Maduraiveeran  Journal of Analytical Science

Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40543-022-00344-3 and Technology

REVIEW Open Access

Nanomaterials‑based portable
electrochemical sensing and biosensing
systems for clinical and biomedical applications
Govindhan Maduraiveeran*   

Abstract
Miniaturized electrochemical sensing systems are employed in day-to-day uses in the several area from public health
to scientific applications. A variety of electrochemical sensor and biosensor systems may not be effectively employed
in real-world diagnostic laboratories and biomedical industries due to their limitation of portability, cost, analytical
period, and need of skilled trainer for operating devices. The design of smart and portable sensors with high sensitiv-
ity, good selectivity, rapid measurement, and reusable platforms is the driving strength for sensing glucose, lactate,
hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide, mRNA, etc. The enhancement of sensing abilities of such sensor devices through
the incorporation of both novel sensitive nanomaterials and design of sensor strategies are evidenced. Miniaturiza-
tion, cost and energy efficient, online and quantitative detection and multiple sensing ability are the beneficial of the
nanostructured-material-based electrochemical sensor and biosensor systems. Owing to the discriminating catalytic
action, solidity and biocompatibility for designing sensing system, nanoscale materials empowered electrochemi-
cal detection systems are accomplished of being entrenched into/combined with portable or miniaturized devices
for specific applications. In this review, the advance development of portable and smart sensing/biosensing systems
derived from nanoscale materials for clinical and biomedical applications is described.
Keywords: Portable sensor, Smart sensor, Electrochemical sensor, Nanomaterials, Clinical diagnostics, Biomedical
applications

*Correspondence: [email protected]
Materials Electrochemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, SRM
Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chengalpattu, Tamil
Nadu 603 203, India

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Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 2 of 13

Graphical Abstract

Introduction entrants, partaking such characteristics as fast response,

Point-of-care (POC) diagnostics and in vitro diagnos- stoutness, high sensitivity and selectivity, less price, ease
tic (IVD) tests usually do not include the utilization of of miniaturization, and the possible for online detection
laboratory technical person and the ability to deliver the (Arivazhagan et al. 2020; Maduraiveeran et al. 2018a, b;
results. In general, the emergent biomarkers are included Xue et al. 2018). The electroanalytical technology-based
such as proteins, nucleic acids, metabolites, drugs, ions sensing devices are employed in day-to-day uses in sev-
and gaseous species, human/cancer cells, and microbes eral areas, starting from public health to scientific appli-
(Qin et al. 2022; Totoricaguena-Gorrino et al. 2022; Yang cations (Qin et al. 2022; Ahmad et al. 2019). The sensor
et al. 2022a, b, c). The analytical samples such as blood, systems provide the results quickly and frequently with
saliva, urine or other bodily fluids may be employed in saving time. The analytical samples may not transit to a
whether near patient in a hospital and clinical laborato- laboratory or expect the consideration of a technician.
ries (Pourang et al. 2022; Qin et al. 2022). These exami- The outcomes may not interval to be communicated.
nations generally admit a small sample and almost not Rather, the results can easily be provided on the spot to
at all pre-preparation and deal a consequence in few patient. Certainly, this protects time, but speediness must
seconds to few hours. The analytical assessments need not be operated for accuracy or reliability (Hassanzadeh
basic teaching to practice and certain sending single or et al. 2022; He et al. 2022; Kannan and Maduraiveeran
multiple targets markers/biomarkers (He et al. 2022; 2022; Maduraiveeran 2022).
Hendricks-Leukes et al. 2022; Jankelow et al. 2022). Moreover, the parameters of price may vary from those
Importantly, the understanding of the results may be as of conventional laboratory measurements. The sensor
humble as inspecting a stripe or spot of color on a strip device price is fewer but does only one or a few dissimilar
of polymer that executes the analytical procedure (Jovic examinations due to the sensor systems usually slighter
et al. 2022; Kumar et al. 2022). and more dedicated than laboratory structures. In par-
Electrochemical sensor systems own an extensive and ticular, the analyte molecules do not straightly interact
ironic past in the area of analytical chemistry and causa- with the reader; henceforth, self-cleaning subsystem is
tive to numerous medical industries (Barreiros Dos San- not required (Pankratova et al. 2021; Ruan et al. 2021;
tos et al. 2022; Beck et al. 2022; Maduraiveeran et al. Samper et al. 2021). A variety of POC chips or strip-
2018a, b). Electro-analytical detection methods have based disposable sensors are effectively employed for
possessed strong attention in the numerous research numerous on-board reagents. The POC system has supe-
fields as they have the volume to oblige as perfect sensing rior complication in relation to a blood-draw tube, and
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 3 of 13

