Psych ass mod 1&2

BASIC CONCEPTS: Psychological testing

-The use of psychological tests.
Test -All possible uses, applications, and underlyingconcepts of
- Measurement device or technique used toquantify psychological tests.
behavior or aid in the understandingand prediction of - Main use: evaluate individual differences orvariations
behavior. among individuals.

Item CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICALTESTS:

-Specific stimulus to which a person responds overtly;
1. Standardized procedure
response can be scored or evaluated.
Specific questions that make up a test. 2. Behavior sample
3. Scores or categories
Test administration
-The act of giving test. 4. Norms or standards

Test administrator 5. Prediction of non-test behavior

- Is a person giving the test.
Standardized procedure
DIFFERENCE: - there is uniformity in procedures from oneexaminer and
setting to another.
- applies to the administration of the test; norms.

Standardization
- the consistency or uniformity of the conditions and
procedures for administering a psychological test.

Behavior sample
- can be a sign or sample of behavior.
- sign: indicative of what the person really is.
- sample: just a part of the behavior.

Scores or categories
- psychological tests sum up performance in numbers
(scores) or classifications (categories).

Norms
- distribution of tests scores of a large group of people
similar in nature to the job applicantsbeing tested.

Standardization sample
- can also be called as norm group.
Psychological test - group of subjects used to establish test norms and it serves
- Essentially objective and standardizedmeasure of a as a point of comparison.
sample behavior with which the standardized test is mainly
classified as psychometric test and projective test.
Prediction of non-test behavior Psychometric test
- predicts other behaviors that are not directly sampled by - instrument wherein the responses are related to a criterion
the test. in an objective and systematic fashion.

USES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS: TYPES OF TESTS:

1. Educational institutions
2. Business or industry
3. Courts
4. Clinical institutions
5. Research

Educational institutions
- basis for admission to an academic institution.
Measuring rod which is to routinely assess student
accomplishment.

Business or industry
- Selection of job applicants.
- classification of individuals to positions best suited for
them.
- basis for promotions; counseling workers.

Courts
- expert witness’ report on annulment cases.
- evaluate the mental health of people chargedwith a
crime.
- investigating malingering cases in court.
- making child custody decisions.

Clinical institutions
- diagnosis and treatment planning (e.g. determining
overall personality functioning and need for therapy,
presence/absence oforganically based brain disorder ,
describe intellectual and emotional states).

Research
- used for both basic and applied researchers.

Projective test
- an instrument considered especially sensitive to covert or
unconscious aspects of behavior.
- relatively unstructured task, that is, a task that permits
almost an unlimited variety of possible responses.
Aptitude test
- diagnosis and treatment planning (e.g. determining
overall personality functioning and need for therapy;
presence/ absence oforganically based brain disorder;
describe intellectual and emotional states).

Achievement test
- measures previous learning.

Intelligence test thematic

- measures potential to solve problems, adapt tochanging
circumstances, think abstractly and profit from experience.

OTHER TYPES OF TESTS:

 Interest

 Diagnostic
 Power

 Speed

 Neuropsychological
Interest Test users
- measures an individual’s preference for certainactivities - psychological tests and assessment methodologies are used
or topics and help in career decisions. by a wide range of professionals, including clinicians,
counselors, school psychologists, human resource personnel,
Diagnostic consumer psychologist, experimental psychologists and
- uncover and focus attention on weaknesses ofindividuals social psychologists.
for remedial purposes.
GOALS OF ASSESSMENT:
Power
1. Classification
- requires the examinee to exhibit the extent or depth of his
understanding or skill. 2. Description
- provides enough time to attempt all items but is
3. Prediction
constructed in a way that no test taker is able to obtain a
perfect score.
PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT:

Speed 1. Screening assessment

- requires the examinee to complete as manytest items 2. Focused or problem-solving assessment
as possible.
- contains items of uniform and generally simplelevel of 3. Diagnostic assessment
difficulty; reflects speed of performance. 4. Counseling and rehabilitation assessment
- few can be expected to complete the entire test.
5. Progress evaluation assessment
Neuropsychological
- measures the cognitive, sensory, and motor performance Screening assessment
to determine the extent, locus and behavioral consequences - relatively brief evaluation given to identify the client’s:
of brain damage.  eligibility for certain programs.
- may require 3-8 hours of one on one testing.
 need for remediation or rehabilitationin case of
disorder or disability.
 need for a more comprehensiveassessment.
- decisions based on a screening assessment may be reversed
or explored if needed.

