Psych Ass 1&2
Psych Ass 1&2
Psych Ass 1&2
Standardization
- the consistency or uniformity of the conditions and
procedures for administering a psychological test.
Behavior sample
- can be a sign or sample of behavior.
- sign: indicative of what the person really is.
- sample: just a part of the behavior.
Scores or categories
- psychological tests sum up performance in numbers
(scores) or classifications (categories).
Norms
- distribution of tests scores of a large group of people
similar in nature to the job applicantsbeing tested.
Standardization sample
- can also be called as norm group.
Psychological test - group of subjects used to establish test norms and it serves
- Essentially objective and standardizedmeasure of a as a point of comparison.
sample behavior with which the standardized test is mainly
classified as psychometric test and projective test.
Prediction of non-test behavior Psychometric test
- predicts other behaviors that are not directly sampled by - instrument wherein the responses are related to a criterion
the test. in an objective and systematic fashion.
Educational institutions
- basis for admission to an academic institution.
Measuring rod which is to routinely assess student
accomplishment.
Business or industry
- Selection of job applicants.
- classification of individuals to positions best suited for
them.
- basis for promotions; counseling workers.
Courts
- expert witness’ report on annulment cases.
- evaluate the mental health of people chargedwith a
crime.
- investigating malingering cases in court.
- making child custody decisions.
Clinical institutions
- diagnosis and treatment planning (e.g. determining
overall personality functioning and need for therapy,
presence/absence oforganically based brain disorder ,
describe intellectual and emotional states).
Research
- used for both basic and applied researchers.
Projective test
- an instrument considered especially sensitive to covert or
unconscious aspects of behavior.
- relatively unstructured task, that is, a task that permits
almost an unlimited variety of possible responses.
Aptitude test
- diagnosis and treatment planning (e.g. determining
overall personality functioning and need for therapy;
presence/ absence oforganically based brain disorder;
describe intellectual and emotional states).
Achievement test
- measures previous learning.
Diagnostic
Power
Speed
Neuropsychological
Interest Test users
- measures an individual’s preference for certainactivities - psychological tests and assessment methodologies are used
or topics and help in career decisions. by a wide range of professionals, including clinicians,
counselors, school psychologists, human resource personnel,
Diagnostic consumer psychologist, experimental psychologists and
- uncover and focus attention on weaknesses ofindividuals social psychologists.
for remedial purposes.
GOALS OF ASSESSMENT:
Power
1. Classification
- requires the examinee to exhibit the extent or depth of his
understanding or skill. 2. Description
- provides enough time to attempt all items but is
3. Prediction
constructed in a way that no test taker is able to obtain a
perfect score.
PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT:
Diagnostic assessment
- detailed evaluation of a child’s strengths and weaknesses in
several areas, such as cognitive, academic, language, and
PARTIES IN THE ASSESMENT ENTERPRISE: social functioning for the following purposes:
1. Test developers diagnosis to determine classificationreflecting the
2. Test users client’s level and type of functioning.
5. Intelligence Testing -In spite of our similarities, no two human beings are exactly
6. Personality Testing alike.
Charles Darwin
CHINESE INFLUENCE: - origin of species [1859].
- Darwin believed that some of these individual differences
206 B.C.E are more “adaptive” than others.
- there were scattered evidences of civil servicetesting in - these individual differences, over time, lead to more
China. complex, intelligent organisms.
- Oral examinations: to determine work evaluations and
promotion decisions. Galton
- cousin of Darwin; an applied Darwinist.
206 B.C.E to 220 C.E - he claimed that some people possessed characteristics that
- Han Dynasty developed test batteries. made them “more fit” than others
- test batteries are two or more tests used inconjunction.
- test topics include civil law, military affairs,agriculture,
.
-Galton wrote Hereditary Genius (1869). OTHER ACHIEVEMENTS OF GALTON:
-He set up an anthropometric laboratory at the
1. Considered by some as the founder ofpsychometrics
International Exposition of 1884.
-for 3 pence, visitors could be measured with: 2. Pioneered rating scales andquestionnaires
Statistics
-lie at the center of the modern science of psychology.
- used as a shorthand for statistical procedures which are
formulas and calculations developed by statisticians that
psychologists andother behavioral researchers employ when
“analyzing” the results of their research.
- an integral part of psychology and other behavioral
sciences, so statistics and statistical concepts are used every
day.
Thematic Apperception Test - tools used in research; needed because the behavioral
- constructed by Henry Murray and Christina Morgan sciences are based on empirical research.
(1935). Necessary for comprehending other people’sresearch.
- composed of ambiguous pictures that were considerably
more structured than the Rorschach. PURPOSE OF STATISTICS:
- subjects are shown the pictures and asked to write a - The goal of statistics is to make inferences, or
story. generalizations, about a population:
Description
- descriptive statistics
Making Inference
- correlational statistics
-inferential statistics
Population
- entire group of individuals to which a law nature applies.
Sample Nominal Scales
- relatively small subset of a population that is intended to - simplest form of measurement mutually exclusive. tells a
represent, or stand in for, the population. difference exists.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENTS:
1. Nominal scales
2. Ordinal scales
3. Interval scales
4. Ratio scales
T-scores/ McCall’s T
- system developed in 1939 by W.A. McCall.
- originally intended to develop a system to derive equal
units on mental quantities.
- came from EL Thorndike’s studies.