functionality sorts it more pricey, so examinations traded design of sensor strategies are evidenced (Meng et al.
in great capacity stem most of their income from the use- 2022). It is understood that as the mandate for sensitive,
able (Sinha et al. 2022). The POC experiments may cir- speedy, discriminating and multiple detection of various
cuitously, occasionally extremely, inferior medical prices, biomarkers endures to produce, it prepares the value of
which lead sample mislabeling and mishandling, along electrochemical sensor systems. Electrochemical sen-
with misdirection of results. The fallouts are delivered sor platforms are eagerly improved for sensing a wide
more speedily, allowing more operative action of swiftly range of chemical and biological markers, which may be
continuing conditions, even building a life-or-death vari- combined into strong, portable and miniaturized sys-
ance with certain contaminations. In the present review, tems using nanostructures while residual comparatively
we highlight the advance design and development of cheap, in contrast to spectroscopic and chromatographic
portable and smart sensing/biosensing systems based on instrumentation (Hendricks-Leukes et al. 2022). A wide
nanoscale materials for clinical and biomedical applica- variety of nanostructured materials have been employed
tions (Fig. 1). to construct a various series of electrochemical detec-
tion systems, usually based on their unique catalytic and
Smart and portable sensor systems sensing characteristics (da Silva et al. 2022; Franco et al.
Smart and portable sensor devices are being developed 2022; Gevaerd et al. 2021; Karbelkar and Furst 2020; Nie
in the arena of sensor technology. Smart sensor typically et al. 2010). Current developments in the preparation of
is the grouping of a detecting materials with processing nanostructured materials and analytical approaches offer
abilities delivered by a microprocessor (Rajendran et al. a robust and encouraging forthcoming toward the under-
2021). In general, smart sensor is a digital transducer standing of analytical systems (Fig. 1).
combined with signal processing unit and a communica- The construction and commercialization of less price
tion interface (Zhou et al. 2022). Smart sensor system is nanoscale material-based smart detection elements con-
usually embedded with a digital motion processor (DMP), tinue important subjects in the expansion of analytical
which can easily receive input from external sources and systems for clinical and biomedical sectors (Karbelkar
use pre-built functions to detect a specific combination and Furst 2020; Nie et al. 2010). One of the essential
of inputs. This is the major difference between a normal problems that needs instantaneous determination toward
portable sensors and smart sensors. The enhancement the progress of imminent very discerning and precise,
of sensing abilities of such sensor devices in relations portable/miniaturized, swift, and simultaneous multiple
of sensitivity, discrimination ability and steadiness over sensors is the important holdup that leftovers between
the integration of both new sensitive nanomaterials and laboratory archetypes and their extensive profitable ten-
ders (Govindhan et al. 2014; Maduraiveeran and Ramaraj
2007; Zhao et al. 2021). A broad cooperative labors
among multidisciplinary scientific disciplines and manu-
facturing sectors may be indispensable, and certainly, are
acceptable for the efficacious enterprise, progress, and
employment of improved, “market ready” sensors.
Smart and/or portable sensor devices potentially signify
an innovative group of detecting competence, and self-
awareness which are highly crucial machineries of immi-
nent intellectual devices. The dynamic intellect depressed
to the constituent equal via the strategy of smart sen-
sor devices may have a thoughtful influence on claims
in environmental safety, health monitoring and medical
diagnostics both nearby and on a world-wide measure
(Qin et al. 2022; Raymond et al. 2022). Owing to more
quick, trustworthy, full-bodied, inexpensive and well-
organized way with a unified interface, the new cohort
of smart detection systems may retain implanted apti-
tude to deliver the end user. Though, in order to spread
the potential of detection devices, additional progresses
in both micro-technology/nano-technology and software
Fig. 1 Portable electrochemical sensors and biosensors for various algorithms are necessary. Recent literatures show that
applications contemporary development of electrochemical detection
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 4 of 13

