Fundamentals of Industrial

Instrumentation and Process Control,

Second Edition William C Dunn
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About the Author
WILLIAM DUNN has degree in physics from the University of London and
electrical engineering degree from the University of Ottawa. He has also
worked for over 40 years in product research, design, and management in
the electronics industry. More recently he has worked as an adjunct
professor teaching digital electronics, industrial instrumentation and
process control, logic controllers, and industrial motor control. He holds
more than 25 patents and has presented over 30 papers at industrial
conferences.

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 Contents

Preface
Acknowledgment

1 Introduction
Chapter Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 History
1.2 Process Control
1.3 Definition of the Elements in a Control Loop
1.4 Process Facility Considerations
1.5 Units and Standards
1.6 Instrument Accuracy
Summary
Problems

2 Pressure
Chapter Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Basic Terms
2.2.1 Density
2.2.2 Impact Pressure
2.3 Pressure Measurements
2.4 Pressure Formulas
2.5 Measuring Instruments
2.5.1 Manometers
2.5.2 Diaphragms, Capsules, and Bellows
2.5.3 Bourdon Tubes
2.5.4 Other Pressure Sensors
2.5.5 Vacuum Instruments

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 2.6 Application Considerations
2.6.1 Selection
2.6.2 Installation
2.6.3 Calibration
Summary
Problems

3 Level
Chapter Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Level Formulas
3.3 Level Sensing Devices
3.3.1 Direct Level Sensing
3.3.2 Indirect Level Sensing
3.4 Application Considerations
Summary
Problems

4 Flow
Chapter Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic Terms
4.3 Flow Formulas
4.3.1 Continuity Equation
4.3.2 Bernoulli Equation
4.3.3 Flow Losses
4.4 Flow Measurement Instruments
4.4.1 Flow Rate
4.4.2 Total Flow
4.4.3 Mass Flow
4.4.4 Dry Particulate Flow Rate
4.4.5 Open Channel Flow
4.5 Application Considerations
4.5.1 Selection
4.5.2 Installation
4.5.3 Calibration
Summary

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 Problems

5 Temperature and Heat

Chapter Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Basic Terms
5.2.1 Temperature Definitions
5.2.2 Heat Definitions
5.2.3 Thermal Expansion Definitions
5.3 Temperature and Heat Formulas
5.3.1 Temperature
5.3.2 Heat Transfer
5.3.3 Thermal Expansion
5.4 Temperature Measuring Devices
5.4.1 Thermometers
5.4.2 Pressure-Spring Thermometers
5.4.3 Resistance Temperature Devices
5.4.4 Thermistors
5.4.5 Thermocouples
5.4.6 Semiconductors
5.5 Application Considerations
5.5.1 Selection
5.5.2 Range and Accuracy
5.5.3 Thermal Time Constant
5.5.4 Installation
5.5.5 Calibration
5.5.6 Protection
Summary
Problems

6 Humidity, Density, Viscosity, and pH

Chapter Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Humidity
6.2.1 Humidity Definitions
6.2.2 Humidity Measuring Devices
6.3 Density and Specific Gravity

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 6.3.1 Basic Terms
6.3.2 Density Measuring Devices
6.3.3 Density Application Considerations
6.4 Viscosity
6.4.1 Basic Terms
6.4.2 Viscosity Measuring Instruments
6.5 pH Measurements
6.5.1 Basic Terms
6.5.2 pH Measuring Devices
6.5.3 pH Application Considerations
Summary
Problems

7 Position, Motion, and Force

Chapter Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Position and Motion Sensing
7.2.1 Basic Position Definitions
7.2.2 ON/OFF Position Sensing
7.2.3 Motion and Distance Sensing
7.2.4 Rotation Sensing
7.2.5 Position Application Consideration
7.3 Force, Torque, and Load Cells
7.3.1 Basic Definitions of Force and Torque
7.3.2 Force and Torque Measuring Devices
7.3.3 Force and Torque Application Considerations
Summary
Problems

8 Safety and Alarm

Chapter Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Safety Hazards
8.2.1 Personnel Hazards
8.2.2 Environmental Hazards
8.2.3 Control Equipment Hazards
8.2.4 Process Equipment Hazards

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 8.3 Safety Sensors
8.3.1 Smoke and Fire Sensors
8.3.2 Heat Sensors
8.3.3 Gas Sensors
8.3.4 Artificial Senses Chemical Sensors
8.3.5 Radiation Detectors
8.4 Process Equipment Safety
8.4.1 Alarm and Trip Systems
8.4.2 Safety Instrumented Systems
8.4.3 Power Loss Fail Safe
8.4.4 Safety Instrumented System Example
8.5 Safety and Protection
8.5.1 Personnel Protection
8.5.2 Environmental Protection
8.5.3 Equipment Protection
Summary
Problems

9 Electrical Instruments and Conditioning

Chapter Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Instrument Parameters
9.2.1 Basic Terms
9.3 Transducers
9.3.1 Definitions
9.3.2 Visual Display Considerations
9.3.3 Mechanical Motion to Electrical Transducers
9.4 Operational Amplifiers
9.4.1 Voltage Amplifiers
9.4.2 Current Amplifiers
9.4.3 Differential Amplifiers
9.4.4 Converters
9.4.5 Buffer Amplifiers
9.4.6 Nonlinear Amplifiers
9.4.7 Instrument Amplifier
9.5 Signal Conditioning
9.5.1 Offset Zero

