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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2020
Brief Contents
Preface xv
Module 1
Introduction to Database Management 1
Module 2
The Relational Model: Introduction, QBE, and Relational Algebra 31
Module 3
The Relational Model: SQL 83
Module 4
The Relational Model: Advanced Topics 131
Module 5
Database Design: Normalization 167
Module 6
Database Design: Relationships 207
Module 7
Database Management Systems Processes and Services 241
Module 8
Database Industry Careers 261
Module 9
Database Industry Trends 281
Appendix A
Comprehensive Design Example: Douglas College 319
Appendix B
SQL Reference 349
Appendix C
FAQ Reference 359
Appendix D
Introduction to MySQL 361
Appendix E
A Systems Analysis Approach to Information-Level Requirements 371
Glossary 377
Index 391
C ontents
Preface xv
Module 1
Introduction to Database Management 1
Introduction1
JC Consulting Company Background 1
Selecting a Database Solution 4
Defining Database Terminology 4
Storing Data 5
Identifying Database Management Systems 11
Advantages of a Properly Designed Relational Database 14
Key Factors for a Healthy Relational Database 15
Big Data 16
Preparing for a Career in Database Administration and Data Analysis 16
Introduction to the Pitt Fitness Database Case 16
Introduction to the Sports Physical Therapy Database Case 20
Summary24
Key Terms 24
Module Review Questions 25
Problems25
Critical Thinking Questions 26
JC Consulting Case Exercises 26
Problems26
Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 27
Problems27
Sports Physical Therapy Case Exercises 29
Problems29
Module 2
The Relational Model: Introduction, QBE, and Relational Algebra 31
Introduction31
Examining Relational Databases 31
Relational Database Shorthand 35
Creating Simple Queries and Using Query-By-Example 36
Selecting Fields and Running the Query 37
Saving and Using Queries 38
Using Simple Criteria 40
Parameter Queries 41
Comparison Operators 42
Using Compound Criteria 42
Creating Computed Fields 46
Summarizing with Aggregate Functions and Grouping 49
Sorting Records 52
Sorting on Multiple Keys 54
Joining Tables 56
Joining Multiple Tables 60
Using an Update Query 62
Using a Delete Query 63
Using a Make-Table Query 64
Contents
Optimizing Queries 65
viii
Examining Relational Algebra 65
Selection66
Projection66
Joining67
Union69
Intersection70
Difference70
Product71
Division71
Summary72
Key Terms 73
Problems74
JC Consulting Case Exercises: QBE 76
Problems76
JC Consulting Case Exercises: Relational Algebra 77
Problems77
Problems79
Problems81
Module 3
The Relational Model: SQL 83
Introduction83
Getting Started with SQL 84
Opening an SQL Query Window in Access 84
Changing the Font and Font Size in SQL View 85
Creating a Table 85
Naming Conventions 85
Data Types 86
Selecting Data 88
Numeric Criteria 90
Text Criteria 91
Date Criteria 93
Comparing Two Fields 94
Saving SQL Queries 94
Using Compound Conditions: AND Criteria 95
Using Compound Conditions: OR Criteria 95
Using the BETWEEN Operator 96
Using the NOT Operator 98
Creating Calculated Fields 99
Using Wildcards and the LIKE Operator 101
Using the IN Operator 102
Sorting Records 102
Sorting on Multiple Fields 103
Using Aggregate Functions 104
Grouping Records 105
Limiting Records with the HAVING clause 107
Writing Subqueries 108
Joining Tables with the WHERE Clause 109
Joining More Than Two Tables with the WHERE Clause 111
Using the UNION Operator 112
Contents
Updating Values with the SQL UPDATE Command 113

ix
Inserting a Record with the SQL INSERT Command 114
Deleting Records with the SQL DELETE Command 116
Saving Query Results as a Table 117
Developing Career Skills: SQL 118
Accessing Free SQL Tutorials 118
Summary119
Key Terms 120
Problems120
Critical Thinking Question 122
Problems122
Problems124
Problems126
Module 4
The Relational Model: Advanced Topics 131
Introduction131
Creating and Using Views 131
Using Indexes 134
Examining Database Security Features 137
Preventing Unauthorized Access 138
Safely Distributing Information 139
Providing Physical Security 139
Enforcing Integrity Rules 139
Entity Integrity 139
Referential Integrity 140
Cascade Options 142
Legal-Values Integrity 143
Changing the Structure of a Relational Database 144
Adding a New Field to a Table 144
Modifying Field Properties 145
Deleting a Field 146
Deleting a Table 146
Using SQL JOIN Commands 147
LEFT Joins 149
RIGHT Joins 150
Applying Referential Integrity: Error Messages 152
Applying Referential Integrity: Null Values 153
Using the System Catalog 153
Using Stored Procedures and Triggers 154
Triggers154
Career Skills: Database Administrators 157
Summary158
Key Terms 159
Problems159
Critical Thinking Question 161
Problems161
Contents

x
Problems162
Problems164
Module 5
Database Design: Normalization 167
Introduction167
Case Study: Faculty/Student Advising Assignments 167
Data Modification Anomalies 168
Functional Dependence 170
Keys171
First Normal Form 171
Atomic Values 173
Breaking Out Atomic Values Using Query Design View 173
Creating a Blank Database with Access 174
Importing Excel Data into an Access Database 174
Algorithms175
Creating Fields 178
Creating New Fields in Table Design View 178
Updating Fields 179
Updating Field Values Using Query Design View 179
Creating the 1NF Table 181
Creating a New Table in Query Design View 181
Using Atomic Values for Quantities 183
Finding Duplicate Records 184
Finding Duplicate Records in Query Design View 184
Second Normal Form 186
Benefits of Normalization 190
Third Normal Form 190
Fourth Normal Form 191
Creating Lookup Tables in Query Design View 192
Beyond Fourth Normal Form 194
Summary 196
Key Terms 196
Problems197
Problems198
Problems200
Problems202
Module 6
Database Design: Relationships 207
Introduction207
User Views 208
Documenting a Relational Database Design 209
Database Design Language (DBDL) 209
Setting Keys and Indexes 211
Contents
Entity-Relationship (E-R) Diagrams 213

xi
Crow’s Foot Notation 214
Microsoft Access E-R Diagram in the Relationships window 215
The Entity-Relationship Model (ERM) 217
Exploring One-to-Many Relationships in Access 220
Table Datasheet View 220
Subdatasheets221
Lookup Properties 222
Subforms225
Working with One-to-Many Relationships in Query Datasheet View 225
Other Relationship Types 229
One-to-One Relationships 229
Many-to-Many Relationships 232
Summary235
Key Terms 235
Problems236
Problems237
Problems238
Problems239
Module 7
Database Management Systems Processes and Services 241
Introduction241
Create, Read, Update, and Delete Data 242
Provide Catalog Services 243
Catalog Services in Microsoft Access 243
Catalog Services in Enterprise Database Management Systems 244
Support Concurrent Updates 244
Concurrent Updates in Microsoft Access 244
Concurrent Updates in Enterprise Database Management Systems 245
Recover Data 246
Recovering Data in Microsoft Access 246
Recovering Data in Enterprise Database Management Systems 247
Forward Recovery 248
Backward Recovery 249
Provide Security Services 250
Encryption250
Authentication250
Authorization250
Views250
Privacy250
Provide Data Integrity Features 251
Support Data Independence 252
Adding a Field 252
Changing the Property of a Field 252
Managing Indexes 252
Changing the Name of a Field, Table, or View 252
Adding or Changing a Relationship 252
Support Data Replication 253
Summary254
Key Terms 254
Contents

xii
Problems255
Problems256
Problems257
Problems259
Module 8
Database Industry Careers 261
Introduction261
Careers in the Database Industry 261
Role of a Database Administrator 262
Duties and Responsibilities of a DBA 262
Database Policy Formulation and Enforcement 263
Access Privileges 263
Security264
Disaster Planning 264
Archiving265
Database Technical Functions 266
Database Design 266
SQL and Views 266
Testing267
Performance Tuning 267
DBMS Maintenance 267
Database Administrative Functions 268
Data Dictionary Management 268
Training268
Professionals Reporting to the DBA 268
Responsibilities of a Data Analyst 270
Responsibilities of a Data Scientist 270
Database Industry Certifications 271
Summary274
Key Terms 274
Problems275
Problems276
Problems277
Problems278
Module 9
Database Industry Trends 281
Introduction281
Database Architectures 281
Centralized Approach 281
Cloud Computing 283
Personal Computer Revolution 284
Contents
Client/Server Architecture 286