platforms majorly concentrations on the combination million people will have diabetes by 2050 in the US.
of both micro- and nano-fabrication to enterprise sen- Current research study assessed that the world diabetes
sors with reduced dimension and energy burdens with occurrence among adults may be significantly increased
enhanced portability (Montes-Cebrian et al. 2019; Poenar to 6.4–9.5% by 2030. An inactive existence joint with
2019; Wen et al. 2019). The combination and interaction deviations in eating behaviors and the growing inci-
of unique materials may be expected to endure as the dence of fatness is supposed to be the chief reasons of
construction of sensor systems with amplified selectivity. for increasing rates. Glucose levels in blood are observed
Significant investigation attention near miniaturization with a diversity of sensing systems in ex vivo or in vivo
of sensing devices from the ultimatum for extra sensi- structures. Glucose biosensor systems employ a subsec-
tive capacities for arena and POC exercise is interested. tion of this family, viz. bioelectrodes and biosensors plat-
It is understood that miniaturization of sensing tools that forms for showing blood glucose a foremost character in
deals the outlook of incorporation of numerous phases this track (Izadyar et al. 2022; Ravariu and Arora 2021).
in multifaceted diagnostic events into a solitary conveni- In general, enzyme-based sensing electrodes like glucose
ent expedient. Such designed systems may allow inexpert oxidase ­(GOx) that bind to transducers have thus been
end-users to accomplish exceedingly composite clinical the aim of considerable exploration (Murugan et al. 2022;
trials (Gaikwad et al. 2015; He et al. 2022; Jankelow et al. Tang et al. 2022). In 1962, Clark and Lyons developed the
2022; Karsten et al. 2015; Kumar et al. 2022). A segment perception of glucose enzyme electrodes, which showed
of this development is usually engaged near reduction momentous movement to the expansion of depend-
in the dimension of sensing parts to the nano-dimen- able strategies for self-observing and continuous diabetes
sion and incorporated with electronics. Single-molecule resistor (Moody et al. 1987; Sun and Tachikawa 1992; von
determination is the central boundary for detecting the Woedtke et al. 1994). A diversity of approaches has been
quantity of precise low-concentration assays pertinent, discovered in the process of glucose enzyme electrodes.
called premature period discovery of disease. The vital It is surprised that the current biosensor market is occu-
significance is a simplistic miniaturization, comfort of pied by glucose biosensors. Glucose biosensors have been
incorporation with devices, direct signal transduction accounted for about 85% of the ecosphere market, calcu-
and economic price for practical real-world applications lating to be ~ $5 billion USD and the glucose biosensor
(Pumford et al. 2020; Qin et al. 2020). device market evolution is rushing and industrialists are
In addition, smart watches have numerous sensors involved in aggressive antagonism.
suitable for receiving physical activity and monitoring ill- Nanostructured transition metal oxides (TMOs) mate-
ness. These mobile healthcare or mHealth contexts trust rials have been employed as a significant class of sens-
on communication means to get vibrant information ing elements for enzyme free glucose sensor due to
from patients in real time. In recent years, a disposable the multiple electrochemical redox pairs promote the
freestanding electrochemical sensing system (FESS) is glucose oxidation reaction (GOR) (Arivazhagan and
developed for simultaneously enables sensing and out-of- Maduraiveeran 2022; Arivazhagan et al. 2020; Xue et al.
plane signal interconnection with the aid of double-sided 2018). For instance, Zhao et al. developed portable and
adhesion. Generally, the flexible and thin film contains enzyme-free electrochemical glucose sensor based on
multiple vertically stacked films such as adhesive aniso- nanostructured gold nanoparticles dispersed on CuO
tropic conductive film (ACF), a noble metal electrode nanowires on copper foam electrode (Zhao et al. 2021)
array film, a biochemical film, a microfluidic film, and a (Fig. 2). The as-developed sensor exhibited high sensitiv-
skin adhesive film (Zhao et al. 2020). The flexibility of the ity of ~ 1.6 µA/µM/cm with a detection limit of ~ 0.9 µM.
FESS in terms of its core capabilities is established by the Conferring to the topical shot by Global Industry Ana-
deposition of numerous patterns of different noble met- lysts, Inc., the global marketplace for glucose biosensors
als such as gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) as well as different and strips reached ~ $11.5 billion USD in 2012. The same
sensing layers to target a panel of physiologically relevant company is selling the blood glucose monitoring (BGM)
biomarker molecules in sweat. by several segments such as Blood Glucose Strips, Blood
Glucose Meters and Lancets. Global Industry Analysts,
Electrochemical glucose sensing system Inc., (GIA) publicizes the announcement of an inclu-
Detection of level of glucose in blood is a severe for sive global explosion on the biosensor systems in medi-
regulatory diabetes and the encounter of offering such cal devices marketplaces. The worldwide ultimatum for
fitted and dependable glycemic regulator ruins the biosensing systems in medical devices is conjecture to be
topic of vast quantity of research (Arivazhagan and extended $16.5 billion USD in 2017.
Maduraiveeran 2020; Arivazhagan et al. 2020; Kannan Medtronic Minimed Inc. offers the Continuous Glu-
and Maduraiveeran 2021). It is anticipated that ~ 48.3 cose Monitoring (CGM), getting a more comprehensive
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 5 of 13

