07

Series 1 • Issue 2 • September 2017

Mass Movements in the Tropics

To what extent are the mass movement processes that occur
in the humid and arid tropics similar? by Kate Cowan
Mass movement is a geomorphic process by which Most of the tropics generally experience warm
materials, including sand, soil, weathered and solid temperatures throughout the year, although total annual
rock move downslope, under the influence of gravity. rainfall and distribution vary significantly. This means that,
Mass movement processes are varied in their causes and within the tropics, there are varying degrees of aridity and
characteristics. humidity. In accordance with the Köppen-Geiger climate
classification system, the tropics includes climates which
A variety of mass movement processes occur across the
fall under a number of categories:
tropics, with a number of similarities in the nature and
characteristics of mass movement events in both the
Arid Tropical Zones
humid and arid tropics, despite the differences in climate
and vegetation cover experienced across these areas. The The arid tropics includes hot desert areas (BWh),
extent to which the nature and characteristics of mass which are generally hot, sunny, and dry all year round,
movements in the humid and arid tropics are similar is a experiencing temperatures often in excess of 30ºC. Hot
complex issue to consider, due to the many variables which deserts can be divided into hyper-arid zones, which have
influence the types of mass movement processes which a mean annual precipitation value of less than 100mm
may come about, and the different rates, frequencies, and and arid zones have an annual rainfall total of less than
scales on which they may occur. 250 mm. Both hyper-arid and arid areas experience
a permanent moisture budget deficit, where potential
The Tropics evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation. Rainfall
in desert areas can be intermittent and unreliable and
The tropics can be defined as a climatic region of radiation usually takes the form of short-lived moderate to intense
surplus, delimited by boundaries fluctuating between downpours.
30 and 35° north and south of the Equator. All areas at
sea level within this region experience high temperatures Hot semi-arid areas (BSh) also exist on the fringes of hot
throughout the year. However, there is significant variation deserts. These areas have moisture deficits for eight months
in the pattern and amount of rainfall. As such, the tropics or more per year and an average annual precipitation of
can be divided into a number of different climatic zones, 250-500 mm. Semi-arid tropical areas can be affected by
encompassing some of the wettest and driest areas on seasonal rains, including rainfall from monsoons as well
Earth (Figure 1). as convectional downpours. See Figures 2a & 2b on Page
2 for information on Cairo and Delhi, two cities that are
hot desert areas (BWH and BSh climates respectively).

Figure 1 Average annual rainfall variation across the tropics

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 07 • Mass Movements in the Tropics

Tropical wet and dry savannah

(Aw) climates also experience wet
and dry seasons but receive less than
60mm of precipitation in any month
and lower than 1000mm annually
(see Figure 2e). The temperature
range for the wet and dry savannah
climate is greater than tropical
monsoon regions.
The large-scale climatic patterns that exist within the
tropics are complicated by the existence of other climate
types, including humid-subtropical and subtropical
highland areas, resulting mainly from marine and
Figure 2a Hot desert climate: Cairo, Egypt altitudinal influences which can alter both temperatures
and rainfall patterns on a regional scale.
Climatic patterns in the tropics are further complicated by
the incidence of tropical storms, the El Niño phenomenon,
and global warming. Many coastal areas within the humid
tropics can experience tropical cyclones, and the rains and
high winds that they bring, at certain times throughout
the year. El Niño / La Niña cycles can also bring more
extreme weather to locations throughout the tropics.

Figure 2b Hot semi-arid climate: Delhi, India

Humid tropical zones

Humid tropical zones experience inputs of rainfall from
convection, tropical storms and monsoons. Like the arid
tropics, there is much variation in rainfall volumes and
frequencies, with totals ranging from well over 3000mm
per year in the wettest humid regions, to 500mm in the
least humid. The wettest zones fall under the classification
of tropical rainforest (or Equatorial) climate (Af),
which includes areas which experience high monthly
precipitation with no less than 60mm per month (see
Figure 2d Tropical monsoon climate: Jakarta, Indonesia
Figure 2c). Annual rainfall totals usually exceed 2000mm
and annual temperature range is small. Tropical monsoon
(Am) climates (see Figure 2d) have monthly temperatures
averaging above 18ºC. These areas experience wet and dry
seasons, but receive in excess of 1000mm rainfall per year.