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 9.5.2 Span Adjustment
9.5.3 Linearization in Analog Circuits
9.5.4 Linearization in Digital Circuits
9.5.5 Temperature Correction
9.6 Bridge Circuits
9.6.1 DC Bridges
9.6.2 Current-Balanced Bridge
9.6.3 Strain Gauge Sensors
9.6.4 AC Bridges
9.6.5 Capacitive Sensors
9.6.6 Resistance Sensors
9.6.7 Magnetic Sensors
Summary
Problems

10 Regulators, Valves, and Actuators

Chapter Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Pressure Controllers
10.2.1 Regulators
10.2.2 Safety Valves
10.2.3 Level Regulators
10.3 Flow Control Actuators
10.3.1 Globe Valve
10.3.2 Flow Control
10.3.3 Butterfly Valve
10.3.4 Other Valve Types
10.3.5 Valve Characteristics
10.3.6 Valve Fail Safe
10.4 Actuators
10.4.1 Operation
10.4.2 Control Valves
10.5 Electronic Devices
10.6 Application Considerations
10.6.1 Valves
Summary
Problems

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11 Process Control
Chapter Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Basic Terms
11.3 Control Modes
11.3.1 ON/OFF Action
11.3.2 Differential Action
11.3.3 Proportional Action
11.3.4 Derivative Action
11.3.5 Integral Action
11.3.6 PID Action
11.4 Implementation of Control Loops
11.4.1 ON/OFF Action Pneumatic Controller
11.4.2 ON/OFF Action Electrical Controller
11.4.3 PID Action Pneumatic Controller
11.4.4 PID Action Control Circuits
11.4.5 PID Electronic Controller
11.5 Digital Controllers
Summary
Problems

12 Documentation and Symbol Standards

Chapter Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 System Documentation
12.2.1 Manuals
12.2.2 Alarm and Trip System Documentation
12.2.3 Safety Documentation
12.2.4 PLC Documentation
12.2.5 Circuit Diagrams
12.2.6 Bussing Information
12.3 Pipe and Identification Diagrams
12.3.1 Standardization
12.3.2 Interconnections
12.3.3 Instrument Symbols
12.3.4 Instrument Identification
12.4 Functional Symbols

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 12.4.1 Actuators
12.4.2 Primary Elements
12.4.3 Regulators
12.4.4 Math Functions
12.5 P and ID Drawings
Summary
Problems

13 Signal Transmission
Chapter Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Pneumatic Transmission
13.3 Analog Transmission
13.3.1 Noise Considerations
13.3.2 Voltage Signals
13.3.3 Current Signals
13.3.4 Signal Conversion
13.3.5 Thermocouples
13.3.6 Resistance Temperature Devices
13.4 Digital Transmission
13.4.1 Transmission Standards
13.4.2 Smart Sensors
13.4.3 Foundation Fieldbus and Profibus
13.5 Digital Signal Converters
13.5.1 Analog-to-Digital Conversion
13.5.2 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
13.6 Telemetry
13.6.1 Width Modulation
13.6.2 Frequency Shift Modulation
Summary
Problems

14 Logic Gates
Chapter Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Digital Numbers
14.2.1 Converting Binary Numbers to Decimal Numbers

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 14.2.2 Converting from Decimal to Binary
14.3 Digital Logic Gates
14.3.1 Buffer Gate
14.3.2 AND Gate
14.3.3 OR Gate
14.3.4 NOT Gate
14.3.5 Signal Inversion
14.3.6 XOR Gates
14.3.7 Logic Symbols
14.4 Boolean Algebra
14.5 Functional Building Blocks
Summary
Problems

15 Programmable Logic Controllers

Chapter Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Programmable Controller
15.3 Controller Operation
15.4 Input and Output Modules
15.4.1 Discrete Input Modules
15.4.2 Analog Input Modules
15.4.3 Special Function Input Modules
15.4.4 Discrete Output Modules
15.4.5 Analog Output Modules
15.4.6 Smart Input and Output Modules
15.5 Ladder Diagrams
15.5.1 Input and Output Symbols
15.5.2 Ladder Layout
15.5.3 Ladder Gate Equivalent
15.5.4 Ladder Applications
Summary
Problems

16 Motor Control
Chapter Objectives
16.1 Introduction

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 16.2 Motor Classification
16.3 Motor Operation
16.3.1 DC Motors
16.3.2 AC Motors
16.3.3 Single-Phase Motor
16.3.4 Three-Phase Motors
16.3.5 Universal Motors
16.3.6 Stepping Motors
16.3.7 Servomotors and Synchro Motors
16.4 Motor Ratings
16.4.1 Electrical Ratings
16.4.2 Control Equipment Ratings
16.4.3 Enclosure Standards
16.5 Motor Control Applications
16.5.1 Two- and Three-Wire Starting
16.5.2 Startup Control
16.5.3 Wound Rotor Motor
16.5.4 Speed Control
16.5.5 DC Motor
16.5.6 Actuator Control
16.5.7 Stepper Motor
16.6 Motor Protection
Summary
Problems

