Essential Mathematics For Economic Analysis Students Manual 5Th Ed Edition Carvajal Full Chapter

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Student’s Manual
Essential Mathematics for

Economic Analysis
5th edition
Knut Sydsæter
Peter Hammond
Andrés Carvajal
Arne Strøm
For further supporting resources, please visit:

www.mymathlab.com/global
Preface
This Student’s solutions manual accompanies Essential Mathematics for Economic Analysis, 5th
Edition, Pearson, 2016. Its main purpose is to provide more detailed solutions to the problems
marked ⊂ ⊃ in the book. The answers provided in this manual should be used in combination with
SM
any shorter answers provided in the main test. There are a few cases where only part of the answer
is set out in detail, because the rest follows the same pattern.
We would appreciate suggestions for improvements from our readers, as well as help in weeding
out inaccuracies and errors.
Coventry, Davis, and Oslo, April 2016

Peter Hammond ([email protected])
Andrés Carvajal ([email protected])
Arne Strøm ([email protected])
Contents
1 Essentials of Logic and Set Theory 1

Review exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Algebra 2
2.3 Rules of algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.4 Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.5 Fractional powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.6 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.8 Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.11 Double sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Solving Equations 8
3.1 Solving equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Equations and their parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Quadratic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.4 Nonlinear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5 Using implication arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.6 Two linear equations in two unknowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4 Functions of One Variable 12

4.2 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.4 Linear functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.6 Quadratic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.7 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.8 Power functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
i
4.10 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5 Properties of Functions 17
5.3 Inverse functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.4 Graphs of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.5 Distance in the plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.6 General functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6 Differentiation 18
6.2 Tangents and derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.5 A dash of limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.7 Sums, products and quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.8 The chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.10 Exponential functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.11 Logarithmic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7 Derivatives in Use 23
7.1 Implicit differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.2 Economic examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3 Differentiating the inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.4 Linear approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.5 Polynomial approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.6 Taylor’s formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.7 Elasticities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.8 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.9 More on limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
7.10 The intermediate value theorem and Newton’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.12 L’Hôpital’s rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8 Single-variable Optimization 29
8.2 Simple tests for extreme points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.3 Economic examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.4 The extreme value theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.5 Further economic examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.6 Local extreme points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8.7 Inflection points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
9 Integration 34
9.1 Indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
9.2 Area and definite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
ii
9.3 Properties of indefinite integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.4 Economic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.5 Integration by parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
9.6 Integration by substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9.7 Infinite intervals of integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
9.8 A glimpse at differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.9 Separable and linear differential equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
10 Topics in Financial Mathematics 43

10.2 Continuous compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
10.4 Geometric series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
10.7 Internal rate of return . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
11 Functions of Many Variables 45

11.2 Partial derivatives with two variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.3 Geometric representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.5 Functions of more variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
11.6 Partial derivatives with more variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
11.7 Economic applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
11.8 Partial elasticities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
12 Tools for Comparative Statics 47

12.1 A simple chain rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
12.2 Chain rules for many variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
12.3 Implicit differentiation along a level curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.4 More general cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
12.5 Elasticity of substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
12.6 Homogeneous functions of two variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
12.7 Homogeneous and homothetic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
12.8 Linear approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
12.9 Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
12.11Differentiating systems of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
13 Multivariable Optimization 54
13.2 Two variables: sufficient conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
13.3 Local extreme points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
13.4 Linear models with quadratic objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
13.5 The Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
13.6 The general case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
13.7 Comparative statics and the Envelope Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
iii
14 Constrained Optimization 63
14.1 The Lagrange Multiplier method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
14.2 Interpreting the Lagrange Multiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
14.3 Multiple solution candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
14.4 Why the Lagrange method works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
14.5 Sufficient conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.6 Additional variables and constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
14.7 Comparative statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
14.8 Nonlinear programming: a simple case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
14.9 Multiple inequality constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
14.10Nonnegativity constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
15 Matrix and Vector Algebra 77

15.1 Systems of linear equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
15.3 Matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
15.4 Rules for matrix multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
15.5 The transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
15.6 Gaussian elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
15.8 Geometric interpretation of vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
15.9 Lines and planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
16 Determinants and Inverse Matrices 82

16.1 Determinants of order 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
16.2 Determinants of order 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
16.3 Determinants in general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
16.4 Basic rules for determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
16.5 Expansion by cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
16.6 The inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
16.7 A general formula for the inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
16.8 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
17 Linear Programming 89
17.1 A graphical approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
17.2 Introduction to Duality Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
17.3 The Duality Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
17.4 A general economic interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
17.5 Complementary slackness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
iv
1 Essentials of Logic and Set Theory
Review exercises for Chapter 1
3. Consider the Venn diagram for three sets depicted in Fig. SM1.R.3. Let nk denote the number
of students in the set marked (k), for k = 1, 2, . . . , 8. Suppose the sets A, B, and C refer to
those who study English, French, and Spanish, respectively. Since 10 students take all three
languages, n7 = 10. There are 15 who take French and Spanish, so 15 = n2 + n7 , and thus
n2 = 5. Furthermore, 32 = n3 + n7 , so n3 = 22. Also, 110 = n1 + n7 , so n1 = 100. The rest of
the information implies that 52 = n2 + n3 + n6 + n7 , so n6 = 52 − 5 − 22 − 10 = 15. Moreover,
220 = n1 + n2 + n5 + n7 , so n5 = 220 − 100 − 5 − 10 = 105. Finally, 780 = n1 + n3 + n4 + n7 ,
so n4 = 780 − 100 − 22 − 10 = 648. The answers are therefore:
(a) n1 = 100,
(b) n3 + n4 = 648 + 22 = 670,
(c) 1000 − 7i=1 ni = 1000 − 905 = 95.
P
E F
(5)
(1)
(4)
(7)
(2)
(3)
(6)
(8)
S
Figure SM1.R.3
4. (a) ⇒ is true; ⇐ is false, because x = y = 1 also solves x + y = 2.

(b) ⇒ is false, because x2 = 16 also has the solution x = −4; ⇐ true, because if x = 4, then
x2 = 16.
(c) ⇒ is true, because (x − 3)2 ≥ 0; ⇐ false because with y > −2 and x = 3, one has
(x − 3)2 (y + 2) = 0.
(d) ⇒ and ⇐ are both true, since the equation x3 = 8 has the solution x = 2 and no others.1
5. For (a) and (b) see the solutions in the book. For (c), note that when n = 1, the inequality is
obviously correct.2 As the induction hypothesis when n equals the arbitrary natural number k,
suppose that (1 + x)k ≥ 1 + kx. Because 1 + x ≥ 0, we then have
(1 + x)k+1 = (1 + x)k (1 + x) ≥ (1 + kx)(1 + x) = 1 + (k + 1)x + kx2 ≥ 1 + (k + 1)x.
where the last inequality holds because k > 0. Thus, the induction hypothesis holds for
n = k + 1. Therefore, by induction, Bernoulli’s inequality is true for all natural numbers n.
1
In the terminology of Section 6.3, function f (x) = x3 is strictly increasing. See Fig. 4.3.7 and Exercise 6.3.3.
2
And for n = 2, it is correct by part (b).
1
2 Algebra
2.3 Rules of algebra
4. (a) (2t−1)(t2 −2t+1) = 2t(t2 −2t+1)−(t2 −2t+1) = 2t3 −4t2 +2t−t2 +2t−1 = 2t3 −5t2 +4t−1.
(b) (a + 1)2 + (a − 1)2 − 2(a + 1)(a − 1) = (a2 + 2a + 1) + (a2 − 2a + 1) − 2(a2 − 1) = 4.3
(c) (x + y + z)2 = (x + y + z)(x + y + z) = x(x + y + z) + y(x + y + z) + z(x + y + z) =
(x2 + xy + xz) + (yx + y 2 + yz) + (zx + zy + z 2 ) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2xz + 2yz.
(d) Put a = x + y + z and b = x − y − z. Then
(x + y + z)2 − (x − y − z)2 = a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) = 2x(2y + 2z) = 4x(y + z)
2.4 Fractions
1 1 x+2 x−2 x+2−x+2 4
5. (a) − = − = = 2 .
x−2 x+2 (x − 2)(x + 2) (x + 2)(x − 2) (x − 2)(x + 2) x −4
(b) Since 4x + 2 = 2(2x + 1) and 4x2 − 1 = (2x + 1)(2x − 1), the lowest common denominator,
LCD, is 2(2x + 1)(2x − 1). Then,
6x + 25 6x2 + x − 2 (6x + 25)(2x − 1) − 2(6x2 + x − 2) 42x − 21 21

− 2
= = = .
4x + 2 4x − 1 2(2x + 1)(2x − 1) 2(2x + 1)(2x − 1) 2(2x + 1)
18b2 a 18b2 − a(a − 3b) + 2(a2 − 9b2 ) a(a + 3b) a

(c) − + 2 = = = .
a2 − 9b2 a + 3b (a + 3b)(a − 3b) (a + 3b)(a − 3b) a − 3b
1 1 (a + 2) − a 2 1
(d) − = = = .
8ab 8b(a + 2) 8ab(a + 2) 8ab(a + 2) 4ab(a + 2)
2t − t2 −3t2

5t 2t t(2 − t) 3t −t(t − 2) 3t
(e) · − = · = · = .
t+2 t−2 t−2 t+2 t−2 t+2 t−2 t+2
1
a− 1

a 1 − 2a
(f) Note that = 1 2 = 4a − 2, so
0.25 4
1

a 1 − 2a
2− = 2 − (4a − 2) = 4 − 4a = 4(1 − a).
0.25
2 1 2(x + 1) + x − 3x(x + 1) 2 − 3x2

6. (a) + −3= =
x x+1 x(x + 1) x(x + 1)
t t t(2t − 1) − t(2t + 1) −2t
(b) − = = 2
2t + 1 2t − 1 (2t + 1)(2t − 1) 4t − 1
3x 4x 2x − 1 3x(x − 2) + 4x(x + 2) − (2x − 1) 7x2 + 1
(c) − − = = 2
x + 2 2 − x (x − 2)(x + 2) (x − 2)(x + 2) x −4

1 1 1 1
+ + xy
x y x y y+x
(d) The expression equals = = = x + y.
1 1 1
· xy
xy xy
3
Alternatively, apply the quadratic identity x2 + y 2 − 2xy = (x − y)2 with x = a + 1 and y = a − 1 to obtain
(a + 1)2 + (a − 1)2 − 2(a + 1)(a − 1) = [(a + 1) − (a − 1)]2 = 22 = 4.
2

1 1 1 1
− − · x2 y 2
x2 y 2 x2 y 2 y 2 − x2
(e) The expression equals = = 2 .
1 1 y + x2

1 1
+ + · x 2y2
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
(f) To clear the fractions within both the numerator and denominator, multiply both by xy
to get
a(y − x) y−x
=
a(y + x) y+x
−2 −2
1 1 5 4 1 1 1 1
8. (a) − = − = , so − = = 202 = 400.
4 5 20 20 20 4 5 20
n n·n n2 n(n − 1) − n2 n
(b) n − 1 =n− 1
=n− = =− .
1− n 1− n ·n n − 1 n − 1 n − 1
1 1 1 1 1 u
(c) Let u = xp−q . Then p−q
+ q−p
= + = + = 1.
1+x 1+x 1 + u 1 + 1/u 1+u 1+u
(d) Using x2 − 1 = (x + 1)(x − 1), one has

1 1
+ (x2 − 1)
x − 1 x2 − 1 (x + 1) + 1 x+2
= 2 − 1) − 2(x − 1)
= ,
2 x(x (x − 1)[x(x + 1) − 2]
x− (x2 − 1)
x+1
which reduces to
x+2 x+2 1
2
= = .
(x − 1)(x + x − 2) (x − 1)[(x + 2)(x − 1)] (x − 1)2
(e) Since
1 1 x2 − (x + h)2 −2xh − h2
− = = ,
(x + h)2 x2 x2 (x + h)2 x2 (x + h)2
it follows that
1 1
2
− 2
(x + h) x −2x − h
= 2 .
h x (x + h)2
10x2
(f) Multiplying both numerator and denominator by x2 −1 = (x+1)(x−1) yields ,
5x(x − 1)
2x
which reduces to .
x−1
2.5 Fractional powers

5. The answers for each respective part that are given in the book emerge after multiplying both
numerator and denominator by the following terms:
√ √ √ √ √
(a) 7− 5 (b) 5− 3 (c) 3+2
√ √ √ √ √
(d) x y − y x (e) x+h+ x (f) 1 − x + 1
2
11. (a) (2x )2 = 22x , which equals 2x if and only if 2x = x2 , or if and only if x = 0 or x = 2.
3
(b) Correct because ap−q = ap /aq .
(c) Correct because a−p = 1/ap .
(d) 51/x = 1/5x = 5−x if and only if 1/x = −x or −x2 = 1, so there is no real x that satisfies
the equation.
(e) Put u = ax and v = ay , which reduces the equation to uv = u + v, or 0 = uv − u − v =
(u − 1)(v − 1) − 1. This is true only for special values of u and v and so for special values
of x and y. In particular, the equation is false when x = y = 1.
√ √
(f) Putting u = x and v = y reduces the equation to 2u · 2v = 2uv , which holds if and
only if uv = u + v, as in (e) above.
2.6 Inequalities
3. (a) This inequality has the same solutions as
3x + 1 3x + 1 − 2(2x + 4) −x − 7
− 2 > 0, or > 0, or > 0.
2x + 4 2x + 4 2x + 4
A sign diagram reveals that the inequality is satisfied for −7 < x < −2. A serious error
is to multiply the inequality by 2x + 4, without checking the sign of 2x + 4. If 2x + 4 < 0,
mulitiplying by this number will reverse the inequality sign.4
(b) The inequality is equivalent to 120/n ≤ 0.75 = 3/4, or (480 − 3n)/4n ≤ 0. A sign
diagram reveals that the inequality is satisfied for n < 0 and for n ≥ 160.5
(c) This is easy: g(g − 2) ≤ 0 and so 0 ≤ g ≤ 2.
(p − 2) + 3 p+1
(d) Note that p2 − 4p + 4 = (p − 2)2 , so the inequality reduces to 2
= ≥ 0.
(p − 2) (p − 2)2
The fraction makes no sense if p = 2. The conclusion that p ≥ −1 and p 6= 2 follows.
(e) The inequality is equivalent to
−n − 2 −n − 2 − 2n − 8 −3n − 10 10
− 2 > 0 ⇐⇒ > 0 ⇐⇒ > 0 ⇐⇒ −4 < n < −
n+4 n+4 n+4 3
(f) x4 − x2 = x2 (x2 − 1) < 0 ⇐⇒ x 6= 0 and x2 < 1 ⇐⇒ −1 < x < 0 or 0 < x < 1
6. (a) It is easy to see by means of a sign diagram that x(x + 3) < 0 precisely when x lies in
the open interval (−3, 0). Therefore we have ⇒ , but not ⇐: for example, if x = 10,
then x(x + 3) = 130.
(b) x2 < 9 ⇐⇒ −3 < x < 3, so x2 < 9 ⇒ x < 3. If x = −5, for instance, we have x < 3
but x2 > 9, hence we cannot have ⇐ here.
(c) If x > 0, then x2 > 0, but x2 > 0 also when x < 0. So, we have ⇐ but not ⇒.
(d) As y 2 ≥ 0 for any real number y, we have that x > 0 whenever x > y 2 . But x = 1 > 0
does not imply that x > y 2 for y ≥ 1. That is, we have ⇒ but not ⇐ .
4
It could be instructive to test the inequality for some values of x. For example, for x = 0 it is not true. What
about x = −5?
5
Note that for n = 0 the inequality makes no sense. For n = 160, we have equality.
4
√ √ √
9. Note that for any x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0, x − 2 xy + y = ( x − y)2 ≥ 0, which implies that
1 √
(x + y) ≥ xy. (∗)
2
Note also that the inequality is strict unless x = y.
To show that mA ≥ mG , simply let x = a and y = b, so that
1 √
mA = (a + b) ≥ ab = mG ,
2
with strict inequality whenever a 6= b.
To show that mG ≥ mH , use x = 1/a and y = 1/b, so that, from (∗),
r
1 1 1 1 1
+ ≥ · ≥ 0.
2 a b a b
Rearranging, we get that

r !−1
1 1 1 −1

1 1
mH = + ≤ · = mG ,
2 a b a b
where, again, the inequality is strict unless a = b.
2.8 Summation
3. (a)–(d): In each case, look at the last term in the sum and replace n by k to get an expression
for the k th term. Call it sk . Then in (a), (b), and (d) the sum is nk=1 sk , and in (c) we have
P
Pn
k=0 sk .
(e) The coefficients are the powers 3n for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, so the general term is 3n xn .
(f)–(g) See the answers in the Solutions Section of the book.
(h) This is trickier: one has to see that each term is 198 larger than the previous term.6
Pn 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Pn 2
7. (a) Valid: k=1 ck = c · 1 + c · 2 + · · · + c · n = c(1 + 2 + · · · + n ) = c k=1 k .
(b) Wrong, even for n = 2: the left-hand side is (a1 + a2 )2 = a21 + 2a1 a2 + a22 , but the
right-hand side is a21 + a22 , which is different unless a1 a2 = 0.
(c) Valid: both sides equal b1 + b2 + · · · + bN .
(d) Valid: both sides equal 51 + 52 + 53 + 54 + 55 .
(e) Valid: both sides equal a20,j + · · · + a2n−1,j .
(f) Wrong, even for n = 2: the left-hand side is a1 + a2 /2, but the right-hand side is
(1/k)(a1 + a2 ).
6
This problem is related to the story about Gauss in Section 2.9.
5
2.11 Double sums
1. (a) See the solution in the book.
4
2 X
rs 2 rs 2
X
(b) Note first that = 0 when s = 0. So reduces to
r+s r+s
s=0 r=2
2
" 2 2 2 # 2 2 2 2 2 2
X 2s 3s 4s 2 3 4 4 6 8
+ + = + + + + +
2+s 3+s 4+s 3 4 5 4 5 6
s=1
4 9 16 36 16 (4 + 16) · 400 + 9 · 225 + (16 + 36) · 144

which equals + + +1+ + = +1
9 16 25 25 9 3600
8000 + 2025 + 7488 17 513 3113
or +1= +1=5+ .
P3600 3600 P 3600P
(c) Because m n 2 n m m n 2
P P P
i=1 j=1 (i + j ) = j=1P i=1 i + i=1 j=1 j , we can use formulae (2.9.4)
p
and (2.9.5) along with the equality k=1 a = pa to write the sum as
n
X m
X
1 1
1
+ 1) + m 61 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)

2 m(m + 1) + 6 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) = n 2 m(m
j=1 i=1
= 16 mn[3(m + 1) + (n + 1)(2n + 1)] = 16 mn(2n2 + 3n + 3m + 4)
(d) Using formulae (2.9.4) and (2.9.5) again, we get
m X
X 2 m
X m
X m
X
ij = (i + i2 ) = i+ i2 = 21 m(m + 1) + 61 m(m + 1)(2m + 1)
i=1 j=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
1
= 6 m(m + 1)[3 + (2m + 1)] = 16 m(m + 1)(2m + 4) = 13 m(m + 1)(m + 2).
4. ā is the mean of the column means āj , because

n n m m n
!
1X 1X 1 X 1 XX
āj = arj = arj = ā.
n n m mn
j=1 j=1 r=1 r=1 j=1
To prove (∗), note that because arj − ā is independent of the summation index s, it is a
common factor when we sum over s, so m
P Pm
s=1 (arj − ā)(asj − ā) = (arj − ā) s=1 (asj − ā) for
each r. Next, summing over r gives
m X m
"m #" m #
X X X
(arj − ā)(asj − ā) = (arj − ā) (asj − ā) , (∗∗)
r=1 s=1 r=1 s=1
Pm
because s=1 (arj − ā) is a common factor when we sum over r. Using the properties of sums
and the definition of āj , we have
m
X m
X m
X
(arj − ā) = arj − ā = māj − mā = m(āj − ā).
r=1 r=1 r=1
Pm
Similarly, replacing r with s as the index of summation, one also has s=1 (asj − ā) =
m(āj − ā). Substituting these values into (∗∗) then confirms (∗).
6
5. (a) (2x)4 = 24 x4 = 16x4 .
1 1
(b) 2−1 − 4−1 = 2 − 4 = 41 , so (2−1 − 4−1 )−1 = 4.
(c) Cancel the common factor 4x2 yz 2 .
(d) Here −(−ab3 )−3 = −(−1)−3 a−3 b−9 = a−3 b−9 ,
so [−(−ab3 )−3 (a6 b6 )2 ]3 = [a−3 b−9 a12 b12 ]3 = [a9 b3 ]3 = a27 b9 .
a5 · a3 · a−2 a6
(e) = = a3 .
a−3 · a6 a3
3 −3
x 3 8 −3

x 2
(f) · −2 = · 8x = (x5 )−3 = x−15 .
2 x 8
10. Parts (a), (b), (d), (e), and (f) are straightforward; their solutions appear in the book. For
the other parts:
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
(c) − 3 3 − 6 = −3 + 3 6 = −3 + 3 3 2 = −3 + 3 2.
(g) (1 + x + x2 + x3 )(1 − x) = (1 + x + x2 + x3 ) − (1 + x + x2 + x3 )x = 1 − x4 .
(h) (1 + x)4 = (1 + x)2 (1 + x)2 = (1 + 2x + x2 )(1 + 2x + x2 ), and so on.
12. Parts (a) and (b) are easy, so we focus on the others:
(c) ax + ay + 2x + 2y = a(x + y) + 2(x + y) = (a + 2)(x + y).