Stanine System
- converts any set of scores into a transformed scale which
ranges from 1 to 9.
- comes from the words “standard nine”.
Norms
- refer to the performances by defined groups on particular DESCRIBING DATA:
tests.
- give information about the performance of a person Distribution
relative to what has been observed in a standardization - a set of test scores arrayed for recording or studying.
sample.
- sample must be representative of the population. Frequency Distribution
- number of times each score occurred.
Age-related norms
- certain tests that have different normative groups for MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:
particular age groups.
1. Mean
- Stanford-Binet IQ test uses age related norms.
- when applying IQ test, the examiner’s task is to 2. Median
determine the mental age of the test taker.
3. Mode
- example: (of age related norms) growth charts used by
pediatricians.
Mean
- tracking is the tendency to stay about the same level
- sum of the scores divided by the number ofscores.
relative to one’s own peers.
designated by μ (mu) for population mean;designated by x-
bar for sample mean.
Median
- middle score of a distribution; symbol Mdn or md. Range
scale value below which 50% of the scores fall; the same
thing as P50. - distance between the two most extreme scores in a
- properties of the median includes: distribution.
less sensitive than the mean to extreme scores. - difference between the highest and lowest scores in
the distribution.
under usual circumstances, the median is more - range = highest score – lowest score.
subject to sampling variability than the mean but
less subject to sampling variability than the mode.
Standard deviation
Mode - the square root of the variance.
- most frequent score in a distribution.
- approximation of the average deviation around the
- when all the scores in the distribution have the same
mean; gives a smaller number.
frequency, it is customary to say that the distribution has
no mode. - more useful than the variance, and can be used with
- can also be bimodal or multimodal. the mean.
Variance
- the mean of the squared deviation scores.
- when you want to get the spread of the scores, you
subtract first the each score from the mean to get the
differences; you get the average of these differences
- but when you do that you will always get zero,
that’s why you SQUARE them.
MEASURES OF LOCATION:
MEASURES OF VARIABILITY/DISPERSION:
1. Percentile
1. Range
2. Quartile
2. Standard deviation
3. Decile
3. Variance
4. Standard scores
Percentile
- specific scores or points within a distribution.
- divides the total frequency for a set of observations into
hundredths
- indicates the value below which a given percentage of
observations in a group of observations fall
- not the same as percentile ranks; percentile ranks
indicates what percentage of score fall below a particular
score.
- not the same as percentages.
Quartile
- points that divide the distribution into equal fourths.
- first quartile = 25%; second quartile = 50% (or the
Median); third quartile = 75%.
- interquartile range is the interval of scores bounded by
the 25th and 75th quartiles; the range of scores that
represents the middle 50% of the distribution.
- semi-interquartile range is the half of the middle 50%.
Decile
- similar to quartiles except that it uses points that mark
10% intervals.
- the TOP Decile (D9) is the point below which 90% of the
cases fall.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS:
1. Polygon/Line graph (Continuous Data)
2. Histogram/Bar Graphs (Discrete Data)
3. Pie graph
4. Stem & leaf display
Frequency Distributions
- classification of data which may help in understanding
important features of the data.
- displays scores on a variable to reflect how frequently
each value as obtained
- for most scores, it is bell-shaped.
CONSTRUCTING A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION No correlation
OF GROUPED SCORES: - (0)
- high or low scores are not associated.
1. Find the range of scores.
2. Determine the width of each class interval (i).
3. List the limits of each class interval, placing the
interval containing the lowestscore value at the
bottom.
4. Tally the raw scores into the appropriateclass
intervals.
5. Add the tallies for each interval to obtainthe
interval frequency.
MAKING A HYPOTHESIS:
1. It is the null hypothesis that we test in statistics.
2. This is what we decide whether to accept or reject
the null hypothesis.
3. The null hypothesis is always stated in the negative.
This is because you have to be able to prove
something is indeed true.
4. If you ACCEPT the null, or you fail to reject it, this
means that no relationship or differences were
found.
5. If you REJECT the null as false, this means that
differences or relationships do exists.
Non-directional hypothesis
the first type of hypotheses test for relationship and
differences.
Directional Hypothesis LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT:
- predicts the direction of the difference; this is based on
your knowledge, evidence in the professional review of Nominal level of measurement
literature or your own experience. - characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or
category only; data cannot be arranged in an ordering
PROBABILITY LEVELS AND ERRORS: scheme such as low to high.
Type I (Alpha) Error
Type II (Beta) Error Ordinal level of measurement
- they can be arranged in some order, but differences
Type I (Alpha) Error (obtained by subtraction) between data values either cannot
- occurs when you reject the null and it was actually true. be determined or are meaningless.
- we conclude falsely that there were differences when
there is none. Interval level of measurement
- like the ordinal level, with the additional property that the
Type II (Beta) Error difference between any two data values is meaningful; data
- occurs when you accept the null and it was in fact false. at this level do not have a natural zero starting point (where
- we conclude that there are no differences when in fact none of the quantity is present).
there was.
TYPES OF DATA:
Parameter
- numerical measurement describing some characteristic of
a population.
Quantitative
- (or numerical) data consist of numbers representing
counts or measurement.
Categorical
- (or qualitative or attribute) data consist of names or labels
that are not numbers representing counts or measurements.
Discrete data
- result when the number of possible values is either a
finite number or a “countable” number (the number of
possible value is 0 or 1 or 2, and so on.)