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Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology 2023, 42(2):27-43 Copyright © 2023 College of Engineering and Technology,
OPEN ACCESS articles distributed under Creative Commons University of Dar es Salaam
Attribution Licence [CC BY-ND] ISSN 1821-536X (print); ISSN 2619-8789 (electronic)
Websites: https://ajol.org/tjet; https://tjet.udsm.ac.tz https://doi.org/10.52339/tjet.v42i2.911
Regular Research Manuscript
Situational Analysis of Gold Processing Practices at Artisanal and

Small-Scale Gold Mining in Tanzania
Sospeter P. Maganga1*, Ombeni J. Mdee1, Godlisten G. Kombe2 and Justin W.
Ntalikwa1
1
Department of Mining and Mineral Processing Engineering, College of Earth Sciences and
Engineering, The University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 11090, Dodoma, Tanzania
2
Department of Petroleum and Energy Engineering, College of Earth Sciences and Engineering,
The University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 11090, Dodoma, Tanzania
*
Correspondent author: [email protected]; ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3058-4188
ABSTRACT
This study reports the state-of-art situation of gold processing practices ARTICLE INFO
at artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) in Tanzania. It Submitted: April 5,
involved literature review, document review of public domain reports, 2022
and field survey during data collection. This was followed by screening
of literature, reports, and field data relevant to the study topic. Further, Revised: April 20, 2023
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges (SWOC)
analysis of ASGM was conducted and discussed. The study indicates Accepted: April 30,
that ASGM subsector in Tanzania continues growing with people 2023
involved directly in ASGM ranging between 1 to 1.5 million. Further,
the study indicates that ASGM in Tanzania contributes about 90% of Published: June 2023
the total employment in the mining sector and contributed 30% of total
gold production (42 tonnes) in the year 2020/2021. Furthermore, the
average monthly revenue collection from mineral commodities in
Tanzania has increased from TZS 1.7billion to TZS 7.06 billion after
establishment of mineral markets. Moreover, the study indicates ASGM
still employ inefficient processing methods such as hand crushing,
sluicing with manually regulated water flow rate, and environmentally
pollution gold recovery method such as amalgamation. Following this,
a mercury free gold processing flowsheet was proposed subject for
further investigation to reduce environmental impacts and improve
gold recovery in ASGM. Also, the SWOC analysis identified the critical
barriers for the maximum contribution of ASGM to the national
economy of Tanzania, which need further attention by ASGM
stakeholders.
Keywords: Gold processing practices, mercury free flowsheet, mineral demonstration centres,
artisanal and small-scale gold mining, and SWOC analysis.
INTRODUCTION reported that ASGM in Tanzania