Focused or problem-solving assessment

- detailed evaluation of a specific area of functioning that
addresses a diagnostic question or a skill question.

Diagnostic assessment
- detailed evaluation of a child’s strengths and weaknesses in
several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, and
PARTIES IN THE ASSESMENT ENTERPRISE: social functioning for the following purposes:
1. Test developers  diagnosis to determine classificationreflecting the
2. Test users client’s level and type of functioning.

3. Test takers  determination of mental illness or educational

disabilities.
Test developers
 basis for placement and intervention.
- publishers create tests or other methods of assessment.
 revenue, and geography.
Counseling and rehabilitation assessment - its purpose is to determine the placement ofgovernment
- emphasis is placed on the client’s abilities to adjust to officials.
and successfully fulfill dailyresponsibilities and considers
possible responses to treatment and potential for recovery. 1368 C.E. to 1644 C.E
- Ming Dynasty in China developed multistagetesting.
Progress evaluation assessment - local tests lead to provincial capital tests, andthen capital
- evaluates changes in the client’s development and skills tests lead to national capital tests.
and evaluates the effectiveness ofintervention procedures - only those who passed the national tests wereeligible for
by focusing on the daily,weekly, monthly, or yearly public office.
progress of the client.
CHINESE INFLUENCE TO THE WESTERN
OTHER SOURCES OF DATA FOR WORLD:
PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT:
1832
1. Interview
- English East India Company imitated the Chinese system
2. Portfolio to select employees for overseas duty.
- British diplomats and missionary used the Chinese system
3. Case history data
for job selection.
4. Behavioral observation
5. CAPA and CAT 1855
- British government adopted a similar system of testing for
HISTORY OF PSYCHOMETRICS: its civil service testing system.
- French & German governments followedshortly.
DIFFERENT ERAS IN THE HISTORY OF
PSYCHOMETRICS: 1883
-United States established the American CivilService
1. Chinese Influence Commission.
2. Individual Differences - they developed & administered competitive examinations
for government service jobs.
3. Early Experimental Psychology
4. Interest in Mental Deficiency INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:

5. Intelligence Testing -In spite of our similarities, no two human beings are exactly
6. Personality Testing alike.

Charles Darwin
CHINESE INFLUENCE: - origin of species [1859].
- Darwin believed that some of these individual differences
206 B.C.E are more “adaptive” than others.
- there were scattered evidences of civil servicetesting in - these individual differences, over time, lead to more
China. complex, intelligent organisms.
- Oral examinations: to determine work evaluations and
promotion decisions. Galton
- cousin of Darwin; an applied Darwinist.
206 B.C.E to 220 C.E - he claimed that some people possessed characteristics that
- Han Dynasty developed test batteries. made them “more fit” than others
- test batteries are two or more tests used inconjunction.
- test topics include civil law, military affairs,agriculture,
.
-Galton wrote Hereditary Genius (1869). OTHER ACHIEVEMENTS OF GALTON:
-He set up an anthropometric laboratory at the
1. Considered by some as the founder ofpsychometrics
International Exposition of 1884.
-for 3 pence, visitors could be measured with: 2. Pioneered rating scales andquestionnaires

 The Galton Bar 3. First to document individuality offingerprints

-for visual discrimination of length. 4. Studied efficacy of prayer
 The Galton Whistle aka “dog whistle” 5. First to apply statistics in themeasurement of humans
- for determining highest audible pitch.
- he also noted that persons with mental retardation also 6. Father of Eugenics
ten to have diminished ability to discriminate among heat,
cold and pain. Karl Pearson
- student of Galton.
- he continued Galton’s early work with statisticalregression.
Pearson’s R.

James Mckeen Cattel

- he was the first to use the term mental-test.
- he made a dissertation on reaction time based upon
Galton’s work.

EARLY EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGISTS:

Early 19th century scientists were generally interested in

identifying common aspects, rather than individual
differences. Differences between individuals was considered
a source of error, which rendered human measurement
inexact.