A Units

B Thermocouple Tables

C References and Information Resources

D Abbreviations

Glossary

Answers to Odd-Numbered Questions

Index

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 Preface

he evolution of industrial processing and control has gone

T through several industrial revolutions to the complexities of

modern day microprocessor controlled processing. Today’s
technology evolution has made it possible to measure
parameters deemed impossible only a few years ago, as well as
improvements in accuracy, tighter control, and waste reduction.
This text was specifically written as an introduction to modern day
industrial instrumentation and process control for the two-year technical,
vocational, or degree student and as a reference manual for managers,
engineers, and technicians working in the field of instrumentation and
process control. It is anticipated that the perspective student will have a
basic understanding of mathematics, electricity, and physics. This course
should adequately prepare a perspective candidate wishing to become a
technician, or for the perspective engineer wishing to get a solid basic
understanding of instrumentation and process control in this ever changing
field.
Instrumentation and process control involves a wide range of
technologies and sciences, and is used in an unprecedented number of
industrial applications from applications in the home and office such as
heating and cooling control and hot water systems, to chemical and
automotive instrumentation and process control. This text is designed to
cover all aspects of industrial instrumentation, such as sensing a wide
range of variables, the transmission and recording of the sensed signal,
controllers for signal evaluation, and the control of the manufacturing
process for a quality and uniform product.
Chapter 1 gives an introduction to industrial instrumentation. Chapters
2–8 describe the wide range of sensors and their use in the measurement of
a wide variety of physical variables, such as level, pressure, flow,
temperature, humidity, density, position, force, and safety. Chapter 9
discusses signal conditioning, amplification, bridge circuits, and
temperature compensation. The use of regulators and actuators for

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controlling pressure, flow, and the control of the input variables to a
process are discussed in Chap. 10. System configurations are given in
Chap. 11 which cover ON/OFF systems and the types of feedback used in
closed-loop systems. In Chap. 12, documentation as applied to
instrumentation and control is introduced, together with standard symbols
recommended by the Instrument Society of America (ISA) for use in
instrumentation control diagrams. Electronics and pneumatics are the
mediums for signal transmission, and control. The use of the HART
protocol is considered together with analog-to-digital signal conversion in
Chap. 13. Chapter 14 introduces number conversions, logic gates, and
functional building blocks. Chapter 15 discusses the programmable logic
controller and ladder diagrams. Finally, in Chap. 16, various types of
electric motors and their use in process control are discussed.
The primary reason for writing this book was that the author felt there
was not a clear, concise, and up-to-date text for understanding the basics of
instrumentation and process control from the perspective of the technician
and engineer. The Second Edition has been expanded to try and cover as
many of the basics as possible that are used in process control. Every effort
has been made to ensure that the text is accurate, easily readable, and
understandable.
Both engineering and scientific units are discussed in the text. Each
chapter contains worked examples for clarification, with exercise problems
at the end of each chapter. A glossary is given at the end of the text. There
are answers to the odd numbered questions in the Appendix. An
instructor’s manual with answers to the problems is available online.

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 Acknowledgment

I would like to thank my wife Nadine for her patience, understanding, and
many helpful suggestions during the writing of this text.

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction

Chapter Objectives
This chapter is to introduce you to instrumentation, the various
measurement units used, and why process control relies extensively on
instrumentation. This chapter will help you become familiar with
instrument terminology and standards.
Topics discussed in this chapter are as follows:

• The basics of a process-control loop

• Definition of the elements in a control loop
• The difference between the various types of variables
• Considerations in a process facility
• Units, standards, and prefixes used in parameter measurements
• Comparison of the English and the SI units of measurement
• Instrument accuracy and the parameters that affect an instrument’s
performance

1.1 Introduction
Instrumentation is the basis used in industry for process control. However,
it comes in many forms, from domestic water heaters and HVAC (heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning), where the variable temperature is
measured and used to control gas, oil, or electricity flow to the water
heater, or heating system, or electricity to the compressor for refrigeration,

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to complex industrial process-control applications such as the ones used in
the petroleum or chemical industry.
In industrial control a wide number of variables can be sensed
simultaneously from temperature, flow, and pressure to time and distance,
all of which can be interdependent variables in a single process requiring
complex microprocessor systems for total control. Due to the rapid
advances in technology, instruments in use today may be obsolete
tomorrow; new and more efficient measurement techniques are constantly
being introduced. These changes are being driven by the need for higher
accuracy, quality, precision, and performance. To measure parameters
accurately, techniques have been developed that were thought impossible
only a few years ago.

1.1.1 History
Manufacturing can be dated back to when humans first made tools, clay
pots, bowls, plates, and the like in the early stone age or before. It may
have been crude manufacturing, but nonetheless it was a manufacturing
process, with control in the hands of the maker. Limited process control
came with the mining and smelting of copper and then tin to make bronze
for the manufacturing of tools, weapons, and so on some two millennia
BCE. Iron was then discovered and used to replace bronze for tools,
weapons, and suits of armor and chain mail appeared as manufacturing
processes became better understood and a degree of quality control was
initiated. About this time the water wheel came into being and was used
for pumping water, crushing ore, and grinding wheat, corn, and the like.
The next big step in manufacturing came with Watt’s steam engine in the
1770s. The steam engine provided the power to drive manufacturing
machines, and hence the start of the industrial revolution. To support and
control the manufacturing process, came the need for sensors, instruments,
and process control. Pneumatics then came into being to give the feedback
signals for control and automation. The development of the electric motor
gave greater flexibility in power generation and control until today with
the development of the electronics industry we have process controllers
that can simultaneously change many variables and control many actuators
and valves for temperature and flow. The assembly and production lines
give tight control and high-quality processing. We must also mention the
many organizations that have come into being for developing process
rules, regulations, and standardization.