contributes about 90% of the total
The artisanal and small-scale gold mining
employment in the mining sector.
(ASGM) subsector provides livelihood to
Moreover, in the year 2021, ASGM
many people in the world including
produced 30% of total gold production (42
Tanzania. This information is supported by
tons) in Tanzania (URT, 2021). Globally,
Kinyondo and Huggins (2020) who
ASGM produces about 600 tons per year
Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology (Tanz. J. Engrg. Technol.), Vol. 42 (No. 2), Apr. 2023 27
Situational Analysis of Gold Processing Practices at Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in
Tanzania
which accounts 15-20% of the total annual SWOC facing ASGM. The study will help
gold produced (Heymann, 2020). On the to increase awareness for stakeholders
other hand, the report by Mutagwaba et al. particularly on critical issues facing ASGM
(2018) indicated that the total number of for growth and increased contribution of
people in Tanzania involved directly in the subsector to the national economy.
ASGM ranged between 1 to 1.5 million in
the year 2017. At the global level, the METHODS AND MATERIALS
number of people engaged in ASGM
In this study, the methodological approach
operations is estimated to be more than 20
was adapted from Rweyendela and Kombe
million (Heymann, 2020) which is almost
(2021) with minor modification on data
half of the 40.5 million people involved in
collection techniques by adding a field
all artisanal and small-scale mining (IGF,
survey as indicated in Figure 1. The data
2017).
was collected through literature review,
Despite the mentioned contributions of
document review, and field survey on
ASGM to the URT and the government’s
selected artisanal and small-scale gold
efforts to formalize ASGM, the subsector is
mines as shown in Table 1. In literature
still faced with many challenges such as
review, past research studies conducted on
mercury pollution; limited access to
small-scale gold mining in Tanzania were
geological information; limited access to
searched from reputable research databases
affordable finance; inefficiency mining and
such as Google Scholar and Scopus. The
processing technologies; child labour, and
document review was conducted on public
poor health and safety to workers
domain government reports such as
(Mutagwaba et al., 2018; Merket 2019).
parliamentary budget reports from the
Although there are many previous studies
Ministry of Minerals as well as
on ASGM in Tanzania such as Hiji and
international agency reports such as
Maganga (2015), Mdee (2015), Ntalikwa
Intergovernmental Forum (IGF) on
(2015), Lema and Mseli (2017),
Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable
Mutagwaba et al. (2018), Kinyondo and
Development and United Nations
Huggins (2020), Tembo and Mdee (2022),
Environmental Programme (UNEP) as
just to name few; still there is limited
indicated in Table 2. The literature and
information on strengths, weaknesses,
reports were screened based on abstract and
opportunities, and challenges (SWOC)
introduction relevant to the study topic. In
analysis of current gold processing
field survey, current gold processes
practices of ASGM in Tanzania. The
practices at ASGM were discussed. Finally,
present study is aimed at reviewing the
SWOC analysis was conducted, discussed
current situation of gold processing
and future direction provided.
practices in Tanzania with a focus on the
Table 1: Artisanal and small-scale gold mines visited in this study.
S/N Name District-Region

1 Nholi small-scale gold mine Bahi-Dodoma
2 Nyarugusu, Nyakagwe, and Musasa small-scale gold mines Geita-Geita
3 D-reef, Kapanda, and Ibindi small-scale gold mines Mpanda-Katavi
4 Itumbi small-scale gold mine Chunya-Mbeya
28 Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology (Tanz. J. Engrg. Technol.), Vol. 42 (No. 2), Apr. 2023
Maganga et. al., (2023), doi: 10.52339/tjet.v42i2.911
Figure 1: Methodological approach used in this study.
Table 2: Sample of documents reviewed in this study.
S/N Name Type

1 Speech by the Minister of Minerals Hon. Doto Mashaka Biteko Parliamentary
(MP.), presenting a revenue and expenditure estimates for the year budget reports
2019/2020, 2020/2021 and 2021/2022
2 Tanzania Mining Commission (TMC) annual report of 2018/2019 TMC report
3 Tanzania Mining Act of 2010 and its amendment of 2017 Mining Act
4 Analysis of formalization approaches in the artisanal and UNEP report
small-scale gold mining sector based on experiences in
Ecuador, Mongolia, Peru, Tanzania and Uganda
Definition of Artisanal and Small-Scale 2014; Mutagwaba et al., 2018, Veiga and
Mining Gunson, 2020). The ‘tpa’ means tons-per-
Although the literature is inconclusive on annum.
the universal accepted definition of
artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM); Gold Occurrences Hosting ASGM in
many researchers agree to differentiate Tanzania
between artisanal mining and small-scale Gold occurs in nature mainly as native gold
mining as follows: artisanal mining is (< 20 mol% Ag) and as various alloy such
characterized by rudimentary operation; as gold-silver (electrum, 20-80 mol% Ag),
informal; intense labour; low level of skills; gold-copper and gold-tellurides, just to
low degree of mechanization; low levels of name few. Gold also occurs as sub-
environmental, health and safety microscopic either as colloidal gold (i.e.,
awareness; and often conducted for submicron gold inclusion in sulfide
subsistence purpose (i.e., feed family and minerals) or solid solution gold (i.e., gold
pay bills). Whereas, small-scale mining can atomically distributed in crystal structure of
be rudimentary or conventional operation, sulfide minerals such as pyrite and
formal, require low initial investment, with arsenopyrite) and surface gold (e.g., gold
the size of operation less than 100,000 tpa adsorbed onto carbonaceous particles)
run-of-mine ore (ROM) (Seccatore et al., (Chryssoulis and McMullen, 2016). The
Tanzania
major gold occurrences in Tanzania are Central Tanzania Gold Region (CTGR),
associated with Archean and Proterozoic East Tanzania Gold Region (ETGR), West
formations, which are grouped into five Tanzania Gold Region (WTGR), and South
main geological regions. This includes Tanzania Gold Region (STGR) as indicated
Lake Victoria Gold Region (LVGR), in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The map of Tanzania showing major ASGM sites (reproduced after Merket, 2019).
According to the Tanzania Mining Act of of Tanzania. This includes increase of