Johan Friedrich Herbart

- proposed Mathematical models of the mind.
- he was the founder of Pedagogy as an academic discipline.

Ernst Heinrich Weber

- he proposed the concepts sensory thresholds and Just
Noticeable Difference (JND).

Gustav Theodor Fechner

- he was involved in the mathematics of sensory thresholds
of experience.
- he is the founder of Psychophysics, and one of the founders
of Experimental Psychology.
- considered by some as the founder of psychometrics.
Weber-Fechner Law states that the strength of a sensation
grows as the logarithm of the stimulus intensifies
Wilhelm Wundt INTELLIGENCE TESTING:
-influenced by Fechner.
- established the first Psych Lab. Alfred Binet
- French ministers of public instruction appointed a
Titchner commission to study the ways of identifying intellectually
- influenced by Wundt. subnormal individuals.
- he established Structuralism. - created the first intelligence test: Binet-Simon Scale of
1905.
Guy Montrose Whipple - contained 30 items of increasing difficulty.
- student of Titchner. - designed to identify intellectually subnormal individuals.
- he pioneered Human Ability Testing. in 1916 Lewis Madison Terman and Standford Colleagues
his seminars changed the field of psychologicaltesting revise Binet’s test for use in the US.
which led the APA to issue its first set of standards for - introduction of the term IQ;
professional psychological testing because of his mental age/chronological Age = IQ
criticisms. - introduction of mental age.
-it led to the construction of Carnegie Interest Inventory
and Strong Vocational Interest Blank. Robert Yerkes
- World War I.
Louis Leon Thurstone - there was a need for a large-scale group administered
- he was a large contributor to factor analysis. ability tests by the army:
- his approach to measurement was termed the
 army alpha - required reading ability.
Law of Comparative Judgement. INTEREST
 army beta - didn’t require reading ability.
IN MENTAL DEFICIENCY: - testing Frenzy of the 1930s:
 1937 revision of the Stanford-Binet includes
Jean Etienne Esquirol
over 3000 individuals in standardization.
- French Physician [1805].
- favorite student of Philippe Pinel which is the founder of  1939 Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale.
Psychiatry.
- responsible for the manuscript on mental retardation; he David Wechsler
differentiated mental illness(insanity) from mental - subscales were “adopted” from the Army Scales
retardation. - produces several scores of intellectual ability rather than
Binet’s single scores (e.g. Verbal, Performance, Full-Scale)
Edouard Seguin -evolved into the Weschler Series of Intelligence test (WAIS,
- he is the pioneer in training mentally retarded persons WISC, etc.).
[1840s].
- he rejected the notion of incurable MR. PERSONALITY TESTING:
- in 1837 he opened the first school devoted in teaching These tests were intended to measure personality traits.
MR children.
- in 1866 he conducted experiments with physiological Trait
training of MR which lead to the nonverbal tests of -relatively enduring dispositions (tendencies to act, think or
intelligence (Seguin Form Board). feel in a certain manner in any given circumstance).

Kraeplin FIRST RISE & FALL: STRUCTURED TESTS

- 1912
- he devised a series of examinations for evaluating Woodworth Personal Data Sheet
emotionally impaired people. - first objective personality test meant to assist in psychiatric
interviews.
- designed to screen soldiers unfit for duty. SECOND COMING OF THE STRUCTURED TESTS:
- mistakenly assumed that a subject’s response could be Early 1940s
taken at face value. - structured Tests were being developed based on better
psychometric properties.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI

1934)
- meaning of the test response could only be determined by
empirical research.
- most widely used (MMPI-2, MMPI-A).