Figure 2c Tropical rainforest climate: Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Figure 2e Tropical wet and dry savannah climate: Lagos, Nigeria

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 07 • Mass Movements in the Tropics

There can be a ‘reversal’ of typical climatic conditions for a A reduction in shear strength can come from (i) changes
particular place during El Niño years and an exaggeration in pore-water pressure when slope material becomes
of typical conditions during La Niña, during which ‘wet’ saturated and softened, (ii) the effects of weathering,
locations would experience even more rainfall than the which may encourage disintegration and breakdown of
norm. Added to this is the impact of global warming, rocks, or (iii) the effects of burrowing animals and tree
which further complicates climatic patterns throughout root decay. Forces applied to slopes, which increase shear
the tropics. stress, can derive from a number of sources:
●● Loading of the slope through added weight of
Slope Stability water, vegetation or debris.
Slopes are inclined surfaces in which the gradient ●● The undercutting of slopes by waves and/or
determined by the angle of inclination of the surfaces rivers.
from the horizontal plane (see Figure 3). ●● The creation of steeper surfaces through
When the gravitational force acting on a slope exceeds the previous mass movements.
resisting force, slope failure (mass movement) occurs. The ●● The stress of earthquakes or trees being
strength and cohesion of the material on the slope as well moved by wind (causing roots to move surface
as the forces of internal friction within the material are material).
known collectively as shear strength. These forces help to
maintain the slope’s stability. A slope is said to be stable if Factors Influencing Slope Stability
the shear strength of the rock and material which covers Many factors contribute to a slope being either stable or
the slope is equal to or exceeds the shear stress acting on unstable, and it is usually an accumulation of interrelated
the slope. factors that lead to mass movement taking place. The
Mass movements occur when the equilibrium maintaining volume, intensity, and frequency of precipitation are crucial
a slope’s stability (the potential for slopes to withstand variables in determining the nature and characteristics of
movement) is disturbed. A slope may become unstable, mass movements in the humid and arid tropics, although
leading to slope failure, when there is a reduction in its aspects of geology, weathering, relief, vegetation cover, as
shear strength, or an increase in shear stress, which is the well as human influences, also play a part.
force trying to pull a mass downslope (see Figure 4).
Precipitation
Both shear strength and shear stress can be altered to
Water can act to both increase and decrease slope stability,
contribute towards the onset of a mass movement event.
depending on the amount of water that is present/
A number of factors, both physical and human, which act
added to slope material. Small amounts of water act to
to influence the level of shear stress and/or shear strength,
strengthen soils because the surface tension of water aids
can be identified in the tropics.
soil cohesion, thus increasing shear strength and causing
it to remain stable and resist erosion to a greater extent
than the material could if it was dry. This can lead to the
deduction that unconsolidated slope material in the most
arid areas within the tropics may lack cohesion due to the
severe shortage of water, thus making slopes vulnerable
to some types of mass movement events (see Page 7).
However, the presence or addition of too much water will
increase pore water pressure, reduce friction and accelerate
the erosion process. Shear strength is thus reduced and
the material becomes unstable (see Figure 5).

Figure 3 Angle of a slope

Figure 4 Shear strength and stress Figure 5 The influence of pore water on slope stability
Diagram adapted from Waugh (2002) p. 50.