2010 and its amendment of 2017, the income to small-scale miners due to selling
owners of small-scale mining are required of gold at regulated price, stimulate growth
to possess primary mining licences (PMLs) of small-scale gold mining, record keeping
to conduct their operations legally. Figure 3 of gold sales from small-scale miners,
indicate the number of PMLs issued by increase in government revenues and
year to small-scale miners (i.e., gold creation of employment (URT, 2020).
mining and other commodities) from 1999 Figure 4 indicates the contribution of small-
to 2020 with the peak value occurring in scale gold mining to the total gold
2013, thereafter started to decline. The production in Tanzania. It can be observed
authors did not find out the exact reasons that, the percentage of total gold production
for treading down, this requires further from small-scale mining has increased
investigation. from 10% in 2012 to 30% in 2020. This
may be attributed to the increase in the
Gold Production from Small-Scale number of formal small-scale gold mining
Mining in Tanzania operations in the country as well as effect
Since march 2019, gold produced from of established mineral markets, which
ASGM operations in Tanzania were traded minimize smuggling of gold. Likewise,
through mineral markets located in most Figure 5 indicates that the average monthly
ASGM regions (TMC, 2019). The revenue collection from mineral
establishment of local mineral markets in commodities in Tanzania has increased
Tanzania, benefits both small-scale miners from TZS 1.7 Billion to TZS 7.06 Billion
and the government of the United Republic after establishment of mineral markets.
Figure 3: Number of primary mining licences (PMLs) issued by year (TMC, 2020a).
Figure 4: Contribution of gold production by small-scale mining in Tanzania (UNEP, 2012;

URT, 2019; URT, 2020; URT, 2021).
Tanzania
Figure 5: Monthly revenue collection before and after establishment of mineral markets in
Tanzania (TMC, 2020b).
Gold Processing Practices by ASGM in by hand crushing using hammers or

Tanzania mechanically by using jaw crushers.
The general flowsheet for ASGM has been However, the hand crushing method
constructed by the authors after site visits dominates most ASGM sites in Tanzania.
of several artisanal and small-scale gold This was observed by authors in field visits
mining in Tanzania as indicated in Figure at Nholi (Bahi-Dodoma); Itumbi (Chunya-
6. The flowsheet consists of several gold Mbeya); Nyarugusu, Nyakagwe, and
processing practices (stages) such as Musasa (Geita) in the year 2020 as well as
crushing (Hand crushing and Jaw at D-reef, Kapanda, and Ibindi (Mpanda-
crushing); grinding using ball mills; gravity Katavi) in the year 2022.
concentration using sluicing tables; A specific observation made in 2020 at the
amalgamation of gold concentrates; Nholi gold mine (Dodoma) indicated that
burning of the produced amalgam; vat hired men and women performed hand
leaching of the gravity tailings; carbon crushing using a sledgehammer (Figure
adsorption of the leached gold; elution and 7a). Crushing a 25 kg ore bag was charged
electrowinning of the gold pregnant about TZS 700 for soft rock and TZS 1,000
solution. The detail of each gold processing for hard rock. An individual as shown in
stage is presented in the next paragraphs. Figure 7(a) was estimated to crush 5 to 10
bags per day (maximum 250 kg ore per
Ore crushing day). It was further observed that at the
Nholi gold mine, boulders were crushed
Ore crushing is the first stage of mineral down to the size of 2.5-5 cm through the
processing which aims to reduce the size of hand crushing method and 30 HP jaw
mined-out ores for further downstream crushers (Figure 7b) running on diesel
processes such as grinding. In Tanzania engines, crushed 20 cm size rocks to about
ASGM crushing operations are conducted 2.5 cm.
Figure 6: Current practices of gold processing at ASGM in Tanzania.
(a) Hand-crushed ores (b) Jaw crusher
Figure 7: (a) Hand crushing (b) Jaw crushing operations at Nholi gold mine, Dodoma.
Ore milling observed at Nholi gold mine were small (Ø