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1.2 Process Control
In order to produce a product with consistent high quality, tight process
control is necessary. A simple-to-understand example of process control
would be the supply of water to a number of cleaning stations, where the
water temperature needs to be kept constant in spite of the demand. A
simple control block is shown in Fig. 1.1a: steam and cold water are fed
into a heat exchanger, where heat from the steam is used to bring the cold
water to the required working temperature. A thermometer is used to
measure the temperature of the water (the measured variable) from the
process or exchanger. The temperature is observed by an operator who
adjusts the flow of steam (the manipulated variable) into the heat
exchanger to keep the water flowing from the heat exchanger at the
constant set temperature. This operation is referred to as process control,
and in practice would be automated as shown in Fig. 1.1b.

FIGURE 1.1 Process control showing (a) the manual control of a simple
heat exchanger process loop and (b) automatic control of a heat exchanger
process loop.

Process control is the automatic control of an output variable by

sensing the amplitude of the output parameter from the process and
comparing it to the desired or set level and feeding an error signal back to
control an input variable in this case steam. See Fig. 1.1b. A temperature
sensor attached to the outlet pipe senses the temperature of the water
flowing. As the demand for hot water increases or decreases, a change in

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the water temperature is sensed and converted to an electrical signal which
is then amplified and sent to a controller that evaluates the signal and
sends a correction signal to an actuator, which adjusts the flow of steam to
the heat exchanger to keep the temperature of the water at its
predetermined value.
The diagram in Fig. 1.1b is an oversimplified feedback loop and is
expanded in Fig. 1.2. In any process there are a number of inputs, i.e.,
from chemicals to solid goods. These are manipulated in the process and a
new chemical or component emerges at the output. The controlled inputs
to the process and the measured output parameters from the process are
called variables.

FIGURE 1.2 Block diagram of a process-control loop.

In a process-control facility the controller is not necessarily limited to

one variable, but it can measure and control many variables. A good
example of the measurement and control of multivariables that we
encounter on a daily basis is performed by the processor in the automobile
engine.
Figure 1.3 lists some of the functions performed by the engine
processor. Most of the controlled variables are six or eight devices
depending on the number of cylinders in the engine. The engine processor
has to perform all of these functions in approximately 5 ms. This example
of engine control can be related to the operations carried out in a process-
control operation.

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FIGURE 1.3 Automotive engine showing some of the measured and
controlled variables.

1.3 Definition of the Elements in a Control

Loop
Figure 1.4 breaks down the individual elements of the blocks in a process-
control loop. The measuring element consists of a sensor, a transducer, and
a transmitter with its own regulated power supply. The control element has
an actuator, a power control circuit, and its own power supply. The
controller has a processor with a memory and a summing circuit to
compare the set point to the sensed signal so that it can generate an error
signal. The processor then uses the error signal to generate a correction
signal to control the actuator and the input variable. The function and
operation of the blocks in different types of applications will be discussed
in Chaps. 9, 10, and 11. The definition of these blocks is given as follows:

23
FIGURE 1.4 Block diagram of the elements that make up the feedback
path in a process-control loop.

Feedback loop is the signal path from the output back to the
input to correct for any variation between the output level from
the set level. In other words, the output of a process is being
continually monitored. The error between the set point and the
output parameter is determined, and a correction signal is then
sent back to one of the process inputs to correct for changes in
the measured output parameter.
Controlled or measured variable is the monitored output
variable from a process, and the value of the monitored output
parameter is normally held within tight given limits.
Manipulated variable is the input variable or parameter to a
process that is varied by a control signal from the processor to
an actuator. By changing the input variable, the value of the
measured variable can be controlled.
Set point is the desired value of the output parameter or variable
being monitored by a sensor. Any deviation from this value will
generate an error signal.
Instrument is the name of any various device types for
indicating or measuring physical quantities or conditions,

24
performance, position, or direction, and the like.
Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables, such as
temperature, light intensity, or motion, and have the ability to
give a measurable output that varies in relation to the amplitude
of the physical variable. The human body has sensors in the
fingers that can detect surface roughness, temperature, and
force. A thermometer is a good example of a line-of-sight
sensor, in that it will give an accurate visual indication of
temperature. In other sensors such as a diaphragm pressure
sensor, a strain transducer may be required to convert the
deformation of the diaphragm into an electrical or pneumatic
signal, before it can be measured.
Transducers are devices that can change one form of energy to
another, e.g., a resistance thermometer converts temperature
into electrical resistance, or a thermocouple converts
temperature into a voltage. Both of these devices give an output
that is proportional to the temperature. Many transducers are
grouped under the heading of sensors.
Converters are devices that are used to change the format of a
signal without changing the energy form, i.e., a change from a
voltage to a current signal.
Actuators are devices that are used to control an input variable
in response to a signal from a controller. A typical actuator will
be a flow control valve, which can control the rate of flow of a
fluid in proportion to the amplitude of an electrical signal from
the controller. Other types of actuators are magnetic relays that
turn on and off electrical power, such as power to the fans and
compressor in an air-conditioning system in response to signals
from the room temperature sensors.
Controllers are devices that monitor signals from transducers
and take the necessary action to keep the process within
specified limits according to a predefined program by activating
and controlling the necessary actuators.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs) are used in process-
control applications, and are microprocessor-based systems.
Small systems have the ability to monitor several variables and
control several actuators, with the capability of being expanded
to monitor 60 or 70 variables and control a corresponding