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 07 • Mass Movements in the Tropics

Pore-water pressure, which refers to the pressure that Geological Factors

water held in gaps (pores) within a rock or soil exerts on
Geology is important in determining the likelihood and
its surroundings, is therefore a significant factor in mass
type of slope failure because the strength of a rock type
movement generation. Increasing water content on slopes
and its permeability (level of ability to transmit fluids) in
can reduce the internal cohesion of slope materials and
terms of porosity and perviousness, will influence the
internal friction and hence shear strength. This results in
extent to which the rock will weather, and how much
liquefaction of the ground taking place, causing flows to
water it will allow to enter, resulting in a reduction of
occur.
shear strength.
The amount of weathered material on a slope’s surface
Porosity, also known as the primary permeability of a
and the geology of the area therefore play an important
rock, refers to the volume of pore space within a rock
role as it will determine how much water can be stored on
and is dependent on the shape of the grains or crystals
the surface, or enter the rock.
that make up the rock and the way in which they have
Heavy, and occasionally continuous, rainfall in the been packed together. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
tropical rainforest zones of the humid tropics can add are largely impermeable and cannot hold water, but some
weight to slope material (increasing shear stress) and sedimentary rocks, which are made up of individual rock
create lubrication (decreasing shear strength) on the particles, such as sandstone, are permeable, allowing water
slope, leading to landslides. This effect would be far to enter easily, and have a high porosity owing to their well-
less significant overall in the hot deserts of arid tropics, rounded and sorted grains with little or no cement matrix.
although the sporadic and intense rainfall can act to Perviousness (also known as the secondary permeability
trigger water-based mass movement events, especially of a rock) can also develop in rocks through the presence
when there are high levels of rapid runoff, associated of faults and joints (such as limestone), increasing the
with the lack of vegetation cover and thin/absent soils in level of permeability.
such areas. In other zones, slope failure may occur during
The added weight of water brought about by geology
or following a convectional or tropical storm which can
which is favourable to water accumulation, can add shear
bring huge volumes of rainfall in a relatively short period
stress to a slope. Where impermeable rock underlies soils
of time or failure may occur at the end of the rainy season
and/or weathered material, it is likely that surface material
as moisture accumulates. Precipitation is therefore an
will saturate more readily, exposing them to the effects
important factor in contributing to the occurrence of mass
of heightened pore-water pressure described above, thus
movements.
reducing shear strength and adding shear stress. In places
across the tropics where the surface geology exhibits lines
Vegetation
of weakness (perviousness) or high levels of porosity, or if
The vegetation cover of an area is strongly determined permeable surface material overlies impermeable bedrock,
by its climate. The degree of vegetation cover and type mass movement events may become more common.
of vegetation covering slopes varies throughout the Geology is a factor which will influence the nature and
tropics in relation to climate. Plentiful rainfall and warm characteristics of mass movements across both the humid
temperatures are conducive to high levels of vegetation and arid tropics in quite similar ways, but the extent to
growth. In general, the wetter the climatic zone, the which it has an impact will depend on the interaction of
denser the vegetation cover. Tropical rainforest zones have a number of variables, especially the presence or absence
the densest vegetation cover and hot deserts the sparsest. of water.
Vegetation can also bind soils and maintain the moisture
Tectonic Factors
balance, enhancing the shear strength of a slope, thus
resisting mass movement. The opposite is true if vegetation Tectonic factors relating to movements of the Earth’s
is sparse, or if deforestation has taken place. Vegetation crust are also important in determining the nature and
may also add weight to slopes, increasing shear stress. characteristics of mass movements in the tropics. The
mountain building processes occurring at convergent
Overall, the greater coverage of vegetation in the humid
margins (collisional and destructive) can create the high
tropics may act to increase shear stress, but is more likely
and steep relief on which slope failure is more likely to be
to promote shear strength, thus aiding in slope stability. In
experienced, and such areas are found in both the humid
the arid tropics, an absence of vegetation can leave slopes
and arid tropics (although the high-altitude areas may
vulnerable to erosion and failure and also help to generate
fall under a sub-category of climate within the Köppen-
large volumes of runoff during times of heavy rainfall.
Geiger classification system).
This does not mean, however, that mass movement events
are more frequent or widespread in the arid tropics, as the The presence of volcanic activity at destructive and
presence or lack of vegetation alone is unlikely to be a constructive margins as well as hot spots at intra-plate
factor in determining mass movement occurrence. locations also produces steep slopes, which are often
strewn with unconsolidated volcanic ash and lapilli which
can provides the ingredients for certain categories of mass
movements (see Page 7).