(d) 2x2 −5yz+10xz−xy = 2x2 +10xz−(xy+5yz) = 2x(x+5z)−y(x+5z) = (2x−y)(x+5z).
(e) p2 − q 2 + p − q = (p − q)(p + q) + (p − q) = (p − q)(p + q + 1).
(f) u3 + v 3 − u2 v − v 2 u = u2 (u − v) + v 2 (v − u) = (u2 − v 2 )(u − v) = (u + v)(u − v)(u − v),
which simplifies to (u + v)(u − v)2 .
s s s(2s + 1) − s(2s − 1) 2s
16. (a) − = = 2 .
2s − 1 2s + 1 (2s − 1)(2s + 1) 4s − 1
x 1−x 24 −x(x + 3) − (1 − x)(x − 3) − 24 −7x − 21 7
(b) − − 2 = = = .
3−x x+3 x −9 (x − 3)(x + 3) (x − 3)(x + 3) 3−x
(c) Multiplying both numerator and denominator by x2 y 2 yields
y−x y−x 1
2 2
= =
y −x (y − x)(y + x) x+y
17. (a) Simply cancel the factor 25ab.

(b) Factor x2 − y 2 = (x + y)(x − y), and then cancel x + y.
(2a − 3b)2 2a − 3b
(c) The fraction can be written as = .
(2a − 3b)(2a + 3b) 2a + 3b
4x − x3 x(4 − x2 ) x(2 − x)(2 + x) x(2 + x)
(d) 2
= 2
= 2
=
4 − 4x + x (2 − x) (2 − x) 2−x
25. Let each side have length s. Then the area K of the equilateral triangle ABC shown in
Fig. SM2.R.25 is the sum of the areas of the three triangles ABP , BCP , and CAP , which
equals 12 sh1 + 21 sh2 + 21 sh3 = K. It follows that h1 + h2 + h3 = 2K/s, which is independent
of where P is placed in the triangle.
7
C
h3 h2 s
s P
h1
A s B
Figure SM2.R.25
29. (a) Using the trick that led to Eq. (2.9.4) in the book,
R= 3+ 5+ 7 + · · · + 197 + 199 + 201

R = 201 + 199 + 197 + · · · + 7+ 5+ 3.
Summing vertically term by term, noting that there are 100 terms, gives
2R = 204 + 204 + 204 + · · · + 204 + 204 + 204 = 100 × 204 = 20400,
and thus R = 10200.

(b) Here one has
S = 1001 + 2002 + 3003 + · · · + 8008 + 9009 + 10010

= 1001(1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + 8 + 9 + 10) = 1001 · 55 = 55055
3 Solving Equations
3.1 Solving equations
3. (a) We note first that x = −3 and x = −4 both make the equation absurd. Multiplying the
equation by the common denominator (x+3)(x+4) yields (x−3)(x+4) = (x+3)(x−4),
i.e. x2 + x − 12 = x2 − x − 12, and thus x = 0.
(b) Multiplying by the common denominator (x − 3)(x + 3) yields 3(x + 3) − 2(x − 3) = 9,
from which we get x = −6.
(c) Multiplying by the common denominator 15x, assuming that x 6= 0, yields 18x2 − 75 =
10x2 − 15x + 8x2 , from which we get x = 5.
5. (a) Multiplying by the common denominator 12 yields 9y − 3 − 4 + 4y + 24 = 36y, and so

y = 17/23.
(b) Multiplying by the common denominator 2x(x + 2) yields 8(x + 2) + 6x = 2(2x + 2) + 7x
and so 14x + 16 = 11x + 4, from which we find that 3x = −12 and so x = −4.
(c) Multiplying both numerator and denominator in the first fraction by 1 − z leads to
2 − 2z − z 6
= .
(1 − z)(1 + z) 2z + 1
Multiplying each side of the equation by (1 − z 2 )(2z + 1) yields (2 − 3z)(2z + 1) = 6 − 6z 2 .
This simplifies to 2 + z − 6z 2 = 6 − 6z 2 whose only solution is z = 4.
8
(d) Expanding all the parentheses gives
p 3 1 p 1 p 1
− − + − + =− .
4 8 4 12 3 3 3
Multiplying by the common denominator 24 gives the equation 6p − 9 − 6 + 2p − 8 + 8p =
−8, whose solution is p = 15/16.
3.2 Equations and their parameters

2. (a) Multiply both sides by abx to obtain b + a = 2abx. Hence,

b+a b a 1 1 1
x= = + =2 + .
2ab 2ab 2ab a b
(b) Multiply the equation by cx + d to obtain ax + b = cAx + dA, or (a − cA)x = dA − b,

and thus x = (dA − b)/(a − cA) provided that a 6= cA.
(c) Multiply the equation by x1/2 to obtain 12 p = wx1/2 . Thus x1/2 = p/2w and so, after
squaring each side, x = p2 /4w2 .
√
(d) Multiply each side by 1 + x to obtain 1 + x + ax = 0, so x = −1/(1 + a).
(e) x2 = b2 /a2 , so x = ±b/a provided that a 6= 0.
(f) We see immediately that x = 0.
4. (a) αx − a = βx − b if and only if (α − β)x = a − b, so x = (a − b)/(α − β) provided that

α 6= β.
√
(b) Squaring each side of pq = 3q + 5 yields pq = (3q + 5)2 , so p = (3q + 5)2 /q provided
that q 6= 0.
(c) Y = 94 + 0.2[Y − (20 + 0.5Y )] = 94 + 0.2Y − 4 − 0.1Y , so 0.9Y = 90, implying that
Y = 100.
r
(d) Raise each side to the fourth power to obtain K 2 K = Q4 , so K 3 = 2wQ4 /r, and
1/3 2w
hence K = 2wQ4 /r .
(e) Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the left-hand fraction by 4K 1/2 L3/4 leads
to 2L/K = r/w, from which we get L = rK/2w.
1 4 −1
(f) Raise each side to the fourth power to obtain 16 p K (r/2w) = r4 . It follows that
1 4 −3 −1
K = 32 p r w .
3.3 Quadratic equations

3. These results are straightforward and can be found in the book. To illustrate the process,
√ √ √
let us consider part (d): First, rewrite the equation as r2 + ( 3 − 2)r − 6 = 0, and then
9
apply the formula to obtain
√ √ q√ √ √
−( 3 − 2) ± ( 3 − 2)2 − 4 · 1 · (− 6)
r=
q 2·1
√ √ √ √

1
= − 3+ 2± 3−2 6+2+4 6
2
√ √ √
q
1
= − 3+ 2± 3+2 6+2
2
√ √ q√ √

1 2
= − 3 + 2 ± ( 3 + 2)
2
1 √ √ √ √
= − 3 + 2 ± ( 3 + 2) ,
2
√ √ √ √
so the solutions are r = 2 2 2 = 2 and r = − 21 2 3 = − 3.
1
5. (a) See the solution in the book.

(b) If the smaller of the two natural numbers is n, then the larger is n+1, so the requirement
is that n2 + (n + 1)2 = 13. This reduces to 2n2 + 2n − 12 = 0, i.e. n2 + n − 6 = 0, with
solutions n = −3 and n = 2, so the two numbers are 2 and 3.7
(c) If the shorter side has length x, then the other side has length x + 14. According to
Pythagoras’s Theorem one has x2 + (x + 14)2 = 342 , or x2 + 14x − 480 = 0. The only
positive solution is x = 16, and then x + 14 = 30.
(d) If the usual driving speed is s km/h and the usual time spent is t hours, then st = 80.
Since 16 minutes is 16/60 = 4/15 hours, driving at the speed s + 10 km/h for s − 4/15
hours gives (s + 10)(t − 4/15) = 80. From the first equation, t = 80/s. Inserting this
into the second equation, we get (s + 10)(80/s − 4/15) = 80. Rearranging, we obtain
s2 + 10s − 3000 = 0, whose only positive solution is s = 50. So his usual driving speed
is 50 km/h.
3.4 Nonlinear equations

2. (a) The numerator 5 + x2 is never 0, so there are no solutions.
x2 + 1 + 2x (x + 1)2
(b) The equation is obviously equivalent to 2
= 0, or 2 = 0, so x = −1.
x +1 x +1
(c) Because x = −1 is clearly not a solution, we can multiply the equation by (x + 1)2/3 to
obtain the equivalent equation (x + 1)1/3 − 13 x(x + 1)−2/3 = 0. Multiplying this equation
again by (x + 1)2/3 yields x + 1 − 31 x = 0, whose solution is x = −3/2.
(d) Multiplying by x − 1 yields x + 2x(x − 1) = 0, or x(2x − 1) = 0. Hence x = 0 or x = 1/2.
3. (a) z = 0 satisfies the equation. If z 6= 0, then z − a = za + zb, or (1 − a − b)z = a. If

a + b = 1 we have a contradiction. If a + b 6= 1, then z = a/(1 − a − b).
(b) The equation is equivalent to (1 + λ)µ(x − y) = 0, so λ = −1, µ = 0, or x = y.
(c) µ = ±1 makes the equation meaningless. Otherwise, multiplying the equation by 1 − µ2
yields λ(1 − µ) = −λ, or λ(2 − µ) = 0, so λ = 0 or µ = 2.
(d) The equation is equivalent to b(1 + λ)(a − 2) = 0, so b = 0, λ = −1, or a = 2.
7
If we had asked for integer solutions, we would have −3 and −2 in addition.
10
3.5 Using implication arrows
3. (a) If
√ √
x−4= x + 5 − 9, (i)
then squaring each side gives
√
x − 4 = ( x + 5 − 9)2 . (ii)
√
Expanding the square on the right-hand side of (ii) gives x − 4 = x + 5 − 18 x + 5 + 81,
√ √
which reduces to 18 x + 5 = 90 or x + 5 = 5, implying that x + 5 = 25 and so x = 20.
This hows that if x is a solution of (i), then x = 20. No other value of x can satisfy (i).
But if we check this solution, we find that with x = 20 the left-hand side of (i) becomes
√ √
16 = 4, and the right-hand side becomes 25 − 9 = 5 − 9 = −4. This means that
equation (i) actually has no solutions at all.8
y √
y =9− x+5
5
√
y= x−4
x
5 10 15 20 25
-5 √
y= x + 5− 9
Figure SM3.5.3
(b) If x is a solution of
√ √
x−4=9− x + 5, (iii)
then just as in part (a) we find that x must be a solution of
√
x − 4 = (9 − x + 5)2 . (iv)
√ √
Now, (9 − x + 5)2 = ( x + 5 − 9)2 , so equation (iv) is equivalent to equation (ii) in
part (a). This means that (iv) has exactly one solution, namely x = 20. Inserting this
value of x into equation (iii), we find that x = 20 is a solution of (iii).
A geometric explanation of the results can be given with reference to Fig. SM3.5.3. We see
that the two solid curves in the figure have no point in common, that is, the expressions
√ √
x − 4 and x + 5 − 9 are not equal for any value of x.9 This explains why the equation
√
in (a) has no solution. The dashed curve y = 9 − x + 5, on the other hand, intersects
√
y = x + 5 for x = 20 (and only there), and this corresponds to the solution in part (b).10
8
But note that 42 = (−4)2 , i.e. the square of the left-hand side equals the square of the right-hand side. That is
how the spurious
√ solution √ x = 20 managed to sneak in.
9
In fact, x − 4 − ( x + 5 − 9) increases with x, so there is no point of intersection farther to the right, either.
10
In part (a) it was necessary to check the result, because the transition from (i) to (ii) is only an implication,
not an equivalence. Similarly, it was necessary to check the result in part (b), since the transition from (iii) to (iv)
also is only an implication — at least, it is not clear that it is an equivalence. (Afterwards, it turned out to be an
equivalence, but we could not know that until we had solved the equation.)
11
3.6 Two linear equations in two unknowns
4. (a) If the two numbers are x and y, then x + y = 52 and x − y = 26. Adding the two
equations gives 2x = 78, so x = 39, and then y = 52 − 39 = 13.
(b) Let the cost of one table be $x and the cost of one chair $y. Then 5x + 20y = 1800 and
2x + 3y = 420. Solving this system yields x = 120, y = 60.
(c) Let x and y be the number of units produced of B and P, respectively. This gives the
equations x = 23 y and 200x + 300y = 180 000. Inserting the expression for x from the
first equation into the second equation gives 300y + 300y = 180 000, which yields the
solution y = 300 and then x = 450. Thus, 450 units of quality A and 300 units of quality
B should be produced.
(d) Suppose that the person invested $x at 5% and $y at 7.2%. Then x + y = 10 000 and
0.05x + 0.072y = 676. The solution is x = 2000 and y = 8000.

2. (a) Assuming x 6= ±4, multiplying by the lowest common denominator (x−4)(x+4) reduces
the equation to (x − 3)(x + 4) = (x + 3)(x − 4) or x = −x, so x = 0.
(b) The given equation makes sense only if x 6= ±3. If we multiply the equation by the
common denominator (x+3)(x−3) we get 3(x+3)2 −2(x2 −9) = 9x+27 or x2 +9x+18 = 0,
with the solutions x = −6 and x = −3. The only solution of the given equation is
therefore x = −6.
(c) Subtracting 2x/3 from each side simplifies the equation to 0 = −1 + 5/x, whose only
solution is x = 5.
(d) Assuming x 6= 0 and x 6= ±5, multiply by the common denominator x(x − 5)(x + 5) to
get x(x − 5)2 − x(x2 − 25) = x2 − 25 − (11x + 20)(x + 5). Expanding each side of this
equation gives x3 − 10x2 + 25x − x3 + 25x = x2 − 25 − 11x2 − 75x − 100, which simplifies
to 50x = −125 − 75x with solution x = −1.
4. (a) Multiply each side of the equation by 5K 1/2 to obtain 15L1/3 = K 1/2 . Squaring each
side gives K = 225L2/3 .
(b) Raise each side to the power 1/t to obtain 1 + r/100 = 21/t , and so r = 100(21/t − 1).
(c) abx0b−1 = p, so x0b−1 = p/ab. Now raise each side to the power 1/(b − 1).
(d) Raise each side to the power −ρ to get (1 − λ)a−ρ + λb−ρ = c−ρ , or b−ρ = λ−1 [c−ρ −
(1 − λ)a−ρ ]. Now raise each side to the power −1/ρ.
4 Functions of One Variable

4.2 Basic definitions
1. (a) f (0) = 02 + 1 = 1, f (−1) = (−1)2 + 1 = 2, f (1/2) = (1/2)2 + 1 = 1/4 + 1 = 5/4, and
√ √
f ( 2) = ( 2)2 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3.
12
(b) (i) Since (−x)2 = x2 , f (x) = f (−x) for all x. (ii) f (x+1) = (x+1)2 +1 = x2 +2x+1+1 =
x2 + 2x + 2 and f (x) + f (1) = x2 + 1 + 2 = x2 + 3. Thus equality holds if and only if
x2 + 2x + 2 = x2 + 3, i.e. if and only if x = 1/2. (iii) f (2x) = (2x)2 + 1p= 4x2 + 1 and
√
2f (x) = 2x2 + 2. Now, 4x2 + 1 = 2x2 + 2 ⇐⇒ x2 = 1/2 ⇐⇒ x = ± 1/2 = ± 21 2.
13. (a) We require 5 − x ≥ 0, so x ≤ 5.