25
 number of actuators, as may be required in a petrochemical
refinery. PLCs have the ability to use analog or digital input
information and output analog or digital control signals. They
can also communicate globally with other controllers, are easily
programmed on line or off line, and supply an unprecedented
amount of data and information to the operator. Ladder
networks are normally used to program the controllers.
An error signal is the difference between the set point and the
amplitude of the measured variable.
A correction signal is the signal used to control power to the
actuator to set the level of the input variable.
Transmitters are devices used to amplify and format signals so
that they can transmit data over long distances without loss of
accuracy. The transmitted signal can be in one of several
formats, i.e., pneumatic, digital, analog voltage, analog current,
or as a radio frequency (RF) modulated signal. Digital
transmission is preferred in newer systems since the controller
is microprocessor based. Analog data transmission is still used
over short distances, and in some systems both analog data and
digital data are combined (see Chap. 13). The controller
compares the amplitude of the signal from the sensor to a
predetermined set point, which in Fig. 1.1b is the amplitude of
the signal of the hot water sensor. The controller will then send
a signal that is proportional to the difference between the
reference and the transmitted signal to the actuator telling the
actuator to open or close the valve controlling the flow of steam
to adjust the temperature of the water to its set value.
Example 1.1 Figure 1.5 shows the block diagram of a closed-loop flow
control system. Identify the following elements: (a) the sensor, (b) the
transducer, (c) the actuator, (d) the transmitter, (e) the controller, (f) the
manipulated variable, and (g) the measured variable.

26
FIGURE 1.5 Process control with a flow regulator for use in Example 1.1.

Solution (a) The sensor is labeled pressure cell in the diagram. (b) The
transducer is labeled converter. There are two transducers—one for
converting pressure to current and the other for converting current to
pressure to operate the actuator. (c) The actuator in this case is the
pneumatic valve. (d) The transmitter is the line driver. (e) The controller is
labeled as a PLC. (f) The manipulated variable is the differential pressure
developed by the fluid flowing through the orifice plate constriction. (g)
The controlled variable is the flow rate of the liquid.

Simple and ideal process-control systems have been discussed. In

practical process control, the scenarios are much more complex with many
scenarios and variables to be considered, such as stability, reaction time,
and accuracy. Many of the basic problems are discussed in the following
chapters.

1.4 Process Facility Considerations

The process facility has a number of basic requirements including safety
precautions and well regulated, reliable electrical, water, and air supplies.
An electrical supply is required for all control systems and must meet
all standards in force at the plant. The integrity of the electrical supply is
most important. Many facilities have backup systems to provide an

27
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to take over in case of loss of external
power. Power failure can mean plant shutdown and the loss of complete
production runs. Isolating transformers should be used in the power supply
lines to prevent electromagnetic interference (EMI) generated by motors,
contactors, relays, and so on from traveling through the power lines and
affecting sensitive electronic control instruments.
Grounding is a very important consideration in a facility for safety
reasons. Any variations in the ground potential between electronic
equipment can cause large errors in signal levels. Each piece of equipment
should be connected to a heavy copper bus that is properly grounded.
Ground loops should also be avoided by grounding cable screens and
signal return lines at one end only. In some cases, it may be necessary to
use signal isolators to alleviate grounding problems in electronic devices
and equipment.
An air supply is required to drive pneumatic actuators in most facilities.
Instrument air in pneumatic equipment must meet quality standards. The
air must be dirt, oil, contaminant, and moisture free. Frozen moisture, dirt,
and the like can block or partially block restrictions and nozzles giving
false readings or complete equipment failure. Air compressors are fitted
with air dryers and filters, and have a reservoir tank with a capacity large
enough for several minutes’ supply in case of system failure. Dry clean air
is supplied at a pressure of 90 psig (630 kPa(g)) and with a dew point of
20°F (10°C) below the minimum winter operating temperature at
atmospheric pressure. Additional information on the quality of instrument
air can be found in ANSI/ISA-7.0.01-1996, Quality Standard for
Instrument Air.
Water supply is required for many cleaning and cooling operations, and
for steam generation. Domestic water supplies contain large quantities of
particulates and impurities, and may be satisfactory for cooling, but are not
suitable for most cleaning operations. Filtering and other similar processes
can remove some of contaminates making the water suitable for some
cleaning operations. But in case of ultrapure water a reverse osmosis
system may be required.
Installation and maintenance must be considered when locating
instruments, valves, and so on. Each device must be easily accessible for
maintenance and inspection. It may also be necessary to install hand-
operated valves so that equipment can be replaced or serviced without
complete plant shutdown. It may be necessary to contract out maintenance
of certain equipment or have the vendor install equipment, if the necessary
skills are not available in-house.