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 07 • Mass Movements in the Tropics

Again, volcanoes are present in both the humid and arid Another scenario is that weight can be added to lower
tropics and so their impact on mass movement affects all slopes as mass movements descend from the upper
areas, although the extent to which they have an impact slopes in areas of high relief, adding shear stress to the
depends on a variety of interrelated factors. lower slope. Areas of particularly high altitude such as
the Andes and Himalayas are affected by the action of
Seismic activity which is associated with all plate
glaciers, which too can influence the incidence of mass
boundaries as well as at volcanic hot spots (although the
movement events (see Page 7).
effects are likely to be most frequent and intense at destructive,
collisional and conservative margins) is also not unique to
Weathering
any one zone within the tropics. Seismic tremors would
increase shear stress on slopes and these events often act Weathering is the breakdown of rock in situ, i.e. the rock
as the trigger for mass movement. breaks down in the place in which it is located and the
material is not removed. It can take place to different depths,
Relief depending on the climate and geological properties of an
area. The amount of weathered material on slopes and
Geological factors, climate, and history of previous mass
the rate at which it is produced will determine the degree
movements each affect the nature of relief (the variations
to which shear strength of slope material is reduced as it
in elevation/altitude and slope within a given area of the
is broken down, and also the extent to which shear stress
earth’s surface) and slope profiles, which in turn influences
is added to the slope by loading of surface material or the
the likelihood of mass movements taking place. Steep
addition of water.
slopes are more likely to generate mass movements as the
shear stress is increased. Areas of high relief with steep
slopes may experience falls and landslides most frequently, Types of Weathering
especially when combined with other contributing factors. Weathering is usually classified as chemical,
Areas of high relief occur throughout the tropics and the mechanical (or physical), and biological. Chemical
influence of relief on mass movement is present throughout weathering involves rocks being broken down as its
the humid and arid zones, although the difference in mass constituents react chemically with air, water, or another
movement events experienced will also depend on other infiltrating solution by processes such as oxidation,
carbonation, hydrolysis, or hydration. Mechanical or
factors. Slope surfaces where landslides have previously
physical weathering is most commonly associated
occurred can produce areas of weakness where mass
with extremes of temperature where fluctuations in
movements could reoccur. As the weight of overlying
temperature in either very hot or cold conditions can
material is removed by mass movement, the remaining break down rocks into smaller parts by freeze-thaw or
material may expand as the stress of the overlying mass is insolation weathering. Another form of mechanical
removed, reducing shear strength. This can create cracks weathering is pressure release where rocks expand as
in the surface material, allowing more water to enter. surface weight is removed, creating joints within the
rock, assisting in its breakdown. Biological weathering
results from organic elements – i.e. the action of
plants, animals or the process of chelation (a complex
process where humus in the soil releases agents which
change the chemical structure of the rocks) that results
in chemical or mechanical breakdown of rocks.

A number of factors affect the type of weathering that

takes place and the rate at which it takes place, as well
as the amount of weathered material which is allowed
to accumulate. Geological and climatic factors have the
most significant influence. Rock structure, including the
presence of lines of relative weakness such as joints and
bedding planes as well as a rock’s chemical composition
and grain size, which will affect the rocks primary
permeability (porosity) and its secondary permeability
(perviousness), factors which will influence the type and
rate of weathering.
Climate controls the type and rate of weathering. The
Peltier Curve (1950) for chemical weathering (cited in
Collard, 1988) shows how chemical weathering is most
Figure 6a Peltier’s diagram showing variations of strength of effective in environments which provide both the hottest
chemical weathering in relation to climate and wettest conditions (see Figures 6a & b).
Diagram adapted from Atkinson (2004) p. 65.