Fig. 2 Picture of the portable electrochemical detection of glucose incorporating with smartphone (a); Software interface of APP (b); Electrodes
setup (c); FESEM image of the sensing element gold nanoparticles dispersed on CuO nanowires (d) (Zhao et al. 2021)

depiction of body glucose altitudes, which may clue to market is being motivated by the upsurge in R&D events
healthier action choices and improved glucose regula- for emerging biosensors, offering extremely precise real-
tor. This is the most common glucose nursing resolutions time diagnosis in medical opinion. The increasing medi-
are blood glucose meters and CGM devices in real-time cal uses, upsurge in R&D actions and the advent of new
during the day and night. A miniature electrode, termed know-hows, such as microfluidics and noninvasive bio-
a glucose detector, is implanted underneath the skin to sensing substitutions, establish the extra market drivers.
quantity the level of glucose in tissue fluid, and it is asso- Recent years, wearable electrochemical glucose sensor
ciated with a transmitter that directs the info via wire- systems for health monitoring and fitness management
less radio frequency to a observing and show device. This have expected a swiftly growing market, particularly
system could sense and inform when glucose is attaining those for noninvasive and incessant measurements with
a boundary. The modern Medtronic CGM systems can real-time display. They have offered various practical
essentially attentive you before you extent your glucose convenience and free of safety/infection risks (Chang
confines. et al. 2022). Park co-workers demonstrated a wearable
Abbott Inc is currently being developed a similar sen- electrochemical glucose sensor using of Au and Pt alloy
sor system, created on the wired enzyme technology of nanoparticles dispersed on a reduced graphene oxide
Heller’s group, which includes supplement of a small (rGO)-based nanostructured composite electrode, which
pointer hooked on the skin and produces an interpreta- was successfully micro-fabricated and micro-patterned
tion each minute. The entrenched component, intended on a flexible polyimide substrate (Xuan et al. 2018). The
to utility for ~ 4 days between substitutes, is minor suf- developed wearable sensor exhibited the limit of detec-
ficient to be painlessly substituted by the consumer. Cyg- tion of ~ 5 µM, linear range of 0–2 mM and sensitivity
nus Inc. developed a watch-like glucose monitor system of 48 μA m ­ M−1cm2. Javey co-workers reported a self-
based on the coupling of reverse iontophoretic gather- powered and fully integrated smartwatch for the continu-
ing of glucose through the skin with the biosensor role. ous detection of glucose in sweat (Zhao et al. 2019). The
The wearable GlucoWatch device, which is now available working function of the smartwatch is detection of glu-
from Animas Technologies Inc. It comprises together the cose in sweat, process the signal and display which can
abstraction and the sensing purposes beside with the be reinforced with the harvested/converted solar energy
functioning and data-storage motherboard. An alarm without external charging devices. The Zn-MnO2-derived
capability is included to aware the distinct of very low batteries work as intermediate energy storage units and
or high glucose levels. Further directions for gathering the employment of aqueous electrolytes. Recently, Chang
glucose via skin and for noninvasive glucose trying are co-workers developed a smartwatch-based glucose sen-
presently existence inspected with numerous clusters sor, comprising of glucose oxidase (GOx), carbon nano-
and businesses. Those global companies on biosensors tubes, and Nafion composites electrodes (Chang et al.
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 6 of 13

2022). The established smartwatch sensor was success- innings and precise data consistency. In addition, Com-
fully real-life tested on 23 volunteers, exposed 84.34% biMatrix developed an electrochemical DNA microar-
clinical accuracy of blood glucose extents for commer- ray system accomplished of sensing the existence and
cialization. Smartwatch-based wearable sensor devices quantifying the profusion of thousands of diverse genes.
realize the incorporation of energy modules with self- CombiMatrix involvement substances when it originates
powered ability, electroanalytical sensors for noninvasive to diagnostic challenging and they specify in the analy-
glucose monitoring, and in situ and real-time signal pro- sis of microarrayanalysis, aiding the clinical diagnostic