xiii
Access and Client/Server Architecture 286
Three-Tier Client/Server Architecture 287
Data Warehouses 289
Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) 289
Codd’s Rules for OLAP Systems 292
Current OLAP Vendors 292
Distributed Databases 293
Rules for Distributed Databases 293
Summary of Current Database Architecture Implementations 293
Selecting a Relational Database System 294
Software Solution Stacks 297
NoSQL Database Management Systems 299
Object-Oriented Database Management Systems 300
Rules for Object-Oriented Database Management Systems 301
Big Data 302
Google Analytics 302
Data Formats 303
XML304
JSON306
Data Visualization Tools 307
Visualization Tools in Microsoft Excel 307
Microsoft Power BI 309
Tableau309
Summary311
Key Terms 311
Problems313
Problems314
Critical Thinking 315
Problems315
Problems317
Appendix A
Comprehensive Design Example: Douglas College 319
Douglas College Requirements 319
General Description 319
Report Requirements 319
Update (Transaction) Requirements 323
Douglas College Information-Level Design 323
Final Information-Level Design 340
Exercises341
Appendix B
SQL Reference 349
Alter Table 349
Column or Expression List (Select Clause) 349
Computed Fields 350
Functions350
Conditions350
Simple Conditions 350
Compound Conditions 350
Contents
BETWEEN Conditions 351

xiv
LIKE Conditions 351
IN Conditions 351
CREATE INDEX 351
CREATE TABLE 352
CREATE VIEW 352
DATA TYPES 353
DELETE ROWS 353
DROP INDEX 354
DROP TABLE 354
GRANT354
INSERT354
INTEGRITY355
JOIN355
REVOKE356
SELECT356
SELECT INTO 357
SUBQUERIES357
UNION358
UPDATE358
Appendix C
FAQ Reference 359
Appendix D
Introduction To MysqL 361
Introduction361
Downloading and Installing Mysql361
Running Mysql Workbench and Connecting to Mysql Server 365
Opening an Sql File In Mysql Workbench 366
Running an Sql Script in Mysql Workbench 367
Refreshing Schemas in Mysql Workbench 367
Viewing Table Data in Mysql Workbench 367
Writing Sql in Mysql Workbench 368
Practicing With Mysql Workbench 369
Summary370
Key Terms 370
Appendix E
A Systems Analysis Approach to Information-Level Requirements 371
Introduction371
Information Systems 371
System Requirement Categories 372
Output Requirements 372
Input Requirements 372
Processing Requirements 373
Technical and Constraining Requirements 373
Determining System Requirements 373
Interviews373
Questionnaires374
Document Collection 374
Observation374
Research374
Transitioning From Systems Analysis to Systems Design 374
Key Terms 375
Glossary377
Index 391
P r eface
ABOUT THIS BOOK

This book is intended for anyone who is interested in the database industry. As a textbook, it is appropriate
for business and computer science students in an introductory database concepts course. Traditional database
concepts such as data normalization, table relationships, and SQL are thoroughly covered. Emerging database
concepts and trends are explained using realistic, current, and practical examples. Anyone who is currently
managing or using an existing database will find the book helpful, given that it describes database best
practices and how to create and leverage the benefits of a healthy database. Anyone wanting to enter the
database industry will enjoy the book given that both traditional and new careers in the field are carefully
explored.
This book assumes that students have some familiarity with computers such as solid Microsoft Office and
file and folder management skills. Students do not need to have a background in programming, only a desire
and curiosity to learn about how to harness the power of databases.
CHANGES TO THE TENTH EDITION

The Tenth Edition includes the following new features and content:
• Full-color screen shots using Access 2019.
• Extensive coverage of the relational model, including hands-on exercises that guide students
through the data normalization process, how to build relationships, how to query a database
using a QBE tool, and how to write SQL (Structured Query Language) to create, update, and
select data from a relational database.
• Hands-on exercises for creating and using Microsoft Access data macros to accomplish the simi-
lar functionality to SQL triggers.
• A new module on careers for those interested in database administration, data analysis, data sci-
ence, and other related careers in the database industry.
• General information about current trends in database management systems, including the man-
agement of “big data,” object-oriented database management systems, NoSQL systems, data-
driven web apps, and popular software application stacks.
• A new case study, JC Consulting, a web development and data consulting company, used to illus-
trate skills within each module.
• An updated end-of-module case study, Pitt Fitness.
• Updated exercises for Sports Physical Therapy, the second end-of-module case study.
• New critical-thinking questions and exercises that reinforce problem-solving and analytical skills.
• New data files if using MySQL with the database cases.
• An updated appendix to guide users through the installation of MySQL.
MindTap Features
• Integration with SAM and SAM projects, Cengage’s leading-edge, hands-on skills assessment
management system. These activities provide auto-grading and feedback of students’ mastery of
Microsoft Access.
• Module quiz evaluates students’ understanding of foundational database concepts in each
module.
• Quick Lesson concept videos dig deeper into database concepts and innovations to improve stu-
dents’ comprehension.
• Candid Career videos highlight database and data-focused career paths to inform students of var-
ious careers and ways to apply their database skills.
Preface
xvi ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXTBOOK AND KEY FEATURES

Updated Case Studies
Module 1 covers essential database terminology and examines the benefits of and key factors for a healthy
relational database system. It also introduces the JC Consulting, Pitt Fitness, and Sports Physical Therapy
case studies and databases that are used throughout the textbook and end-of-module exercises.
Detailed Coverage of the Relational Model, Query-By-Example (QBE), and SQL

Module 2 includes in-depth, hands-on exercises to select and summarize data from a relational database using
Access’s QBE (Query By Example), Query Design View. Module 2 also covers relational algebra, foundational
information for SQL. Module 3 is an in-depth look at selecting and summarizing data with SQL. Module 4
covers advanced topics for the relational model such as indexes, data integrity, security, inner and outer joins,
triggers, and data macros.
Normalization Coverage
Module 5 dives into the data normalization process, taking a new list of nonnormalized data from first to
second to third (Boyce-Codd normal form) to fourth normal form using hands-on exercises. The module
describes the update anomalies associated with lower normal forms. Access queries and tools are used to take
the data through the normalization process. Access is used to create new, normalized tables, data is analyzed
and updated, fields and data types are properly defined, primary and foreign key fields are created, and lookup
tables are created.
Database Design
Module 6 continues the process of building a healthy relational database by focusing on table relationships,
again using hands-on exercises to illustrate the concepts. Database Design Language (DBDL), E-R diagrams,
and entity-relationship models are all used to document and implement one-to-many relationships between
the tables of data that were properly normalized in Module 5.
Functions Provided by a Database Management System

Module 7 covers traditional database management processes and concerns such as the data recovery
processes, security issues, data integrity and concurrency issues, data replication, and database
documentation features.
Careers in the Database Industry

Module 8 explores the jobs and careers in the database industry starting with the traditional career of a
database administrator (DBA), as well as the emerging areas of data analysts and data scientists. Valuable
educational credentials and industry certifications are identified.
Trends
Module 9 compares and contrasts historical mainframe database management systems with current
data management trends such as distributed database management systems, client/server systems, data
warehouses, object-oriented database management systems, web access to databases, XML, and JSON.
Teaching Tools
When this book is used in an academic setting, instructors may obtain the following teaching tools from
Cengage Learning through their sales representative or by visiting www.cengage.com:
• Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual includes suggestions and strategies for using this
text. It includes many ideas for classroom activities and graded projects.
For instructors who want to use an Access text as a companion to the Tenth Edition,
consider Microsoft Access 2019: Comprehensive by Friedrichsen, also published by Cengage.
Preface
• Data and Solution Files. Data and solution files are available at www.cengage.com. Data files
xvii
consist of copies of the JC Consulting, Pitt Fitness, and Sports Physical Therapy databases that
are usable in Access 2010, Access 2013, Access 2016, Access 2019, and script files to create the
tables and data in these databases in other systems, such MySQL.
• PowerPoint Presentations. Microsoft PowerPoint slides are included for each module as a t eaching
aid for classroom presentations, to make available to students on a network for module review, or to
be printed for classroom distribution. Instructors can add their own slides for additional topics they
introduce to the class. The presentations are available at www.cengagebrain.com.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows you to:
• author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions
• create multiple test versions in an instant
• deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want
GENERAL NOTES TO THE STUDENT