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 07 • Mass Movements in the Tropics

Figure 7 Strakov’s model showing variation in weathering

profile and depth across latitudes
Diagram adapted from Atkinson (2004) p. 67.
Figure 6b Peltier’s diagram showing variations of both chemical
and physical weathering in relation to climate Human Factors
Diagram adapted from Atkinson (2004) p. 66.
Human factors can contribute both directly and indirectly
Both the humid and arid tropics experience high to the reduction of shear strength and addition of
temperatures throughout the year, but as total annual shear stress to hillslopes. As populations are growing
rainfall differs throughout the tropics, so too will the throughout much of the tropics, and land use is extending
effectiveness of chemical weathering. to increasingly marginal areas, the actions of building
on and deforesting slopes are becoming increasingly
Chemical weathering is weak in hyper-arid zones,
significant factors in contributing to mass movement
moderate to strong in arid, strong in semi-arid, and much
taking place. Humans can increase the likelihood of mass
more significant in the wetter, humid tropical zones
movement occurring through construction of buildings
where it creates thick layers of soil and weathered rock.
and infrastructure - this may be by cutting or excavating
Latitudinal variations in weathering depth reveal that it
land, which can remove underlying support previously
is the humid tropics which will have the most intensely
given to slopes, thus reducing (shear strength), or by the
weathered material of a considerable depth, as shown by
constructions adding weight and pressure to the ground
Strakhov’s model (Figure 7).
(building on slopes adds weight, increasing shear stress).
However, although weathering is not as pronounced
Humans may also play a part in determining vegetation
in the arid tropics, it is not absent. In drier regions or
cover by cutting down and removing trees and changing
colder regions, chemical weathering is not as dominant
the dominant vegetation type in an area, or allowing
as mechanical weathering. The arid tropics experience
overgrazing to take place in an area, reducing the shear
high temperatures throughout the year, but the diurnal
strength of slopes. Such practices are known to have taken
temperature range (difference between maximum and
place in areas throughout both the humid and arid tropics,
minimum temperature in a day) can reach as high as 25-
and the extent to which they will contribute to mass
30°C each day. These temperature fluctuations mean that
movement events depends on many factors including the
rocks may fracture and break down through the process of
relief and land available in any given area combined with
insolation weathering, a form of mechanical weathering
the rate of population growth and development.
where repeated expansion and contraction break down
the rock. And in the colder high-altitude areas within the
tropics, frost action may take over as temperatures fluctuate Mass Movement
around zero, causing rock to fracture as water freezes and The most common classification of mass movements is
thaws. Overall, the rate and extent of weathering in the that put forward by Dunne and Leopold in 1978: falls,
humid tropics means that mass movements, especially slides, flows, and creep. The likelihood and frequency
involving the movements or earth and soils, are more of mass movements occurring, and of which type, can
likely in the humid than the arid tropics, although the sometimes depend on their particular locations, although
movement of weathered material in the arid tropics is also some types are widespread and give rise to variation in
significant when combined with other contributing factors frequency. Page 7 details the different types of mass
such as steep slopes and episodes of heavy rainfall. movements and their characteristics, and considers their
likely occurrence across the tropics.

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 07 • Mass Movements in the Tropics