The CombiMatrix 12 K ElectraSense® microarray usually

cessing/display in a single platform, offering an emerg- essentials of the medical public from the time when 2005.
ing strategy for clinical investigation over conventional
glucometer. is a chip of silicon with balancing semiconductor of metal
oxide motherboard. This motherboard is communicated
DNA‑based electrochemical biosensing system over pogo pin connectors to13 pads based on metal on
Microarrays of DNA are a significant implement for a electrode arena. This microarray establishes an extremely
diversity of uses in the field of gene expression, genotyp- multiplexed electrodes system where signals majorly ini-
ing, drug discovery, molecular diagnostics, etc. (Zhang tiative chemical reactions that generate electrical signals
et al. 2022; Zhao et al. 2022; Zheng et al. 2022). They pos- at every electrode substrate (Mahmoodi et al. 2019; Song
sessed a robust consequence in medical diagnostics for et al. 2020; Zhao et al. 2020). Biodevice Technology Ltd.
cancer, toxicology and infectious disease uses (Alonso developed a DNA stick on electrodes fabricate into the
et al. 2004; Alvarado-Ramirez et al. 2021; Anderson et al. reaction tube (DNA stick), and it could be mixed using an
2013). Initially, Fodor co-workers (Chee et al. 1996) and electrochemical indicator after the amplification of PCR
Brown co-workers (DeRisi et al. 1997) have developed amplification. In addition, they established a DNA tester,
a sensor platform based on DNA microarrays for meas- which incorporates a temperature heater toward DNA
uring mRNA or miRNA expression, from portray single intensification (Fig. 3) (Tamiya 2022). The selectivity of
nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to recognize in vivo the ElectraSense microarray is considered as a multiplex
transcription factor (TF) binding locations. In addition, sensor via the seizure molecules at apiece electrode. The
it can be acted as a diagnostic device for the detection of gorgeous belongings of the electrochemical systems are
chromosome removal or intensification. DNA biosensor immensely for enlightening the efficacy of diagnostic
systems own the possible to overwhelmed the restrictions examining and monitoring of therapy.
of DNA microarrays by offering swift and high sensitive
utensils for genetic sensing, including: (i) the incorpora- Electrochemical bacterial sensing system
tion of microelectronics to microchip-derived nucleic Detection of microbial infection relics a great contest
acid tools in a great accessible procedure; (ii) the automa- (da Silva et al. 2022; Gevaerd et al. 2021; Scott et al.
tion of the sensing step; and (iii) the capability to accom- 1997). The preliminary loading of microbial cell of the
plish straight signal transduction evading the images analyte is relatively squat, thus requiring the cultur-
treating and analysis of statistical methods, essential in ing of the microorganisms to allow sensing and inven-
canonical DNA microarray workflow. The applications tory with present approaches. In general, this strategy
of DNA-based biosensors contain molecular diagnostics, is intrinsically sluggish, captivating numerous times and
pharmacogenomics, drug airing, clinical analysis (Gaiani postponing the discharge of yields to the marketplace
et al. 2022; Hanpanich et al. 2022; Li et al. 2022). or subsequent in tackle down-time (Zhao et al. 2022;
In recent years, novel peers of chips which may operate Zheng et al. 2022; Zhu et al. 2022). The development of
the sequencing of DNA for quickening clinical, biomedi- modern sensing system comes with any solutions to this
cal and biological research in the area of genetics (Feng tricky necessity be capable to sense microbiological pol-
et al. 2019; Santos et al. 2019; Wu et al. 2017). These inno- lution at the altitudes contemporary, through or soon
vative machineries are majorly based on the sequencing afterward, specimen (Karbelkar and Furst 2020). Any
of cyclic-array and comprise the subsequent profitable analytical strategy must partake modest taster ground-
produces: the 454 Genome Sequencer based on Roche ing actions and must not necessitate multifaceted and
Applied Science, the Solexa from Illumina, the SOLiD luxurious equipment (McEachern et al. 2020; Vilaplana
platform derived from Applied Biosystems, the Polona- and Marco 2020; Yeor-Davidi et al. 2020). Those charac-
tor produced by Dover/Harvard and the HeliScope Sin- teristics sensing method to be absolutely appropriate for
gle Molecule Sequencer from Helicos. Microarray-based a characteristic eminence regulator laboratories. In gen-
sequencing empowers a much advanced grade of paral- eral, electrochemical biosensors platforms may be char-
lelism than that of conservative capillary-based sequenc- acterized based on the electrical input such as direct
ing, then offerings difficulties with elongated sequencing current (DC) and alternating current (AC) as shown
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 7 of 13

Fig. 3 Schematic illustration of the electrochemical DNA detector with heater (A); Sensing DNA after operation of DNA stick (B) (Tamiya 2022)