Within each major section, special questions or “Your Turn” exercises have been embedded. Sometimes the
purpose of these exercises is to ensure that you understand crucial material before you proceed. In other
cases, the questions are designed to stretch your understanding into real world application of the concepts.
Read the question or exercise, try to answer the question or complete the exercise on your own, and then
compare your work against the answer that is provided.
You also will find complementary SAM projects in MindTap, which allow you to apply the concepts
learned in a meaningful hands-on project. These critical thinking exercises help you solidify the process and
well as solve the problem.
The end-of-module material consists of a summary, a list of key terms, review questions, and exercises
for the JC Consulting, Pitt Fitness, and Sports Physical Therapy databases. The summary briefly describes the
material covered in the module. The review questions require you to recall and apply the important material
in the module. Review questions and exercises include critical-thinking questions to challenge your problem-
solving and analytical skills.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge all of the talented professionals who made contributions during the creation
of this book. We also want to thank those professors and students who use this book to teach and learn. Stay
curious!
Module 1
Introduction to Database
Management
L E ARN I NG O B J E CT I V E S
• Examine JC Consulting (JCC), the company used for many of the examples throughout the text
• Define basic database terminology
• Describe database management systems (DBMSs)
• Explain the advantages and key factors for a healthy relational database system
• Prepare for a career in database administration
• Review Pitt Fitness, a company used in a case that appears at the end of each module
• Review Sports Physical Therapy, a company used in another case that appears at the end of
each module
Introduction
In this module, you will examine the requirements of JC Consulting (JCC), a company that will be used
in many examples in this text. You will learn how JCC initially stored its data, what problems employees
encountered with that storage method, and why management decided to employ a database management
system (DBMS). You will also study the basic terminology and concepts of relational databases, database
management systems, and big data. You will learn the advantages and key factors of a properly designed
relational database. Finally, you will examine the database requirements for Pitt Fitness and Sports Physical
Therapy, the companies featured in the cases that appear at the end of each module.
JC Consulting Company Background

JC Consulting (JCC) is a digital development and consulting business. The founder, Jacqueline Cabrero,
started the business in the mid-1990s when the Internet became publicly available. Jacqueline grew the
business from a sole proprietorship that built static webpages for small businesses to a firm with more than
20 employees. JCC’s services range from building websites and web apps to back-end database conversions
and programming.
Initially, Jacqueline kept track of her clients and project bids in a spreadsheet. As the company grew, she
used a homegrown project estimator program to bid new projects. Jacqueline has now determined that the
company’s recent growth means it is no longer feasible to use those programs to maintain its data.
What led JCC to this decision? One of the company’s spreadsheets, shown in Figure 1-1, displays project
estimates, and illustrates JCC’s problems with the spreadsheet approach. For each estimate, the spreadsheet
displays the number and name of the client, the project estimate number and date, the task ID, a description
of the task, and a quoted price for that task. Tri-Lakes Realtors received two different project estimates
(ProjectIDs 1 and 31). In the first project estimate, Tri-Lakes Realtors needed general help to establish online
goals. In the second estimate, the agency needed help with relational database design and data conversion.
The result was seven lines in the spreadsheet, two project estimate numbers, and several task IDs.
Module 1
ProjectID 1
has two tasks
Tri-Lakes
Realtors
ProjectID 31
has five tasks
FIGURE 1-1 Project estimates spreadsheet
Data redundancy is one problem that employees have with the project estimates spreadsheet. Data
redundancy, sometimes shortened to redundancy, is the duplication of data, or the storing of the same data
in more than one place. In the project estimates spreadsheet, redundancy occurs in the ClientName column
because the name of a client is listed for each line item in each project estimate. Redundancy also occurs in
other columns, such as in the ProjectID column when a project has more than one task, or in the TaskID and
Description columns when two projects contain the same tasks.
Q & A 1-1
Question: What problems does redundancy cause?

Answer: Redundant data yields a higher frequency of data errors and inconsistencies, which in turn leads
to poorer decision making. For example, if you entered “Tri-Lakes Realtors” and “Tri Lakes Realtors” on
separate rows in the ClientName column, you would be unsure about the correct version of this client’s name.
Summarized data about this client would not be complete or correct given the client would be misinterpreted
as two different companies because of the two different spellings.
When you need to change data, redundancy also makes your changes more cumbersome and time-
consuming. For example, to change a client’s name, you would need to update it in each row where it appears.
Even if you use a global find-and-replace feature, multiple changes require more editing time than updating
the client name in one location.
Finally, while storage space is relatively inexpensive, redundancy wastes space because you’re storing
the same data in multiple places. This extra space results in larger spreadsheets that require more space in
memory and storage. Larger-than-necessary files also take longer to save and open.
Difficulty accessing related data is another problem that employees at JCC encounter with their
spreadsheets. For example, if you want to see a client’s address, you must open and search another
spreadsheet that contains this data because the client’s address is not currently stored in the project estimates
spreadsheet.
Spreadsheets also have limited security features to protect data from being accessed by unauthorized
users. In addition, a spreadsheet’s data-sharing features prevent multiple employees from updating data
in one spreadsheet at the same time. Finally, if JCC estimates continue to increase at their planned rate,
Introduction to Database Management
spreadsheets have inherent size limitations that will eventually force the company to split the project
3
estimates into multiple spreadsheets. Splitting the project estimates into more than one spreadsheet would
create further redundancy, data organization, and reporting problems. For these reasons, JCC decided to
replace the estimating spreadsheet with a database, a collection of data organized in a manner that allows
access, retrieval, and use of that data.
After making the decision, management has determined that JCC must maintain the following
information about its employees, clients, tasks, and project estimates:
• For employees: Employee ID, last name, first name, hire date, title, and salary
• For clients: Client ID, name, address, and government status
• For projects: Project ID, start date, task IDs, task descriptions, costs, project notes, and task
notes
Figure 1-2 shows a sample project estimate.
ProjectID 31 5 tasks
Total
FIGURE 1-2 Sample project estimate
• The top of the estimate contains the company name, JC Consulting, the words “Project
Estimate,” and company contact information.
• The body of the estimate contains the name of the client for which the project estimate has been
created, a brief description of the project, the project ID, an estimated project start date, and one or
more line items. Each line item contains a task description and the estimated price for that task.
• The bottom of the estimate contains the total estimated price for the project.
Internally, JCC also must store the following items for each client’s estimate:
• For each project estimate, JCC must store the client’s address as well as the employee assigned
as the project leader for the project.
• For each task line item, JCC not only stores the project ID but also the task ID, the estimated
completion date for that task, and task notes. If the task is considered complex or risky, a factor
is applied to increase the estimate. The task description and task category (coding, meeting,
planning, and so forth) are also stored for each task.
• The overall project estimate total is not stored. Instead, the total is calculated whenever a project
estimate is printed or displayed on the screen.
The problem facing JCC is common to many businesses and individuals that need to store and retrieve
data in an efficient and organized way. JCC is interested in several areas of information such as employees,
clients, estimates, and tasks. A school is interested in students, faculty, and classes; a real estate agency is
interested in clients, houses, and agents; a distributor is interested in customers, orders, and inventory; and a
car dealership is interested in clients, vehicles, and manufacturers.
The difficult question is not how to manage single categories or lists of information, but how to manage
the lists of data and the relationships between the lists. For example, besides being interested in client and
project estimate information, JCC also wants to know which clients have received more than one project
estimate. The company wants to know which employees are assigned as the lead to which projects and which
tasks are most commonly added to which projects.
Module 1
Likewise, a school is not only interested in students and classes but also which students are enrolled
4
in which classes. A real estate agency is not only interested in their lists of agents and homes for sale; they
also want to know which agents are listing or selling the most homes. A distributor wants to know which
customers are ordering specific inventory items, and a car dealership not only wants to know about their
customer base and car inventory but also which customers are buying multiple cars over time.
Selecting a Database Solution

After studying the alternatives to using spreadsheet software, JCC decided to switch to a relational database
system. A relational database is a structure that contains data about many categories of information as
well as the relationships between those categories. The JCC database, for example, will contain information
about employees, clients, project estimates, and tasks. It also will provide facts that relate employees to
the projects they manage, clients to their project estimates, and the project estimates to the tasks that are
contained within each project.
With a relational database, JCC will be able to retrieve a particular project estimate and identify which
client and tasks belong to that estimate. In addition, employees can start with a client and find all project
estimates, including the individual tasks within the project that have been prepared for that client. Using
a relational database, JCC can use the data to produce a variety of regular periodic or ad hoc reports to
summarize and analyze the data in an endless number of ways.
Defining Database Terminology