The Philippines can be attributed to typhoons, and the islands are usually
affected by around 10 typhoons per season. Typhoon
The group of islands that make up the Philippines (Figure and monsoon rains, as well as equatorial rain, lead to
8) are situated between 5° and 20° north of the Equator flooding and subsequent landslides, made worse by the
in Southeast Asia. They experience humid climatic deforestation of many hillslopes.
conditions in which high temperatures and rainfall are
experienced throughout the year. The islands are situated Given the mountainous nature of the Philippines, mass
on the Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ and experience considerable movement events are common. The frequent mass
seismic and volcanic activity due to their position on an movement events, often with rapid onsets and large areal
active destructive plate margin. Earthquake events are extents, can be largely attributed to high total annual
frequent and often of high magnitude. The country has 200 rainfalls ranging from 1,000 to 5,000 mm per annum
volcanoes, 17 of which are active. The subduction zone throughout the archipelago (Figure 9).
on which the islands are located mean that the eruptions However, slope failures in the Philippines usually result
are explosive and much ash and lapilli are scattered on from a combination of interrelated factors. The tectonically
slopes. Due to their volcanic nature, the islands are mostly active nature of the region plays an important role. The
mountainous, with high peaks of almost 3,000 metres eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991 triggered lahars
above sea level. when material from the pyroclastic blast combined with
The Philippines is a rapidly developing lower-middle heavy rains. Annual rainfall at Pinatubo ranges from
income country with aspirations to become a Newly 2,000 to 4,000 mm.
Industrialised Country (NIC). The population is increasing The eruption deposited more than 5km³ of volcanic
apace, with growth rates standing at +1.7% per annum material on the volcano’s flanks and combined with heavy
in 2014, and a high population density of 328 persons rains that exceeded 12 mm in 30 minutes, generating rapid
per km². Many people are forced to live and work on the runoff on the slopes. The runoff encapsulated the tephra
steeply sloping and volcanic land, while exploitation is in its path to create rapid-onset, fast-flowing lahars. These
putting pressure on the country’s resources. Deforestation mass movements were not temporally confined to the
is rife, with clearing taking place to make way for the June of the eruption, but continued to remove around half
growing population and to enable the development of of the material, which had settled on the volcano’s slopes
agri-businesses. over the next four rainy seasons. Pinatubo’s lahars were
The country experiences a tropical monsoon climate with capable of transporting millions of m³ of mud every day
heavy rainfall, added to by the country’s positioning in – they can be up to 10 metres thick and 300 metres wide,
the typhoon belt. Around 30% of the country’s rainfall travelling at over 30 km per hour.

Guinsaugon
The weight of the volcanic material, increased by the
heavy rainfall, greatly increased the shear stress on the
slopes. The water also served to reduce shear strength,
reducing the internal resistance of the ash and lapilli to
movement. This increase in shear stress, combined with a
reduction in shear strength, led to the fast-flowing lahars
being triggered and covering a large area.

Figure 8 Map of major islands in the Philippines Figure 9 Climograph of Manila, Philippines

