.48) 1.35 (0.56-3.27) 1.30 (0.55-3.12) 1.49 (0.67-3.31) 1.46 (0.66-3.24)

Working status:

Unpaid/unemployed Self- 0.75 (0.57-1.00)+ 0.76 (0.57-1.01)+ 0.80 (0.61-1.06) 0.81 (0.62-1.07) 0.72 (0.55-0.95)* 0.73 (0.56-0.96)*

employed/paid work 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Religion:

Christian 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Muslim 1.34 (0.67-2.66) 1.33 (0.67-2.63) 1.25 (0.57-2.77) 1.23 (0.57-2.70) 1.25 (0.58-2.72) 1.23 (0.57-2.64)

None/traditional/other 0.53 (0.33-0.86)** 0.53 (0.33-0.86)** 0.50 (0.30-0.83)** 0.51 (0.31-0.84)** 0.47 (0.30-0.75)** 0.47 (0.29-0.75)***

Parity (continuous): 0.95 (0.92-0.98)** 0.95 (0.92-0.98)** 0.95 (0.92-0.98)** 0.95 (0.92-0.98)** 0.96 (0.93-0.99)** 0.96 (0.93-0.99)**

Regions:

Central 2.83 (0.96-8.33)+ 2.73 (0.92-8.09)+ 1.98 (0.62-6.39) 1.84 (0.57-5.93) 2.15 (0.72-6.44) 2.06 (0.68-6.23)

Northern 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Wealth category

Poorest 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Medium 1.30 (0.99-1.72)+ 1.30 (0.98-1.72)+ 1.24 (0.93-1.63) 1.21 (0.91-1.61) 1.28 (0.97-1.68)+ 1.26 (0.96-1.67)

Richest 1.93 (1.32-2.82)*** 1.93 (1.32-2.83)*** 1.87 (1.25-2.81)** 1.87 (1.24-2.81)** 1.94 (1.29-2.90)*** 1.95 (1.30-2.92)***

Decision-making
about woman's healthcare

Woman/joint 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

decision-making

Husband alone 0.81 (0.63-1.05) 0.37 (0.07-1.99) 0.74 (0.58-0.96)* 0.04 (0.01-0.32)** 0.73 (0.57-0.94)* 0.08 (0.01-0.50)**

Other 2.22 (1.09-4.53)* 5.73 (0.14-227.93) 1.65 (0.82-3.31) 0.41 (0.01-23.09) 1.77 (0.83-3.76) 1.11 (0.03-42.74)

Perceived number of 1.83 (1.53-2.19)*** 1.84 (1.53-2.20)*** Na Na Na Na

women that delivery
in facility
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Table 3 Logistic regression odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals of association between attitudes and
decision-making autonomy and whether a woman delivered a recent birth in a facility, Ghana, 2012, 2013 (Continued)
Perception of men's Na Na 1.36 (1.18-1.55)*** 1.36 (1.19-1.56)*** Na Na
attitude toward
delivery facility

Perception of MIL Na Na Na Na 1.40 (1.18-1.65)*** 1.41 (1.19-1.66)***

attitude toward
delivery facility

Community attitudes
Attitudes toward 4.13 (2.49-6.85)*** 3.62 (2.02-6.51)*** Na Na Na Na
number that delivery
in facility
Men's attitudes toward Na Na 3.70 (2.27-6.05)*** 2.48 (1.47-4.19)*** Na Na
delivery facility
MIL toward attitudes Na Na Na Na 3.46 (1.85-6.45)*** 2.20 (1.11-4.34)*
delivery facility
Interactions

Community attitude Na 1.33 (0.72-2.45) Na 2.14 (1.26-3.62)** Na 2.25 (1.15-4.42)*

*Husband alone decides

Community attitude Na 0.70 (0.19-2.59) Na 1.45 (0.50-4.22) Na 1.18 (0.30-4.62)

*Other decide

Na – not applicable for that model. Sample size slightly smaller than full sample since small number of missing observations were dropped for perception
questions by model.
+p ÿ 0.10; *p ÿ 0.05; **p ÿ 0.01; ***p ÿ 0.001.