Some terms and concepts in the database environment are important to know. The terms entity, attribute,
and relationship are fundamental when discussing databases. An entity is a person, place, event, item, or
other transaction for which you want to store and process data. The entities of interest to JCC, for example,
are employees, clients, project estimates, and tasks. Entities are represented by a table of data in relational
database systems.
An attribute is a characteristic or property of an entity. For the entity employee, for example, attributes
might include such characteristics as first and last name, employee number, and date of hire. For JCC, the
attributes of interest for the client entity include client name, street, city, state, zip code, and whether the
client is a government body. An attribute is also called a field or column in many database systems.
Figure 1-3 shows two entities, Clients and Projects, along with the attributes for each entity. The
Clients entity has seven attributes: ClientID, ClientName, Street, City, State, Zip, and Government (whether
the client is any type of government institution). Attributes are similar to columns in a spreadsheet. The
Projects entity (which represents project estimates) has five attributes: ProjectID, ProjectStartDate, ClientID,
EmployeeID, and ProjectNotes. Entity (table) names and attribute (field) names should be easy to understand,
concise, indicative of their content, and contain no spaces or other special characters.
Entities
Attributes
for the Projects
entity
FIGURE 1-3 Entities and attributes
A relationship is an association between entities. For example, there is an association between clients and
projects. A client is related to all of its projects, and a project is related to its client.
This relationship is called a one-to-many relationship because each client may be associated with many
projects, but each project is associated with only one client. In this type of relationship, the word many is
used differently from everyday English because it does not always indicate a large number. In this context, the
5
term many means that a client can be associated with any number of projects. That is, a given client can be
associated with zero, one, or more projects.
A one-to-many relationship often is represented visually as shown in Figure 1-4. In such a diagram,
entities and attributes are represented in precisely the same way as they are shown in Figure 1-3. A line
connecting the entities represents the relationship. The one entity of the relationship (in this case, Clients)
does not have an arrow on its end of the line, and the many entity in the relationship (in this case, Projects) is
indicated by a single-headed arrow.
Relationship
FIGURE 1-4 One-to-many relationship
Q & A 1-2
Question: What happens when the relationship between two entities is best defined as “many-to-many”
because one record in one entity relates to many records in the other entity and vice versa? For example, at a
college, one student may be related to many classes, and one class is also related to many students.
Answer: A many-to-many relationship cannot be directly created in a relational database. To accommodate
this relationship between two tables, a third table must be inserted, which is used on the “many” side of two
one-to-many relationships with the original two tables. In this case, an Enrollments table could be added
between the Students and Classes tables. One student may enroll in many classes. One class may have many
enrollments. Two tables that are on the “one” side of a one-to-many relationship with the same table have, by
definition, a many-to-many relationship with each other.
Storing Data
A spreadsheet that is used to store data, often called a data file, typically stores data as one large table. Data
stored this way is also referred to as a flat file because lists in a spreadsheet have no relationships with other
lists. A relational database, however, not only stores information about multiple entities in multiple tables but
also identifies the relationships between those tables.
For example, in addition to storing information about projects and clients, the JCC database will
hold information relating clients to the various project estimates that were created for that client, which
employee is assigned as the project leader for that particular project, and more. A relational database can
store information about multiple types of entities, the attributes of those entities, and the relationships
among the entities.
How does a relational database handle these entities, attributes, and relationships among
entities? Entities and attributes are fairly straightforward. Each entity has its own table. The JCC
database, for example, will have one table for employees, one table for clients, one table for the
project estimates, and so on. The attributes of an entity become the columns in the table. Within
each table, a row of data corresponds to one record. A record is a group of fields (attributes) that
describe one item in the table (entity).
What about relationships between entities? At JCC, there is a one-to-many relationship between
clients and projects. But how is this relationship established in a relational database system? It
is handled by using a common field in the two tables to tie the related records from each table
Module 1
together. Consider Figure 1-4. The ClientID column in the Clients table and the ClientID column in
6
the Projects table are used to build the relationship between clients and projects. Given a particular
ClientID, you can use these columns to determine all the projects that have been estimated for that
client; given a ProjectID, you can use the ClientID columns to find the client for which that project
estimate was created.
How will JCC store its data via tables in a database? Figure 1-5 shows sample data for JCC.
Employees
EmployeeID LastName FirstName HireDate Title Salary
19 Kohn Ali 01-Jan-20 Project Leader $5,000.00
22 Kaplan Franco 01-Feb-20 Programmer $5,500.00
35 Prohm Nada 29-Feb-20 Customer Support Specialist $4,000.00
47 Alvarez Benito 31-Mar-20 Front End Developer $5,200.00
51 Shields Simone 30-Apr-20 Network Specialist $7,000.00
52 Novak Stefan 01-Jan-19 Project Leader $8,000.00
53 Anad Sergei 01-Jan-19 Front End Developer $5,300.00
54 Allen Sasha 01-Jan-19 Programmer $7,000.00
55 Winter Wendy 31-Dec-20 Front End Developer $4,300.00
56 Reddy Kamal 01-Sep-19 Programmer $6,200.00
57 Yang Tam 30-Apr-21 Front End Developer $5,000.00
58 Young Solomon 01-Jan-19 Programmer $5,500.00
59 Santana Carmen 01-Jan-19 Front End Developer $4,800.00
60 Lu Chang 01-Mar-19 Database Developer $7,900.00
61 Smirnov Tovah 01-Oct-19 Programmer $6,000.00
62 Turner Jake 31-Mar-21 Database Developer $7,800.00
63 Geller Nathan 01-Jan-19 Project Leader $8,100.00
64 Lopez Miguel 01-Jan-19 Programmer $6,200.00
65 Garcia Hector 01-Apr-23 UI Designer $7,000.00
66 Roth Elena 31-Oct-20 Network Specialist $7,000.00
67 Horvat Nigel 30-Apr-24 UI Designer $6,300.00
Clients
ClientID ClientName Street Zip Government
1 Tri-Lakes Realtors 135 E Jefferson St 02447 FALSE
2 Project Lead The Way 762 Saratoga Blvd 02446 TRUE
3 Midstates Auto Auction 9787 S Campbell Ln 01355 FALSE
4 Bretz & Hanna Law Firm 8101 N Olive Dr 01431 FALSE
5 Aspire Associates 5673 South Ave 01431 FALSE
6 Bounteous 9898 Ohio Ave 02770 FALSE
7 Netsmart Solutions 4091 Brentwood Ln 01354 FALSE
8 Loren Group 9565 Ridge Rd 02466 FALSE
9 Associated Grocers 231 Tecumsa Rd 02532 FALSE
10 Jobot Developers 1368 E 1000 St 02330 FALSE
11 Harper State Bank 1865 Forrest Dr 01571 FALSE
12 MarketPoint Sales 826 Hosta St 01983 FALSE
13 SecureCom Wireless 5280 Industrial Dr 01852 FALSE
14 The HELPCard 840 Boonville Ave 02466 TRUE
15 Jillian Henry & Associates 815 E California St 02113 FALSE
16 Pediatric Group 4940 W Farm Rd 02113 FALSE
17 SkyFactor 1736 Sunshine Dr 02726 FALSE
18 NuCamp 2500 E Kearny St 01431 FALSE