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Intense, heavy rainfall was also responsible for the The Aravalli Hills are situated in the north-east of the
Guinsaugon mudslide that occurred in Southern Leyte desert, with the highest peak at just over 1700 metres.
in February 2006. A 15 million m³ landslide travelled Rajasthan in India accounts for 90% of India’s share of
550-600 metres from its original position, triggered by the Thar. This state experiences an arid desert climate.
unseasonable torrential rain (attributed to the effects of The area receives less than 300 mm precipitation per
La Niña), which amounted to 2,000 mm falling over 10 annum on average.
days. Related factors included geological weakening of
Although large scale mass movements are uncommon in
the rocks in the area due to tectonic forces, exacerbated
this region, they can occur when rain is brought in to the
by the excessive deforestation that had taken place in the
area by unpredictable monsoon winds in July-September.
area, where native forest had been replaced with shallow-
For example, in 2012, flash floods and landslides were
rooted trees, reducing the soil’s protection from the heavy
generated. Arid regions such as Rajasthan are prone to
rains.
such events due to the lack of vegetation to bind the soil
The heavy rains increased shear stress by loading the and poor infiltration capacity of thin or hard-baked soils.
slope, whilst the seismic activity also added stress. Nonetheless, such large scale mass movement events are
Deforestation acted to reduce shear strength. Significant few and far between in comparison to the wet humid
slides are frequent in the Philippines, with landslide risk tropics.
said to affect up to 80% of the country. Rainfall is a key
factor, triggering moisture-driven slides and flows, whilst Conclusion
both tectonic factors and deforestation, which can be
In returning to the original question ‘to what extent are
linked to population growth and the quest for economic
the mass movement processes that occur in the humid and
development, also play an important role.
arid tropics similar?’ it can be deduced that the majority
of types of mass movements are experienced in both the
The Thar Desert humid and arid tropics, as the required conditions for the
The Thar Desert is an arid region in the north-western part mass movements to occur may be present in both.
of the Indian subcontinent (Figure 10). The transboundary
However, mass movement processes occur far more
desert is situated in both India and Pakistan, with about
frequently in the humid tropics due to the greater, more
85% of its area falling in India, covering an area of
consistent presence of rainfall. Given the plentiful rainfall
around 320,000 km². The Thar, although a desert, is not
in the humid tropics, slope failure is common, especially in
particularly arid and very little of it has less than 100mm
tropical rainforests areas or in the wet season for tropical
of mean annual rainfall (Figure 11).
monsoon and savannah regions. In the arid tropics, rain,
when it does occur, falls as irregular heavy downpours.
This means that slope failure, especially for flows, is
episodic and coincides with intense rainfall events.
Some types of mass movement are associated more closely
with specific types of areas within the tropics. Some
varieties require dry conditions, such as debris avalanches,
and are therefore largely confined to more arid regions.
Rock falls are limited to areas of high altitude in the
tropics, in both humid and arid zones.

Figure 11 Climograph of Jodhpur, Rajasthan (Thar Desert)

Figure 10 Location of the Thar Desert

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 07 • Mass Movements in the Tropics

Lahars require a volcanic influence so whether an area is humid or arid reduces in importance. Water-driven creep is
confined to the tropical rainforest zone where thick layers of weathered material and soils exist.
Mass movement events in the tropics are rarely the result of one single factor. Instead, they are due to the complex,
interrelated nature or cumulative effect of a number of factors. It is this complexity which means that spatial patterns
showing the variation in nature and characteristics of mass movements across the tropics are far from being clear cut.
Thus, the pattern of most types of mass movement throughout the tropics does not strictly follow the humid/arid
divides.
Besides the influence of climates, at the regional and local scale, such as the influence of factors such as geology and
relief also affect the type, nature and frequency of the the mass movements that occur.
Changes in the factors affecting mass movements and therefore the nature of the mass movements experienced may
occur temporally too, due to fluctuations in weather conditions attributed to tropical cyclone and El Niño events.

Bibliography
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4. Collard, R. (1988) The Physical Geography of Landscape Collins Educational
5. Frampton, S. Chaffey, J. McNaught, A. & Hardwick, J. (1996) Natural Hazards: Causes, Consequences and
Management Hodder & Stoughton
6. Goudie, A.S. (2013) Arid and Semi-Arid Geomorphology Cambridge University Press
7. Gupta, A. (2011) Tropical Geomorphology Cambridge University Press
8. Hill, M. (2002) Arid and Semi-Arid Environments Hodder Education
9. Holden, J. (Ed) (205) An Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment Pearson: Prentice Hall
10. Huggett, R.J. (2011) Fundamentals of Geomorphology (Second Edition) Routledge
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13. Thomas, D.S.G. (Ed) (1997) Arid Zone Geomorphology (Second Edition) Wiley
14. U.S. Geological Survey Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines Fact Sheet 114-97 Online Version 1.1
15. Waugh, D. (2002) Geography: An Integrated Approach (Third Edition) Nelson Thornes

Acknowledgements: This article was researched and written by Kate Cowan (a Teacher of Geography at King Edward VI High School
for Girls, Birmingham, UK) and published in September 2017 by Edupress Ltd in Wolverhampton, UK. GeoPress+ is a title from the
Edupress Factsheets series (ISSN: 2399-9721). No part of this article may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any
other form or by any other means, without prior permission from the publisher.

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