(b) The denominator x2 − x = x(x − 1) must be different from 0, so x 6= 0 and x 6= 1.
(c) To begin with, the denominator must be nonzero, so we require x 6= 2 and x 6= −3.
Moreover, since we can only take the square root of a nonnegative number, the fraction
(x − 1)/(x − 2)(x + 3) must be ≥ 0. A sign diagram reveals that Df = (−3, 1] ∪ (2, ∞).
Note in particular that the function is defined with value 0 at x = 1.
4.4 Linear functions

10. The points that satisfy the inequality 3x + 4y ≤ 12 are those that lie on or below the straight
line 3x + 4y = 12, as explained in Example 4.4.6 for a similar inequality. The points that
satisfy the inequality x − y ≤ 1, or equivalently, y ≥ x − 1, are those on or above the straight
line x − y = 1. Finally, the points that satisfy the inequality 3x + y ≥ 3, or equivalently,
y ≥ 3− 3x, are those on or above the straight line 3x + y = 3. The set of points that satisfy all
these three inequalities simultaneously is the shaded set shown in Fig. A4.4.10 in the book.
4.6 Quadratic functions

9. The key to the argument is part (b). We find that f (x) = Ax2 + Bx + C, with coefficients
A = a21 + a22 + · · · + a2n , B = 2(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn ), and C = b21 + b22 + · · · + b2n . Now, in case
B 2 −4AC > 0, then according to formula (2.3.4), the equation f (x) = Ax2 +Bx+C = 0 would
have two distinct solutions. This would contradict f (x) ≥ 0 for all x. Hence B 2 − 4AC ≤ 0
and the conclusion follows.
4.7 Polynomials
3
3. (a) The answer is 2x2 + 2x + 4 + , because
x−1
(2x3 + 2x − 1) ÷ (x − 1)= 2x2 + 2x + 4
2x3 − 2x2
2x2 + 2x − 1
2x2 − 2x
4x − 1
4x − 4
3 remainder
13
(b) The answer is x2 + 1, because
(x4 + x3 + x2 + x) ÷ (x2 + x) = x2 + 1
x4 + x3
x2 + x
x2 + x
0
4x
(c) The answer is x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 1 − , because
x2 + x + 1
(x5 − 3x4 + 1) ÷ (x2 + x + 1) = x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 1
x5 + x4 + x3
− 4x4 − x3 +1
− 4x4 − 4x3 − 4x2
3x3 + 4x2 +1
3 2
3x + 3x + 3x
x2 − 3x + 1
x2 + x + 1
−4x remainder
(d) The answer is

28x2 − 36x + 13
3x5 + 6x3 − 3x2 + 12x − 12 + ,
x3 − 2x + 1
because
(3x8 + x2 + 1 ) ÷ (x3 − 2x + 1) = 3x5 + 6x3 − 3x2 + 12x − 12
3x8 − 6x6 + 3x5
6x6 − 3x5 + x2 + 1
6x6 − 12x4 + 6x3
−3x5 + 12x4 + 6x3 + x2 + 1
−3x5 + 6x3 − 3x2
12x4 − 12x3 + 4x2 + 1
4 2
12x − 24x + 12x
−12x3 + 28x2 − 12x + 1
−12x3 + 24x − 12
28x2 − 36x + 13 remainder
4. (a) Since the graph intersects the x-axis at the two points x = −1 and x = 3, we try the
quadratic function f (x) = a(x + 1)(x − 3), for some constant a > 0. But the graph
passes through the point (1, −2), so we need f (1) = −2. Since f (1) = −4a for our chosen
function, a = 21 . This leads to the formula y = 12 (x + 1)(x − 3).
14
(b) Because the equation f (x) = 0 must have roots x = −3, 1, 2, we try the cubic function
f (x) = b(x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 2). Then f (0) = 6b. According to the graph, f (0) = −12. So
b = −2, and hence y = −2(x + 3)(x − 1)(x − 2).
(c) Here we try a cubic polynomial of the form y = c(x + 3)(x − 2)2 , with x = 2 as a double
root. Then f (0) = 12c. From the graph we see that f (0) = 6, and so c = 12 . This leads
to the formula y = 12 (x + 3)(x − 2)2 .
8. Polynomial division gives
(x2 − γx ) ÷ (x + β) = x − (β + γ)
2
x + βx
− (β + γ)x
− (β + γ)x−β(β + γ)
β(β + γ) remainder
and so
β(β + γ) αβ(β + γ)
E = α x − (β + γ) + = αx − α(β + γ) + .
x+β x+β
4.8 Power functions

4. (a) C. The graph is a parabola and since the coefficient in front of x2 is positive, it has a
minimum point.
√
(b) D. The function is defined for x ≤ 2 and crosses the y-axis at y = 2 2 ≈ 2.8.
(c) E. The graph is a parabola and since the coefficient in front of x2 is negative, it has a
maximum point.
(d) B. When x increases, y decreases, and y becomes close to −2 when x is large.
(e) A. The function is defined for x ≥ 2 and increases as x increases.
(f) F. Let y = 2 − ( 21 )x . Then y increases as x increases. For large values of x, one has y
close to 2.
4.10 Logarithmic functions

3. (a) 3x 4x+2 = 8 when 3x 4x 42 = 8 or (12)x 42 = 8, and so 12x = 1/2. Taking the natural log
of each side gives x ln 12 = − ln 2, so x = − ln 2/ ln 12.
(b) Since ln x2 = 2 ln x, the equation reduces to 7 ln x = 6, so ln x = 6/7, and thus x = e6/7 .
(c) One possible way to solve the equation is to rewrite it as 4x (1 − 4−1 ) = 3x (3 − 1), or
4x · (3/4) = 3x · 2, so (4/3)x = 8/3, implying that x = ln(8/3)/ ln(4/3). Alternatively,
start by dividing both sides by 3x to obtain (4/3)x (1 − 1/4) = 3 − 1 = 2, so (4/3)x = 8/3
as before.
For parts (d)–(f) below, we use the definition aloga x = x for all a, x > 0.
(d) log2 x = 2 implies that 2log2 x = 22 or x = 4.
2
(e) logx e2 = 2 implies that xlogx e = x2 or e2 = x2 . Hence x = e.
15
(f) log3 x = −3 implies that 3log3 x = 3−3 or x = 1/27.
4. Directly, the equation Aert = Best implies that ert /est = B/A, so e(r−s)t = B/A. Taking the
1
ln of each side gives (r − s)t = ln(B/A), so t = ln B . Alternatively, apply ln to each
r−s A
side of the original equation, leading to ln A + rt = ln B + st. This gives the same solution.
5. Let t denote the number of years after 1990. Assuming continuous exponential growth, when
the GDP of the two nations is the same, one must have 1.2 · 1012 · e0.09t = 5.6 · 1012 · e0.02t .
Applying the answer found in part (a), we obtain
1 5.6 · 1012 1 14
t= ln = ln ≈ 22
0.09 − 0.02 1.2 · 1012 0.07 3
According to this, the two countries would have the same GDP approximately 22 years after
1990, so in 2012.

14. (a) p(x) = x(x2 + x − 12) = x(x − 3)(x + 4), because x2 + x − 12 = 0 for x = 3 and x = −4.
(b) ±1, ±2, ±4, ±8 are the only possible integer zeros. By trial and error we find that
q(2) = q(−4) = 0, so 2(x − 2)(x + 4) = 2x2 + 4x − 16 is a factor for q(x). By polynomial
division we find that q(x) ÷ (2x2 + 4x − 16) = x − 1/2, so q(x) = 2(x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 1/2).
17. Check by direct calculation that p(2) = 14 23 − 22 − 11 15 11 15

4 2 + 2 = 2 − 4 − 2 + 2 = 0, so x − 2
must be a factor of p(x). By direct division, we find that p(x) ÷ (x − 2) = 41 (x2 − 2x − 15),
which factors as 14 (x + 3)(x − 5), so x = −3 and x = 5 are the two other zeros. (Alternatively,
p(x) has the same zeros as q(x) = 4p(x) = x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30. Any integer zero of q(x) must
be a factor of 30, so the only possibilities are ±1, ±2, ±3, ±5, ±10, ±15, and ±30. But it is
tedious to check all 14 possible values of x in order to find the zeros in this way, and it does
not find any noninteger roots.)
a + b/x
19. For the left-hand graph, note that for x 6= 0, one has y = f (x) = , so that y tends
1 + c/x
to a as x becomes large positive or negative. The graph shows that a > 0. There is a break
point at x = −c, and −c > 0, so c < 0. Also f (0) = b/c > 0, so b < 0. The right-hand graph
of the quadratic function g is a parabola which is convex, so p > 0. Moreover r = g(0) < 0.
Finally, g(x) has its minimum at x = x∗ = −q/2p. Since x∗ > 0 and p > 0, we conclude that
q < 0.
23. (a) ln(x/e2 ) = ln x − ln e2 = ln x − 2 for x > 0.

(b) ln(xz/y) = ln(xz) − ln y = ln x + ln z − ln y for x, y, z > 0
(c) ln(e3 x2 ) = ln e3 + ln x2 = 3 + 2 ln x for x > 0. (In general, ln x2 = 2 ln |x|.)
(d) When x > 0, note that ln(1/x) = − ln x and so
1
2 ln x − 32 ln(1/x) − ln(x + 1) = 2 ln x − ln(x + 1) = ln x2 − ln(x + 1) = ln[x2 /(x + 1)]
16
5 Properties of Functions
5.3 Inverse functions
4. (a) The function f does have an inverse since it is one-to-one. This is shown in the table by
the fact that all the numbers in the second row, the domain of f −1 , are different. The
inverse assigns to each number in the second row, the corresponding number in the first
row. In particular, f −1 (2) = −1.
(b) Since f (x) increases by 2 for each unit increase in x, one has f (x) = 2x + a for a suitable
constant a. But then a = f (0) = 4, so f (x) = 2x + 4. Solving y = 2x + 4 for x yields
x = 12 y − 2, so interchanging x and y gives y = f −1 (x) = 12 x − 2.
9. (a) (x3 − 1)1/3 = y ⇐⇒ x3 − 1 = y 3 ⇐⇒ x = (y 3 + 1)1/3 . If we use x as the independent

variable, f −1 (x) = (x3 + 1)1/3 . R is the domain and range for both f and f −1 .
(b) The domain consists of all x 6= 2. For all such x one has
x+1 −2y − 1 2y + 1
= y ⇐⇒ x + 1 = y(x − 2) ⇐⇒ (1 − y)x = −2y − 1 ⇐⇒ x = = .
x−2 1−y y−1
Using x as the independent variable, f −1 (x) = (2x + 1)/(x − 1). The domain of the
inverse is all x 6= 1.
(c) Here one has y = (1 − x3 )1/5 + 2 ⇐⇒ y − 2 = (1 − x3 )1/5 ⇐⇒ (y − 2)5 = 1 − x3 ⇐⇒
x3 = 1 − (y − 2)5 , which is equivalent to x = [1 − (y − 2)5 ]1/3 . With x as the free variable,
f −1 (x) = [1 − (x − 2)5 ]1/3 . For both f and f −1 , the whole of the real line R is both the
domain and the range.
10. (a) The domain is R and the range is (0, ∞), so the inverse is defined on (0, ∞). From
y = ex+4 one has ln y = x + 4, so x = ln y − 4, y > 0.
(b) The range is R, which is the domain of the inverse. From y = ln x−4, one has ln x = y +4,
and so x = ey+4 .
(c) The domain is R. On this domain the function is increasing, with y → ln 2 as x → −∞
and y → ∞ as x → ∞. So the range of the function is (ln 2, ∞). From y = ln 2 + ex−3

one has ey = 2 + ex−3 , so ex−3 = ey − 2. Hence, x = 3 + ln(ey − 2) for y > ln 2.
5.4 Graphs of equations

√ √
1. (a) The curve intersects the axes x = 0 and y = 0 at the points (0, ± 3) and (± 6, 0) respec-
√ √
tively. It is also entirely bounded by the rectangle whose four corners are (± 6, ± 3).
√ √
Moreover, it is symmetric about both axes, since all its points take the form (± ξ, ± η),
where ξ, η are any pair of positive real numbers satisfying ξ 2 + 2η 2 = 6. Putting x = y
√ √
yields the four points (± 2, ± 2) on the curve. More points can be found by fixing any
x satisfying −6 < x < 6, then solving for y.11
(b) The same argument as in (a) shows that the curve intersects only the axis x = 0, at
(0, ±1). There are no points on the graph where y 2 < 1. As in (a), it is symmetric about
11
The curve is called an ellipse. See the next section.
17
both axes. It comes in two separate parts: below y = −1; above y = 1. Putting x2 = 1
√ √
and then x2 = 9 yields the additional points (±1, ± 2) and (±3, ± 10).12
5.5 Distance in the plane

8. The method of completing the square used in problem 5 shows that
x2 + y 2 + Ax + By + C = 0 ⇐⇒ x2 + Ax + y 2 + By + C = 0
2 2 1
⇐⇒ x2 + Ax + 21 A + y 2 + By + 1
2 B = (A2 + B 2 − 4C)
4
2 2 1
⇐⇒ x + 21 A + y + 12 B = (A2 + B 2 − 4C).
4
Provided that A2 + B 2 > 4C, the last equation is that of a circle centred at (− 21 A, − 21 B) with
√
radius 12 A2 + B 2 − 4C. If A2 + B 2 = 4C, the graph consists only of the point (− 12 A, − 21 B).
For A2 + B 2 < 4C, the solution set is empty.
5.6 General functions

1. In each case, except (c), the rule defines a function because it associates with each member
of the original set a unique member in the target set. For instance, in (d), if the volume
V of a sphere is given, the formula V = 43 πr3 in the appendix implies that the radius is
r = (3V /4π)1/3 . But then the formula S = 4πr2 in the appendix gives the surface area.
Substituting for r in this formula gives S = 4π(3V /4π)2/3 = (36π)1/3 V 3/2 that expresses the
surface area of a sphere as a function of its volume.

7. (a) The function f is defined and strictly increasing for ex > 2, i.e. x > ln 2. Its range is R
because f (x) → −∞ as x → ln 2+ , and f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞. From y = 3 + ln(ex − 2),
we get ln(ex − 2) = y − 3, and so ex − 2 = ey−3 , or ex = 2 + ey−3 , so x = ln(2 + ey−3 ).
Hence f −1 (x) = ln(2 + ex−3 ), x ∈ R.
(b) Note that f is strictly increasing. Moreover, e−λx → ∞ as x → −∞, and e−λx → 0 as
x → ∞. Therefore, f (x) → 0 as x → −∞, and f (x) → 1 as x → ∞. So the range of f ,
a
and therefore the domain of f −1 , is (0, 1). Because y = −λx we get e−λx + a = a/y,
e +a
so e−λx = a(1/y−1), or −λx = ln a+ln(1/y−1). Thus x = −(1/λ) ln a−(1/λ) ln(1/y−1),
and therefore the inverse is f −1 (x) = −(1/λ) ln a − (1/λ) ln(1/x − 1), with x ∈ (0, 1).
6 Differentiation
6.2 Tangents and derivatives
6. For parts (a)–(c) we set out the explicit steps of the recipe in given in the book; for parts
(d)–(f) we still follow the recipe, but express the steps more concisely.
12
The graph is a hyperbola. See the next section.
18
(a) (A) f (a + h) = f (0 + h) = 3h + 2; (B) f (a + h) − f (a) = f (h) − f (0) = 3h + 2 − 2 = 3h;
(C)–(D) [f (h) − f (0)]/h = 3; (E) [f (h) − f (0)]/h = 3 → 3 as h → 0, so f ′ (0) = 3. The
slope of the tangent at (0, 2) is 3.
(b) (A) f (a + h) = f (1 + h) = (1 + h)2 − 1 = 1 + 2h + h2 − 1 = 2h + h2 ;
(B) f (1 + h) − f (1) = 2h + h2 ; (C)–(D) [f (1 + h) − f (1)]/h = 2 + h;
(E) [f (1 + h) − f (1)]/h = 2 + h → 2 as h → 0, so f ′ (1) = 2.
(c) (A) f (3 + h) = 2 + 3/(3 + h); (B) f (3 + h) − f (3) = 2 + 3/(3 + h) − 3 = −h/(3 + h);
(C)–(D) [f (3 + h) − f (3)]/h = −1/(3 + h);
(E) [f (3 + h) − f (3)]/h = −1/(3 + h) → −1/3 as h → 0, so f ′ (3) = −1/3.
(d) [f (h) − f (0)]/h = (h3 − 2h)/h = h2 − 2 → −2 as h → 0, so f ′ (0) = −2.
h2 − 1 + 1

1 1 1
(e) [f (−1 + h) − f (−1)] = −1 + h + + 2 , which simplifies to =
h h −1 + h h(h − 1)
h
. This tends to 0 as h → 0, so f ′ (0) = 0.
h−1
1 1 1
(f) [f (1+h)−f (1)] = [(1+h)4 −1] = [(h4 +4h3 +6h2 +4h+1)−1] = h3 +4h2 +6h+4 → 4
h h h
as h → 0, so f ′ (1) = 4.
√ √
9. (a) Applying the formula (a − b)(a + b) = a2 − b2 with a = x + h and b = x gives
√ √ √ √
( x + h − x)( x + h + x) = (x + h) − x = h.
(b) By direct computation,
√ √ √ √
f (x + h) − f (x) ( x + h − x )( x + h + x ) 1
= √ √ =√ √ .
h h( x + h + x ) x+h+ x
f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
(c) From part (b), as h → 0 one has → √ = x−1/2 .
h 2 x 2
6.5 A dash of limits

1/3 − 2/3h 3h (1/3 − 2/3h) h−2 1 1
5. (a) = = = → as h → 2.
h−2 3h(h − 2) 3h(h − 2) 3h 6
(b) When x → 0, then (x2 − 1)/x2 = 1 − 1/x2 → −∞ as x → 0.
√
r
32t − 96 32(t − 3) 32 32t − 96
(c) 2 = = → 8, as t → 3, so 3 2 → 3 8 = 2 as t → 3.
t − 2t − 3 (t − 3)(t + 1) t+1 t − 2t − 3
√ √ √ √ √ √
h+3− 3 ( h + 3 − 3 )( h + 3 + 3 ) 1 1
(d) = √ √ =√ √ → √ as h → 0.
h h( h + 3 + 3 ) h+3+ 3 2 3
t2 − 4 (t + 2)(t − 2) t−2 2
(e) = = → − as t → −2.
t2
+ 10t + 16 (t + 2)(t + 8) t+8 3
√
√ √ 2− x 1 1
(f) Observe that 4 − x = (2 + x)(2 − x), so lim = lim √ = .
x→4 4 − x x→4 2 + x 4
f (x) − f (1) x2 + 2x − 3 (x − 1)(x + 3)
6. (a) = = = x + 3 → 4 as x → 1
x−1 x−1 x−1
f (x) − f (1)
(b) = x + 3 → 5 as x → 2.
x−1
19
f (2 + h) − f (2) (2 + h)2 + 2(2 + h) − 8 h2 + 6h
(c) = = = h + 6 → 6 as h → 0.
h h h
f (x) − f (a) x2 + 2x − a2 − 2a x2 − a2 + 2(x − a) (x − a)(x + a) + 2(x − a)
(d) = = = ,
x−a x−a x−a x−a
which equals x + a + 2 and tends to 2a + 2 as x → a.
(e) Same answer as part (d), putting x − a = h.
f (a + h) − f (a − h) (a + h)2 + 2a + 2h − (a − h)2 − 2a + 2h
(f) = = 4a + 4, which tends to
h h
4a + 4 as a limit as h → 0.
6.7 Sums, products and quotients

1
3. (a) y = x6
= x−6 ⇒ y ′ = −6x−7 , using the power rule (6.6.4).
√
(b) y = x−1 (x2 + 1) x = x−1 x2 x1/2 + x−1 x1/2 = x3/2 + x−1/2 ⇒ y ′ = 32 x1/2 − 12 x−3/2 .
(c) y = x−3/2 ⇒ y ′ = − 23 x−5/2 .
x+1 1 · (x − 1) − (x + 1) · 1 −2
(d) y = ⇒ y′ = 2
= .
x−1 (x − 1) (x − 1)2
x 1 4 5
(e) y = 5 + 5 = x−4 + x−5 ⇒ y ′ = − 5 − 6 .
x x x x
3x − 5 3(2x + 8) − 2(3x − 5) 34
(f) y = ⇒ y′ = 2
=
2x + 8 (2x + 8) (2x + 8)2
(g) y = 3x−11 ⇒ y ′ = −33x−12 .
3x − 1 ′ 3(x2 + x + 1) − (3x − 1)(2x + 1) −3x2 + 2x + 4
(h) y = ⇒ y = =
x2 + x + 1 (x2 + x + 1)2 (x2 + x + 1)2
6. (a) y ′ = 6x − 12 = 6(x − 2) ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ x ≥ 2, so y is increasing in [2, ∞).
√ √
(b) y ′ = x3 − 3x = x(x2 − 3) = x(x − 3 )(x + 3 ), so, using a sign diagram, one sees that
√ √
y is increasing in [− 3, 0] and in 3, ∞ .
√ √
(c) y is increasing in [− 2, 2], since
√ √
′ 2(2 + x2 ) − (2x)(2x) 2(2 − x2 ) 2( 2 − x)( 2 + x)
y = = 2 = .
(2 + x2 )2 (x + 2)2 (x2 + 2)2
(d) y is increasing in (−∞, x1 ] and in [0, x2 ], since
(2x − 3x2 )(x + 1) − (x2 − x3 ) −2x3 − 2x2 + 2x −x(x − x1 )(x − x2 )

y′ = 2
= 2
= ,
2(x + 1) 2(x + 1) (x + 1)2
√
where x1,2 = − 12 ± 12 5.
7. (a) y ′ = −1 − 2x = −3 when x = 1, so the slope of the tangent is −3. Since y = 1 when

x = 1, the point–slope formula gives y − 1 = −3(x − 1), or y = −3x + 4.
(b) y = 1 − 2(x2 + 1)−1 , so y ′ = 4x/(x2 + 1)2 = 1 and y = 0 when x = 1. The tangent is
therefore y = x − 1.
(c) y = x2 − x−2 , so y ′ = 2x + 2x−3 = 17/4. Also y = 15/4 when x = 2, so the point–slope
formula gives y − 15/4 = (17/4)(x − 2), or y = (17/4)x − 19/4.
20
4x3 (x3 + 3x2 + x + 3) − (x4 + 1)(3x2 + 6x + 1) 1 1
(d) Here y ′ = 2 2
= − . Also y = 3 when
[(x + 1)(x + 3)] 9
x = 0, so the tangent is y = 13 − 19 x = −(x − 3)/9.
at + b a(ct + d) − (at + b)c ad − bc

9. (a) By the quotient rule, y = ⇒ y′ = 2
= .
ct + d (ct + d) (ct + d)2
√
(b) y = tn a t + b = atn+1/2 + btn ⇒ y ′ = (n + 1/2)atn−1/2 + nbtn−1 .