19 Wu Electric 5520 S Michigan 02447 FALSE
20 Juxly Engineering 4238 Rumsfield Rd 02148 FALSE
21 Carta Training 2445 N Airport Dr 02446 FALSE
FIGURE 1-5 Sample data for JCC (continued)
Projects 7
ProjectID ProjectStartDate ClientID EmployeeID ProjectNotes
1 06-Feb-19 1 52 Client wants digital solutions to help rebrand company name to
emphasize commercial real estate.
2 07-Feb-19 2 63 Client needs help converting, organizing, and managing various
sources/formats of donor and donation data.
3 11-Mar-19 3 52 Client wants to establish SEO goals.
4 10-Apr-20 4 52 Client wants to set up an internal server as well as help
with a domain name.
7 02-Sep-19 2 63 Client has used the database for several months and
now needs new report
8 06-Jan-20 3 52 Develop and implement website SEO strategy.
9 10-Feb-20 6 63 Needs help to manage and organize internal data.
10 31-Mar-21 7 19 Develop new website content.
11 30-Apr-20 9 19 Client needs internal database to manage personnel.
13 30-Nov-20 10 64 Client needs subcontracting help installing a new database for a
WordPress site.
14 09-Dec-20 15 19 Client needs new functionality for current JavaScript application.
15 21-Dec-20 14 19 Client needs new functionality for current Ruby/Rails application.
16 04-Jan-21 11 52 Client needs help with server security.
17 15-Feb-21 12 52 Current online sales solution is unreliable.
18 14-Apr-21 6 63 Client needs internal database to manage inventory.
19 04-Jun-21 13 52 Client needs new functionality for current C# / ASP.NET application.
20 30-Jul-21 1 63 Client needs full website reskin.
21 31-Aug-21 16 19 Client needs help with data analytics.
22 30-Sep-21 20 19 Client needs an online reference database
23 12-Nov-21 18 63 Client needs new blog and current pages updated to include
responsive web design principles for mobile devices.
ProjectLineItems
ProjectLineItemID ProjectID TaskID TaskDate Quantity Factor ProjectLineItemNotes
1 1 MEET00 06-Feb-19 1 1.00
2 1 PLAN01 06-Feb-19 1 1.00
4 2 MEET00 07-Feb-19 1 1.00
5 2 PLAN01 07-Feb-19 1 1.00
6 2 DB01 15-Mar-19 1 1.30 Data is stored in multiple spreadsheets.
7 2 DB02 15-Apr-19 20 1.30 Data is not consistent between spreadsheets.
8 3 MEET00 11-Mar-19 1 1.00
9 3 PLAN01 11-Mar-19 1 1.20 Owner is difficult to pin down.
10 4 MEET00 10-Apr-20 1 1.00
11 4 PLAN01 10-Apr-20 1 1.20 Two principal attorneys must agree.
12 4 SERV01 11-May-20 1 1.00
13 4 SERV02 10-Jun-20 1 1.30 Security is a paramount issue.
17 11 MEET00 30-Apr-20 1 1.00
18 11 PLAN01 30-Apr-20 1 1.00
19 9 MEET00 10-Feb-20 1 1.00
20 9 PLAN01 10-Feb-20 1 1.00
25 9 PLAN10 17-Feb-20 1 1.00
26 18 MEET00 14-Apr-21 1 1.00
27 20 MEET00 30-Jul-21 1 1.00
28 20 PLAN01 30-Jul-21 1 1.00
29 20 PLAN02 30-Jul-21 1 1.00
Module 1
8 TaskMasterList
TaskID Description CategoryID Per Estimate
CODE01 Code PHP Coding Hour $150.00
CODE02 Code C# in ASP.NET Coding Hour $150.00
CODE03 Code Ruby on Rails Coding Hour $150.00
CODE04 Code SQL Coding Hour $150.00
CODE05 Code HTML Coding Hour $100.00
CODE06 Code CSS Coding Hour $100.00
CODE07 Code JavaScript Coding Hour $125.00
CODE08 Perform analytics Coding Hour $100.00
CODE09 Select technology stack Coding Hour $200.00
CODE10 Apply SEO Coding Hour $125.00
CODE12 Create prototype Coding Hour $150.00
CODE13 Code WordPress Coding Hour $100.00
CODE14 Code Python Coding Hour $150.00
CODE15 Create shopping cart Coding Hour $125.00
CODE16 Code other Coding Hour $150.00
DB01 Design relational database Database Project $1,000.00
DB02 Convert data Database Hour $125.00
DB03 Install MySQL database Database Project $500.00
DB04 Install SQL Server database Database Project $500.00
DB05 Install Access database Database Project $400.00
MEET00 Initial customer meeting Meeting Project $0.00
In the Employees table, each employee has a unique EmployeeID number in the first column. The name
of the employee with the EmployeeID value of 19 in the first record is Ali Kohn. His hire date was 01-Jan-20,
his title is Project Leader, and his monthly salary is $5,000.00.
The Clients table contains one record for each client, which is uniquely identified by a ClientID number
in the first column. The client name, street, zip, and whether the client is a governmental entity are also
stored for each record.
In the Projects table, a unique ProjectID number for each project is positioned in the first column.
The project start date and project notes are also recorded in fields named ProjectStartDate and ProjectNotes.
The ClientID field contains a number that connects the Projects table with the Clients table. In the first
record for ProjectID 1, the ClientID value is also 1, which connects with Tri-Lakes Realtors in the Clients
table. The EmployeeID value of 52 connects with Stefan Novak in the Employees table.
In the table named ProjectLineItems, each record represents one task for each project. The ProjectID
value connects each record to a specific project in the Projects table. Note that the first two records contain
a ProjectID value of 1 connecting them with the first project in the Projects table, which in turn connects
them with the Tri-Lakes Realtors record in the Clients table. The TaskID column connects each line item
with a record in the TaskMasterList table that further describes that task. The ProjectLineItems table also
contains fields named TaskDate, Quantity, Factor, and ProjectLineItemNotes, which further describe each
task for that project. The Quantity field is used to identify the estimated hours for the hourly tasks. The
Factor field is a multiplier that represents additional risk or complexity. For example, 1.1 = 10% increase in
perceived complexity or risk for that task. Both the Quantity and Factor fields are used to calculate the price
for that task.
The TaskMasterList table uniquely identifies the different tasks that may appear on a project estimate
with the TaskID field, and further describes each task with the Description, CategoryID, Per (per hour or
per project), and Estimate fields. The Estimate field contains the dollar amount for that task. It is multiplied
by the Quantity and Factor fields in the ProjectLineItems table to calculate the total estimated cost for that
line item.
The table named ProjectLineItems might seem strange at first glance. Why do you need a separate table
for the project line items? Couldn’t the project line items be included in the Projects table? The Projects table
could be structured as shown in Figure 1-6. Notice that this table contains the same projects and line items
as those shown in Figure 1-5, with the same fields and data. However, the TaskID, TaskDate, Quantity, Factor,
and ProjectLineItemNotes fields contain multiple entries.
ProjectID ProjectStartDate ClientID EmployeeID ProjectNotes TaskID TaskDate Quantity Factor ProjectLineItemNotes
9
1 06-Feb-19 1 52 Client wants digital solutions to MEET00 06-Feb-19 1 1.00
emphasize commercial real estate. PLAN01 06-Feb-19 1 1.00
2 07-Feb-19 10 63 Client needs help converting, MEET00 07-Feb-19 1 1.00
organizing, and managing donor PLAN01 07-Feb-19 1 1.00
and donation data. DB01 15-Mar-19 1 1.30 Data is stored in multiple spreadsheets.
DB02 15-Apr-19 20 1.30 Data is not consistent between spreadsheets.
CODE04 15-May-19 4 1.00 Code SQL to code 4 queries.
TEST01 03-Jun-19 8 1.00
TEST02 03-Jun-19 8 1.00
MEET01 03-Jun-19 2 1.00
SUPP03 03-Jun-19 8 1.00
3 11-Mar-19 3 52 Client wants to establish SEO goals. MEET00 11-Mar-19 1 1.00
PLAN01 11-Mar-19 1 1.20 Owner is difficult to pin down.
4 10-Apr-20 4 52 Client wants to set up an internal MEET00 10-Apr-20 1 1.00
server as well as help with a domain PLAN01 10-Apr-20 1 1.20 Two principal attorneys must agree.
name. SERV01 11-May-20 1 1.00
SERV02 10-Jun-20 1 1.30 Security is a paramount issue.
TEST01 15-Jun-20 16 1.00
TEST02 15-Jun-20 16 1.00
SUPP03 15-Jun-20 4 1.00
FIGURE 1-6 Alternative Projects table structure
Q & A 1-3
Question: How is the information in Figure 1-5 represented in Figure 1-6?