Fig. 4 Direct and AC current-derived electrochemical biosensors for bacterial detection (Karbelkar and Furst 2020)

in Fig. 4 (Karbelkar and Furst 2020). For the produc- the probable for expansion of fast and extremely sensi-
tion of current at the interfacial electrochemical reac- tive cell sensing assays. BIO-CARD and a convenient
tions, a constant polarity voltage usually is employed at electronic reader that processes containers and gathers
zero-frequency with DC input. On the other hand, the data on definite microorganisms. BIO-CARD system
voltage polarity may be oscillated at nonzero frequency includes new cell-capture membranes combined with
for AC input. Figure 5 depicts the electrochemical sen- detectors which counts electrons resulting from allo-
sor system with microfluidic chips for the detection cated reactions of cellular enzyme.
of bacteria (Jing Jiang 2014). MICROPRINT, a tech- The contemporary portable sensor system for bacte-
nological gateway developed a sensor device based on rial contamination has several merits, including of (i)
cell imprinted electrochemical sensors, which provides User training is not required; (ii) Sample preparation is
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 8 of 13

Fig. 5 Electrochemical detection of bacteria using of wireless cell phones (Jing Jiang 2014)

not required; (iii) It is a less price (reader €500 and < €1 Electrochemical Hy‑GENSOR
per analysis); (iv) There is no outward reagents essential For healthcare professionals, a hand hygiene valuation
(Self-contained); (v) (< 8 h, outcomes obtainable inside sensor system is a mobile, self-detecting hand-hygiene
same swing; (vi) Germ-free and non-obligatory ster- equipment (Bandodkar and Wang 2014), which is espe-
ile yields; (vii) Enable express go/no-go choices inside cially made for busy healthcare employees, marked by
industrial setting; (viii) Sensitive (~ 1 cfu/mL) and many, MiCRA-Biodiagnostics. This Hy-Gensor system inspects
precise organism examinations into single card (Jiang hand-hygiene position, presenting a measureable infec-
et al. 2020; Joshi and Kim 2020; Savas and Altintas 2019). tion-risk valuation in immediate (Kim et al. 2013). In
This electro-analytical devices grades to substitute pre- general, microbiological methods are influential but
sent exercise for counting of total bio-distinct types essential hours, or even days, to approve consequences
which is together employment exhaustive and labori- (Zhou et al. 2017). MERCK marketed swab-type colori-
ous, characteristically necessitate 18–24 h for an assent- metric tests, but these examinations provide qualitative
ing consequence. The MiCRA team established sensor “state-of-cleanliness” approximations, which are mainly
for the recognition of bacteria. This model expedient employed with the food business. This device empha-
intellects the attendance of enzymes ascending from sizes on the speedy valuation of hand hygiene, where
microbial metabolic pathways. For example, a sensor an alpha-numeric show signals the operator to finger or
for Escherichia coli may perceive β-galactosidase activ- hand bacterial cell numbers, or delivers a response report
ity, and an enzyme convoluted in lactose fermentation. on cleanliness grade. It is envisioned that the expertise
The device exhibits the detection limit of < 10 E. coli cells will spread to higher excellence evidence of analyte docu-
per 100 mL in a water solution (~ 7 h). Even the sensor mentation. It is mainly self-possessed of a micro-porous
is furthermore accomplished of determining ­105 cfu/mL membrane owning a hydrophilic gel sub-layer with dis-
within 2 h. posable reagents (Kim et al. 2013).
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 9 of 13