16 Personality Factor Questionnaire

- Raymond B. Cattell (early 1940s)
- test was based on factor analysis which is a method for
SLOW RISE: PROJECTIVE TESTS finding the minimum number of dimensions (factors) for
explaining the largestnumber of variables.
Rorschach Inkblot Test - first to apply factor analytic techniques to test construction
- constructed by Herman Rorschach inkblot test (1921) was J.R. Guilford.
- introduced to the US by David Levy.
BASIC STATISTICS:

Statistics
-lie at the center of the modern science of psychology.
- used as a shorthand for statistical procedures which are
formulas and calculations developed by statisticians that
psychologists andother behavioral researchers employ when
“analyzing” the results of their research.
- an integral part of psychology and other behavioral
sciences, so statistics and statistical concepts are used every
day.
Thematic Apperception Test - tools used in research; needed because the behavioral
- constructed by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan sciences are based on empirical research.
(1935). Necessary for comprehending other people’sresearch.
- composed of ambiguous pictures that were considerably
more structured than the Rorschach. PURPOSE OF STATISTICS:
- subjects are shown the pictures and asked to write a - The goal of statistics is to make inferences, or
story. generalizations, about a population:
 Description
- descriptive statistics

 Making Inference
- correlational statistics
-inferential statistics

Population
- entire group of individuals to which a law nature applies.
Sample Nominal Scales
- relatively small subset of a population that is intended to - simplest form of measurement mutually exclusive. tells a
represent, or stand in for, the population. difference exists.

LEVELS/SCALES OF MEASUREMENT: Ordinal Scales

- classification or rank ordering.
Measurement - direction of the difference.
- act of assigning numbers or symbols to characteristics of
things according to rules (Magnitude, Equal Interval, Interval Scales
Absolute Zero). - equal intervals, no absolute value.
- assignment of numerical value, quantitative value to - direction and magnitude of the difference.
things or events.
Ratio Scales
PROPERTIES OF MEASUREMENT: - a true zero point.
- direction, magnitude, and ratio of the difference.
1. Magnitude
2. Equal intervals STANDARD SCORES:
3. Absolute zero 1. Z-score
2. T-scores/McCall’s T
Magnitude
- property of “moreness”. 3. Stanine system
Examples: 5ft is taller than 4ft; 1st place is greater than 3rd
4. Deviation IQ
place.
Z-Score
Equal Intervals
- tells where the score lies.
- difference between two points on the scale has same
- it is easier to interpret; not the scores per se.
meaning as the difference between two other points on the
-characteristics includes:
scale.
- example: scores 80 and 90 and 110 and 120.  have the same shape as the set of raw scores.

 mean of the z scores is always equivalent to zero.

Absolute Zero
-nothing of the property being measured exists.  standard deviation of z scores is always equivalent to
- examples: temperature K, Extraversion 1.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENTS:
1. Nominal scales
2. Ordinal scales
3. Interval scales
4. Ratio scales
T-scores/ McCall’s T
- system developed in 1939 by W.A. McCall.
- originally intended to develop a system to derive equal
units on mental quantities.
- came from EL Thorndike’s studies.

Stanine System
- converts any set of scores into a transformed scale which
ranges from 1 to 9.
- comes from the words “standard nine”.

Norms
- refer to the performances by defined groups on particular DESCRIBING DATA:
tests.
- give information about the performance of a person Distribution
relative to what has been observed in a standardization - a set of test scores arrayed for recording or studying.
sample.
- sample must be representative of the population. Frequency Distribution
- number of times each score occurred.
Age-related norms
- certain tests that have different normative groups for MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:
particular age groups.
1. Mean
- Stanford-Binet IQ test uses age related norms.
- when applying IQ test, the examiner’s task is to 2. Median
determine the mental age of the test taker.
3. Mode
- example: (of age related norms) growth charts used by
pediatricians.
Mean
- tracking is the tendency to stay about the same level
- sum of the scores divided by the number ofscores.
relative to one’s own peers.
designated by μ (mu) for population mean;designated by x-
bar for sample mean.

-properties of the mean includes:

 sensitive to the exact value of all the scores in the

distribution.
  sum of the deviations about the mean equals zero.

 very sensitive to extreme scores.

 sum of the squared deviations of all the scores

about there is a minimum.
 under most circumstances, of the measures used
for central tendency, the mean is least subject to
sampling variation.

 weighted mean or grand mean is equal to the sum

of the mean of each group times the number of
scores in the group, divided by the sum of the
number of scores in each group.