28
 Safety is a top priority in a facility. The correct material must be used in
container construction, plumbing, seals, and gaskets to prevent corrosion
and failure leading to leakage and spills of hazardous materials. All
electrical equipment must be properly installed to code with breakers.
Electrical systems must have the correct fire retardant for use in case of
electrical fires. More information can be found in ANSI/ISA-12.01.01-
1999, Definitions and Information Pertaining to Electrical Apparatus in
Hazardous Locations.
Environment is also a priority in a facility. The comments on safety
also apply here. Spills, escape of hazard gases, dumping of waste, and
emissions are all extremely detrimental to the environment. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has published rule governing
dumping hazardous and nuclear waste, pollution, and emissions, and its
effect on the air, water, land, endangered species, and so on.

1.5 Units and Standards

As with all disciplines a set of standards has evolved over the years to
ensure consistency and avoid confusion. The Instrument Society of
America (ISA) has developed a complete list of symbols for instruments,
instrument identification, and process-control drawings, which will be
discussed in Chap. 12.
The units of measurement fall into two distinct systems: first, the
English system and second, the International system, SI (Systéme
International D’Unités) based on the metric system. The English system
has been the standard used in the United States, but the SI system is slowly
making inroads, so that students need to be aware of both systems of units
and able to convert units from one system to the other. Confusion can arise
over some units such as the pound mass and pound weight. The pound
mass is the slug (no longer in common use) which is the equivalent of the
kilogram in the SI system of units, whereas the pound weight is a force
similar to the Newton which is the unit of force in the SI system. The
conversion factor of 1 lb = 0.454 kg which is used to convert mass
(weight) between the two systems, is in effect equating 1 lb force to 0.454
kg mass; this being the mass that will produce a force of 4.448 N or a force
of 1 lb. Care must be taken not to mix units from the two systems. For
consistency some units may have to be converted before they can be used
in an equation.

29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Era eu em Portugal
Sabio, discreto, entendido,
Poeta, melhor que alguns,
Douto como os meus vizinhos.
E chegando á esta Terra,
Logo não fui nada d’isto,
Porque um direito entre tortos
Parece que anda torcido.
De noite vou tomar fresco
E vejo em seu epicyclo
A lua desfeita em quartos,
Como ladrão de caminhos.
Faço versos mal limados
Á uma moça como um brinco,
Que hontem foi alvo dos olhos,
E hoje é negro dos sentidos.
Esta é a vida que passo,
E no descanso em que vivo,
Me riu dos Reis de Hespanha
Em seu celebre Retiro.
Si à quem vive em solidão
Chamou beato um gentio,
Espero em Deus que hei de ser
Por beato inda bemquisto.
Mas aqui e em toda a parte
Estou tão offerecido
Ás coisas do vosso gosto,
Como ás do vosso serviço.
 Á TRES FREIRAS
DO CONVENTO DA ROSA, TODAS IRMÃS, A QUEM OUVIU O
AUCTOR CANTAR, E A UMA TANGER RABECÃO

Clara sim, mas breve esphera

Ostenta em purpureas horas
As mais bellas tres Auroras,
Que undoso o Tejo venera;
Tantos raios reverbera
Cada qual quando amanhece
Nas almas á que apparece,
Que não foi muito esta vez,
Que sendo as Auroras tres,
Pela tarde amanhecesse.

Clara na brancura rara

E de candidez rica,
Com ser freira Dominica,
A julguei por freira Clara;
Tanta flor, á flor da cara
Dada em tão varias maneiras,
Que entre as cinzas derradeiras
Jurou certa maripoza,
As mais por freiras da Rosa
Clara por Rosa das freiras.
Branca si por varios modos
Airosa o arco conspira,
Inda que a todos atira,
É Branca o branco de todos;
Mas deixando outros apodos
Dignos de tanto esplendor,
Vibrando o arco em rigor
Parece em traje fingido
Venus, que ensina a Cupido
Atirar settas de amor.

Maria a imitação
Por seu capricho escolheu,
Ser freira branca no véu,
Já que as mais no nome o são;
E em tão candida união
Com as duas irmãs se enlaça,
Que jurada então por graça,
Chove-lhe a graça em maneira,
Que sendo a Graça terceira,
Não é terceira na graça.

Entoando logo um solo

Em consonancia jocunda
Prima terceira e segunda,
A lyra formam de Apollo;
Vaguei um e outro polo,
Mas foi diligencia vã,
Porque a cara mais louçã
Cotejando-a nas brancuras
Com as tres irmãs formosuras,
Não vi formosura irmã.
Vendo tão raros primores,
Para em retrato adorar-vos,
Tractaram de retratar-vos
Estes meus versos pintores;
E me tendo já de côres
Essas vossas luzes puras
Entre metricas pinturas
Ficam, de muito emendados,
Meus versos os retratados,
E não vossas formosuras.
Á DUAS MOÇAS PARDAS

Altercaram-se em questão
Thereza com Mariquita
Sôbre qual é mais bonita,
Si Thereza, si Assumpção:
Eu tomo por conclusão
Nesta questão altercada,
Que Assumpção é mais rasgada,
E Thereza mais senhora,
E o galante que as namora
Verá a conclusão provada.