are more likely to deliver in a facility and women with low law's community-level attitudes. The interaction, depic-ted
decision-making autonomy are less likely to deliver in a in Figure 2, demonstrates that women who have low
facility. Furthermore, controlling for women's own attitudes decision-making autonomy (husbands make decisions
toward mothers-in-law's support for facility delivery, alone) have a lower predicted probability of a facility delivery
women living in communities where there is greater when community attitudes toward mothers-in-law's
perceived support for facility delivery by mothers-in-law are support for facility delivery is low. When community
more likely to deliver in a facility than all others (OR: 3.46; attitudes toward mothers-in-law's support are higher, the
95% CI: 1.85-6.45). Model 6 includes the interaction be- the effect of lower decision-making autonomy is more similar
tween women's decision-making autonomy and mother-in- to when women have higher decision-making autonomy.
1 0 8.
6.
4.
2.
ytiliybryaetbviliolcerfaP
of
d

12345 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5

Community perceptions about men's attitudes on women delivering in facilities

Woman/joint Husband only

Figure 1 Adjusted predictions at representative values with 95% confidence intervals for Model 4. Community perceptions of husbands'
attitudes toward facility delivery by decision-making autonomy.
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1 0 8.
6.
4.
2.
ytiliybryaetbviliolcerfaP
of
d

1 2.5 4 1.5 2 3 3.5

Community perceptions about MIL's attitudes on women delivering in facility

Woman/joint Husband only

Figure 2 Adjusted predictions at representative values with 95% confidence intervals for Model 6. Community perceptions of mother-in-law's
attitudes toward facility delivery by decision-making autonomy.