Median
- middle score of a distribution; symbol Mdn or md. Range
scale value below which 50% of the scores fall; the same
thing as P50. - distance between the two most extreme scores in a
- properties of the median includes: distribution.

 less sensitive than the mean to extreme scores. - difference between the highest and lowest scores in
the distribution.
 under usual circumstances, the median is more - range = highest score – lowest score.
subject to sampling variability than the mean but
less subject to sampling variability than the mode.
Standard deviation
Mode - the square root of the variance.
- most frequent score in a distribution.
- approximation of the average deviation around the
- when all the scores in the distribution have the same
mean; gives a smaller number.
frequency, it is customary to say that the distribution has
no mode. - more useful than the variance, and can be used with
- can also be bimodal or multimodal. the mean.

Variance
- the mean of the squared deviation scores.
- when you want to get the spread of the scores, you
subtract first the each score from the mean to get the
differences; you get the average of these differences
- but when you do that you will always get zero,
that’s why you SQUARE them.

MEASURES OF LOCATION:
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY/DISPERSION:
1. Percentile
1. Range
2. Quartile
2. Standard deviation
3. Decile
3. Variance
4. Standard scores
Percentile
- specific scores or points within a distribution.
- divides the total frequency for a set of observations into
hundredths
- indicates the value below which a given percentage of
observations in a group of observations fall
- not the same as percentile ranks; percentile ranks
indicates what percentage of score fall below a particular
score.
- not the same as percentages.

Quartile
- points that divide the distribution into equal fourths.
- first quartile = 25%; second quartile = 50% (or the
Median); third quartile = 75%.
- interquartile range is the interval of scores bounded by
the 25th and 75th quartiles; the range of scores that
represents the middle 50% of the distribution.
- semi-interquartile range is the half of the middle 50%.

Decile
- similar to quartiles except that it uses points that mark
10% intervals.
- the TOP Decile (D9) is the point below which 90% of the
cases fall.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS:
1. Polygon/Line graph (Continuous Data)
2. Histogram/Bar Graphs (Discrete Data)
3. Pie graph
4. Stem & leaf display

Frequency Distributions
- classification of data which may help in understanding
important features of the data.
- displays scores on a variable to reflect how frequently
each value as obtained
- for most scores, it is bell-shaped.
CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION No correlation
OF GROUPED SCORES: - (0)
- high or low scores are not associated.
1. Find the range of scores.
2. Determine the width of each class interval (i).
3. List the limits of each class interval, placing the
interval containing the lowestscore value at the
bottom.
4. Tally the raw scores into the appropriateclass
intervals.
5. Add the tallies for each interval to obtainthe
interval frequency.

Relative frequency distribution

- indicates the proportion of the total number of
scores that occur in each interval.
INTERPRETATIONS OF COEFFICIENT SCORES:
Cumulative frequency distribution
- indicates the number of scores that fall below the upper 0
real limit of each interval. -no relationship.

Cumulative percentage .01-.20

- indicates the percentage of scores that fall below the - negligible relationship.
upper real limit of each interval.
.21-.39
CORRELATION: - low relationship.

Correlation Coefficient .40-.69

- expresses the degree of correspondence or relationship - substantial/moderate relationship.
between two separate scores.
- a mathematical index that describes the direction & .70-.100
magnitude of a relationship. - significant/very high relationship.

TYPES OF CORRELATION: Regression

- using correlation to assess the magnitude and direction of a
1. Perfect positive relationship.
2. Perfect negative - used to make predictions about scores on one variable from
the knowledge of scores on another variable. term first used
3. No correlation in 1885 by Sir Francis Galton.
- observed “Regression toward Mediocrity” or “Regression
Perfect positive toward the mean” – meaning scores tend to regress towards
- (+1.00) the mean on repeated occasions.
- high scores on X associated with High scores on Y. - Karl Pearson developed first statistical models of
correlation and regression (late 19th century). Regression
Perfect negative Slope.
- (-1.00)
- high scores on X associated with Low scores on Y.
Regression slope Coefficient of determination
- the slope describes how much change is expected in Y - define as the Squared Correlation Coefficient. converted to
each time X increases by one unit. percentage.
- how much change in Aggression Level (Y) each time a - the higher it is = the better we can attribute variation to the
violent movie (X) is watched. two variables.
- the point where X and Y meet is called the intercept and - simply tells us that the variation that we get is truly the
its value is zero. variation caused by X on Y.