The enzymatic reactions thrive which are enumer- displayer for fast, immediate, and POC observing, which
ated by a coulometric electrode system (Tahernia et al. would expressively streamline enterprise and decrease
2020). This electronic indication is standardized in vari- the price sensing devices (Song et al. 2022; Tehrani et al.
ous methods (cell-count density, cfu/sq.mm, and data 2022; Vila-Vicosa et al. 2022). Sensor methods, acces-
displayed/stored/Wi-Fi) and transferred with a con- sories of detectors, and combination approaches are
cise measure (Jiang et al. 2020). This present machinery emphasized to display schemes of the compacted, frothy,
is envisioned for smear all over the healthcare business and less-price sensors and their successful employment
such as hospital wards, general patient (GP) surgeries, in healthcare diagnosis (Lee et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2022;
clinics, dentists, etc. (Savas and Altintas 2019; Yang et al. Pungjunun et al. 2022). Smartphone can be employed to
2019). The sensor system can also be employed in hand- carry out the biochemical sensing as collective and suit-
wash protocols and spot-test assessments. SM tests are able as microelectronic tab info in conceivable forth-
high-quantity disposable substances, and it is essential coming with the developments in micro-manufacturing,
to be valued consequently (< €0.2 per test). In UK, with detection knowledge, miniaturized electronics and bio-
200 or hence huge NHS hospitals and 1000 s of health- sensing/electronic systems. Figure 6 presents the picto-
care workers, the bottom marketplace magnitude is over rial representation of smartphone-aided electrochemical
€20 m (everyday examining/year) in disposables. detection of miR-21 (Shin Low et al. 2020). This elec-
trochemical biosensing platform exhibited linear range
Smartphone‑based sensing system of 1 × ­10–4 M to 1 × ­10–12 M (R2 = 0.99) toward the
Owing to the portability and ubiquitous availability of sensing miR-21, and the results are analogous with the
smartphone, it is extensively combined with sensor sys- potentiostat/galvanostat.
tems, including of examination strips, detection chips, Ho co-workers demonstrated a squeezed mobile phone
and handgrip detectors for the detection of chemical platform for swift, quantifiable sensor for Plasmodium
and biological targets (Xue et al. 2022; Yang et al. 2022a, falciparum histidine-rich protein 2 (PfHRP2) (Lillehoj
b, c). Employing built-in-function components, smart- et al. 2013). This smartphone-based sensor system con-
phones are frequently engaged as organizer, analyzer and tains of an entrenched circuit for dispensation signal and

Fig. 6 Pictorial illustration of smartphone-based electrochemical biosensor platform. It contains of the composite of graphene/gold-modified
sensing electrode, circuit board and smartphone with operating system of Android application for sensing miR-21 (Shin Low et al. 2020)
Maduraiveeran J ournal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 10 of 13

analysis of data, and throwaway microfluidic chips for patient health. The employment of portable biosensors
fluidic treatment and bio-detection. The capillary flow is is growing rapidly due to the competitive research and
involved for stocking sample, handling, and pushing to fabulous commercial openings in the worldwide market
improve functioning compactness and ease, and the sche- for remote patient monitoring and reduce healthcare
matically step-by-step directions displayed on the phone costs. In healthcare diagnostics, smartphones with out-
helps the operator via progression of sensing. Conse- standing built-in kit include multicore processor, high-
quences are presented on the monitor for instant valua- resolve camera, global positioning system (GPS), ability
tion afterward the accomplishment of every quantity, and of internet connection and effectual operating system are
the data are spontaneously protected to the memory of highly proper, performing as portable systems for point-
the smartphone for imminent examination and spread. of-care testing (POCT). Thus, the combination of smart-
The justification of this system was performed for sens- phone-aided healthcare for bio-molecular diagnostics is
ing PfHRP2, which is a vital biomarker for malaria, exhib- of substantial prominence. The smartphone-based elec-
ited LOD of ~ 16 ng ­mL−1 in practical human serum trochemical sensor and biosensor system is portable, and
(Lillehoj et al. 2013). This sensor device provides massive simple, which is highly appropriate to be effectively prac-
probable as an extensively reachable, POC system, par- tical in resource-limited and non-clinical environments.
ticularly in distant and country parts due to its compact With rapid advances in materials, mechanical and elec-
size and high performance. tronic processes, flexible and wearable electrochemical
Another mobile phone-based electrochemical sens- biosensors systems (wristbands, watches, deformable
ing platform was developed using MoboSens, with com- tattoos and stretchable patches) have broadly been estab-
bined plug-n-play microelectronic ionic device that lished increasingly for in situ sensing of biomarkers for
executes sensing study through smartphone’s audio jack biological, clinical diagnosis and biomedical applications.
(Wang 2015). This sensor system was applied to detect The near field communication (NFC) based sensing sys-
nitrate level. This compacted MoboSens sensing system, tems offer wireless energy supply besides wireless data
an approximate weight of 65 g, based on smartphone is transmission among other detection devices. This sys-
clever to sense the level of nitrate in aqueous solution tem can be intended into a fully flexible structure, which
with a LOD of 0.2 ppm. The sensing nitrate ion using requests a small-dimension NFC chip and couple antenna
MoboSens was carried out by a microfabricated micro- in its place of batteries or wires. The flexible structured
fluidic sensor employing cyclic voltammetric technique. sensors possess the potential to be effortlessly smeared
The strength of the capacities was proved with executing to soft and erratically designed surfaces, including the
the experimentations underneath variable temperature, human skin or textile fabrics for measuring specific bio-
pH and ion interferences circumstances. The outcomes markers. In consequent, the dimension and consumption
can be spontaneously protected on safe cloud waitrons. of power of the flexible systems could be significantly
Moreover, the tested sensor performance by this lab- condensed, attaining skinned detecting with flexible bio-
on-a-chip mobile detection system for field water excel- chemical sensing devices. Owing to advances of micro-
lence quantity and long-established this mobile detecting electronic technologies, the development of microfluidic
consequences with former remaining analytical analysis systems couples with electroanalytical approach could
approaches (Yang et al. 2022a, b, c; Yang et al. 2022a, b, be an innovative grouping. The combination of NFC-
c; Yeon et al. 2022). These detection devices can deliver empowered smartphone and electrochemical sensing
outstanding mobile boards to mechanism, execute, ana- strategies, flexible epidermal biochemical sensing device
lyze and exhibition detection procedure for various uses may effortlessly be assembled to detect biomarkers, tar-
extending from basic scientific researches to applied geting successful POC-type system for mental health
POC sensing, including cell and DNA imaging, analy- management.
sis of human serum and biological measurements using In conclusion, the effective design of smart and port-
influential computational capability and easy-to-operate able miniaturized electrochemical sensing systems for
verge of smartphone. online monitoring of in vivo and in vitro detection of
emerging biomarkers is a stimulating mission. The
Conclusion and outlook advance development of portable and smart sensing/
The design of electrochemical sensing and biosensing biosensing systems derived from nanoscale materials
systems based on the functional nanomaterials toward for clinical and biomedical applications is reviewed,
the miniaturization and maintain the portability as the including electrochemical glucose sensing system,
healthcare fashion is shifting to be additional patient-ori- DNA-based electrochemical biosensing system, elec-
ented. The patient-centered care can minimize needless trochemical bacterial sensing system, electrochemical
measures, honors patient preferences, and progresses hy-gensor and smartphone/smartwatch-based sensing
Maduraiveeran Journal of Analytical Science and Technology (2022) 13:35 Page 11 of 13