1 ′ 0 · (at2 + bt + c) − 1 · (2at + b) −2at − b

(c) y = 2
⇒ y = 2 2
= .
at + bt + c (at + bt + c) (at2 + bt + c)2
6.8 The chain rule

1
3. (a) Write y = = (x2 + x + 1)−5 = u−5 , where u = x2 + x + 1. The chain rule
(x2+ x + 1)5
gives y ′ = (−5)u−6 u′ = −5(2x + 1)(x2 + x + 1)−6 .
√ √
(b) With u = x + x + x, y = u = u1/2 , so y ′ = 12 u−1/2 u′ . Now, u = x + v 1/2 , with
p
v = x + x1/2 . Then u′ = 1 + 12 v −1/2 v ′ , where v ′ = 1 + 12 x−1/2 . Thus, in the end,

h i−1/2 h i
y ′ = 21 u−1/2 u′ = 1
2 x + (x + x1/2 )1/2 1 + ( 21 (x + x1/2 )−1/2 (1 + 12 x−1/2 ) .
(c) See the answer in the book.
6.10 Exponential functions

4. (a) y ′ = 3x2 + 2e2x is obviously positive everywhere, so y is increasing in (−∞, ∞).
(b) y ′ = 10xe−4x +5x2 (−4)e−4x = 10x(1−2x)e−4x . A sign diagram shows that y is increasing
in [0, 1/2].
2 2 2
(c) y ′ = 2xe−x + x2 (−2x)e−x = 2x(1 − x)(1 + x)e−x . A sign diagram shows that y is
increasing in (−∞, −1] and in [0, 1].
6.11 Logarithmic functions

3. For most of these problems we need the chain rule. That is important in itself! But it implies
in particular that if u = f (x) is a differentiable function of x that satisfies f (x) > 0, then
d u′
ln u = .
dx u
1 1 1 1
(a) y = ln(ln x) = ln u with u = ln x implies that y ′ = u′ = = .
u ln x x x ln x
√ √
(b) y = ln 1 − x2 = ln u with u = 1 − x2 implies that
1 ′ 1 −2x −x
y′ = u =√ √ =
u 2
1−x 2 1−x 2 1 − x2
√
Alternatively, 1 − x2 = (1 − x2 )1/2 ⇒ y = 21 ln(1 − x2 ), and so on.

x ′ x x 1 x 1
(c) y = e ln x ⇒ y = e ln x + e = e ln x + .
x x
21

3 3 3 1 3 2
(d) y = ex ln x2 ⇒ y′ = 3x2 ex ln x2 + ex 2x = e x 2 2
3x ln x + .
x2 x
ex
(e) y = ln(ex + 1) ⇒ y ′ = .
ex +1
2x + 3
(f) y = ln(x2 + 3x − 1) ⇒ y ′ = .
x2
+ 3x − 1
(g) y = 2(ex − 1)−1 ⇒ y ′ = −2ex (ex − 1)−2 .
2 −x 2 −x
(h) y = e2x ⇒ y ′ = (4x − 1)e2x .
5. (a) One must have x2 > 1, i.e. x > 1 or x < −1.

(b) ln(ln x) is defined when ln x is defined and positive, that is, for x > 1.
1
(c) The fraction is defined when ln(ln x) is defined and different from 1. From
ln(ln x) − 1
(b), ln(ln x) is defined when x > 1. Further, ln(ln x) = 1 ⇐⇒ ln x = e ⇐⇒ x = ee . We
1
conclude that is defined if and only if x > 1 with x 6= ee .
ln(ln x) − 1
6. (a) The function is defined for 4 − x2 > 0, that is in (−2, 2). f ′ (x) = −2x/(4 − x2 ) ≥ 0 in
(−2, 0], so this is where y is increasing.
(b) The function is defined for x > 0. f ′ (x) = x2 (3 ln x+1) ≥ 0 for ln x ≥ −1/3, or x ≥ e−1/3 ,
so y is increasing in [e−1/3 , ∞).
(c) The function is defined for x > 0, and
2(1 − ln x)(−1/x)2x − 2(1 − ln x)2 (1 − ln x)(ln x − 3)

y′ = 2
= .
4x 2x2
A sign diagram reveals that y is increasing in x when 1 ≤ ln x ≤ 3 and so for x in [e, e3 ].
9. In these problems we can use logarithmic differentiation. Alternatively we can write the
functions in the form f (x) = eg(x) and then use the fact that f ′ (x) = eg(x) g ′ (x) = f (x)g ′ (x).
′
(a) Let f (x) = (2x)x . Then ln f (x) = x ln(2x), so ff (x) (x) 1
= 1 · ln(2x) + x · 2x · 2 = ln(2x) + 1.
′ x
Hence, f (x) = f (x)(ln(2x) + 1) = (2x) (ln x + ln 2 + 1).
√ √x √
(b) f (x) = x x = eln x = e x ln x , so
√
d √

√
x ln x
√
x ln x x √ 1
′
f (x) = e · ( x ln x) = x √ + = x x− 2 ( 21 ln x + 1).
dx 2 x x
√
(c) Here ln f (x) = x ln x = 21 x ln x, so f ′ (x)/f (x) = 12 (ln x + 1), which implies that f ′ (x) =
1 √ x
2 ( x) (ln x + 1).
11. (a) See the answer in the book.

(b) Let f (x) = ln(1 + x) − 21 x. Then f (0) = 0 and moreover f ′ (x) = 1/(x + 1) − 12 =
(1 − x)/2(x + 1). This is positive in (0, 1), so f (x) > 0 in (0, 1), thus establishing the
left-hand inequality. To prove the other inequality, put g(x) = x − ln(1 + x). Then
g(0) = 0 and g ′ (x) = 1 − 1/(x + 1) = x/(x + 1) > 0 in (0, 1), so the conclusion follows.
√ √ √
(c) Let f (x) = 2( x − 1) − ln x. Then f (1) = 0 and f ′ (x) = (1/ x) − 1/x = ( x − 1)/x,
which is positive for x > 1. The conclusion follows.
22
2
15. (a) y ′ = x ln x ≥ 0 if x ≥ 1.
ex − e−x
(b) y ′ = ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ ex ≥ e−x ⇐⇒ e2x ≥ 1 ⇐⇒ x ≥ 0
ex + e−x
3x (x − 1)(x − 2)
(c) y ′ = 1 − 2 = ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ x ≤ 1 or x ≥ 2, as a sign diagram will show.
x +2 x2 + 2
7 Derivatives in Use
7.1 Implicit differentiation
3. (a) Implicit differentiation w.r.t. x yields (∗) 1 − y ′ + 3y + 3xy ′ = 0. Solving for y ′ yields
y ′ = (1 + 3y)/(1 − 3x). The definition of the function implies that y = (x − 2)/(1 − 3x).
Substituting this in the expression for y ′ gives y ′ = −5/(1 − 3x)2 . Differentiating (∗)
w.r.t. x gives −y ′′ + 3y ′ + 3y ′ + 3xy ′′ = 0. Inserting y ′ = (1 + 3y)/(1 − 3x) and solving
for y ′′ gives y ′′ = 6y ′ /(1 − 3x) = −30/(1 − 3x)3 .
(b) Implicit differentiation w.r.t. x yields (∗) 5y 4 y ′ = 6x5 , so y ′ = 6x5 /5y 4 = (6/5)x1/5 .
Differentiating (∗) w.r.t. x gives 20y 3 (y ′ )2 + 5y 4 y ′′ = 30x4 . Inserting y ′ = 6x5 /5y 4 and
solving for y ′′ yields y ′′ = 6x4 y −4 − 4y −1 (y ′′ )2 = 6x4 y −4 − (144/25)x10 y −9 = (6/25)x−4/5 .
8. (a) y + xy ′ = g ′ (x) + 3y 2 y ′ , and solve for y ′ .

(b) g ′ (x + y)(1 + y ′ ) = 2x + 2yy ′ , and solve for y ′ .
(c) First, in order to differentiate g(x2 y) w.r.t. x, put z = g(u) where u = x2 y. It follows that
z ′ = g ′ (u)u′ where u′ = 2xy + x2 y ′ . So one has 2(xy + 1)(y + xy ′ ) = g ′ (x2 y)(2xy + x2 y ′ ).
Now solve for y ′ .
10. (a) Differentiate w.r.t. x while keeping in mind that y depends on x. This yields the equation
2(x2 + y 2 )(2x + 2yy ′ ) = a2 (2x − 2yy ′ ). Then solve for y ′ .
(b) Note that x = 0 would imply that y = 0. Excluding this possibility, we see that y ′ = 0
when x2 + y 2 = a2 /2, or y 2 = 21 a2 − x2 . Inserting this into the given equation yields
√ √
x = ± 41 a 6 and so y = ± 21 a 2. This yields the four points on the graph at which the
tangent is horizontal.
7.2 Economic examples

4. (a) Using (ii) and (iii) to substitute for C and Y respectively in equation (i), one has Y =
f (Y ) + I + X̄ − g(Y ).
(b) Differentiating w.r.t. I yields
dY /dI = f ′ (Y )(dY /dI) + 1 − g ′ (Y )(dY /dI) = (f ′ (Y ) − g ′ (Y ))(dY /dI) + 1 (∗)
Thus, dY /dI = 1/[1 − f ′ (Y ) + g ′ (Y )]. Imports should increase when income increases, so
g ′ (Y ) > 0. It follows that dY /dI > 0.
(c) Differentiating (∗) w.r.t. I yields, in simplified notation, d2 Y /dI 2 = (f ′′ − g ′′ )(dY /dI) +
(f ′ −g ′ )(d2 Y /dI 2 ), so d2 Y /dI 2 = (f ′′ −g ′′ )(dY /dI)/(1−f ′ +g ′ )2 = (f ′′ −g ′′ )/(1−f ′ +g ′ )3 .
23
7.3 Differentiating the inverse
5. (a) dy/dx = −e−x−5 , so dx/dy = 1/(dy/dx) = 1/(−e−x−5 ) = −ex+5 .
(b) dy/dx = −e−x /(e−x + 3), so dx/dy = −(e−x + 3)/e−x = −1 − 3ex
(c) Implicit differentiation w.r.t. x yields y 3 + x(3y 2 )(dy/dx) − 3x2 y − x3 (dy/dx) = 2. Solve
for dy/dx, and then invert.
7.4 Linear approximations

3. (a) f (0) = 1 and f ′ (x) = −(1 + x)−2 , so f ′ (0) = −1. Then f (x) ≈ f (0) + f ′ (0)x = 1 − x.
(b) f (0) = 1 and f ′ (x) = 5(1 + x)4 , so f ′ (0) = 5. Then f (x) ≈ f (0) + f ′ (0)x = 1 + 5x.
(c) f (0) = 1 and f ′ (x) = − 14 (1 − x)−3/4 , so f ′ (0) = − 14 . Then f (x) ≈ f (0) + f ′ (0)x = 1 − 41 x.
2
8. (a) We must differentiate 3xexy . To do so, first use the product rule in order to get
d xy 2 = 3exy 2 + 3x d exy 2 . Then the chain rule gives d exy 2 = exy 2 (y 2 + x2yy ′ ). Over-
dx 3xe dx dx
2 2
all, therefore, implicit differentiation yields 3exy + 3xexy (y 2 + x2yy ′ ) − 2y ′ = 6x + 2yy ′ .
Putting x = 1 and y = 0 gives 3 − 2y ′ = 6, so y ′ = −3/2.
(b) y(x) ≈ y(1) + y ′ (1)(x − 1) = − 23 (x − 1)
7.5 Polynomial approximations

2. f ′ (x) = (1 + x)−1 , f ′′ (x) = −(1 + x)−2 , f ′′′ (x) = 2(1 + x)−3 , f (4) (x) = −6(1 + x)−4 ,
f (5) (x) = 24(1 + x)−5 . Then f (0) = 0, f ′ (0) = 1, f ′′ (0) = −1, f ′′′ (0) = 2, f (4) (0) = −6,
f (5) (0) = 24, and so
1 ′ 1 1 1 1
f (x) ≈ f (0) + f (0)x + f ′′ (0)x + f ′′′ (0)x3 + f (4) (0)x4 + f (5) (0)x5
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
1 1 1 1
= x − x2 + x3 − x4 + x5 .
2 3 4 5
√
3. With f (x) = 5(ln(1 + x) − 1 + x) = 5 ln(1 + x) − 5(1 + x)1/2 we get
5 5
f ′ (x) = 5(1 + x)−1 − (1 + x)−1/2 and f ′′ (x) = −5(1 + x)−2 + (1 + x)−3/2
2 4
So f (0) = −5, f ′ (0) = 52 , and f ′′ (0) = − 15
4 . Hence, the Taylor polynomial of order 2 about
x = 0 is f (0) + f (0)x + 2 f (0)x = −5 + 25 x − 15
′ 1 ′′ 2 2
8 x .
7.6 Taylor’s formula
4. (a) We use Taylor’s formula (7.6.3) with g(x) = (1 + x)1/3 and n = 2. Then g ′ (x) =
1 −2/3 , g ′′ (x) = − 2 (1 + x)−5/3 , and g ′′′ (x) = 10 (1 + x)−8/3 , so g(0) = 1, g ′ (0) = 1 ,
3 (1 + x) 9 27 3
10
g ′′ (0) = − 29 , g ′′′ (c) = 27 (1 + c)−8/3 . It follows that g(x) = 1 + 13 x − 19 x2 + R3 (x), where
R3 (x) = 61 1027 (1 + c)
−8/3 x3 = 5 (1 + c)−8/3 x3 .
81
(b) c ∈ (0, x) and x ≥ 0, so (1 + c)−8/3 ≤ 1, and the inequality follows.
24
√
(c) Note that 3
1003 = 10(1 + 3 · 10−3 )1/3 . Using the approximation in part (a) gives
1 1
(1 + 3 · 10−3 )1/3 ≈ 1 + 3 · 10−3 − (3 · 10−3 )2 = 1 + 10−3 − 10−6 = 1.000999
3 9
√
So 3 1003 ≈ 10.00999. By part (b), the error R3 (x) in the approximation (1+3·10−3 )1/3 ≈
5
1.000999 satisfies |R3 (x)| ≤ 81 (3 · 10−3 )3 = 35 10−9 . Hence the error in the approximation
√3
1003 ≈ 10.00999 is 10|R3 (x)| ≤ 50 3 10
−9 < 2 · 10−8 , implying that the answer is correct
to 7 decimal places.
7.7 Elasticities
x dA
9. (a) Elx A = = 0.
A dx
x x ′ xf ′ xg ′
(b) Elx (f g) = (f g)′ = (f g + f g ′ ) = + = Elx f + Elx g.
fg fg f g
′
f x f xg gf ′ − f g ′ xf ′ xg ′
(c) Elx = = = − = Elx f − Elx g.
g (f /g) g f g2 f g
(d) See the answer in the book.
(e) This case is like (d), but with +g replaced by −g, and +g ′ by −g ′ .
(f) z = f (u) and u = g(x) imply that
x dz x u dz du u dz x du
Elx z = = = = Elu f (u) Elx u.
z dx u z du dx z du u dx
7.8 Continuity
3. By the properties of continuous functions stated in the book, all the functions are continuous
wherever they are defined. So (a) and (d) are defined everywhere. In (b) we must exclude
x = 1; in (c) the function is defined for x < 2. Next, in (e) we must exclude values of x that
make the denominator 0. These values satisfy x2 + 2x − 2 = 0, or (x + 1)2 = 3, so they are
√
x = ± 3 − 1. Finally, in (f), the first fraction requires x > 0, and then the other fraction is
also defined.
7.9 More on limits

2. (a) limx→0+ (x2 + 3x − 4) = 02 + 3 · 0 − 4 = −4.
x + |x| x−x
(b) |x| = −x for x < 0. Hence, lim = lim = lim 0 = 0.
x→0− x x→0− x x→0−
x + |x| x+x
(c) |x| = x for x > 0. Hence, lim = lim = lim 2 = 2.
x→0 + x x→0 + x x→0+
+ √ √
(d) As x → 0 one has x → 0 and so −1/ x → −∞.
(e) As x → 3+ one has x − 3 → 0+ and so x/(x − 3) → ∞.
(f) As x → 3− one has x − 3 → 0− , and so x/(x − 3) → −∞.
5. (a) Vertical asymptote, x = −1. Moreover, x2 ÷ (x + 1) = x − 1 + 1/(x + 1), so y = x − 1 is

an asymptote as x → ±∞.
25
(b) No vertical asymptote. Moreover. (2x3 −3x2 +3x−6)÷(x2 +1) = 2x−3+(x−3)/(x2 +1),
so y = 2x − 3 is an asymptote as x → ±∞.
(c) Vertical asymptote, x = 1. Moreover, (3x2 + 2x) ÷ (x − 1) = 3x + 5 + 5/(x − 1), so
y = 3x + 5 is an asymptote as x → ±∞.
(d) Vertical asymptote, x = 1. Moreover,
(5x4 − 3x2 + 1) ÷ (x3 − 1) = 5x + (−3x2 + 5x + 1)/(x3 − 1)
So y = 5x is an asymptote as x → ±∞.
√
9. This is rather tricky because the denominator is 0 at x1,2 = 2 ± 3. A sign diagram shows
that f (x) > 0 only in (−∞, 0) and in (x1 , x2 ). The text explains where f increases. See also
Fig. SM7.9.9.
y
6
3x
f (x) =
4 −x 2 + 4x − 1
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2
−4
Figure SM7.9.9
7.10 The intermediate value theorem and Newton’s method

4. Recall from (4.7.6) that any integer root of the equation f (x) = x4 + 3x3 − 3x2 − 8x + 3 = 0
must be a factor of the constant term 3. The way to see this directly is to notice that we
must have
3 = −x4 − 3x3 + 3x2 + 8x = x(−x3 − 3x2 + 3x + 8)
and if x is an integer then the bracketed expression is also an integer. Thus, the only possible
integer solutions are ±1 and ±3. Trying each of these possibilities, we find that only −3 is
an integer solution.
There are three other real roots, with approximate values x0 = −1.9, y0 = 0.4, and z0 = 1.5. If
we use Newton’s method once for each of these roots we get the more accurate approximations
f (−1.9) −0.1749
x1 = −1.9 − = −1.9 − ≈ −1.9 + 0.021 = −1.879
f (−1.9)
′ 8.454
f (0.4) −0.4624
y1 = 0.4 − ′ = 0.4 − ≈ 0.4 − 0.053 = 0.347
f (0.4) −8.704
f (1.5) −0.5625
z1 = 1.5 − ′ = 1.5 − ≈ 1.5 + 0.034 = 1.534
f (1.5) 16.75
26
7.12 L’Hôpital’s rule
x−1 1
3. (a) lim = “0/0” = lim = 21 . Alternatively, use x2 − 1 = (x + 1)(x − 1).
x→1 x2 − 1 x→1 2x
x3 + 3x2 − 4 3x2 + 6x 6x + 6
(b) lim 3 2
= “0/0” = lim 2
= “0/0” = lim = 3.
x→−2 x + 5x + 8x + 4 x→−2 3x + 10x + 8 x→−2 6x + 10
x4 − 4x3 + 6x2 − 8x + 8 4x3 − 12x2 + 12x − 8

(c) lim = “0/0” = lim = “0/0” =
x→2 x3 − 3x2 + 4 x→2 3x2 − 6x
2
12x − 24x + 12
lim , which equals 2.
x→2 6x − 6
ln x − x + 1 (1/x) − 1 (−1/x2 ) 1
(d) lim = “0/0” = lim = “0/0” = lim =− .
x→1 (x − 1)2 x→1 2(x − 1) x→1 2 2
7
− 4

1 7x + 1 ln(7x + 1) − ln(4x + 4) 3
(e) lim ln = lim = “0/0” = lim 7x+1 4x+4 = .
x→1 x − 1 4x + 4 x→1 x−1 x→1 1 8
xx − x xx (ln x + 1) − 1 xx (ln x + 1)2 + xx (1/x)
(f) lim = “0/0” = lim = “0/0” = lim ,
x→1 1 − x + ln x x→1 −1 + 1/x x→1 −1/x2
which equals −2, where we have used Example 6.11.4 to differentiate xx .
9. Here
f (x) 1/g(x) −1/(g(x))2 g ′ (x)
L = lim = lim = “0/0” = lim ·
x→a g(x) x→a 1/f (x) x→a −1/(f (x))2 f ′ (x)
(f (x))2 g ′ (x) 2 g ′ (x) 1

= lim 2
· = L lim = L2 lim ′
x→a (g(x)) f (x)
′ x→a f (x)
′ x→a f (x)/g ′ (x)
The conclusion follows. (This argument ignores problems with “division by 0”, when either
f ′ (x) or g ′ (x) tends to 0 as x tends to a.)