Discussion levels (including perceived attitudes of husband's and

Using this unique data, we find that supportive mothers-in-law).
community-level attitudes are associated with greater odds Our findings corroborated findings from two previous
of facility delivery, even after controlling for a woman's studies that have shown that support for facility deliver-ies by
own perceptions about community attitudes. Additionally, mothers-in-law and husbands is associated with
women with lower decision-making autonomy regarding institutional delivery [27,28]. White and colleagues [28]
their own health care have lower odds of facility delivery found similar results in that women in rural Mali whose
compared to women who are involved in health care decisions. mothers-in-law agreed with traditional and cultural
In models that include community-level attitudes practices were less likely to deliver in a health facility.
about men's and mothers-in-law's support for facility delivery, The traditional views of mothers-in-law may contradict
the interaction between autonomy and community more contemporary views of pregnancy and childbirth.
attitudes is significant indicating that women with low Contrary to our results, rural Malian women's own perceptions
decision-making autonomy who also live in communities of delivery practices of women in the community, and the
that is less supportive of facility delivery is the least perceptions of their husbands, were not
likely to have a delivery facility. conversely, women who associated with place of delivery. Furthermore, Danforth
have low decision-making autonomy who live in communities and colleagues [27] found that spousal agreement about
that are more supportive of facility delivery are more the place of delivery was associated with facility delivery
similar to women with high decision-making autonomy. in rural Tanzania. This evidence supports our notion
Therefore, perceived men's and mothers-in-law's community that the opinions of both partners are important when
attitudes are influential, even for the least empowered deciding where to deliver their child.
women. Previous studies that have explored community-level
Previous studies have also demonstrated that there are Attitudes about delivery facilities did not have the same
psychological and social barriers to mother and child amount of detail that our study provides. Kruk and col-leagues
health services [3,10,17]. These studies have generally [26] showed that women's perceptions of the importance of
focused on qualitative data whereas our study uses quantitative facility delivery at the village level were
data to demonstrate similar influences. Our findings associated with facility delivery, controlling for women's
are consistent with other studies from Ghana that used individual perceptions. However, they did not provide
Demographic and Health Survey data in terms of demo-graphic information on the perceptions of other influential people in
characteristics associated with facility delivery the woman's social network, including her husband and
[7,8]. However, our study is unique because of its focus on her mother-in-law. Stephenson and colleagues [25] used
maternal and child health care utilization with specific community-level variables to predict facility delivery in six
questions on attitudes toward facility delivery at multiple African countries, but the variables they used were proxies
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for community norms and gender dynamics. For example, This study is not without limitations. First, this is a
they used female educational attainment and level of facility cross-sectional study and therefore it is not possible to
delivery to approximate social norms related to the determine the direction of causality. Possibly, women
power of women and facility delivery, respectively. Our who delivers in a health facility becomes more favorable
study builds upon these results by using indicators that toward facility delivery after the fact rather than their at-titudes
provide a more direct assessment of perceived community toward facility delivery influencing their delivery
norms and women's decision-making autonomy. behaviors. Therefore, we are only able to show associations
There have been mixed results related to the association with the available data. To better understand if attitudes
between women's decision-making autonomy and the use influence behavior, it would be necessary to
of maternal and child health services. Studies on women's have longitudinal data on women's attitudes toward facility
decision-making power have shown associations between delivery prior to any pregnancy experience. The
higher decision-making autonomy and increased antenatal care second limitation with these data is that we are using
care use [23,30], having a normal body mass index [35], perceived attitudes of men and mothers-in-law. Unfortunately,
having a birth preparedness plan [36], childhood immunity data from these influential individuals were not
[23], and sick child care [35]. However, the link-age between collected in this study. That said, there is prior research
women's decision-making autonomy and that shows that perceptions of attitudes and norms are
delivery facility in sub-Saharan Africa is less common important to understand health behaviors [37] and
studied and has shown mixed results [29,30]. In a study might matter more than actual attitudes in influencing
using the 2008 Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, health behaviors [38]. Third, responses of women's attitudes
Moyer and colleagues [3] found that women who did not and their perceptions of their husbands and
participate in decision-making regarding their own health mothers-in-law were correlated which meant that we
care were less likely to deliver in a health facility. However, were not able to determine if one was more influential
when other factors were considered, such as maternal literacy, than the other. Finally, given our use of quantitative
health insurance coverage, and wealth, the association data, it is not possible to answer the question of "why"
between women's decision-making autonomy and and “how” autonomy and community-level attitudes influence
delivery facility was no longer significant. When controlling for behaviors. This can be explored qualitatively
perceptions of mothers-in-law and husbands data that goes into depth on decision-making autonomy
(Table 3, Models 3–6), we find that women who have and community attitudes simultaneously.
lower decision-making autonomy about their own health Future studies of barriers to women's use of facility delivery
care have lower odds of facility delivery compared to in Ghana and elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa
women who are involved in health care decisions. This should consider the role of decision-making autonomy
suggests that there is something unique about household and community norms. To do this correctly will require
dynamics and spousal communication, beyond maternal collecting data from multiple players (eg, women, partners,
education and household wealth, in these two districts in mothers-in-law, and health care providers) as well
Ghana. However, when controlling for perception of as collecting data longitudinally to better understand the
other women, decision-making by someone other than the multiple influences. In particular, over time, women's attitudes
woman or her spouse was significantly related to facility may change as well as community attitudes. Fol-lowing
delivery (Table 3, Model 1). Women in this decision-making communities and women longitudinally will
scenario need to be examined more closely as this permit a determination of which of these are the most
was a rare response with a large confidence interval. important for future program development.
The relationship between women's decision-making
autonomy and facility delivery is even more important when Conclusions
the attitudes and beliefs in the community in which The findings from this study are useful for the Maternal
women live are considered (Figures 1 and 2). The association and Newborn Referrals Project of Project Fives Alive, and
between community norms and facility delivery is other similar maternal and child health programs, to in-form
greater (ie, the slope is steeper) among women whose future strategies to increase the use of institutional
husbands make their health care decisions compared to (or skilled) delivery. First, programs should continue to involve
women who are involved in health care decisions about influential players, including husbands and mothers-in-law,
their own health. This has important implications for the and not just pregnant women. Notably, since the
importance of community norms and how they interact time these data were collected, the Maternal and Newborn
with household gender dynamics. Communities that support Referrals Project of Project Fives Alive has tested strategies
contemporary delivery practices may also be more to engage husbands and mothers-in-law. This has been
supportive of gender equity with regards to household done through community engagement and mobilization
decision-making. led by traditional birth attendants, health staff, and quality
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of this paper came from a subcontract to the University of North Carolina maternal and child health: a mixed methods study. 2014, Under review.
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doi:10.1186/s12884-014-0398-7
Cite this article as: Speizer et al.: Factors associated with institutional
delivery in Ghana: the role of decision-making autonomy and
community norms. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 2014 14:398.

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