Answer: Examine the ProjectLineItems table shown in Figure 1-5 and note the first two records are
connected with ProjectID 1 in the Projects table. In Figure 1-6, the entire project estimate for ProjectID 1
is entered in one record. Two task IDs and the other fields that describe the two tasks for that project are
entered together in the fields that describe the tasks.
Q & A 1-4
Question: Why does ProjectID 2 have such a large row in Figure 1-6?
Answer: Figure 1-6 shows one row (record) for each project (as opposed to one row for each task). Given that
the estimate for ProjectID 2 has nine different tasks, ProjectID 2 requires nine different entries in each of the
columns (fields) that describe the tasks for that project.
Figure 1-5 shows a single entry in each field of the ProjectLineItems table. In Figure 1-6, the
fields that describe tasks contain multiple entries such as the TaskID, TaskDate, Quantity, Factor, and
ProjectLineItemNotes. For example, ProjectID 1 consists of two tasks, and therefore two entries are placed in
the TaskID, TaskDate, Quantity, and Factor fields because those fields describe the two tasks for that project.
Other projects contain many more tasks and would have many more entries in those fields.
In general, tables that contain more than one piece of information per attribute (column or field) create
several problems that can be eliminated with a proper relational database design. The following are some
warning signs that your entities, attributes, and relationships are not properly designed:
• You need to enter more than one value in a particular field (see Figure 1-6).
• You are asked to enter two or more pieces of information in a field. For example, using one field to
enter both first and last names means you cannot quickly and easily search, sort, and filter on either
part of a person’s name.
• You are asked to enter both values and units of measure in the same field. Entering numbers and text
in the same field generally prevents you from calculating on the numeric part of the data.
• You find yourself adding new columns to handle multiple values for the same type of data. For
example, to track employee salaries over time, you wouldn’t want to create additional attributes
in the Employees table with names such as Salary1, Salary2, and Salary3. A better approach
would be to create a Salaries table and relate it to the Employees table. One employee record
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notice that the said Thomas hath the same to sell from sixteen to fifty
shillings the pound.”
If the article had possessed but a tithe of the virtues and excellencies
accorded to it by the celebrated Garway it must have been
recognized at the time as the coming boon to man.
Up to 1660 no mention is made of Tea in the English statute books,
although it is cited in an act of the first parliament of the Restoration
of the same year, which imposed a tax of “eightpence on every
gallon made and sold, to be paid by the maker thereof.” This was
subsequently increased to five shillings per pound in the Leaf, which
at the time was stated to be “no small prejudice to the article, as well
as an inconvenience to the drinker.” Ever since that year the duty on
Tea has been one of the hereditary customs of the Crown, though
Parliament has at sundry times, by different acts, fixed divers duties
upon it.
Pepys alludes to Tea in his Diary, under date of September 25, 1661,
the entry reading: “I did send for a cup of Tee, a China drink, of
which I never drank before”; and again, in 1667, he further mentions
it. “Home, and there find my wife making of Tee, a drink which Mr.
Pelling, the Potticary, says is good for her cold.” But that it still must
have continued rare, is very evident, as in 1664, it is recorded that
the East India Company made the king what was then considered “a
brilliant present of 2 lbs. of Tea, costing forty shillings,” and two years
later another present of 22 lbs., both parcels being purchased on the
Continent for the purpose.
It was not until 1668 that the East India Company is credited with the
direct importation of Tea into England, which, although chartered in
1600, for the first time considered Tea worthy their attention as an
article of trade. The order sent to their agents in that year was: “for
100 lbs. of the best Tey they could procure to the amount of £25
sterling.” Their instructions must, however, have been considerably
exceeded, as the quantity received was 4,713 lbs., a supply which
seems to have “glutted the market” for several years after. Up to this
time no alarm had been excited that the use of Tea was putting in
peril the stalwarthood of the British race. But in the very year of this
large importation we find Saville writing to his uncle Coventry, in
sharp reproof of certain friends of his “who call for Tea, instead of
pipes and wine,” stigmatizing its use as “a base, unworthy Indian
practice,” and adding, with an audible sigh, “the truth is, all nations
are getting so wicked as to have some of those filthy customs.”
Whether from sympathy of the public with these indignant
reprehensions or other causes, the whole recorded imports for the
six following years amounted to only 410 lbs., the quantities imported
continuing small and consisting exclusively of the finer sorts for
several years thereafter.
The first considerable shipment of tea reached London about 1695,
from which year the imports steadily and rapidly increased until the
end of the seventeenth century, when the annual importations
averaged 20,000 pounds. In 1703 orders were sent from England to
China for 85,000 pounds of Green Tea and 25,000 pounds of Black,
the average price at this period ranging from 16 to 20 shillings ($4 to
$5) per pound. The Company’s official account of their trade did not
commence before 1725, but according to Milburn’s “Oriental
Commerce” the consumption in the year 1711 had increased to
upwards of 142 million pounds, in 1711 to 121 millions, and in 1720
to 238 million pounds. Since which time there has been nothing in
the history of commerce so remarkable as the growth and
development of the trade in Tea, becoming, as it has, one of the
most important articles of foreign production consumed.
For above a century and a half the sole object of the English East
India Company’s trade with China was to furnish Tea for
consumption in England, the Company during that period enjoying a
monopoly of the Tea trade to the exclusion of all other parties. They
were bound, however, “to send orders for Tea from time to time,
provide ships for its transportation, and always to keep at least one
year’s supply in their warehouses,” being also compelled to “bring all
Teas to London, and there offer them at public sale quarterly, and to
dispose of them at one penny per pound advance on the gross cost
of importation, the price being determined by adding their prime cost
in China to the expenses of freight, insurance, interest on capital
invested, and other charges.” But in December, 1680, Thomas Eagle
of the “King’s Head,” a noted coffee-house in St. James, inserted in
the London Gazette the following advertisement, which shows that
Tea continued to be imported independently of the East India
Company: “These are to give notice to persons of quality that a small
parcel of most excellent Tea has, by accident, fallen into the hands of
a private person to be sold. But that none may be disappointed, the
lowest price is 30 shillings in the pound, and not any to be sold under
a pound in weight.” The persons of quality were also requested to
bring a convenient box with them to hold it.
The East India Company enjoyed a monopoly of the trade in Tea up
to 1834, when, owing to the methods of calculation adopted by the
Company, and the heavier expenses which always attend every
department of a trade monopoly, the prices were greatly enhanced.
Much dissatisfaction prevailing with its management, this system of
importing Teas was abolished, the Company being deprived of its
exclusive privileges, and the Tea trade thrown open to all.
In all probability Tea first reached America from England, which
country began to export in 1711, but it is claimed to have been
previously introduced by some Dutch smugglers, no definite date
being given. The first American ship sailed for China in 1784, two
more vessels being dispatched the following year, bringing back
880,000 pounds of Tea. During 1786-87, five other ships brought to
the United States over 1,000,000 pounds. In 1844, the “Howqua”
and “Montauk” were built expressly for the Tea trade, being the first
of the class of vessels known as “Clippers,” in which speed was
sought at the expense of carrying capacity, and by which the
average passage was reduced from twenty to thirty days for the
round trip. The trade in tea was entirely transacted at Canton until
1842, when the ports of Shanghai, Amoy and Foochow were opened
by the treaty of Nankin, the China tea trade being mainly conducted
at the latter ports. As late as 1850, all vessels trading in tea carried
considerable armament, a necessary precaution against the pirates
who swarmed in the China seas during the first half of the last
century.
The progress of this famous plant has been something like the
progress of Truth, suspected at first, though very palatable to those
who had the courage to taste it, resisted as it encroached, and
abused as its use spread, but establishing its triumph at last in
cheering the world, from palace to cottage, by the resistless effect of
time and its own virtues only; becoming a beverage appreciated by
all, as well as an agent of progress and civilization.
TEA
AND
AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.
Although Tea may be claimed to be in all its associations eminently
peaceful, growing as it does on the hill-sides of one of the most
peaceful countries in the world, coming to us through the peace-
promoting ways of commerce, until it reaches its ultimate destination,
that centre of peace—the family table—and like peaceful sleep,
“knitting up the raveled sleeve of care,” yet it has been the occasion
of several wars and political problems, the latest of which is the
precipitation of the great Chinese exodus, which at present threatens
such vital results, not only to our own country, but possibly to the
world at large.
It was destined—as in all social and political affairs, the greatest and
most important events are curiously linked with the smallest and
most insignificant—to be the final crisis of the American
Revolutionary movement. Think of it! The birth of the greatest nation
of all time due to a three-penny tax on tea! It was the article chosen
above all others to emphasize the principles that “all men are born
free and equal,” and that “taxation without representation is tyranny,”
and for the establishment of which principles a war was fought, that
when judged by the law of results, proves to have been the most
important and fruitful recorded on history’s pages. Who, in looking
back over the long range of events conserving to create our now
great country, can fail to have his attention attracted to what has
been termed, with a characteristic touch of American humor, “The
Boston Tea Party of 1773”? Who could have then predicted the
marvelous change that a single century of free government would
have wrought? Who could have dreamed that Tea would have
proved such an important factor in such a grand result? What a
lesson to despotic governments! A dreary November evening; a pier
crowded with excited citizens; a few ships in the harbor bearing a
hated cargo—hated not of itself, but for the principles involved; on
the decks a mere handful of young men—a few leaders in Israel—
urged on by the fiery prescience of genius, constituting themselves
an advance guard to lead the people from out the labyrinth of
Remonstrance into the wilderness of Revolution.
It is true that previously other questions had been factors in the
dispute, but a cursory glance at the history of the time will show that
heated debates had been followed by periods of rest, and acts of
violence by renewed loyalty. The “Navigation laws” had caused much
indignation and many protests, but no violence to mention. As early
as 1768 the famous “Stamp Act” was passed and repealed. The
period intervening between its passage and repeal gave opportunity
for public opinion to crystallize and shape itself. It sifted out of the
people a modern Demosthenes, gifted with the divine power of
draping the graceful garment of language round the firm body of an
IDEA! George III. would not profit by the example of Cæsar or of
Charles, and while North had avowed his willingness to repeal the
tax on all other articles, he promised the king that “he would maintain
this one tax on Tea to prove to the Colonists his right to tax.”
The trade in Tea at this time was a monopoly of the English East
India Company, which just then had acquired an immense political
prestige, but lost heavily by the closing of the American market, the
Company’s warehouses in London remaining full of it, causing their
revenue to decline. North was induced to offer them a measure of
relief by releasing from taxation in England the Tea intended for
America, but he still persisted in maintaining the duty of threepence
to be paid in American ports, and on the 10th of May this farcical
scheme of fiscal readjustment became a law. The Company
obtained a license for the free-duty exportation of their Tea to
America in disregard of the advice of those who knew that the
Colonists would not receive it. Four ships laden with Tea were
despatched to the ports of Boston, New York, Philadelphia and
Charleston. The Colonists prepared for their expected arrival, public
meetings being held in Philadelphia and Boston, at which it was
resolved that the Tea should be sent back to England, and so
notified the Company’s agents at these ports. The Boston
consignees refused to comply with the popular demand, all
persuasion failing to move them. The matter was then referred to the
Committees, who immediately resolved to use force where reason
was not heeded. When the vessels arrived, a meeting was held in
the Old South Church, at which it was resolved, “come what will, the
Tea should not be landed or the duty paid.” Another appeal was
made to the Governor, which was also denied! Upon this
announcement Samuel Adams arose, saying, “This meeting can do
nothing more to save the country.” The utterance of these words was
a preconcerted signal; the response, an Indian war-whoop from the
crowd outside. A band of young men, not over fifty, disguised as, and
styling themselves, “Mohawks,” rushed down to the wharf where the
vessels lay; the ships were boarded, the Tea chests broken open
and emptied into the river. From the moment that the first Tea-leaf
touched the water the whole atmosphere surrounding the issues
involved changed! In that instant, with the rapidity of thought, the
Colonies vanished and America arose!
When the news of these proceedings reached England, it provoked
a storm of anger, not only among the adherents of the government,
but also among the mercantile and manufacturing classes, they
having suffered heavy losses by the stoppage of trade with America.
The commercial importance and parliamentary influence of the East
India Company swelled the outcry of indignation against which they
termed the outrage of destroying its property. All united in the resolve
to punish the conduct of Boston for its rejection of the least onerous
one of an import duty on tea. What followed has been told in song
and story—Lexington and Concord, Bunker Hill, Valley Forge and
Yorktown. A new nation sprang into existence, taking its stand upon
the pedestal of “EQUAL RIGHTS FOR ALL,” under a new government “OF
THE PEOPLE, FOR THE PEOPLE, BY THE PEOPLE.”
CHAPTER II.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
Besides the character of the different varieties of tea and other