1+x
10. (a) We must have > 0, so the domain of f is the interval −1 < x < 1. As x → 1− , one
1−x
has f (x) → ∞; as x → −1− , one has f (x) → −∞. Since f ′ (x) = 1/(1 − x2 ) > 0 when
−1 < x < 1, f is strictly increasing and the range of f is R.
1 1+x 1+x 1+x
(b) From y = ln one has ln = 2y, so = e2y . Then solve for x.
2 1−x 1−x 1−x
12. (a) f ′ (x) = 2/(2x + 4) = (x + 2)−1 and f ′′ (x) = −(x + 2)−2 . We get f (0) = ln 4, f ′ (0) = 1/2,
and f ′′ (0) = −1/4, so f (x) ≈ f (0) + f ′ (0)x + 12 f ′′ (0)x2 = ln 4 + x/2 − x2 /8.
(b) g ′ (x) = −(1/2)(1 + x)−3/2 and g ′′ (x) = (3/4)(1 + x)−5/2 . We get g(0) = 1, g ′ (0) = −1/2,
and g ′′ (0) = 3/4, so g(x) ≈ 1 − x/2 + 3x2 /8.
(c) h′ (x) = e2x + 2xe2x and h′′ (x) = 4e2x + 4xe2x . We get h(0) = 0, h′ (0) = 1, and h′′ (0) = 4,
so h(x) ≈ x + 2x2 .
1
15. With x = 2 and n = 5, formula (7.6.6) yields
1
1
2 ( 12 )2 ( 21 )3 ( 21 )4 ( 12 )5 ( 21 )6 c
e2 = 1 + + + + + + e,
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
27
where c is some number between 0 and 21 . Now,
1 ( 1 )6 ( 1 )6 1
R6 ( ) = 2 e c < 2 2 = ≈ 0.00004340,
2 6! 6! 23040
1
1
where we used the fact that c < 2 implies ec < e 2 < 2. Thus, it follows that
1
1
2 ( 12 )2 ( 21 )3 ( 12 )4 ( 21 )5 1 1 1 1 1
e2 ≈ 1 + + + + + =1+ + + + + ≈ 1.6486979.
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 2 8 48 384 3840
1
Because the error is less than 0.000043, the approximation e 2 ≈ 1.649 is correct to 3 decimal
places.
23. (a) limx→3− (x2 − 3x + 2) = 9 − 9 + 2 = 2.

(b) Tends to +∞.
√
3 − x + 17
(c) tends to +∞ as x → −1− , but to −∞ as x → −1+ , so there is no limit as
x+1
x → −1.
(d) Here
(2 − x)ex − x − 2 −ex + (2 − x)ex − 1
lim = “0/0” = lim = “0/0”
x→0 x3 x→0 3x2
−ex − ex + (2 − x)ex −xex −ex 1
= lim = lim = lim =−
x→0 6x x→0 6x x→0 6 6
Note that by cancelling x at the penultimate step, we have avoided using l’Hôpital’s rule
a third time.
(e) Here
x2 − 6x + 9

1 5
lim − 2 = lim = “0/0”
x→3 x−3 x −x−6 x→3 x3 − 4x2 − 3x + 18
2x − 6 2 1
= lim 2 = “0/0” = lim =
x→3 3x − 8x − 3 x→3 6x − 8 5
x−4 1 1
(f) lim 2
= “0/0” = lim = . Alternatively, note that 2x2 − 32 = 2(x2 − 16) =
x→4 2x − 32 x→4 4x 16
2(x − 4)(x + 4), and then cancel x − 4.
x2 − 3x + 2 (x − 2)(x − 1)
(g) If x 6= 2, then = = x − 1, which tends to 1 as x → 2.
x−2 x−2
(h) If x 6= −1, then
√ √ √
4 − x + 17 (4 − x + 17 )(4 + x + 17 ) 16 − x − 17 −1
= √ = √ = √
2x + 2 (2x + 2)(4 + x + 17 ) (2x + 2)(4 + x + 17 ) 2(4 + x + 17 )
1
which tends to − 16 as x → −1.
2 ln x 2

(ln x) 1
(i) lim = lim = 0, because of (7.12.3).
x→∞ 3x2 3 x→∞ x
√ √
24. When x → 0, the numerator tends to b − d and the denominator to 0, so the limit does
not exist when d 6= b. If d = b, however, then
√ √ 1 −1/2 − 1 c(cx + b)−1/2

ax + b − cx + b 2 a(ax + b) 2 a−c
lim = “0/0” = lim = √ .
x→0 x x→0 1 2 b
28
8 Single-variable Optimization
8.2 Simple tests for extreme points
2. Note that √ √
′ 8(3x2 + 4) − (8x)(6x) 8(2 − 3x)(2 + 3x)
h (x) = = ,
(3x2 + 4)2 (3x2 + 4)2
√ √
so h has critical points at x1 = −2 3/3 and x2 = 2 3/3. A sign diagram shows that
h′ (x) < 0 in (−∞, x1 ) and in (x2 , ∞), whereas h′ (x) > 0 in (x1 , x2 ). Therefore h is strictly
decreasing in (−∞, x1 ], strictly increasing in [x1 , x2 ], and strictly decreasing again in [x2 , ∞).
√
Then, because h(x) → 0 as x → ±∞, it follows that the maximum of h occurs at x2 = 2 3/3
√
and the minimum at x1 = −2 3/3.
8. (a) y ′ = ex − 2e−2x and y ′′ = ex + 4e−2x . Hence y ′ = 0 when ex = 2e−2x , or e3x = 2, i.e.

x = 31 ln 2. Since y ′′ > 0 everywhere, the function is convex and this is a minimum point.
1
(b) y ′ = −2(x − a) − 4(x − b) = 0 when x = 3 (a + 2b). This is a maximum point since
y ′′ = −6.
(c) y ′ = 1/x − 5 = 0 when x = 15 . This is a maximum point since y ′′ = −1/x2 < 0 for all
x > 0.
10. (a) f ′ (x) = k − Aαe−αx = 0 when x = x0 = (1/α) ln(Aα/k). Note that x0 > 0 if and only
if Aα > k. Moreover f ′′ (x) = Aα2 e−αx > 0 for all x ≥ 0, so x0 solves the minimization
problem.
(b) Substituting for A in the answer to (a) gives the expression for the optimal height x0 .
Its value increases as p0 (probability of flooding) or V (cost of flooding) increases, but
decreases as δ (interest rate) or k (marginal construction cost) increases. The signs of
these responses are obviously what an economist would expect.
8.3 Economic examples

2. (a) π(Q) = Q(a−Q)−kQ = (a−k)Q−Q2 so π ′ (Q) = (a−k)−2Q = 0 for Q = Q∗ = 12 (a−k).
This maximizes π because π ′′ (Q) < 0. The monopoly profit is
1 1 1
π(Q∗ ) = −[ (a − k)]2 + (a − k) (a − k) = (a − k)2 .
2 2 4
(b) dπ(Q∗ )/dk = − 12 (a − k) = −Q∗ , as in Example 8.3.3.

(c) The new profit function is π̂(Q) = π(Q) + sQ = (a − k)Q − Q2 + sQ. Then π̂ ′ (Q) =
a − k − 2Q + s = 0 when Q̂ = 21 (a − k + s). Evidently Q̂ = 12 (a − k + s) = a − k provided
s = a − k, which is the subsidy required to induce the monopolist to produce a − k units.
8.4 The extreme value theorem

2. In all cases the maximum and minimum exist by the extreme value theorem. Follow the
recipe described in Example 8.4.1:
29
(a) f ′ (x) = −2 for all x in [0, 3], so the recipe tells us that both the maximum and minimum
points are at the ends of the interval [0, 3]. Since f (0) = −1 and f (3) = −7, the maximum
is at x = 0, the minimum at x = 3.13
(b) f (−1) = f (2) = 10 and f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 0 at x = ±1. The only critical point in the
interval [−1, 2] is x = 1, where f (1) = 6. There are two maxima at the endpoints, and a
minimum at x = 1.
(c) f (x) = x + 1/x, so f (1/2) = f (2) = 5/2 at the endpoints. Also, f ′ (x) = 1 − 1/x2 = 0 at
x = ±1. The only critical point in the interval [ 21 , 2] is x = 1, where f (1) = 2. There are
two maxima at the endpoints, and a minimum at x = 1.
√
(d) At the endpoints one has f (−1) = 4 and f ( 5) = 0. Because f ′ (x) = 5x2 (x2 − 3), there
√ √
are two critical points in the interval [−1, 5] at x = 0 and x = 3. The values at these
√ √
critical points are f (0) = 0 and f ( 3) = −6 3. The maximum is at x = −1 and the
√
minimum is at x = 3.
(e) f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 9000x + 6 · 106 = 3(x − 1000)(x − 2000) = 0 when x = 1000 and x = 2000.
At these critical points f (1000) = 2.5 · 109 and f (2000) = 2 · 109 . There is a minimum at
the endpoint x = 0 and a maximum at x = 3000.
6. (a) (f (2) − f (1))/(2 − 1) = (4 − 1)/1 = 3 and f ′ (x) = 2x, so f ′ (x) = 3 when x = x∗ = 3/2.
√ √
(b) (f (1) − f (0))/1 = (0 − 1)/1 = −1 and f ′ (x) = −x/ 1 − x2 = −1 when x = 1 − x2 .
Squaring each side of the last equation gives x2 = 1 − x2 and so x2 = 21 . This has two
√ √
solutions x = ± 12 2, of which only the positive solution satisfies x = 1 − x2 . So we
√
require x = x∗ = 21 2.
(c) (f (6) − f (2))/4 = −1/6 and f ′ (x) = −2/x2 = −1/6 when −12/x2 = −1 or x2 = 12, and
√ √ √
so x = ± 12. The required solution in [2, 6] is x = x∗ = 12 = 2 3.
√ √ √
(d) (f (4) − f (0))/4 = 1/4 = ( 25 − 9)/4 = (5 − 3)/4 = 1/2 and f ′ (x) = 21 2x/ 9 + x2 =
√ √
x/ 9 + x2 = 1/2 when 2x = 9 + x2 . Squaring each side of the last equation gives
√
4x2 = 9 + x2 and so 3x2 = 9. This has two solutions x = ± 3, of which only the positive
√ √
solution satisfies x/ 9 + x2 = 1/2. So we require x = x∗ = 3.
8.5 Further economic examples

4. (a) π(Q) = 1840Q − (2Q2 + 40Q + 5000) = 1800Q − 2Q2 − 5000. Since π ′ (Q) = 1800 − 4Q = 0
for Q = 450, and π ′′ (Q) = −4 < 0, it follows that Q = 450 maximizes profits.
(b) π(Q) = 2200Q − 2Q2 − 5000. Since π ′ (Q) = 2200 − 4Q = 0 for Q = 550, and π ′′ (Q) =
−4 < 0, it follows that Q = 550 maximizes profits.
(c) π(Q) = −2Q2 − 100Q − 5000. Here π ′ (Q) = −4Q − 100 < 0 for all Q ≥ 0, so the endpoint
Q = 0 maximizes profits.
8.6 Local extreme points

2. (a) This function is strictly decreasing, so it has no extreme points.
13
Actually the sign of f ′ (x) alone implies that the maximum is at the lower end of the interval, and the minimum
at the upper end.
30
(b) f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 0 for x = ±1. Because f ′′ (x) = 6x, we have f ′′ (−1) = −6 and
f ′′ (1) = 6, so x = −1 is a local maximum point, and x = 1 is a local minimum point.
(c) f ′ (x) = 1 − 1/x2 = 0 for x = ±1. With f ′′ (x) = 2/x3 , we have f ′′ (−1) = −2 and
f ′′ (1) = 2, so x = −1 is a local maximum point, and x = 1 is a local minimum point.
(d) f ′ (x) = 5x4 − 15x2 = 5x2 (x2 − 3) and f ′′ (x) = 20x3 − 30x. There are three critical points
√ √ √ √
at x = 0 and x = ± 3. Because f ′′ (0) = 0, whereas f ′′ (− 3) = −20 · 3 3 + 30 3 =
√ √ √ √
−30 3 < 0 and f ′′ ( 3) = 30 3 > 0, there is a local maximum at x = − 3 and a local
√
minimum at x = 3.
(e) This parabola has a local (and global) minimum at x = 3.
(f) f ′ (x) = 3x2 + 6x = 3x(x + 2) and f ′′ (x) = 6x + 6. There are two critical points at x = 0
and x = −2. Because f ′′ (0) = 6 and f ′′ (−2) = −6, there is a local maximum at x = −2
and a local minimum at x = 0.
y
8
6
4
2
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
−2
−4
Figure SM8.6.3
3. See the graph in Fig. SM8.6.3.
(a) The function f (x) is defined if and only if x 6= 0 and x ≥ −6. We have f (x) = 0 at
x = −6 and at x = −2. At any other point x in the domain, f (x) has the same sign as
(x + 2)/x, so f (x) > 0 if x ∈ (−6, −2) or x ∈ (0, ∞).
(b) We first find the derivative of f :
2√ x+2 1 −4x − 24 + x2 + 2x (x + 4)(x − 6)

f ′ (x) = − x + 6 + √ = √ = √
x2 x 2 x+6 2
2x x + 6 2x2 x + 6
By means of a sign diagram we see that f ′ (x) > 0 if −6 < x < −4, f ′ (x) < 0 if
−4 < x < 0, f ′ (x) < 0 if 0 < x < 6, f ′ (x) > 0 if 6 < x. Hence, f is strictly decreasing
in [−4, 0) and in (0, 6], strictly increasing in [−6, −4] and in [6, ∞). It follows from the
first-derivative test (Thm. 8.6.1) that the two points x = −4 and x = 6 are respectively
√ √ √
a local maximum and a local minimum, with f (−4) = 12 2 and f (6) = 34 8 = 8 2/3.
Also, according to the definition (8.6.1), the point x = −6 is another local minimum
point.
√
(c) Since limx→0 x + 6 = 6 > 0, while limx→0− (1 + 2/x) = −∞ and limx→0+ (1 + 2/x) = ∞,
we see that limx→0− f (x) = −∞ and limx→0+ f (x) = ∞. Furthermore, as x → ∞,
2
′ x − 2x − 24 1 1 1 12 1 1
f (x) = 2
·√ = − − 2 ·√ → · 0 = 0.
2x x+6 2 x x x+6 2
31
7. f (x) = x3 + ax + b → ∞ as x → ∞, and f (x) → −∞ as x → −∞. By the intermediate value
theorem, the continuous function f has at least one real root. We have f ′ (x) = 3x2 + a. We
consider two cases.
First, in case a ≥ 0, one has f ′ (x) > 0 for all x 6= 0, so f is strictly increasing, and there is
only one real root. Note that 4a3 + 27b2 ≥ 0 in this case.
p √
Second, in case a < 0, one has f ′ (x) = 0 for x = ± −a/3 = ± p, where p = −a/3. Because
√ √
f ′′ (x) = 3x, the function f has a local maximum at x = − p, where y = b + 2p p, and a
√ √
local minimum at x = p, where y = b − 2p p. If either of these local extreme values is
0, the equation has a double root, which is the case if and only if 4p3 = b2 , that is, if and
only if 4a3 + 27b2 = 0. Otherwise, the equation has three real roots if and only if the local
maximum value is positive and the local minimum value is negative. This occurs if and only
√ √ √
if both b > −2p p and b < 2p p. Equivalent conditions are |b| < 2p p ⇐⇒ b2 < 4p3 ⇐⇒
4a3 + 27b2 < 0.
8.7 Inflection points

3. The answers given in the text can be found in a straightforward way by considering the signs
of the following derivatives:
(a) y ′ = −e−x (1 + x), y ′′ = xe−x .