Si Thereza é mui bonita,

Mulata guapa e bizarra,
Com mui bom ar se desgarra
A mestiça Mariquita:
Ninguém á uma e outra quita
Serem lindissimas cambas,
E o Cupido, que d’entre ambas
Quizer escolher a sua,
Escolha vendo-as na rua,
Que eu para mim venero ambas.

As damas d’esta cidade,

Ainda as que são mais bellas,
Não são nada diante d’ellas,
São bazofias da beldade:
São patarata em verdade,
Si ha verdade em pataratas,
Porque brancas e mulatas,
Mestiças, cabras e angolas
São o azeviche em parolas,
E as duas são duas pratas.
Jámais amanhece o dia,
Porque sahe a Aurora bella,
Si não porque na janella
Si põem Thereza e Maria:
Uma manhã em que ardia
O sol em luzes divinas,
Pelas horas matutinas
Vi eu Thereza assistir,
Ensinando-a a luzir
Como mestra de meninas.
Á SOGRA DE GONÇALO DIAS
MANDANDO-LHE UNS SONHOS

Senhora velha, si é dado

Á quem é vosso valido
Applicardes-lhe o sentido,
Ouvi vosso apaixonado:
Dá-me notavel cuidado
Saber como ides urdindo
Um e outro sonho lindo,
Porque me atrevo á dizer
Que, para taes sonhos ter,
Sempre estivera dormindo.

Diz um portuguez rifão

Nascido em tempo dos monhos,
Que ninguem creia em seus sonhos,
Porque sonhos, sonhos são:
Eu sigo outra opinião
Dês que os vossos sonhos vi,
E tão firmemente os cri,
Que si os tenho por verdade,
É porque na realidade
Os masquei e os engoli.
Eu dormira todo o dia,
E a vida desperdiçando
Sempre estivera sonhando,
Só por sonhar que os comia:
O sonhar é phantasia
Da alma que quando descança
Não larga a sua lavrança,
O seu trabalho e tarefa,
E como a minha alma é trefa,
No que lida é na papança.

Não são sonhos enfadonhos

Sonhos tão adocicados,
Que em vez de sonhos sonhados,
São sempre engolidos sonhos:
Outros sonhos ha medonhos,
Que um homem deixam turbado
Depois do sonho acordado:
Os vossos tal não farão,
E ao menos me deixarão
Mel pelos beiços untado.
 Á BRITES
UMA DAMA PRETENDIDA DE MUITOS E DE NENHUM
LOGRADA

Senhora, estou já em crer,

Que não é vosso rigor
Crueldade, mas temor,
Que tendes de vos render:
Hei de dar-vos á entender,
Por mais vos desenganar,
Que só pretendo adorar
Isento e independente,
Que o querer do pretendente
É mui distincto do amar

Bem posso, sem ser amado,

Amar-vos, minha senhora,
Porque amor sempre melhora
O fino em o desgraçado.
No impossivel adorado
Está o affecto maior;
Que quem aspira ao favor
Em sua dor importuna,
Faz lisonjas á fortuna,
E não serviços á amor.
Si do meu conhecimento
Nasceu a minha vontade,
Não pague uma divindade
Ter eu este entendimento.
Que mais agradecimento,
Quer uma amante paixão
Que amar e amar com razão!
E si é preciso querer
Ao bello, porque ha de ser
Merito a obrigação?

O amar correspondido
Não é o mais perfeito amar,
Que não se hão de equivocar
Amante e agradecido.
Sempre contingencia ha sido
O rigor ou a clemencia,
E si da correspondencia
Nascêra sempre a vontade,
Não fôra amor divindade,
Porque o fôra a contingencia.

O amante que procura

Ser em seu amor ditoso,
Tem ambição ao formoso,
Não amor á formosura.
Quem idolatra á luz pura
Da belleza rigorosa,
Cora fineza generosa,
Ame sempre despresado,
Porque o ser eu desgraçado,
Não vos tira o ser formosa.
Não ser de vós admittido
Acredita o meu cuidado;
Logo á ser tão despresado
Devo estar agradecido.
Rigores peço soffrido,
Não clemencia, nem piedade;
Porque inutil é a vontade,
Que deixa em sua fineza
Pelos logros da belleza
Respeitos da divindade.
 CONVERSA
QUE TEVE O AUCTOR EM UMA ROÇA COM A MESMA DAMA

Brit. Ao velho que está na roça

Que fuja ás moças direi:

Poet. Abofé não fugirei,

Em quanto Brites fôr moça:

Brit. Si lhe não fazeis já móssa,

Porque não heis de fugir?

Poet. Porque? porque hei de cumprir

Com a obrigação de cascar,
Dando-lhe sete ao entrar,
E quatorze ao despedir.
E já que em vosso sujeito
Ha fidalguia estirada,
Honrae-me que a que é honrada
Não perde a um velho respeito:

Brit. Tendes commigo máu pleito

Pelas cans que penteaes.