84 x 85 cm), which took 3 ore bags of 25
Ore milling is the second stage of mineral kg each per batch; medium (Ø 105 x 80 cm,
processing which aims to liberate the Ø 110 x 83 cm) which took 6 ore bags of 25
mineral of interest (i.e., gold) from gangue kg per batch; and large (Ø 120 x 105 cm)
minerals. In Tanzania’s ASGM operations, which took 12 ore bags of 25 kg each per
ore milling is often carried out through batch. It was observed that at the Nholi gold
locally made ball mills. Locally fabricated mine, the charging of fresh grinding media
ball mills are made from 25 to 40 mm thick was 300 steel balls for a small ball mill, 600
steel shells and contain different sizes steel balls for a medium ball mill and 1200
(Diameter x Length). Common sizes
Tanzania
steel balls for a larger ball mill. Further, it addition, an observation made by one of the
was observed that the average running time authors in 2021 at the Itumbi small-scale
for a ball mill to complete a single batch gold mine (Chunya) indicated local ball
operation was 60 minutes at 45 rpm. mills were running at an average speed of
Another survey conducted at Musasa mine 40 rpm. The similar speed of 40 rpm was
in 2020 showed that ball mills were of two observed at Kapanda (Katavi). Figures 8(a)
sizes. A small (Ø 99 x 81cm) mill took 2 and (b) indicate a typical example of a ball
ore bags of 25 kg each, and a large (Ø 107 and hammer mills, respectively at surveyed
x 96 cm), which took 4 ore bags of 25 kg sites.
each. The grinding time for Musasa ball
mills was between 45-50 minutes. In
(a) Ball mill (b) Hammer mill
Mill shaft
Figure 8: (a) Ball mills at Nholi mine (b) A hammer mill in Chunya mine.
Sluicing cm and 4 cm, respectively as shown in

Sluicing is a common gravity mineral Figure 9. The inclination angle to
concentration method employed in ASGM horizontal was determined as 14° and the
operations in Tanzania. The main purpose carpet material was made up of a sisal mat
of any mineral concentration method is to with clothing material placed underneath.
enrich the ore through the reduction of The measured slope angle at the Nholi gold
impurities (i.e., gangue minerals). The field mine was within the reported range (i.e.,
observations made at the Nholi gold mine between 5 to 15°) according to the study by
indicated that the average length, width, Veiga and Gunson (2020).
and depth of sluice boxes were 290 cm, 55
Figure 9: Typical features and dimensions of sluice table from Nholi gold mine.
The key features which determine the Amalgamation