(b) y ′ = (x − 1)/x2 , y ′′ = (2 − x)/x3 .
(c) y ′ = x2 e−x (3 − x), y ′′ = xe−x (x2 − 6x + 6).
1−2 ln x
(d) y ′ = x3
, y ′′ = 6 lnxx−5
4 .
(e) y ′ = 2e (e − 1), y = 2e (2ex
x x ′′ x − 1).
(f) y ′ = e−x (2 − x2 ), y ′′ = e−x (x2 − 2x − 2).

ex (2 − e2x )
8. (a) The answer given in the text is easily found from the derivative h′ (x) = .
(2 + e2x )2
(b) The function h is strictly increasing in (−∞, 12 ln 2], which includes (−∞, 0]. Also h(x) →
0 as x → −∞, and h(0) = 1/3. Thus, h defined on (−∞, 0] has an inverse defined on
ex
(0, 1/3] with values in (−∞, 0]. To find the inverse, note that = y if and only if
2 + e2x p
y(ex )2 −ex +2y = 0. This quadratic equation in ex has the roots ex = (1 ± 1 − 8y 2 ])/2y.
We require the solution to satisfy x ≤ 0 and so ex ≤ 1 when 0 < y < 1/3. Now, taking
the positive x
psquare root would give e > 1/2y > 6 when p 0 < y < 1/3. So we must have
x
e = (1 − 1 − 8y )/2y, implying that x = ln(1 − 1 − 8y 2 ) − ln(2y). Using x as the
2
√
free variable gives the inverse function h−1 (x) = ln(1 − 1 − 8x2 ) − ln(2x). The function
and its inverse are graphed in Fig. SM8.R.8.
√
10. (a) Because 3 u is defined for all real u, the only points x not in the domain are the ones
√ √
for which x2 − a = 0, or x = ± a. So the domain of f consists of all x 6= ± a. Since
√ √
3
u > 0 if and only if u > 0, the denominator in the expression for f (x), 3 x2 − a, is
32
y
0.5
h
x
−1.5 −1.0 −0.5 0.5
−0.5
h−1
−1.0
−1.5
Figure SM8.R.8
√ √
positive if and only if x2 > a, i.e. if and only if x < − a or x > a. The numerator
in the expression for f (x) is x, and a sign diagram then reveals that f (x) is positive in
√ √
(− a, 0) and in ( a, ∞). he The graph of f is symmetric about the origin because
−x x
f (−x) = p = − √
3
= −f (x),
3
(−x)2 − a x2 − a
√
(b) Writing 3
x2 − a as (x2 − a)1/3 and then differentiating yields
1 · (x2 − a)1/3 − x · 13 (x2 − a)−2/3 · 2x x2 − a − x · 13 2x 1 2

3 (x − 3a)
f ′ (x) = = = ,
(x2 − a)2/3 (x2 − a)4/3 (x2 − a)4/3
Here the second equality was obtained by multiplying both denominator and numerator
√
by (x2 − a)2/3 . Of course, f ′ (x) is not defined at ± a. Except at these points, the
denominator is always positive (since (x2 − a)4/3 = ((x2 − a)1/3 )4 ). The numerator,
1 2
√ √ √ √
3 (x − 3a) = 13 (x + 3a)(x − 3a), is 0 at x = ± 3a, nonnegative in (−∞, − 3a]
√ √
and in [ 3a, ∞). Since f and f ′ are not defined at ± a, we find that f (x) is increas-
√ √ √ √ √ √
ing in (−∞, − 3a] and in [ 3a, ∞), decreasing in [− 3a, − a), in (− a, a), and in
√ √ √ √
( a, 3a]. It follows that x = − 3a is a local maximum point and x = 3a is a local
minimum point.
(c) Differentiating once more, we find that
2
3 x(x
2 − a)4/3 − 31 (x2 − 3a) · 34 (x2 − a)1/3 · 2x 2 2
9 x(9a − x )
f ′′ (x) = = .
(x2 − a)8/3 (x2 − a)7/3
Here the second equality was obtained by dividing each term in the denominator and the
numerator by (x2 − a)1/3 , then simplifying the numerator. The resulting expression for
√ √
f ′′ (x) shows that there are inflection points where x equals −3 a, 0, and 3 a.14
11. Note first that f (x) → 0 as x → ±∞, as can be shown by dividing both numerator and
denominator by x3 , then taking limits. Next, differentiation yields
18x2 (x4 + x2 + 2) − 6x3 (4x3 + 2x) −6x2 (x4 − x2 − 6) −6x2 (x2 − 3)(x2 + 2)
f ′ (x) = = = ,
(x4 + x2 + 2)2 (x4 + x2 + 2)2 (x4 + x2 + 2)2
14
f ′′ (x) is 0 at these points, and changes sign around each of them.
33
√
so f has critical points at x = 0 and at x = ± 3. Moreover, f ′ changes sign from negative to
√
positive as x increases through − 3, then it switches back to negative as x increases through
√ √ √
3. It follows that x = 3 is a local (and global) maximum point, that x = − 3 is a local
(and global) minimum point, and x = 0 is neither. (It is an inflection point.) Note moreover
that f (−x) = −f (x) for all x, so the graph is symmetric about the origin. The graph of f is
shown in Fig. A8.R.11 in the book.
9 Integration
9.1 Indefinite integrals
(t3 + 2t − 3) dt = t3 dt + 2t dt − 3 dt = 14 t4 + t2 − 3t + C.
R R R R
3. (a)
(b) (x − 1)2 dx = (x2 − 2x + 1) dx = 31 x3 − x2 + x + C. Alternatively, since dx d
(x − 1)3 =
R R
3(x − 1)2 , we have (x − 1)2 dx = 13 (x − 1)3 + C1 . This agrees with the first answer, with
R
C1 = C + 1/3.
(c) (x − 1)(x + 2) dx = (x2 + x − 2) dx = 31 x3 + 12 x2 − 2x + C.
R R
(d) First evaluate (x + 2)3 = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8, then integrate term by term to get
(x + 2)3 dx = 41 x4 + 2x3 + 6x2 + 8x + C. Or more directly, check that (x + 2)3 =
R R
1 4
4 (x + 2) + C1 .
(e) (e3x − e2x + ex ) dx = 31 e3x − 21 e2x + ex + C.
R
Z 3 Z
x − 3x + 4 2 4 1
(f) dx = x −3+ dx = x3 − 3x + 4 ln |x| + C
x x 3
(y − 2)2 y 2 − 4y + 4
4. (a) First simplify the integrand to obtain √ = √ = y 3/2 − 4y 1/2 + 4y −1/2 .
y y
Next, integrate term by term to get
(y − 2)2 2 8
Z Z
√ dy = (y 3/2 − 4y 1/2 + 4y −1/2 ) dy = y 5/2 − y 3/2 + 8y 1/2 + C.
y 5 3
x3 1
(b) By polynomial division, the integrand is = x2 − x + 1 − . It follows that
x+1 x+1
x3 x3 x2
Z
dx = − + x − ln |x + 1| + C.
x+1 3 2
d 1
(1 + x2 )16 = 16(1 + x2 )15 · 2x = 32x(1 + x2 )15 , so x(1 + x2 )15 dx = 32 (1 + x2 )16 + C.
R
(c)
dx
11. f ′ (x) = (x−2 +x3 +2) dx = −x−1 + 14 x4 +2x+C. With f ′ (1) = 41 we have 41 = −1+ 14 +2+C,
R
so C = −1. Now integration yields
x4 x5
Z
f (x) = −1
−x + + 2x − 1 dx = − ln x + + x2 − x + D.
4 20
1 1
With f (1) = 0 we have 0 = − ln 1 + 20 + 1 − 1 + D, so D = − 20 .
34
9.2 Area and definite integrals
5. We consider only parts (c) and (f).
Z 3 3 3
1 2 1 3 1 1 1 3 27 32 5
(c) x − x dx = ( x3 − x4 ) = x (2 − x) = − + = .
−2 2 3 −2 6 12 −2 12 12 12 12
Z 3 3
1 1 9 4 5
(f) + t dt = ln(t − 1) + t2 = ln 2 + − = ln 2 + .
2 t−1 2 2 2 2 2
√ √
6. (a) f (x) = x3 −3x2 +2x and so f ′ (x) = 3x2 −6x+2 = 0 for x0 = 1− 3/3 and x1 = 1+ 3/3.
We see that f ′ (x) > 0 ⇐⇒ x < x0 or x > x1 . Also, f ′ (x) < 0 ⇐⇒ x0 < x < x1 . So f
is (strictly) increasing in (−∞, x0 ] and in [x1 , ∞), but (strictly) decreasing in [x0 , x1 ].
(b) See the graph in the text. The integral is
Z 1 Z 1 1
f (x) dx = (x3 − 3x2 + 2x) dx = ( 41 x4 − x3 + x2 ) = 1
4 −0= 1
4
0 0 0
9.3 Properties of indefinite integrals

1 1
xp+q+1 xp+r+1 1 1
Z
4. Directly, one has (xp+q + xp+r ) dx = + = +
0 0 p+q+1 p+r+1 p+q+1 p+r+1
5. Equality (a) implies a + b = 6. Also, f ′′ (x) = 2ax + b, so equality (b) implies 2a + b = 18.
It follows that a = 12 and b = 6, so f ′ (x) = 12x2 − 6x. But then f (x) = (12x2 − 6x) dx =
R
R2
4x3 − 3x2 + C, and since we want 0 (4x3 − 3x2 + C) = 18, we must have 16 − 8 + 2C = 18,
hence C = 5.
6. (a) See the answer given in the book.

Z 1 Z 1 1
2 2 1 4 83
(b) (x + 2) dx = (x4 + 4x2 + 4) dx = ( x5 + x3 + 4x) = .
0 0 0 5 3 15
2
√ 1/2
x +x+ x+1 x(x + 1) + (x + 1)
(c) Note that = = x + (x + 1)−1/2 , and so
x+1 x+1
√
Z 1 2
x +x+ x+1 1 √ √
dx = ( 12 x2 + 2(x + 1)1/2 ) = 12 + 2 2 − 2 = 2 2 − 23 .
0 x+1 0
x+b d x+c+b−c d A(b − c) d

(d) Clearing fractions, A + =A + = A+ + . Now integrate.
x+c x x+c x x+c x
11. W (T ) = K(1 − e−̺T )/̺T . Here W (T ) → 0 as T → ∞, and by l’Hôpital’s rule, W (T ) → K
as T → 0+ . For T > 0, we find W ′ (T ) = Ke−̺T (1 + ̺T − e̺T )/̺T 2 < 0 because e̺T > 1 + ̺T
(see Problem 6.11.11). We conclude that W (T ) is strictly decreasing and that W (T ) ∈ (0, K).
2
12. (a) f ′ (x) = √ √ > 0 for all x > 0. Also, f (x) → −∞ as x → 0, whereas
x + 4 ( x + 4 − 2)
f (x) → ∞ as x → ∞. It follows that f is strictly increasing on (0, ∞), with range
equal to R. Hence f has an inverse defined on R. To find the inverse, note that y =
√ √ √
4 ln( x + 4 − 2) ⇐⇒ ln( x + 4 − 2) = y/4 ⇐⇒ x + 4 = ey/4 + 2 ⇐⇒ x + 4 =
(e + 2) ⇐⇒ x = e + 4e . It follows that the inverse is g(x) = ex/2 + 4ex/4 .
y/4 2 y/2 y/4
35
(b) See Fig. A9.3.12.
(c) In Fig. A9.3.12 the graphs of f and g are symmetric about the line y = x, so the areas
of A and B are equal. But the area of B is the difference between: (i) the area of a
rectangle with base a and height 10; (ii) the area below the graph of g over the interval
[0, a]. Therefore,
Z a
A = B = 10a − (ex/2 + 4ex/4 ) dx = 10a − 2ea/2 − 16ea/4 + 2 + 16
0
√ √ √ √
Because a = f (10) = 4 ln( 14−2), we have ea/2 = ( 14−2)2 = 14−4 14+4 = 18−4 14
√
and also ea/4 = 14 − 2. Hence,
√ √ √ √
A = B = 10a − 2(18 − 4 14) − 16( 14 − 2) + 18 = 40 ln( 14 − 2) + 14 − 8 14 ≈ 6.26
9.4 Economic applications

2. (a) Let n be the total number of individuals. The number of individuals with income in the
R 2b 2b
interval [b, 2b] is then N = n b Br−2 dr = n b −Br−1 = nB 2b .
R 2b −2
R 2b −1 2b
Their total income is M = n b Br r dr = n b Br dr = n b B ln r = nB ln 2.
Hence the mean income is m = M/N = 2b ln 2.
R 2b R 2b R 2b
(b) Total demand is x(p) = b nD(p, r)f (r) dr = b nApγ rδ Br−2 dr = nABpγ b rδ−2 dr
Evaluating the integral gives
Z 2b 2b δ−1
γ r 2δ−1 − 1
x(p) = nABp rδ−2 dr = nABpγ = nABpγ bδ−1
b b δ−1 δ−1
9.5 Integration by parts

(b) 3xe4x dx = 3x · 14 e4x − 3 · 41 e4x dx = 34 xe4x − 16
3 4x
R R
e + C.
(c) (1 + x )e dx = (1 + x )(−e ) − 2x(−e ) dx = −(1 + x2 )e−x + 2 xe−x dx. Using
2 2
R −x −x
R −x
R
the answer to (a) to evaluate the last integral, we get

Z
(1 + x2 )e−x dx = −(1 + x2 )e−x − 2xe−x − 2e−x + C = −(x2 + 2x + 3)e−x + C
x ln x dx = 21 x2 ln x − 1 21
dx = 21 x2 ln x − 1
= 21 x2 ln x − 14 x2 + C.
R R R
(d) 2x x 2 x dx

d x
(b) Recall that 2 = 2x ln 2, so 2x / ln 2 is the indefinite integral of 2x . It follows that
dx
2 2 2 2
2x 2x 8 2x 8 4 1 8 3
Z Z
x2x dx = x − dx = − 2
= − 2
− 2
= − .
0 0 ln 2 0 ln 2 ln 2 0 (ln 2) ln 2 (ln 2) (ln 2) ln 2 (ln 2)2
(c) First use integration by parts on the indefinite integral. By Eq. (9.5.1) with f (x) = x2
and g(x) = ex , Z Z
x e dx = x e − 2xex dx.
2 x 2 x
(∗)
36
To evaluate the last integral we must use integration by parts once more. With f (x) = 2x
and g(x) = ex , we get 2xex dx = 2xex − 2ex dx = 2xex − (2ex + C). Inserted into (∗),
R R
this gives x2 ex dx = x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex + C. So

R
Z 1 1
x2 ex dx = (x2 ex − 2xex + 2ex ) = (e − 2e + 2e) − (0 − 0 + 2) = e − 2
0 0
Alternatively and more directly, use formula (9.5.2) to obtain

Z 1 1 Z 1 1 Z 1 1
2 x 2 x x x x x
x e dx = x e −2 xe dx = e−2 xe − e dx = e−2 e − e = e−2.
0 0 0 0 0 0
(d) We must write the integrand in the form f (x)g ′ (x). If we let f (x) = x and g ′ (x) =
√
1 + x = (1 + x)1/2 , then what is g? A certain amount of reflection should suggest that
it is worth trying g(x) = 23 (1 + x)3/2 . Using (9.5.2) then gives
Z 3 3 Z 3
√ 2 3/2 2 2 2 32
x 1 + x dx = x · (1 + x) − 1 · (1 + x)3/2 dx = 3 · · 43/2 − (1 + x)5/2
0 0 3 0 3 3 3 05
R3 √ 4 4 11
It follows that 0 x 1 + x dx = 16 − 15 (45/2 − 1) = 16 − 15 · 31 = 7 15 . Alternatively, we
√
could have found the indefinite integral of x 1 + x first, and then evaluated the definite
integral by using definition (9.2.3) of the definite integral.
√
Figure SM9.5.2(d) shows the area under the graph of y = x 1 + x over the interval [0, 3].
11
You should ask yourself whether 7 15 is a reasonable estimate of the area of A.
y
√
y =x 1+x
6
2
A
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
Figure SM9.5.2(d)
T T T T
−1 −1 −rt −T −rT 1
Z Z Z
−rt
6. (a) By formula (9.5.2), te dt = t e−rt − e dt = e + e−rt dt
0 0 r 0 r r r 0
−T −rT 1 T −1 −rt 1
= e + e = 2 (1 − (1 + rT )e−rT ). Multiply this expression by b.
r r 0 r r
RT R T −rt RT
(b) 0 (a + bt)e dt = a 0 e dt + b 0 te−rt dt and so on using the result of part (a).
−rt
RT RT RT RT
(c) 0 (a − bt + ct2 )e−rt dt = a 0 e−rt dt − b 0 te−rt dt + c 0 t2 e−rt dt. Now use the results
of parts (a) and (b) together with
Z T T Z T
1 2 −rT 2 T −rt

1 −rt 1 −rt
Z
2 −rt 2
t e dt = t − e − 2t − e dt = − T e + te dt.
0 0 r 0 r r r 0
37
9.6 Integration by substitution
3 +2 1 u 3 +2
(b) With u = x3 +2 we get du = 3x2 dx and x2 ex = 13 eu +C = 13 ex
R R
dx = 3 e du +C.
(c) A first try might be u = x + 2, which gives du = dx and
ln(x + 2) ln u
Z Z
dx = du.
2x + 4 2u
This, however, looks no simpler than the original integral.
1
A better idea is to substitute u = ln(x + 2). Then du = dx and
x+2
ln(x + 2) 1 1 1
Z Z
2
dx = u du = u2 + C = ln(x + 2) + C.
2x + 4 2 4 4
(d) A first possible substitution is u = 1 + x, which gives du = dx and then

√ √
Z Z Z
x 1 + x dx = (u − 1) u du = (u3/2 − u1/2 ) du
This can be integrated to give

√ 2 2 2 2
Z
x 1 + x dx = u5/2 − u3/2 + C = (1 + x)5/2 − (1 + x)3/2 + C
5 3 5 3
√
A second possible substitution is u = 1 + x. Now u2 = 1 + x and 2u du = dx. The
integral becomes
√
Z Z Z
x 1 + x dx = (u2 − 1)u · 2u du = (2u4 − 2u3 ) du
and so on. Check that you get the same answer.15

(e) With u = 1 + x2 one has x2 = u − 1, and du = 2x dx, so
x3 x2 · x u−1
Z Z Z Z
1 1
dx = dx = 2 du = 2 (u−2 − u−3 ) du
(1 + x2 )3 (1 + x2 )3 u3
1 1
= − 21 u−1 + 14 u−2 + C = − + +C
2(1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 )2
√
(f) With u = 4 − x3 one has u2 = 4 − x3 and 2u du = −3x2 dx, so

2
Z p Z p Z
5 3
x 4− x3 dx
= x 4− = (4 − u )u − x3 x2 dx
u du 2
3
Z
8 2 8 2 8 2
= − u2 + u4 du = − u3 + u5 + C = − (4 − x3 )3/2 + (4 − x3 )5/2 + C
3 3 9 15 9 15
R1 R1
6. (a) I = 0 (x4 − x9 )(x5 − 1)12 dx = 0 −x4 (x5 − 1)13 dx. Introduce u = x5 − 1. Then
du = 5x4 dx. Now we use (9.6.2) along with the facts that u = −1 when x = 0 and u = 0
R0 0 1 14
when x = 1. The integral becomes I = − −1 51 u13 du = − −1 70 u = 701
.
15
Actually, even integration by parts works in this case. See Problem 9.5.2(d).
38
√
(b) With u = x one has u2 = x and 2u du = dx. Then,16
ln x
Z Z Z
2
√ dx = 2 ln u du = 4 ln u du = 4(u ln u − u) + C
x
√ √ √ √ √
= 4 x ln x − 4 x + C = 2 x ln x − 4 x + C
√
(c) With u = 1 + x one has (u − 1)2 = x, so 2(u − 1) du = dx. Again we use (9.6.2) along
with the facts that u = 1 when x = 0 and u = 3 when x = 4. The specified integral
becomes17
Z 3 Z 3 3
2(u − 1) 1/2 −1/2 2 3/2 1/2
8
√ du = 2 (u − u ) du = 2 3u − 2u = .
1 u 1 1 3
√ √
1
7. (a) With u = 1 + e x one has du = 2 x
√ ·e x dx. Now x = 1 gives u = 1 + e and x = 4 gives
u = 1 + e2 . Thus,
√
4 1+e2 1+e2
e x 2
Z Z
√ √ dx = du = 2 ln u = 2 ln(1 + e2 ) − 2 ln(1 + e).
1 x (1 + e x ) 1+e u 1+e
(b) A natural substitution is u = ex +1 leading to du = ex dx and so dx = du/ex = du/(u−1).

When x = 0 one has u = 2, and when x = 1/3 one has u = e1/3 + 1. Thus,
1/3 e1/3 +1 e1/3 +1

1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
x
dx = du = − du
0 e +1 2 u(u − 1) 2 u−1 u
e1/3 +1
= (ln |u − 1| − ln |u|) = 1
3 − ln(e1/3 + 1) + ln 2 = ln 2 − ln(e−1/3 + 1)
2
1
because 3 − ln(e1/3 + 1) = ln[e1/3 /(e1/3 + 1)] = − ln(e−1/3 + 1).18
(c) With z 4 = 2x − 1 one has 4z 3 dz = 2 dx. Also x = 8.5 gives z = 2 and x = 41 gives z = 3.
The integral becomes
3 3 3
2z 3 z2

1
Z Z Z
dz = 2 dz = 2 z+1+ dz
2 z2 − z 2 z−1 2 z−1
3
1 2

=2 2 z + z + ln(z − 1) = 7 + 2 ln 2
2
9.7 Infinite intervals of integration

16 √
Integration by parts also works in this case, with f (x) = ln x and g ′ (x) = 1/ x.
17
p √
The substitution u = 1 + x also works.
18 e−x
Rewriting the integrand as , the suggested substitution t = e−x , with dt = −e−x dx works as well.
1 + e−x
Verify that you get the same answer.
39
(b) Using a simplified notation and the result in Example 1(a), we have
∞ 2 ∞ 2 ∞
1 1 1
Z Z
−λx −λx
x− λe dx = − x− e + 2 x− e−λx dx
0 λ 0 λ 0 λ
∞ ∞
1 2 1 2 2 1
Z Z
= 2 +2 xe−λx dx − e−λx dx = 2
+ 2− 2 = 2
λ 0 λ 0 λ λ λ λ
where we have used both the result of Example 1(a) and part (a) in order to derive the
penultimate equality.
(c) Using the result of part (b) in order to derive the penultimate equality, we get
3
∞ ∞
1 3 −λx 1 2 −λx
Z ∞
1
Z
−λx
x− λe dx = − x− e + 3 x− e dx
0 λ 0 λ 0 λ
3 ∞ 1 2 −λx
Z
1 1 3 1 2
=− 3 + x− λe dx = − 3 + · 2 = 3
λ λ 0 λ λ λ λ λ
5. (a) f ′ (x) = (1 − 3 ln x)/x4 = 0 at x = e1/3 , with f ′ (x) > 0 for x < e1/3 and f ′ (x) < 0 for
x > e1/3 . Hence f has a maximum at (e1/3 , 1/3e). Since f (x) → −∞ as x → 0+ , there
is no minimum. Use l’Hôpital’s rule to show that f (x) → 0 as x → ∞.
Rb b Rb b
(b) Here, a x−3 ln x dx = − a 21 x−2 ln x + a 21 x−3 dx = a − 12 x−2 ln x − 14 x−2 .