system. It is highly understood that the miniaturized Chee M, et al. Accessing genetic information with high-density DNA arrays.
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sensing systems embrace a solid prospective through borne pathogens: protozoa, bacteria, and viruses: an overview. Case
the merits low cost, rapid analytical efficacy, flexible Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2022;5: 100182.
DeRisi JL, Iyer VR, Brown PO. Exploring the metabolic and genetic control of
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materials, miniaturization process, in situ and simulta- assembly of a supersandwich electrochemical biosensor without enzy-
matic reaction. ACS Sens. 2019;4(10):2615–22.
neous detections, NFC interface will indeed stimulate Franco FF, Hogg RA, Manjakkal L. ­Cu2O-based electrochemical biosensor
toward biological, clinical and biomedical applications. for non-invasive and portable glucose detection. Biosensors (Basel)
2022;12(3).
Acknowledgements Gaiani G, et al. Electrochemical biosensor for the dual detection of Gambi-
Author thanks to SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, for erdiscus australes and Gambierdiscus excentricus in field samples.
providing all facilities. First report of G. excentricus in the Balearic Islands. Sci Total Environ.
2022;806(Pt 4):150915.
Author contributions Gaikwad P, et al. Galvanic cell type sensor for soil moisture analysis. Anal Chem.
GM conceptualized, resources and drafted the article. The author read and 2015;87(14):7439–45.
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nological electrochemical determination of cortisol levels in salivary
Funding samples. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2021;332: 129532.
There is no fund available. Govindhan M, Adhikari B-R, Chen A. Nanomaterials-based electrochemical
detection of chemical contaminants. RSC Adv. 2014;4(109):63741–60.
Availability of data and materials Hanpanich O, et al. Label-free detection of HPV mRNA with an artificial
Almost all details are presented and cited in the article or additional file. chaperone-enhanced MNAzyme (ACEzyme)-based electrochemical
sensor. Biosens Bioelectron. 2022:114352.
Hassanzadeh, J., Al Lawati, H.A.J. and Bagheri, N. On paper synthesis of multi-
Declarations functional ­CeO2 nanoparticles@Fe-MOF composite as a multi-enzyme
cascade platform for multiplex colorimetric detection of glucose,
Competing interests
fructose, sucrose, and maltose. Biosens Bioelectron. 2022;207:114184.
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
He G, et al. Point-of-care COPD diagnostics: biomarkers, sampling, paper-based
analytical devices, and perspectives. Analyst. 2022;147(7):1273–93.
Received: 1 August 2022 Accepted: 1 October 2022
Hendricks-Leukes NR, et al. Dual-approach electrochemical surface-enhanced
raman scattering detection of mycobacterium tuberculosis in patient-
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method to detect and identify bacterial pathogens. ACS Sens.
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