efficiency of the sluicing table include feed
Amalgamation is one of the old technology
rate, water flow rate, particle size and
for gold recovery dated back to 1500 BC
shape, clean-up period (removal of
(Veiga et al., 2006). In Tanzania,
concentrates), slope angle, riffles and
amalgamation technology is still used to
carpets lining the sluice, width and length
recover gold from gravity concentrates in
of the sluice, pulp density and arrangement
many ASGM operations. Wet gold
of the sluices (Veiga and Gunson, 2020).
concentrates are mixed with liquid mercury
Feed particle size, water flow rate, and
and panned for several minutes to produce
slurry density are not effectively controlled
gold amalgam. The gold amalgam is
in many ASGM operations in Tanzania and
manually squeezed using a piece of cloth to
are one of the factors which contribute to
remove part of the mercury. This is
gold losses at the sluicing tables. Veiga and
followed by open-air burning of gold
Gunson (2020) reported that more than
amalgam using the charcoal stove to
90% of gold captured at the sluice table has
remove the remaining mercury in form of
a size between 75 µm and 500 µm. This
vapour and produce the sealable gold
implies that fine gold (i.e., < 75 µm) and
product. Veiga and Gunson (2020) reported
course gold (i.e., > 500 µm) have a high
that amalgamation is a cheap and efficient
chance of being lost during sluicing. The
way to trap liberated gold particles often
use of screens on the base of the sluice feed
coarser than 200 mesh (74 µm). The
box is often considered critical for
authors further reported that manually
providing basic size screening of ore fed to
squeezed amalgam usually contain 40-60%
the sluice table (Veiga and Gunson, 2020).
mercury. Figure 10(a) indicates the gold
However, it is effective on removing only
amalgamation process while Figure 10(b)
boulders in the feed and not unliberated
shows produced gold amalgam ready for
gold particles.
burning.
(a) Mixing of concentrates and (b) Gold amalgam

mercury
Figure 10: (a) Amalgamation process (b) A gold amalgam ready for burning.
VAT leaching and carbon adsorption requiring continuous mixing of the slurry
The ASGM operations in Tanzania use vat during the operation. However, the gold
leaching technology to recover fine gold recovery in the vat leaching process is often
from sluicing tailings. The vat leaching less than 70% (Hiji and Maganga, 2015)
process is considered cheaper than agitated compared to agitated tank leaching which
tank leaching used by medium and larger can reach greater than 90% for free milling
scale mines since it can be locally gold ores. Moreover, the residence time in
constructed and operated in batch without vat leaching is longer (3 to 5 days)
Tanzania
compared to agitated leaching (i.e., 24 The usual concentration of cyanide is

hours). between 600 to 1000 ppm, slurry pH
Vat leaching plants often consist of several between 10 to 11, and residence time
components as follows: (1) a series of between 3 to 5 days at ambient conditions
circular or rectangular tanks with (Shamika 2015). In addition, the study by
connected PVC pipes, (2) carbon Ntalikwa (2015) observed that gold tailings
adsorption columns, and (3) mini- from Chunya (Mbeya) contained coarser
laboratory for measuring reagent particle size (average particle size, P80 of
concentration. Figure 11 indicate the 480 µm) which required further grinding to
simplified flowchart of a typical vat increase gold recovery in the vat leaching
leaching plant in Tanzania. Gravity tailings process.
are loaded into vat tanks and mixed with
cyanide and lime as shown in Figure 12(a).
Figure 11: Typical flowchart of VAT leaching plant in Tanzania (Modified from Shamika,
2015).
(a) Loaded VAT (b) Adsorption columns

leaching tanks tanks
Figure 12: (a) VAT leaching tanks and (b) Carbon adsorption columns.
The pregnant solution from vat leaching efficiency which is normally done by
tanks is transferred to cemented adsorption measuring the gold content in the barren
columns filled with activated carbon for solution. Most small-scale miners don't
gold adsorption as shown in Figure 12(b). have a carbon stripping facility on-site
In the adsorption columns, regular mixing hence loaded carbon is often transported to
is required to ensure high adsorption elution facilities located away from vat
leaching plants. The stripped carbon can be facility for small-scale mining (Shamika,
used up to 3 times before being discarded 2015).
since there is no carbon regeneration
Elution and electrowinning mercury exposure risks, of which 20-30%