R ∞ −3
This diverges when b = 1 and a → 0. But 1 x ln x dx = 1/4.
7. Provided that both limits exist, the integral is the sum of

Z 3 3−ε
√ √
Z
I1 = lim (1/ x + 2 ) dx and I2 = lim (1/ 3 − x ) dx.
ε→0+ −2+ε ε→0+ −2
3 √ √ √ √
Here, I1 = limε→0+ (2 x + 2 ) = lim ε→0 + (2 5 − 2 ε ) = 2 5,
−2+ε
3−ε √ √ √ √
and I2 = limε→0+ −2 (−2 3 − x ) = limε→0+ (−2 ε + 2 5 ) = 2 5.
x−µ 1
12. All three parts (a)–(c) use the substitution u = √ , which gives du = √ dx, and so
√ 2σ σ 2
dx = σ 2 du.
Z +∞ Z +∞
1 2
(a) f (x) dx = √ e−u du = 1, by Eq. (9.7.8).
−∞ π −∞
Z +∞
1
Z +∞ √ 2
(b) xf (x) dx = √ (µ + 2σu) e−u du = µ, using part (a) and Example 9.7.3.
−∞ π −∞
2 √
Z +∞ Z +∞ Z +∞
1 2 2
(c) First, (x − µ)2 f (x) dx = 2σ 2 u2 √ e−u σ 2 du = σ 2 √ u2 e−u du.
−∞ −∞ σ 2π π −∞
R b 2 −u2 b 2 b 2
du = − 12 a ue−u + a 21 e−u du for all real
R
Now integrating by parts yields a u e
b 2 2 2
a, b. Because a ue−u = be−b − ae−a → 0 as a → −∞ and b → ∞, it follows that
R +∞ 2 −u2 R +∞ 2 √ R +∞
−∞ u e du = −∞ 12 e−u du = 21 π by part (a). Hence −∞ (x − µ)2 f (x) dx = σ 2 .
40
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I wished to go out again to look for my friend the bull elephant, but
I was unable to put my foot on the ground in consequence of my
injured instep. After our evening meal, which we had taken under the
trees outside the tent, George and I had an interesting chat with El
Hakim about elephant-hunting, upon which subject he was a
veritable mine of information. He had shot elephants persistently for
the previous four years in Somaliland, Galla-land, and the country
round Lake Rudolph, having killed over 150, on one occasion
shooting twenty-one elephants in twenty-one days—a fairly good
record. Commenting on the size of the tusks obtainable in the
districts north of the Waso Nyiro River, he mentioned that his largest
pair weighed just over 218 lbs., and measured 9 feet in length.
Naturally, exciting incidents, when in pursuit of his favourite quarry,
were numerous. Once he sighted a solitary bull feeding in the open
plain some little distance away from his camp. Snatching up an 8-
bore rifle and two or three cartridges, he started in pursuit. On
proceeding to load his weapon, he found that in his hurry he had
brought away the wrong cartridges! They were by a different maker
than those usually used in the rifle, and there was a slight difference
in the turning of the flange, which caused them to jam a little. He
forced them in, and, by an exercise of strength, closed the breech.
After a careful stalk he reached a favourable position for a shot,
and, taking aim, banged off. The rifle exploded with a terrific report,
the barrels blowing off in his hands, fortunately without doing him
any injury—the explosion of 10 drams of powder being too much for
the incompletely closed breech-locking grip. There was El Hakim
with the butt of his rifle in his hand and the barrels in the other,
vaguely wondering in what manner the beast would kill him, and, no
doubt, feeling very much de trop. The elephant, who was hit in the
shoulder, turned towards him, and, after regarding him with a
prolonged stare, turned away again, and moved slowly off as if a
bullet in the shoulder was of little or no consequence, leaving his
discomfited assailant considerably relieved.
Another time he took the same 8-bore—which, by the way, had not
been repaired—and started in pursuit of a herd of elephants. He
loaded the weapons, and, after closing the breech, bound it round
and round very tightly with a leather bootlace. On the first discharge,
stock and barrels again parted company; whereupon he handed the
useless weapon to one of his bearers, and, taking an old Martini in
exchange, rushed off after the herd, and bagged three more
elephants.
In Somaliland, one of the favourite amusements of his party was
riding out, mounted on light Somali ponies, to bait wild elephants.
Their shikaries would perhaps locate a couple of the animals in a
small clump of trees, where they were resting during the heat of the
day. One of the party would then ride up and fire a pistol at one of
them. The result, of course, would be a scream of rage, and a
furious charge by the insulted animal. Horse and rider would at once
make themselves scarce. The elephant would seldom charge more
than 100 yards or so away from cover, but at that distance, or under,
would halt and then slowly return, thus giving another member of the
party a chance. With a wild shout another horse and rider would
gallop at full speed across the elephant’s path, just out of reach.
Round would come the huge beast in another attempt to put an end
to what it justly considered a nuisance—an attempt foredoomed to
failure. One after another the horsemen would gallop up to the now
thoroughly infuriated beast, shouting and firing pistols, provoking
ugly rushes first at one and then another of them—for all the world
like a lot of schoolboys playing touch. Sometimes one or other of
them had a narrow escape, but somebody would nip in at the critical
moment and divert the elephant’s attention. A slip or a fall would
have meant a horrible death from the feet and tusks of the enraged
pachyderm; but the ponies were as agile as their riders, and enjoyed
the fun every whit as much.
We had no ponies, and playing with elephants in that manner
would not have been sufficiently amusing when mounted on a mule,
which had a habit of violently shying whenever it was urged faster
than a moderate trot. El Hakim once had a very unpleasant
experience through this mule’s aggravating peculiarity. He was riding
ahead of the safari, when he noticed a herd of elephants feeding a
mile or so in front. Taking his rifle from the bearer, he trotted after
them. The elephants moved slowly on, and disappeared over a ridge
some distance ahead. El Hakim urged the mule faster, but, in spite of
his efforts, on gaining the top of the ridge, he had the mortification of
seeing his quarry moving off at an ever-increasing speed. Fearing
that he would lose them after all, he jammed his spurs into the mule,
and raced away down the slope for all he was worth.
It was fairly steep, the ground being covered with loose stones,
some of which, displaced by the mule’s hoofs, rolled and clattered
downhill after him, and so frightened the animal that she
incontinently bolted. El Hakim’s whole energies were now
concentrated on keeping his seat, his rifle, and his presence of mind.
Just as he felt that he was gradually succeeding in getting his
agitated steed under control, she shied at a clump of cactus, and
shot him clean out of the saddle, and over the cactus, into the
clinging embrace of a well-developed wait-a-bit thorn which was
growing on the other side. When the men had finally cut him out, he
had quite given up the idea of shooting elephants that day, turning
his attention instead to his numerous abrasions. Besides, the
elephants were by that time miles away.
After the evening meal, when we generally sat in front of the
camp-fire smoking, George and I used, figuratively speaking, to sit at
the feet of El Hakim and listen for hours to his yarns of elephant-
hunting. It was very seldom we could get him to speak about his
experiences, but when in the mood to talk, his tales were well worth
listening to.
We had some hazy idea that elephants were shot at something
like a hundred yards’ range with a powerful large-bore rifle, which
mortally wounded them at the first discharge. Once I asked El
Hakim, off-hand, at what range he generally killed his elephants.
“Oh,” he replied, “anything from five to twenty yards!” and went on
to explain that it was much safer to shoot big game at short range.
“Always stalk your beast carefully,” said he, “and get close enough
to be certain of your shot; then hit him hard in the right place, and
there you are!”
It certainly sounded very simple, and I must say that El Hakim puts
his own precepts into practice with conspicuous success; but a
beginner does not find it so very easy. The temptation to fire at say
eighty or a hundred yards, is well-nigh irresistible. It seems so much
safer, though in reality it is much more dangerous—a fact which is
rather difficult of assimilation by the novice.
“Besides,” El Hakim would remark in conclusion, with the air of
one propounding an unanswerable argument, “it is more
sportsmanlike.”
Another advantage of the short-range shot is this: Suppose a herd
of elephants is located. If the conditions of wind, etc., are favourable,
one can, with ordinary care, get right up to them, near enough to pick
out the finest pair of tusks, and drop their owner with a bullet through
the brain. If a ·303 is used there is no smoke, while it makes a
comparatively small report, which is most likely attributed by the rest
of the herd to the effect, and not the cause, of their comrade’s fall. A
second and even a third elephant can often be obtained under these
circumstances, before the herd realizes what is happening and
stampedes.
This rule of careful stalking till near enough to make the result of
the shot certain holds good with all big game, though there are
certain other factors to be considered, such as the angle to your line
of sight at which the beast aimed at is standing, and also light, etc.
One can go into any club or hotel billiard-room in those parts of
Africa where big game is to be found, and listen to conversation on,
say, lion-shooting. The chances are that nine out of ten men present
have “had a shot at a lion;” but only a very small percentage have
actually bagged their beast. In these days of small-bore, high-power
rifles, a man can shoot at a stray lion at six hundred yards, and he
may be lucky enough to wound it or even, perhaps, kill it; but surely
that is not “playing the game.”
On the afternoon of the day after the Somalis left for the Waso
Nyiro, N’Dominuki came into camp with a chief named “Karama,”
who wished to make “muma,” or blood-brotherhood, with me, to
which I consented. It was rather a long affair. They brought a sheep
with them, which was killed, and the liver cut out and toasted.
Karama and I then squatted on the ground facing each other, while
our men on the one side, and Karama’s friends on the other, formed
a circle round us. A spear and a rifle were then crossed over our
heads, and N’Dominuki, as master of the ceremonies, then took a
knife and sharpened it alternately on the spear-blade and the gun-
barrel, reciting the oath of “muma” meanwhile. It was a long,
rambling kind of oath, amounting in fact to an offensive and
defensive alliance, with divers pains and penalties attached, which
came into operation in the event of either or both the blood-brothers
breaking the said oath. At the conclusion of N’Dominuki’s speech the
assembled spectators shouted the words “Orioi muma” three times.
Three incisions were then made in my chest, just deep enough to
allow the blood to flow, and a similar operation was performed on
Karama. N’Dominuki then ordered the toasted sheep’s liver to be
brought, which, on its arrival, was cut into small pieces, and a piece
handed to both Karama and me. A further recitation of the penalties
of breaking the oath was made by N’Dominuki, and again the
spectators shouted “Orioi muma.” Karama and I then dipped our
pieces of liver in our own blood, and amid breathless silence
exchanged pieces and devoured them. This was repeated three
times to the accompaniment of renewed shouts from the spectators.
The remainder of the liver was then handed round to the witnesses,
who ate it, and the ceremony was concluded, it only remaining for
me to make my new blood-brother a present.
The next morning our final preparations were completed, and
N’Dominuki having come over early, we turned all the animals we
were leaving behind over to him. He bade us adieu, with a wish that
we might return safe and sound, and, what is more, he sincerely
meant what he said.
After leaving our late camp we plunged once again into the thorn
forest, which we soon crossed, emerging into the sparsely vegetated
highland I have mentioned before as extending to the northward.
The sun was very hot, and travelling slow and laborious, not so
much from the nature of the ground, perhaps, as from the soft
condition of the men after their long rest. The ground, nevertheless,
made walking a wearisome task, as the loose pebbles and quartz
blocks turned our ankles and bruised our shins.
THE AUTHOR MAKING BLOOD-BROTHERHOOD WITH KARAMA.

THE “GREEN CAMP.” (See page 162.)
After two hours’ toiling we found ourselves on the edge of the

tableland looking down a sharp declivity to the plain beneath, which
stretched out in desolate barrenness as far as the eye could reach. It
was a dreary khaki-coloured landscape, with peculiarly shaped hills
in the extreme background. In the middle distance were belts of
dusty-looking thorn trees, while here and there mounds of broken
lava reared up their ugly masses to add to the general air of
desolation. Somewhere ahead of us, about four days’ march, was
the Waso Nyiro; and beyond that lay the desert again, stretching
away up towards Lakes Rudolph and Stephanie, and thence onward
to the hills of Abyssinia and Somaliland. The country we should have
to cross in order to reach the Waso Nyiro was, as far as we knew,
waterless, with the exception of one tiny brook, which flowed
northward from M’thara, probably emptying itself into the Waso
Nyiro. We followed it, therefore, in all its multitudinous windings, as,
without it, we should have been in a sorry plight indeed.
As we descended to the plain the heat appreciably increased. We
met several rhinoceros on the road, but we discreetly left them to
their meditations. Apparently there had once been grass on the
plain, but it had been burnt, and during the passage of our safari a
fine, choking black dust arose, which, in combination with the dust
from the dry red soil, formed a horrible compound that choked up our
ears, eyes, noses, and throats in a most uncomfortable manner. For
four hours we marched, and then camped on the banks of the
stream.
Innumerable rhino tracks crossed in every direction, leading us to
suppose that we were camped at the place where the brutes usually
drank. George, hearing the shrill cries of some guinea-fowl from the
opposite bank, sallied forth with the shot-gun, and soon the sound of
many shots in quick succession showed that his energy was reaping
its reward. He returned presently with eight birds, which were a very
welcome addition to our larder.
We turned in early. During the night I was awakened by the sound
of torrents of rain beating down on the tent. I rose and looked
cautiously out. A noise from El Hakim’s tent at once attracted my
attention, and gazing in that direction I saw El Hakim himself, clad
only in a diminutive shirt, busily engaged in placing the ground-sheet
of his tent over the stacked loads. He was getting splashed
considerably. I did not disturb him, but retired once more to my
blankets, perfectly satisfied that the loads were being properly
looked after.
In the morning the sky was as clear as crystal, while the parched
earth showed no traces of the heavy shower that had fallen during
the night. We travelled over the same kind of country as that
traversed the day before, dry brown earth, burnt grass, and loose
stones being the most noticeable features, if I except the ubiquitous
rhinoceros, of which truly there were more than “a genteel
sufficiency.” In fact, they proved a terrible nuisance, as we had
sometimes to make long détours in order to avoid them. They were
not only capable of doing so, but seemed only too anxious to upset
our safari. The men were mortally afraid of them, and much
preferred their room to their company.
After a couple of hours on the road we saw in the distance a large
swamp, which we had not previously noticed, surrounded for a
radius of a mile or so by thorn-bush, which grew a great deal thicker
than on other parts of the plain. The quantity of game we saw on the
road was simply incredible. Vast herds of oryx, zebra, and grantei,
roamed over the landscape; ostriches and giraffes were also in sight,
and, of course, rhinoceros. It is a sportsman’s paradise, and as yet,
with one or two exceptions, untouched.
When we reached the swamp the safari was halted to allow the
stragglers to come up. While waiting I saw something sticking out of
the grass a hundred yards away, to which I called El Hakim’s
attention. He observed it attentively through the binoculars for a
moment, and then turned to me with an exclamation of satisfaction,
softly observing, “Buffaloes, lying down.” Taking his ·450 express,
and motioning the few men with us to be silent, he started to stalk
them, followed by myself with the Martini rifle. We crawled down very
cautiously to leeward, and after half an hour’s careful stalking, during
which we advanced only fifty yards, we ensconced ourselves in a
favourable position in the reeds fringing the swamp. We were
considering the advisability of a further advance, when our fools of
men who had been in the rear reached the spot where we left the
others, and on learning that a whole herd of the dreaded “mbogo”
(buffalo) were in such close proximity, promptly climbed the adjacent
trees, from which safe and elevated position they carried on an
animated discourse on the merits of buffalo meat as an article of
diet. As a consequence we had the mortification of seeing the old
bull prick up his ears and listen, then slowly rise and sniff the air. The
indications were apparently unsatisfactory, for the whole herd rose
slowly to their feet, and, after a preliminary sniff, moved slowly off
over a rise in the ground, and out of range. Words would not express
our feelings!
El Hakim and I vehemently consigned our indiscreet followers to
the hottest possible place known to theology, but even that did not
comfort us. We decided not to give up, but to go on and follow the
herd, although it was extremely unlikely that they would allow us to
get within range, as the buffalo is a very keen beast, especially when
once alarmed. However, to our surprise and delight, we found, when
we had breasted the rise, that the herd (about thirty head) had halted
about two hundred yards away. We then noticed several very young
calves among them, which at once explained why they were so
deliberate in their movements. They were, however, on the look-out,
and directly we appeared they saw us. The cows with their calves
took up their station in the centre of the herd, while the bulls faced
outwards, something after the manner of soldiers forming square.
Most noble and majestic they appeared, with their huge, powerful
bodies and immense frontal development of horns. They had an air
of savage grandeur and ferocity about them that commanded my
highest admiration.
There were a few stunted thorn trees standing about, and we took
up a position behind one of them. As I have said, we were about two
hundred yards away, and as they showed no disposition to run, we
thought we might venture to walk boldly to another tree some
distance nearer to them. There was a certain amount of risk of being
charged in so doing, but we chanced it, and were perfectly
successful in our design, though our quarry were manifestly uneasy.
Sitting down, we waited patiently in the scorching sun for over an
hour, in order to let them settle down again, so that we might
approach still nearer. They gradually resumed their feeding, but not
without much sniffing of the air on the part of the bulls, coupled with
many suspicious glances in our direction.
El Hakim thought that the best thing to do would be for me to go to
another tree a hundred yards to the right. Once there we would both
crawl gradually within range, and then act as circumstances might
direct. I started off for the tree, and arrived without accident, although
the old bull, the guardian of the herd, sniffed severe disapproval.
They were evidently getting used to our presence, but it was highly
improbable they would tolerate our nearer approach, should they
observe it. We again waited, and then, watching El Hakim, I saw him
crawl stealthily on his stomach towards another tree fifty yards
nearer the herd. I followed suit on my side, suffering considerably in
so doing.
The vertical sun beat fiercely down, and, flattened out as I was, I
felt its full effects on my back, which was protected only by a flannel
shirt. The ground was covered with sharp pebbles and quartz
crystals; and the long sharp thorns, blown down from the trees,
pricked me cruelly, while I was tormented by a raging thirst. That fifty
yards’ crawl took us twenty minutes; it seemed an age. When I
arrived, panting and gasping, at my tree, I was bleeding freely from
numerous cuts and scratches on my chest, elbows, and knees.
However, we were now within easy range of the herd, and after
resting a few minutes to steady ourselves, we prepared for action.
Looking over to my left, I saw El Hakim raise his rifle, so, taking aim
at the largest bull I could pick out, I let drive, followed a fraction of a
second later by El Hakim. My beast jumped, staggered a few paces,
with the blood streaming in showers from his mouth and nostrils, and
then toppled over dead, shot through the lungs. El Hakim’s beast
also staggered a few paces and went down, evidently mortally
wounded. We had neither of us shot at the big bull, as at the moment
of firing he was behind some of the other animals. We had then two
magnificent beasts down, and did not want more, but the herd would
not move away. They smelt the two carcases stamping and pawing
the ground, but did not budge an inch.
The big bull gazed round, seeking an assailant; but we were well
under cover. Suddenly he turned, exposing his shoulder. Two rifles
spoke simultaneously, but he did not go down. Once more we fired
together, and again he was struck, but still kept his legs. Yet again
we fired, and had the satisfaction of seeing him settle down on his
hind quarters. To our great delight, the herd then moved off, and we
were able to walk cautiously up to within ten feet of the big bull, as
he sat propped up on his fore legs, bellowing defiance. Such a
spectacle of impotent rage I had never previously witnessed. He
made most herculean efforts to rise, but being unable to do so, he
rolled his blood-shot eyes, while foam dripped from his massive
jaws. He was the very picture of helpless though majestic rage. I
took pity on the noble beast, and planted a Martini bullet in his neck,
smashing the spine, thereby finishing him for good and all. We
carefully examined him, and, an instance of the splendid vitality of an
old bull buffalo, found all our six bullets planted in his left shoulder,
so close together that they could have been covered with an
ordinary-sized plate. Three were mine and three were El Hakim’s.
We could easily distinguish them, as, though our rifles were of the
same bore (·450), those from El Hakim’s Holland and Holland were
clean-cut and symmetrical, while my heavier Martini bullets,
propelled by half the charge of powder used by El Hakim, made a
more ragged hole. We tossed for the head, and I won.
Four men were required to carry it into camp, when it was severed
from the body. The horns were magnificently proportioned, and in
perfect condition. The horns of my first beast also were quite up to
the average.
As by this time it was long after midday (our stalk having lasted
three hours), we determined to camp near the edge of the swamp.
We dubbed it “Buffalo Camp,” and decided to stop there the next day
in order that the men might cut up the dead buffaloes and dry their
meat into biltong. We left their entrails where the beasts had been
shot, with men to protect them from the vultures till sundown, in the
hope that during the night they might attract lions.
Jumbi reported in the afternoon that two of the porters had
deserted on the road, and, worst of all, they were carrying, one a
load of food, and the other a load of the Venetian beads which were
to buy us food from the Rendili. We sent Jumbi with six men back to
endeavour to apprehend them.
Our camp was situated only about half a mile or so from the grave
of Dr. Kolb, whom Mr. Neumann met at M’thara. In reading
Neumann’s book[7] a pathetic paragraph (in the light of after events)
met my eye; it ran thus:—
“Here I had the honour of introducing my companion (Dr. Kolb) to
my esteemed brother N’Dominuki, and to the rhino, an animal whose
acquaintance he had not yet made. He had shot hippos in the Tana,
but felt rather desponding about his chances about bagging a ‘faro.’
However, I promised him that he should have that satisfaction, and
my pledge was fulfilled the first time he went out with me. After that
he shot many. He was, I believe, a first-rate shot, though somewhat
hampered in the bush by the necessity of wearing spectacles.”
Soon after those words were written Dr. Kolb was killed by a
rhinoceros under particularly affecting circumstances. El Hakim was
travelling in company with him at the time, but on the fatal morning
he was some half hour’s march in the rear, and arrived only in time
to see the end. I got the story from El Hakim, and can vouch for its
truth as far as he was concerned in it.
It appeared that Dr. Kolb was walking at the head of his men,
when he saw a half-grown rhinoceros in the path. He was carrying a
Mannlicher rifle, the magazine loaded with soft-nosed bullets. He
immediately fired, dropping the rhinoceros dead in its tracks. The
mother rhino then sprang up from the grass, where she had been
lying until then unobserved and probably asleep, and charged down
on to Dr. Kolb and his party. She caught his gun-bearer first, and
tossed him two or three times, her horn transfixing both the man’s
thighs. Dr. Kolb meanwhile was pouring magazine fire into her, but
failed to stop her, and she charged him in turn. He turned and fled,
but was overtaken in a very few yards, and hoisted into the air, falling
behind the rhinoceros, who passed on and disappeared. Her long
sharp horn entered the lower part of his body from behind, and
penetrated upwards for some distance. His men carried him into the
shade of a bush, and there El Hakim found him half an hour later. He
was quite conscious, and in no pain. El Hakim urged him to permit
him to examine his injuries, but Dr. Kolb assured him that he was
fatally wounded, and, like a true scientist, detailed his symptoms for
El Hakim’s benefit. He was quite calm and collected, and asked El
Hakim for a stimulant, and brandy was immediately supplied. Dr.
Kolb then referred to his watch, and calmly remarked that he had
twenty minutes more of consciousness and half an hour of life, his
prognosis proving correct in every particular.
The next morning as we were occupied in superintending the
manufacture of the biltong, a shout of “Simba! simba!” (Lions! lions!)
caused us to eagerly examine the landscape. Trotting unconcernedly
past our camp, not more than four hundred yards away, were a
superb lion and lioness. El Hakim, George, and I followed at once,
and discovered them loitering about some distance from the buffalo
entrails. We laid down near the remains, hoping they would come for
them, and so give us a shot, and watched them for some time.
They were a magnificent pair. Although the lion is known to be
rather a skulking brute than otherwise, there is such a suggestion of
latent power combined with careless grace in its carriage, that it
compels one’s admiration and causes lion-shooting to appear an
eminently desirable method of passing one’s time. These two lions
came gradually nearer, evidently attracted by the buffalo meat, but
when they were about two hundred yards away, in spite of our
caution, the lioness spotted us, and she immediately growled, and so
put her lord and master on the alert. Presently, to our great
disappointment, they turned and walked slowly away, stopping now
and again to look round and growl. We followed them, and at times
when they halted a little longer than usual, we almost got within
range—almost, but not quite, they invariably moving on again when
we approached closer than they judged expedient.
This game continued until we were several miles from camp, and,
notwithstanding our ardour, we were getting tired. Eventually they
retired to a patch of bush, but just as we were making arrangements
to beat it, the lioness emerged, and laid down in the grass out of
range, being presently joined by her mate. The old game of follow-
my-leader then recommenced, and after six hours of this we got
rather sick of it. On the way they were joined by another male, a
beautiful black-maned brute, the sight of which revived our flagging
energies, and we continued the chase, but to no purpose. In spite of
our efforts they kept a long way ahead, and finally went on at a trot,
leaving us far in the rear, quite out-distanced, and extremely
disgusted. We returned to camp after a fruitless tramp of about
seven hours.
Jumbi returned in the evening with one of the deserters; he had
been unable to secure the other. The captured culprit was the man
who had carried the load of food, which he had deliberately burnt. It
was really wicked. Food which was so hard to obtain, and which
before long would be so sorely needed by our men, had been
deliberately destroyed, and for no object, that we could ascertain,
beyond sheer perversity. The delinquent was ordered a flogging—
and got it. The other deserter, who had not been recaptured, had
also burnt his load of Venetian beads, which were particularly
valuable in view of our proposed stay among the Rendili.
I had the three buffalo heads buried in a large ant-heap against
our return, as we were unable to carry them about with us, and to
have hung them in the trees would have exposed them to theft from
wandering Wandorobbo or stragglers from the Somali caravan. The
ants were very large, being quite an inch in length, and of a bright
scarlet colour; they died on exposure to the air and light. They bit
very fiercely, drawing blood whenever they fastened their immensely
powerful jaws. The men who buried the horns suffered considerably
about the legs, but I was consoled by the thought that the horns
would be safe from the hyænas while in charge of such powerful little
warriors.
FOOTNOTES:
[7] “Elephant Hunting in East Equatorial Africa,” by Arthur H.
Neumann (1898), p. 126.
CHAPTER IX.
JOURNEY DOWN THE WASO NYIRO.
Arrival at the Waso Nyiro—The “Green Camp”—The “cinder-heap”—