information connected with the plant and its product, we have to
notice the different parts of the world in which it is now or may be
grown in the future, as many practical questions of considerable
importance are dependent on the subject.
For upwards of two centuries and a half the world’s supply of tea
was furnished exclusively by China, and it was not until well into the
middle of the nineteenth century that China and Japan were the only
two tea-producing countries in the world, their product reaching the
western markets through the narrowest channels and under the most
oppressive restrictions. Its cultivation however, has in that time been
extended to other countries, most notably into Java, India and
Ceylon.
Tea is more or less cultivated for local consumption in all the
provinces of China, except the extreme northern. But to what exact
degree of latitude it is difficult to be precise, as we are without
definite information from those regions, and the vast empire of China
not being sufficiently explored by botanists to warrant the assertion
that the plant is not to be found in other parts of the country, at least
in a wild state. So far, however, it has not been discovered there,
except in a state of cultivation, or as having evidently escaped from
cultivation on roadsides or other out-of-the-way places.
We know that it is cultivated in Tonquin and Yunnan, but only to a
limited extent, the product of these provinces being also of a very
inferior quality. It is grown in Cochin-China and the mountain ranges
of Ava, but only for local consumption, and that, while it is indigenous
to the mountains, separating China from Burmah, it is not cultivated
there for either export or profit, and although claimed by some
authorities to be grown all over the Chinese empire, its cultivation for
commercial purposes is confined to the region lying between the
24th and 35th degrees of north latitude, the climate between these
parallels varying to a considerable extent, being much warmer in the
southern than in the northern provinces. The districts in which it is
chiefly cultivated, however, and from which it is principally exported,
are embraced in the southwestern provinces of Che-kiang, Fo-kien,
Kiang-see, Kiang-nan, Gan-hwuy Kwang-tung, some little being also
produced for export in the western province of Sze-chuan.
It is cultivated for commercial purposes all over the Japanese
islands, from Kiusiu, in the south, to Niphon, in the extreme north,
but the zone found most favorable to its most profitable production in
these islands is that lying between the 30th and 35th degrees, more
especially in the coast provinces of the interior sea. It is also grown
to some extent in Corea, from which country—although claimed by
some to be the original country of tea—none is ever exported.
In the year 1826 some tea seeds were sent from Japan to Java and
planted as an experiment in the residency of Buitenzorg, where they
were found to succeed so well that tea-culture was immediately
commenced on an extensive scale in the adjoining residencies of
Cheribon, Preanger and Krawang, the number of tea trees in the
former district amounting to over 50,000 in 1833. The several other
districts of the island to which it had been extended, now containing
upwards of 20,000,000 trees from which over 20,000,000 pounds of
prepared tea are annually delivered to commerce, tea-culture
forming one of the chief industries of the island at the present day.
A species of the tea plant has been found growing in a truly wild
state in the mountain ranges of Hindostan, particularly on those
bordering on the Chinese province of Yunnan, from which fact it is
claimed by some writers as probable that these mountains are the
original home of tea. Recent explorations also show that the tea
plant is to be found growing wild in the forests of Assam, Sylhet and
the Himalaya hills, as well as over the great range of mountains
extending thence through China to the Yang-tse river. At an early
period the British East India Company, as the principal trade
intermediary between China and Europe, became deeply interested
in the question of tea cultivation in their eastern possessions, but
without much success until in 1840, when the Assam Tea Company
was formed, from which year the successful cultivation of tea in India
has been carried on, the tea districts of that country including at the
present time, in the order of their priority, Assam, Dehradun,
Kumaon, Darjeeling, Cachar, Kangra, Hazarila, Chittagong, Burmah,
Neilgherry and Travancore.
Various efforts were made to introduce tea-culture into Ceylon, under
both Dutch and British rule, no permanent success being attained
until about 1876, when the disastrous effects of the coffee-leaf
disease induced the planters to give more serious attention to tea.
Since that period tea cultivation has developed there with marvelous
rapidity, having every prospect at the present time of taking first rank
among Ceylon productions.
Dr. Abel highly recommends the Cape of Good Hope as furnishing a
fitting soil and climate for the beneficial production of tea, stating that
“there is nothing improbable in a plant that is so widely diffused from
north to south being grown there.” Tea of average quality being now
shipped from Natal to the London market.
Besides Java, India and Ceylon, where tea culture has been
introduced and profitably demonstrated, numerous attempts have
and are being made to colonize the plant in other countries than
these of the East, but beyond the countries above enumerated, the
industry has so far never taken root, for while the cultivated varieties
of the tea-plant are comparatively hardy, possessing an adaptability
to climate excelled alone among plants only by that of wheat, the
limits of actual tea cultivation extend from the 39th degree of north
latitude in Japan, through the tropics to Java, Ceylon, India and
China, and while it will live in the open air in many of the countries
into which it has been introduced and withstand some amount of
frost when it receives sufficient summer heat to harden its root, but
comparatively few of those regions are suited for practical tea-
growing.
As far back as 1872, some tea plants were sent from China to the
Kew gardens in England, for the purpose of testing the possibility of
its growth in that country. The attempt, however, ended in failure, the
seeds never germinating, later efforts under more careful training
meeting with the same fate. Considerable success attended its
introduction into the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius, in 1844, the
tea produced being pronounced as “excellent in flavor, but lacking in
that strength and aroma so characteristic of the Chinese variety.”
Its cultivation has been recently attempted in the Philippines by the
Spanish, in Sumatra and Borneo by the Dutch, and by the French in
Cochin-China, nearly all of which experiments so far proving failures,
the only success reported being from the latter country, where the
soil is good and moisture equable. Tea plantations have also been
lately opened up in Malay, Singapore, and other of the Straits
settlements by the English; some teas of fair quality, but insufficient
quantity, having already produced in many of them. Its cultivation
forms one of the industries of the Fiji islands at the present time; the
soil and climate of the latter being found eminently adapted to its
successful propagation, land and labor, the chief difficulties in other
countries, being particularly available there. Extraordinary efforts are
now also being made to introduce the plant into the warmer parts of
Australia.
Some ten years ago specimens of the Chinese tea-plant were
introduced into the Azores, where they soon became acclimated,
expert Chinese tea-makers being sent there specially a few years
later to teach the natives how to manipulate the leaves. The industry
has made such rapid progress there that regular shipments of
“Madeira tea” are now being made to the London market, where it is
affirmed that in strength and flavor it closely approaches that of
China tea. But while it has been found to flourish luxuriantly on the
hilly parts of St. Helena, the quantity and quality are insufficient to
justify its cultivation for either profit or export on that island.
The Economic Society of St. Petersburg warmly advocates its
cultivation in the Caucasus, while French and German naturalists
declare that there is no region more suitable for the profitable
cultivation of tea than the shores of the Black Sea, the climate being
warm, moist and equable, and tea of more than average quality have
already been produced between Batoum and Kiel, samples of which
were exhibited at the exhibition recently held in Tiflis, the report on
which was so encouraging that the society ventures the opinion “that
in time Russia may compete with China and India in supplying the
Western nations with tea.” Efforts are also being made to introduce it
into southern Italy, but while the soil and climate of those countries
may be found admirably adapted for the purpose, there is no skilled
labor to prepare it properly.
The cultivation of tea was attempted in the warmer parts of Brazil in
1850, some tea of very fair quality being produced in the vicinity of
Rio Janeiro, and while the plant was found to flourish exceedingly
well in the adjoining province of Sao Paolo, the tea when prepared
for use was found to be entirely too bitter and astringent for practical
purposes. The lack of skilled labor and high cost of manufacture
preventing its cultivation for profit, it was inferred that with everything
else in its favor, tea as produced in Brazil would never be able to
compete with that of China even for home consumption.
Some few years since plantations were opened for the cultivation of
tea in Mexico, Guatemala, and in some of the West India islands, but
to the present no reports favorable or otherwise, have been received
regarding its progress in these countries. Still, in the face of all
drawbacks, with the example of the many failures and final success
achieved in India and Ceylon, much may yet be accomplished in
Brazil and other South American countries by intelligent cultivation,
modern machinery and perseverance in solving the problem of
growing at least their own tea.
With regard to the efforts to introduce the tea-plant into the United
States, the earliest notice which comes under observation is that
contained in the Southern Agriculturist, published in 1828, and in
which it is stated that “the tea-tree grows perfectly in the open air
near Charleston, where it has been raised for the past fifteen years,
in the nursery of M. Noisette. But as imported from China it would
cost too much to prepare for commercial use.” Another historical
effort was that made in 1848, by Dr. James Smith, at Greenville, S.
C., but although commenced with great enthusiasm the plantation
never was increased to any appreciable extent. Neither was it
brought to a condition, as far as can be ascertained, to warrant the
formation of any reliable opinion as to the practicability of tea-culture
in this country as an industry. Nevertheless, the circumstances of its
failure are quoted as a proof that tea cannot be produced for
commercial purposes or even for home consumption in this country.
While the truth is that as a test for the purposes named, the attempt
was of no value whatever, and never was so considered by those
conversant with its cultivation or management.
But while the plant barely survives the winter north of Washington, it
has been found to thrive successfully a little south of that district. It
bears fruit abundantly on the Pacific coast, where the soil and
climate are especially favorable to the growth of broad-leaved
evergreens, both native and exotic, and will flourish much further
north there than in the Eastern states.
Still the progress of these efforts to grow tea in other countries than
China, Japan and India, must necessarily prove interesting as being
calculated to make the world more independent of these countries
for its supplies. Yet it is an established fact that the finest varieties of
tea are best cultivated in the warmer latitudes and on sites most
exposed to air and sunshine.
CHAPTER III.
B O TA N I C A L C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S A N D F O R M .
There are few subjects in the vegetable kingdom that have attracted
such a large share of public notice as the tea plant. Much error for a
long time existed regarding its botanical classification, owing to the
jealousy of the Chinese government preventing foreigners from
visiting the districts where tea was cultivated; while the information
derived from the Chinese merchants at the shipping ports, scanty as
it was, could not be depended on with any certainty. So that before
proceeding to discuss the question of the species which yield the
teas of commerce it may be well to notice those which are usually
described as distinct varieties in systematic works.
Tea is differently named in the various provinces of China where it is
grown. In some it is called Tcha or Cha, in others Tha or Thea, in
Canton Tscha, and finally Tia by the inhabitants of Fo-kien, from
whom the first cargoes are said to have been obtained, and so
pronounced in their patois as to give rise to the European name Tea.
By botanists it is termed Thea, this last name being adopted by
Linnæus for the sake of its Greek orthography, being exactly that of
Oex—a goddess—a coincidence doubtless quite acceptable to those
who use and enjoy the beverage as it deserves.
The species of the genus Thea are few in number, some botanists
being of opinion that even these are of a single kind—Camillia—and
is by them classed as Thea-Camillia. Others asserting that no
relation whatever exists between these two plants, maintaining that
the Thea and Camillia are widely different and of a distinct species.
Yet, though the Camillia bears the same name among the Chinese
as Thea and possesses many of its structural characteristics,
distinctions are made between them by many eminent botanists,
who hold that they differ widely and materially and are mostly agreed
in the statement that the true Tea-plant is distinguished from the
Camillia in having longer, narrower, thinner, more serrated and less
shiny leaves, and that a marked difference is also noticeable in the
form and contents of the fruit or pod.
Davis argues that they constitute two genera, closely allied but yet
different, the distinctions consisting principally in the fruit or seed.
The seed-vessel of the Thea being a three-lobed capsule, with the
lobes strongly marked, each the size of a currant, containing only a
single round seed, the lobes bursting vertically in the middle when
ripe, exposing the seed. The capsule of the Camillia is triangular in
shape, much larger in size, and though three-celled is but single-
seeded. Bentham and Hooker, who have thoroughly revised the
“genera plantatum,” say they can find no good reason by which they
can separate the Tea-plant as a genus distinct from the Camillia, and
so class it as Thea-Camillia. While Cambesedes contends that they
are widely separated by several intervening genera, the difference
being entirely in the form of the fruit or pod; and Griffin, who is well
qualified to form a correct opinion, states that, from an examination
of the India Tea-plant and two species of the Camillia taken from the
Kyosa hills, he found no difference whatever. The dehiscence in both
plants is of the same nature, the only noticeable difference really
existing being of a simply specific value. The fruit of the Tea-shrub is
three-celled and three-seeded while that of the Camillia is triangular
in form and single-seeded only.
Linnæus, while recognizing the Tea-plant as belonging to the same
family as the Camillia, Latinizes its Chinese name, classing it as
Thea Sinensis, and dividing it into two species—Thea Viridis and
Thea Bohea; DeCandolle, while indorsing Linnæus’ classification,
adds that “in the eighteenth century when the shrub which produces
tea was little known Linnæus named the genus Thea Sinensis, but
later judged it better to distinguish two species which he believed at
the time to correspond with the distinctions existing between the
Green and Black teas of commerce.” The latest works on botany,
also, make Thea a distinct genus—Thea Sinensis—divided into two
species—Thea Viridis and Thea Bohea—these botanical terms
having no specific relation to the varieties known to commerce as
Green and Black teas. It having also been proven that there is but
one species comprehending both varieties, the difference in color
and character being due to a variation in the soil, climate, as well as
to different methods of cultivation and curing, from either or both of
which Green or Black tea may be prepared at will according to the
process of manufacture.
Thea Sinensis.
(Chinese Tea Plant.)
In a wild state is large and bushy, ranging in height from ten to fifteen
feet, often assuming the proportions of a small tree. While in a state
of cultivation its growth is limited by frequent prunings to from three
to five feet, forming a polyandrous, shrub evergreen with bushy stem
and numerous leafy branches. The leaves are alternate, large,
elliptical and obtusely serrated, varied and placed in smooth short-
channeled foot-stalks, the calyx being small, and divided into five
segments. The flowers are white, axilary and slightly fragrant, often
three together in separate pedicils, the corolla having from five to
nine petals, cohering at the base with filaments numerous and
inverted at the base of the corolla. The anthers are large, yellow and
tre-foil, the capsule three-celled and three-seeded; and like all other
plants in a state of cultivation, it has produced marked varieties, two
of which Thea Viridis and Thea Bohea are critically described as
distinct species, distinguished from each other in size, color, form
and texture of the leaves, as well as other peculiarities.
a—Gunpowder. b—Young Hyson. c—Imperial. d—Hyson. e—
Twankay.
Thea Viridis,
(Green Tea Plant),
Is a large, hardy, strong-growing shrub, with spreading branches and