were women including about 75,000 children
The purpose of elution is to strip gold (URT, 2017).
adsorbed on activated carbon while Another observation by Lema and Mseli
electrowinning aims to recover gold from the (2017) indicated that the mean concentration
pregnant solution to obtain cathode gold. of mercury from the soil samples at
Many ASGM in Tanzania uses integrated Nyarugusu was 25.45 mg/kg, which was
electrowinning and elution column for gold above the maximum limit of 1 mg/kg,
recovery. These are low-pressure inbuilt recommended by the United States
electrowinning-elution columns as opposed to Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA).
high pressure and separate electrowinning Another study by Merket (2019) reported that
elution columns used by other countries such with exception of whole ore amalgamation,
as South Africa and Zimbabwe. An integrated the rest worst mercury use practices including
electrowinning and elution column used at a open burning of amalgam; burning of
typical site in Tanzania operates at elevated amalgam in residential areas; and cyanide
temperature (95 to 98℃), pH above 12 and leaching of amalgamated tailings without first
stripping solution containing 1% NaOH and removing the mercury were widespread in
1% NaCN (Shamika, 2015). Moreover, the ASGM in North West regions of Tanzania
typical condition affecting the electrowinning (Geita, Shinyanga, Kigoma and Mara).
process include applied current and voltage
(e.g., 40 to 60 A and 3 to 5.5 V), the Proposed mercury free gold processing
conductivity of eluate, pH, and concentration flowsheet for ASGM
of metal ions in the solution. The plated gold Following the environmental pollution
on the cathode (steel wool) is often dissolved derived from the use of mercury in many
in sulphuric acid to form precipitates, which ASGM in Tanzania; the mercury free gold
are dried by charcoal stove before being processing flowsheet is proposed that require
smelted with flux (borax and silica) to further investigation as shown in Figure 13.
produce a sealable gold bar (Shamika, 2015). The flowsheet involves comminution (i.e.,
size reduction with the aim of liberating gold
Risk of mercury use at ASGM in Tanzania particles), two stage gravity concentration (in
The use of mercury for gold recovery at order to achieve high grade of gravity
ASGM through amalgamation technology has concentrate), followed by gold recovery from
health, safety and environmental risks to concentrates through either direct smelting or
small-scale miners and the surrounding intensive leaching. Conversely, the gold
community. While the global mercury use in remaining in gravity tailings is recovered
ASGM was estimated to be 1400 tpa (Appel through the conventional vat leaching
and Na-Oy, 2012), the Minamata initial technology. The proposed gold processing
assessment survey done by the United flowsheet for ASGM, has benefits of
Republic of Tanzania (URT) in 2016/2017 eliminating mercury pollution and improving
indicated that gold extraction with mercury gold recovery. From the proposed flowsheet
amalgamation processes contributed to in Figure 13, potential areas which require
releasing mercury of 602 kg/annum to air; 520 further studies include two stage gravity
kg/annum to water; and 642 kg/annum to concentration, direct smelting, and intensive
land. The report also indicated that ASGM are leaching of gravity concentrates with
the most affected subsector, where about 1.5 environmentally friendly reagents.
million people were estimated to be at
Tanzania
Gold recovery
from
concentrates
Two stage Direct smelting

ROM Comminution gravity
concentration Intensive leaching
Primary
Jaw crushing concentration using
Improved sluices Gold recovery
from tailings
(e.g., sluice carpet)
Ball milling Secondary Vat leaching