The camp on fire—Scarcity of game—Hunting a rhino on mule-
back.
Next morning we continued to follow the course of the little stream
which issued, greatly diminished in size, from the opposite side of
the swamp. The country grew more barren as we advanced. Great
gravelly areas alternated with brown earth, and now and again an
outcrop of quartz or lava occurred. The universal thorn tree was the
only member of the vegetable world that seemed to be able to draw
any sustenance from the arid soil, with the exception of a few cacti
and small aloes. Rhinoceros there were in plenty, and several giraffe
loomed on the horizon. We were also greatly excited to observe
elephant tracks, two or three days old, trending north-eastward
towards the Waso Nyiro. In the distance we could see frowning cliffs
of pink gneiss, and due north, some peculiarly shaped hills, one in
particular being an almost exact replica of the Great Pyramid of
Cheops at Ghizeh. Another to the left of it consisted of a pyramidal
base, surmounted by a columnar peak that by some agency or other
had been split vertically into two unequal portions, which remained
sticking boldly upwards like a couple of gigantic teeth. Standing out
prominently to the north-north-west was the massive outline of
Mount Lololokwe, 3000 feet above the level of the surrounding plain,
while behind it, one point more to the westward, Mount Gwarguess
reared its stately head 2000 feet higher.
To our great annoyance and dismay, the little stream we were
following, which had been dwindling in size for some miles, now
disappeared completely into a subterranean passage. It was eleven
o’clock in the forenoon, so we crept into the scanty shade afforded
by some thorn trees, and rested in preparation for a long march to
the Waso Nyiro in the afternoon.
The heat was intense, and the atmosphere most remarkably dry
and clear. Small objects at long distances stood out with remarkable
distinctness. The hills, at the foot of which flowed the Waso Nyiro,
seemed not more than an hour’s march distant.
About two o’clock, having rested sufficiently, we once more forged
ahead, bearing more to the north-east than in the direction we had
hitherto followed. We encountered the same soft crumbling brown
earth, with loose stones on the surface. Aloes, morio trees, and thorn
trees were the only vegetation, and even they were only sparsely
distributed. The country was formed of long rolling ridges, which we
traversed at right angles. It was a weary and tiresome march. Each
time we climbed a ridge we looked eagerly forward for a sight of the
longed-for Waso Nyiro. Again and again we were disappointed, each
ridge exactly resembling the last. At four o’clock in the afternoon we
entered a small belt of thorn trees and dodged a couple of rhinos
who were love-making just inside, and would no doubt have
resented being disturbed. When we once more emerged from the
thorn belt we gazed over a broad plain which sloped gently down to
a range of dun-coloured hills some miles away. The Waso Nyiro, we
knew, flowed at the foot of these hills, and once more we pressed
forward, momentarily forgetting our fatigue in our eagerness to reach
the desired goal.
I was walking with my Martini over my shoulder, when I was
considerably startled by a noise from my left, which caused me to
hurriedly bring my rifle to the ready. It was a long-drawn growling
grunt, and my first thought was of lions. Closer attention, however,
solved the mystery. It was the cry of a zebra, one of a herd of
Grevy’s beautiful zebra which were congregated over half a mile
away. The cry of the zebra is very like a long-drawn growling whistle,
and in the distance, when too far off to hear the whistle, the growl
very much resembles that of a lion. There were large herds of oryx in
sight, and a few rhinoceros and water-buck.
The sun sank gradually lower in the western heavens, and we
were still apparently no nearer the range of hills we were making for,
so deceptive are the apparent distances in the clear atmosphere. But
just as dusk had fallen, our eyes were gladdened by the sight of a
large clump of Doum palms growing in the centre of an open green
space a mile away. We made towards them, and feasted our weary
eyes on the beautiful green expanse stretching out before us.
A spring emerged from the earth here, perhaps the same stream
we had followed in the morning, and which had so disappointed us
by suddenly disappearing. The water was quite warm, and
impregnated with mineral salts; so much so as to be almost
undrinkable. It welled up into a hole in the rocks about 20 feet long
and 12 feet wide by 4 feet deep, forming a lovely natural bath,
overgrown with varicoloured mosses and ferns. The overflow
meandered through the grass for 100 yards or so in a little stream a
foot deep with a pebbly bottom fringed by dark green rushes, and
then spread out into a swamp overgrown with tall papyrus reeds 10
or 12 feet high. There were two or three acres of good green grass
on one side of the swamp, to which our animals rushed with
whinnies of delight the instant they caught sight of it, and ate and ate
as if they would never stop. We crossed this little stream, and
pitched the tents under some large thorn trees. We christened the
place “Green Camp.” It was about 3500 feet above sea-level, and
over 1000 feet lower than M’thara.
There was a splendid specimen of the Doum palm on the other
side of the camp, which can be seen in the photograph of the Green
camp. The Doum palm (Hyphæne Thebaica) is called m’lala by the
Swahilis. It is a very graceful palm, and grows to a great height on
the Waso Nyiro, and was to be found everywhere along the banks of
the river. The stem divides into two branches a few feet from the
ground, each branch again and again dividing and being crowned
with its canopy of broad, flat, fan-shaped leaves. The fruit, about the
size of a potato, is mostly hard uneatable kernel, with a layer of
moist fibre, about half an inch thick, contained in a reddish bitter rind.
It reminds one of eating chopped cocoanut fibre, with a sweetish,
slightly astringent flavour. George and I ate quantities of it later on,
as also did the men, when we were without other vegetables.
While we were pitching the tents a rhinoceros emerged from
among the papyrus, where he had been wallowing in the swamp,
and trotted towards us. A shout soon caused him to change his
mind, and off he went full gallop for the Waso Nyiro, which, I should
have remarked, was about half a mile distant.
The country outside the camp was covered in places with large
white patches of mineral salts, principally carbonate of soda and
sulphate of magnesia; but we searched in vain for any common salt.
There was very little soil, and the men who were driving in the tent-
pegs struck rock three or four inches below the surface. A violent
gale of wind came on at sundown, and it needed the most
extraordinary precautions, in the way of extra guy-ropes to the tents,
to prevent them being blown bodily away.
After supper we held a consultation to decide what form our plans
should take. First and foremost, we wished to find the Burkeneji and
Rendili peoples, in order to trade for ivory. These people are
nomads, and wander at will over the immense tract of desert country
bounded, roughly, on the north by Southern Somaliland, on the south
by the Waso Nyiro, on the west by Lake Rudolph, and on the east by
the fortieth degree of longitude. They have one or two permanent
settlements, notably Marsabit, some eight or ten days’ journey to the
north of the Waso Nyiro, and at Mount Nyiro, situated some two or
three marches south of Lake Rudolph. There was every sign that
there had been a long drought (we found afterwards that no rain had
fallen for three years), and it was more than likely that they had
come south to the Waso Nyiro, as was their habit when water was
scarce in the arid country to the north.
After a little deliberation, therefore, we determined to follow the
course of the Waso Nyiro down-stream—that being, of course, to the
eastward—in order to try to discover the Rendili, whom we were very
anxious to find.
We started soon after daybreak the following morning. The
weather was perfect, being dry, warm, and clear; we felt it a pleasure
to be alive. We followed the river, as there was, of course, no other
water. The course of the Waso Nyiro is always clearly defined by the
belts of Doum palms that fringe the banks, and by the greater
greenness of the vegetation in its immediate vicinity. At first we
thought that if we followed the general direction of the river, viz.
eastward, we should never be far from the water, whether it was in
sight at the moment or not. Two or three days’ journey, however,
undeceived us on that point. The river, as a matter of fact, winds
about in a most extraordinary manner, and on several occasions
when, thinking we were near the river, we halted for the purpose of
camping, we found, owing to an utterly unexpected turn, that it was
really miles away. Consequently we adopted the more fatiguing but
safer course of following it in all its windings.
Just such an experience befell us on the morning we left “Green
Camp.” Away to the eastward of that place, and about ten miles
distant, was a mass of gneiss rock known as Mount Sheba, towering
500 feet above the plain, and 3500 feet above sea-level. We knew
the river flowed within a mile or two of it, but on which side, whether
to the north or south, we were uncertain. We therefore made for the
north end of the mountain, as, if the river flowed to the south, we
should necessarily meet it, while if it went to the north we should still
be going right.
The first hour’s march was fairly easy. Level stretches of sand
covered with patches of mineral salts, and dotted with stunted thorn
trees, offered no great impediment to our progress. Several
rhinoceros were browsing about, one brute being right in our path.
We cautiously approached and shouted at him, but he did not seem
disposed to move. On approaching nearer we saw that he was
wounded, a great hole in his ribs showing that he had been fighting
his brother rhinoceros, and had, apparently, considerably the worst
of the argument. Rhinoceros are inveterate fighters amongst
themselves; and of all the animals shot during the expedition there
was not one who did not show healed or partially healed wounds
somewhere in the region of the ribs. As this particular beast would
not move, I started forward with the intention of shooting him, but he

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Essential mathematics for economic

analysis - Student’s Manual 5th ed.

Essential Mathematics for

For further supporting resources, please visit:

Coventry, Davis, and Oslo, April 2016

1 Essentials of Logic and Set Theory 1

4 Functions of One Variable 12

10 Topics in Financial Mathematics 43

11 Functions of Many Variables 45

12 Tools for Comparative Statics 47

15 Matrix and Vector Algebra 77

16 Determinants and Inverse Matrices 82

4. (a) ⇒ is true; ⇐ is false, because x = y = 1 also solves x + y = 2.

(1 + x)k+1 = (1 + x)k (1 + x) ≥ (1 + kx)(1 + x) = 1 + (k + 1)x + kx2 ≥ 1 + (k + 1)x.

(x + y + z)2 − (x − y − z)2 = a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b) = 2x(2y + 2z) = 4x(y + z)

6x + 25 6x2 + x − 2 (6x + 25)(2x − 1) − 2(6x2 + x − 2) 42x − 21 21

18b2 a 18b2 − a(a − 3b) + 2(a2 − 9b2 ) a(a + 3b) a

2 1 2(x + 1) + x − 3x(x + 1) 2 − 3x2

2.5 Fractional powers

(f) x4 − x2 = x2 (x2 − 1) < 0 ⇐⇒ x 6= 0 and x2 < 1 ⇐⇒ −1 < x < 0 or 0 < x < 1

Rearranging, we get that

where, again, the inequality is strict unless a = b.

4 9 16 36 16 (4 + 16) · 400 + 9 · 225 + (16 + 36) · 144

= 16 mn[3(m + 1) + (n + 1)(2n + 1)] = 16 mn(2n2 + 3n + 3m + 4)

(d) Using formulae (2.9.4) and (2.9.5) again, we get

4. ā is the mean of the column means āj , because

(c) ax + ay + 2x + 2y = a(x + y) + 2(x + y) = (a + 2)(x + y).

17. (a) Simply cancel the factor 25ab.

R= 3+ 5+ 7 + · · · + 197 + 199 + 201

2R = 204 + 204 + 204 + · · · + 204 + 204 + 204 = 100 × 204 = 20400,

and thus R = 10200.

S = 1001 + 2002 + 3003 + · · · + 8008 + 9009 + 10010

5. (a) Multiplying by the common denominator 12 yields 9y − 3 − 4 + 4y + 24 = 36y, and so

3.2 Equations and their parameters

(b) Multiply the equation by cx + d to obtain ax + b = cAx + dA, or (a − cA)x = dA − b,

4. (a) αx − a = βx − b if and only if (α − β)x = a − b, so x = (a − b)/(α − β) provided that

3.3 Quadratic equations

5. (a) See the solution in the book.

3.4 Nonlinear equations

3. (a) z = 0 satisfies the equation. If z 6= 0, then z − a = za + zb, or (1 − a − b)z = a. If

Review exercises for Chapter 3

4 Functions of One Variable

13. (a) We require 5 − x ≥ 0, so x ≤ 5.

4.4 Linear functions

4.6 Quadratic functions

(d) The answer is

4.8 Power functions

4.10 Logarithmic functions

Review exercises for Chapter 4

17. Check by direct calculation that p(2) = 14 23 − 22 − 11 15 11 15

23. (a) ln(x/e2 ) = ln x − ln e2 = ln x − 2 for x > 0.

9. (a) (x3 − 1)1/3 = y ⇐⇒ x3 − 1 = y 3 ⇐⇒ x = (y 3 + 1)1/3 . If we use x as the independent

one has ey = 2 + ex−3 , so ex−3 = ey − 2. Hence, x = 3 + ln(ey − 2) for y > ln 2.

5.4 Graphs of equations

5.5 Distance in the plane

5.6 General functions

Review exercises for Chapter 5

6.5 A dash of limits

6.7 Sums, products and quotients

1/3 e1/3 +1 e1/3 +1