leaves one to two inches long, thin, weavy and almost
membraneous, broadly lanceolate, but irregularly serrated and light-
green in color. The flowers are large, white, solitary and mostly
confined to the upper axil, having five sepals and seven petals, the
fruit or pod being purple, nodding and three-seeded. It thrives
without protection in the open air during winter, and is undoubtedly
the species yielding the bulk of the Green teas of commerce.
a—Firsts. b—Seconds. c—Thirds. d—Fourths.
Thea Bohea,
(Black Tea Plant),

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Concepts of database management

10th Edition Lisa Friedrichsen

Lisa Friedrichsen | Lisa Ruffolo | Ellen F. Monk

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

Director, Digital Production Services:

Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.

Notice to the Reader

Printed in the United States of America

Updating Values with the SQL UPDATE Command 113

Pitt Fitness Case Exercises 162

Entity-Relationship (E-R) Diagrams 213

Module Review Questions 255

Client/Server Architecture 286

BETWEEN Conditions 351

ABOUT THIS BOOK

CHANGES TO THE TENTH EDITION

xvi ORGANIZATION OF THE TEXTBOOK AND KEY FEATURES

Detailed Coverage of the Relational Model, Query-By-Example (QBE), and SQL

Functions Provided by a Database Management System

Careers in the Database Industry

GENERAL NOTES TO THE STUDENT

JC Consulting Company Background

FIGURE 1-1 Project estimates spreadsheet

Question: What problems does redundancy cause?

FIGURE 1-2 Sample project estimate

Selecting a Database Solution

Defining Database Terminology

FIGURE 1-3 Entities and attributes

FIGURE 1-4 One-to-many relationship

FIGURE 1-5 Sample data for JCC (continued)

FIGURE 1-5 Sample data for JCC (continued)

FIGURE 1-5 Sample data for JCC (continued)

FIGURE 1-6 Alternative Projects table structure

Question: How is the information in Figure 1-5 represented in Figure 1-6?

Besides the character of the different varieties of tea and other

(Green Tea Plant),

Is a large, hardy, strong-growing shrub, with spreading branches and

(Black Tea Plant),

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