concentration using
shaking table or
centrifuges
Figure 13: Proposed mercury free gold processing flowsheet for ASGM subject for further
investigation.
Stakeholder intervention for gold least 3% Au) and low performance on sulfide
processing practices at ASGM in Tanzania ores (Veiga and Gunson, 2020).
Several key interventions have been
implemented in Tanzania to introduce cleaner Establishment of mineral demonstration
and improved technologies in ASGM as centres
follows: application of retors, application of In Tanzania, several mineral demonstration
borax smelting, and establishment of mineral centres for gold processing have been
demonstration centres. established at Katente (Bukombe), Lwamgasa
(Geita) and Itumbi (Chunya) at the total cost
Application of retorts of 4.3 billion Tanzanian shillings (URT,
2021). The centres are in operation and used
The United Nations Industrial Development to provide training to artisanal and small-scale
Organization (UNIDO) on the global mercury miners as well as gold processing services at
project in Geita demonstrated the use of typical cost of 20 million Tanzania shillings
retorts during amalgamation to minimize the for 100 tonnes of ore with grade of at least 4
impact of mercury to the environment g/t Au. However, the capacity of these plants
(UNIDO, 2007). The field observation by is low (typically 1-2 tph) to handle material
authors at visited sites indicate limited use of from nearby communities.
retorts by artisanal miners and amalgam is The field visit in the year 2022 by one of the
still burned in an open air. authors at Itumbi mineral demonstration
Application of borax smelting centre indicate the main processing
equipment present include jaw crusher, closed
Field tests of borax smelting of gravity circuit ball mill with hydrocyclone, 12 carbon
concentrates from sluicing was demonstrated in pulp (CIP) tanks, elution facility and mini-
by Appel and Jonson (2010) at Itumbi and laboratory (containing pulveriser, sieve
Londoni ASGM sites. However, the uptake of shaker, laboratory jaw crusher, hammer mill
this technology is still limited probably due to and AAS machine). The jaw crusher produces
requirement of high-grade concentrates (at 30 mm product size which is feed to the ball
mill, the ball mill has the capacity of 1-2 wet
tonnes per hour with the trommel screen of 1

(a) Ball mill
mm. The 12 CIP tanks had the capacity of 1-
1.2 tonne each, arranged in series and are
equipped with inter-tank screens that prevent
carbon movement from one tank to another,
while the slurry move from one tank to
another by gravity. The compressed air is
introduced into the CIP tanks to provide
agitation as well as source of oxygen for
leaching reaction. The operation of CIP is
(a)
semi-batch with total retention time of 30-32
hours and total carbon loading of 300 kg in 12
CIP tanks. Figure 14 (a) and (b) indicate ball
mill and CIP tanks at Itumbi mineral
demonstration centre, respectively.
The elution facility at Itumbi mineral
demonstration centre has capacity of treating
500 kg of loaded carbon per batch. For 500 kg
of carbon, 1 bag (25 kg) of sodium hydroxide
in mixed with water and circulated through
heater for 4 hours until the temperature reach
90℃ before switching on the transformer for
current flow to the electrowinning cell.
Normally elution is conducted at a current of (b) CIP tanks
30-35 mA and temperature around 118-120
℃ for 24 hours. Figure 14: (a) Ball mill (b) CIP tanks at Itumbi
mineral demonstration centre.
SWOC Analysis for ASGM in Tanzania
However, still there is market barriers for
The ASGM in Tanzania has various strengths,
industrial minerals (TEITI, 2022).
weaknesses, opportunities and challenges
Furthermore, the rest problems still persist,
(SWOC). For example, TEITI (2022)
which need initiatives from stakeholders.
reported that typical critical problems facing
Another study by Merket (2019) indicated
ASGM in Tanzania include lack of
that children with age less than 15 were
information about orebodies, inefficiency
engaging directly in ASGM operations in
mining and mineral processing technologies,
most of the surveyed sites. Moreover, the
limited access to capital and operating funds,
inadequate access to reliable markets authors observed that mercury pollution and
poor access to sanitation facilities was a
particularly for industrial minerals, poor
common problem in surveyed ASGM. In
knowledge of record keeping such as
addition, the study by Mutagwaba et al.
operating costs and production data and
(2018) indicated that child labour
limited training for development of ASGM. It
employment mainly in crushing and sluicing
is worth noting that the government of the
is another challenge facing ASGM. Other
United Republic of Tanzania has made efforts
reported challenges were poor management of
on market barriers for gold and gemstones by
waste rocks and tailings, lack of mine closure
establishing 39 market centres at various
plan, loss of minerals due to inefficient
regions in Tanzania (e.g., in Geita and
mining and processing technologies and lack
Chunya) (URT, 2021).
of exploration operations.
Apart from the weaknesses and challenges of
ASGM, Kinyondo and Huggins (2020)
Tanzania
reported that Tanzania has advanced strengths of current gold processing practices
government formalisation policies in the East at ASGM include simplicity of the process,
Africa region. The authors also reported that low cost and easily adopted by unskilled
the established centre of excellence at some people. Other strengths are the availability of
ASGM has started indicating potential mineral resources across various regions in
benefits such as capacity building training for Tanzania and the availability of an
small-scale miners and gold processing institutional framework for the formalization
services. These findings are in good of small-scale mining operations which has
agreement with the parliamentary report by increased over the past decade. Figure 15
the United Republic of Tanzania (URT) indicate the summary of SWOC analysis in
through Ministry of Minerals in 2021/2021 the present study. It is worth noting that, the
which indicated that 864 small-scale miners development of the ASGM subsector requires
were trained at Katente, Lwamgasa, and full integration of all components in SWOC
Itumbi mineral demosntration centres and analysis through various stakeholders
11.6 kg of gold were produced in the initiatives.
mentioned centres (URT, 2021). Further, the
Simple and cheap Limited level of skills