Regression line Coefficient of alienation

- best fitting straight line through a set of point in a scatter - opposite of Coefficient of Determination.
diagram. - measure of non-association.
- formed by the principle of least squares – it minimizes - scores that are not explained.
the squared deviation around the regression line.
- mean is the point of least squares in any variable. Shrinkage
- residual is the difference between the observed scores - defined as the amount of decrease observed when a
and predicted scores. regression equation is created for one population and then
applied to another.
OTHER CONCEPTS:
Cross validation
1. Residual
-a way to ensure that proper references are being made.
2. Standard Error of Estimate (SEE) using the regression equation to predict performance in a
group of subjects other than the ones to which the equation
3. Coefficient of Determination
was applied.
4. Coefficient of Alienation -with this, one can also check the Residual.
5. Shrinkage
The correlation-causation problem
6. Cross Validation - just because two variables are correlated does not
7. The Correlation-Causation Problem necessarily mean the one has caused the other.
- correlation does not prove causality.
8. Third Variable Explanation
9. Restricted Range Third variable explanation
-relationship between two variables may be explained by
10. Multivariate Analysis another variable not included in the analysis.
-an external influence.
Residual
- the difference between the predicted and the observed Restricted range
values. -it is extremely difficult to demonstrate the relationship
- symbolically defined as Y - Y’. between two things even though a true underlying
- sum of the residuals must always equals 0. relationship may exist.
- sum of the squared residuals should be the smallest value
according to the principle of least squares. Multivariate analysis
- considers relationship among combinations of three of
Standard error of estimate (SEE) more variables:
- SD of the Residuals.
- the Measure of Accuracy of Prediction.  Multiple regression (interval data)
- prediction is most accurate when SEE is small.  Discriminant Analysis (nominal/categorical data)
-the larger SEE = less accurate prediction.
 Factor Analysis (study of interrelationships among
set of variable without reference to a criterion.
Statistical significance
- is used when generalizing the result for samples obtained
from the population.
- is the probability of some result from a statistical test
occurring by chance.
- rule of thumb: if the p-value is less than the significance
level (p = 0.05) the usual decision is to reject null
hypothesis.

MAKING A HYPOTHESIS:
1. It is the null hypothesis that we test in statistics.
2. This is what we decide whether to accept or reject
the null hypothesis.
3. The null hypothesis is always stated in the negative.
This is because you have to be able to prove
something is indeed true.
4. If you ACCEPT the null, or you fail to reject it, this
means that no relationship or differences were
found.
5. If you REJECT the null as false, this means that
differences or relationships do exists.

TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS:

1. Non-directional hypothesis
2. Directional hypothesis

Non-directional hypothesis
the first type of hypotheses test for relationship and
differences.
Directional Hypothesis LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT:
- predicts the direction of the difference; this is based on
your knowledge, evidence in the professional review of Nominal level of measurement
literature or your own experience. - characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or
category only; data cannot be arranged in an ordering
PROBABILITY LEVELS AND ERRORS: scheme such as low to high.
Type I (Alpha) Error
Type II (Beta) Error Ordinal level of measurement
- they can be arranged in some order, but differences
Type I (Alpha) Error (obtained by subtraction) between data values either cannot
- occurs when you reject the null and it was actually true. be determined or are meaningless.
- we conclude falsely that there were differences when
there is none. Interval level of measurement
- like the ordinal level, with the additional property that the
Type II (Beta) Error difference between any two data values is meaningful; data
- occurs when you accept the null and it was in fact false. at this level do not have a natural zero starting point (where
- we conclude that there are no differences when in fact none of the quantity is present).
there was.

Note: If the hypothesis is true, you accept the null, if the

hypothesis is false you reject the null.

TYPES OF DATA:

Parameter
- numerical measurement describing some characteristic of
a population.

Quantitative
- (or numerical) data consist of numbers representing
counts or measurement.

Categorical
- (or qualitative or attribute) data consist of names or labels
that are not numbers representing counts or measurements.

Discrete data
- result when the number of possible values is either a
finite number or a “countable” number (the number of
possible value is 0 or 1 or 2, and so on.)

Continuous (numerical) data

- result from infinitely many possible values that
correspond to some continuous scale that covers a range of
values without gaps, interruptions, or jumps.
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