Poet. Nisso mais vos enganaes,

Que eu penteio desenganos,
Não pelo pêzo dos annos,
Pelo pezar que me daes.
 Á MESMA BRITES
ARREPENDIDA DE HAVER CASADO

Vós casada e eu vingado,

Tudo o meu coração sente,
Mas a vingança presente
Mais que o aggravo passado
No aggravo já perdoado,
Pelas desculpas que daes,
Menor dor me occasionaes,
Por ser contra o meu respeito:
Que o que contra vós é feito
Força ó que me dôa mais.

Chorar vosso casamento

É sentir a minha dor:
E agora me obriga amor
Á sentir vosso tormento.
Vosso descontentamento
Do meu mal distancia encerra.
Que o meu coração não erra,
Censurando um e outro sim,
Pois de vós vai tanto á mim
Como vai do céu á terra.
A um só coração assestam
Os pezares de quem ama;
Mas os pezares da dama
A dois corações molestam:
Si duas vidas infestam
Males de que estaes sentida,
Com razão, prenda querida,
Dois prantos faço em commum,
Pela minha vida um,
E outro pela vossa vida.

Levae prudente e sagaz

Esse cargo, essa pensão,
Porque o êrro da eleição
Comsigo outros erros traz:
Si é de remedio incapaz
O êrro do casamento,
Dissimule o soffrimento
Esse êrro, porque maior
Não façam o êrro de amor
Erros do arrependimento.
 Á UMA MOÇA
CHAMADA THEREZA DE CÓR TRIGUEIRA

Seres Thereza formosa,

Sendo trigueira, me espanta;
Pois tendo belleza tanta
É sôbre isso milagrosa.
Como não será espantosa,
Si o adagio me assegura,
Que quem quizer formosura
A ha de ir na alvura ver,
E vós sois linda mulher
Contra o adagio da alvura.

Mas o nosso adagio mente,

E eu lhe acho a repugnancia
De que a belleza é substancia,
E a alvura é accidente:
Si na esphera tão luzente
D’essa cara prazenteira,
O sol como por vidreira
Se duplica retratado,
Sendo vós sol duplicado
Que importa seres trigueira.
 Á UMA DAMA
A QUEM O P. EM CERTA OCCASIÃO ACHOU MAIS FORMOSA
DO QUE COSTUMAVA VER

Tenho por admiração,

Menina, e por cousa rara,
Que mudasseis vós de cara,
Porém não de condição:
Vendo-vos nesta occasião
De feições tão desmentida,
Mais dura e mais sacudida,
Vos julguei, porque o revele,
Qual cobra que muda a pelle,
Mas não põe emenda á vida.

Como não terá desgosto

Quem adora uma belleza,
Si sem mudar natureza,
Tão mudada está de rosto?
Para vós me dares gosto
E pagares minha fé,
O que haveis de fazer é,
Por dar-me algum galardão,
Mudares de condição:
Mas de cara para que?
Cara que já me agradára,
Por bonita e por graciosa,
Commigo é mudança nova,
Comvosco é mudança cara.
Si amor vos desenganára,
Que me parecieis bem,
Não tivereis vós por quem
Fazer esta variação,
Sendo varia na feição,
E tão firme no desdem.

Não digo, minha senhora,

Mal da vossa perfeição:
Quero Marianna de então,
E não Marianna de agora;
Que quem vos ama e adora
Tão firme e constantemente,
Quer que saiba toda a gente
Que minha alma enamorada
Não dá Marianna passada
Por Marianna presente.

Quem faz mudanças na cara,

Bem que não no coração,
Sempre deixa a presumpção
Que por pouco se mudára.
Eu a amar-vos não chegára,
Sem ter por delicto atroz
Que haja mudança entre nós;
Pois não só mudar se chama
Ires vós para outra dama,
Como de vós para vós.
Ou mudada ou não mudada,
Vos affirmo reverente
Que sois mais moça ao presente,
Para ser fructa passada.
E está tão idolatrada
De mim essa cara bella,
Que ou seja esta ou aquella,
O que agora importa é
Que deis um geito com que
Eu pobre me logre d’ella.
Á UMA DAMA ESQUIVA

Filena, eu que mal vos fiz,

Que sempre a matar-me andaes,
Uma vez quando me olhaes,
Outra quando me fugis?
Vi-vos e logo vos quiz
Tão inseparavelmente,
Que nem a vista o presente,
Nem menos sabe dizer-me
Entre o ver-vos e o render-me
Qual foi primeiro accidente.

Vós sois tão esquiva e tal,

Que outras coisas não sabendo,
Da vossa esquivança entendo
Que meu amor vos faz mal:
Não cabe em meu natural
Fugir de quem me maltracta,
E si me sahir tão barata
A vingança de adorar-vos,
Quero querer-vos e amar-vos,
Porque fiqueis mais ingrata.

Não sinto esta pena atroz

Que me fazeis padecer,
Antes folgo de morrer,
Vendo que morro por vós:
E si com passo veloz
Presinto a morte chegar,
Não sinto o ver-me acabar,
Sinto a gloria que vos cresce,
Que uma ingrata não merece
A gloria de me matar.
Vivam vossas esquivanças
E vossa crueldade viva,
Que a sem razão de uma esquiva
Acredita as esperanças.
Tudo tem certas mudanças,
Tambem se muda o rigor;
E si amor me dá valor
Para soffrer-vos e amar-vos,
Claro está que hão de mudar-vos
Firmezas do meu amor.