Easy to adopt Limited access to geological
Availability of mineral data
resources Limited capital & operating
Availability of institutional funds
framework Poor record keeping
Source of employment Lack of mine closure plans for
ASGM
Internal factors (+) Internal factors (-)
Strengths Weaknesses
SWOC
analysis
Opportunities Challenges
External factors (+) External factors (-)
Potential for poverty reduction Inadequate access to reliable

Supportive policy and laws markets for industrial minerals
Formalization programmes Expensive alternative
Mineral demostration centres technologies
Potential area for Inefficiency mineral processing
entrepreneurship technologies
Poor health & safety practices
Child labour
Figure 15: Summary of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and challenges (SWOC) for gold
processing practices at ASGM in Tanzania.
CONCLUSIONS a) There is no universal accepted

The present study reports the state-of-art definition of artisanal and small-scale
situation of gold processing practices at mining.
artisanal and small-scale gold mining b) ASGM in Tanzania are distributed in
(ASGM) in Tanzania, and provides the several regions namely, Lake Victoria
following key conclusions: Gold Region (LVGR), Central
Tanzania Gold Region (CTGR), East
Tanzania Gold Region (ETGR), West
Tanzania Gold Region (WTGR), and gold mining sites surveyed are also
South Tanzania Gold Region (STGR). acknowledged.
c) Both free-milling gold ores (e.g., at
Nholi, Dodoma), complex gold-copper Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no
ores (e.g., at Mpanda Mineral Field) and conflict of interest.
refractory ores (e.g., Matandani and
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Tanzania Journal of Engineering and Technology 2023, 42(2):27-43 Copyright © 2023 College of Engineering and Technology,

Regular Research Manuscript

Situational Analysis of Gold Processing Practices at Artisanal and

INTRODUCTION reported that ASGM in Tanzania

Table 1: Artisanal and small-scale gold mines visited in this study.

S/N Name District-Region

Figure 1: Methodological approach used in this study.

Table 2: Sample of documents reviewed in this study.

S/N Name Type

According to the Tanzania Mining Act of of Tanzania. This includes increase of

Figure 4: Contribution of gold production by small-scale mining in Tanzania (UNEP, 2012;

Gold Processing Practices by ASGM in by hand crushing using hammers or

Figure 6: Current practices of gold processing at ASGM in Tanzania.

(a) Hand-crushed ores (b) Jaw crusher

Ore milling observed at Nholi gold mine were small (Ø

(a) Ball mill (b) Hammer mill

Sluicing cm and 4 cm, respectively as shown in

The key features which determine the Amalgamation

(a) Mixing of concentrates and (b) Gold amalgam

compared to agitated leaching (i.e., 24 The usual concentration of cyanide is

(a) Loaded VAT (b) Adsorption columns

Elution and electrowinning mercury exposure risks, of which 20-30%

Two stage Direct smelting

Ball milling Secondary Vat leaching

tonnes per hour with the trommel screen of 1

Simple and cheap Limited level of skills

Internal factors (+) Internal factors (-)

Potential for poverty reduction Inadequate access to reliable

CONCLUSIONS a) There is no universal accepted

The Extractive Industries and Society, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2

Global Mercury Project. Available c030ee07813d8278fdb4b790.

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