Grammar II

Unit 1
The Grammar of Texts

● Formal and functional grammar.

Formal grammar Functional grammar

Grammar is a set of rules which specify all the a meaning-making resource. It is a

possible grammatical structures of the system of communication that analyses
language. In this approach, a clear grammar to discover how it is
distinction is usually made between organized to allow speakers and
grammatical or “well-formed” sentences writers to make and exchange

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and ungrammatical sentences. meanings.

The focus of the form of grammatical structures and the appropriateness of a choice to
study is their relationship to one another. achieve a communicative purpose; the
functions of structures and constituents
in different contexts.

The unit of
analysis is
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made up sentences (to
different grammatical rules)
illustrate authentic texts in particular contexts.
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Traditional grammar Functional grammar

Set of rules System of communication to make and

exchange meanings, set of choices
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Concern: form Concern: effectiveness (appropriate choices to

achieve a purpose)

Grammatical vs ungrammatical sentences: Appropriate choice (content/ context/

correctness audience)
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Made up sentences Authentic texts in particular contexts

- Systemic functional grammar. (Halliday’s theory: systemic functional linguistics)

System: Halliday says that language consists of a series of choices. Depending on the context and


effectiveness of all the possible choices within the system. Language consists of a set of systems
which offer speakers or writers an unlimited choice of ways of creating meanings
Function: language is produced to do sth, with a purpose or function. Whenever a text is produced,
it is with a purpose in mind.
- Functional grammar relies on the terminology proposed by formal grammarians.
- The two approaches are not, of course, mutually exclusive. Formal analyses must at some
stage take account of meaning and function, and functional analyses must at some stage
take account of form. However, most descriptions of grammar can be located primarily
within one or the other of these two approaches.

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Meaning in Language (course book)
- Speakers/writers use language differently depending on the “topic” or subject matter, who
they are talking or writing to (their status, proximity-distance) and what the language is
doing in a particular communicative situation.
- Texts are the product of the interrelation among ideational, interpersonal and textual
metafunction.

● Metafunctions
They are the meanings of language, how we represent the world and maintain social relationships
through language: we develop certain resources to express ideas. In the same situation, there are
many options, but not all linguistic choices available are appropriate for all contexts.

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- Ideational or experiential meaning/metafunction:
They reflect reality as it happened, the facts that actually happened. They represent our
experience, thoughts and feelings. It represents our experience of the world as well as the inner
world of our feelings. We can represent it by using resources such as Participants, Processes, and
Circumstances.
At the end of the book you will find a glossary of technical terms.

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Ideational M. Circumstance.(at the end of..)
idea. participant (you)(a glossary..)
interpersonal. modal indicating certainty + idea. process (will find)
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In addition, text analysis can be used as a tool for the evaluation of texts.
Textual M.(in addition)
idea. participant (text ana..)
interpersonal, modal potentiaty (can be used)
ideational, circumstance(as a tool…)
LA

- Interpersonal metafunction.
Expression of the speaker’s/writer’s judgment. attitudes or opinions. Role the speaker takes and
the one he/she assigns his/her interlocutor. It is realized formally through the system of mood and
modality.
FI

Should the trial of George Floyd's officer be televised?

Trial of George Floyd officer should be televised.
Trial of George Floyd officer must be televised.

- Textual metafunction.


The way in which facts (experiential meaning) and the speaker’s roles and attitudes (interpersonal
meaning) are organized in the clause. The context will call for the most appropriate choice of
organization. It is present in all clauses.
A container ship blocking one of the world’s busiest trade routes is freed after almost a week.
After almost a week, a container ship blocking one of the world’s busiest trade route is freed.

Clauses in English express the three metafunctions simultaneously.

● Level of analysis.
Phonology: sound system of a particular language (pronunciation)
Lexis: words of a language (vocabulary)
Grammar: arrangement of words (syntax) and internal structure of words (morphology)
Semantics: systems of meaning in language.

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 ● The place of lexicogrammar in language and the organization of grammar.
Systemic Functional Grammar proposes a model of Language in Context.
- Language is always used in context.
- The context influences the linguistic choices that speakers make. i.e. We use language
differently depending on who we are talking to, what we are talking about, etc.
- Linguistic choices can be more or less appropriate considering the context.
- Language has an impact on the context as well: it «construes» context.

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-
-
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These are different strata or levels of analysis: language is a stratified system.
The strata vary in their degree of abstraction.
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- Each stratum is realized by the stratum immediately below.
● The stratum of meanings (semantics) is realized by
The stratum of wordings and their syntactic arrangement (lexicogrammar)
Realized by sounds or graphic symbols (phonology/graphology)
LA
FI


The lexicogrammar is hierarchically organized as a rank scale. The relationship between the items
in the rank is one of composition.
- The highest unit on the scale of rank is the clause.
- Clauses are typically made up of groups or phrases.
- Groups/phrases are typically made up of words.

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 OM
Descriptions of the rank scale.
- If we take the clause as the point of departure for the description of the rank scale, we can
say that:
Clauses are typically composed of groups or phrases, and groups or phrases are typically
composed of words.
- If we take words as the point of departure, we can say that:

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Words are constituents of groups/phrases and groups/phrases are constituents of clauses.

● Test for constituency:

1. Movability: if an element is an immediate clause constituent, it is likely to be independently
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movable.
The Minister is frightened of union reaction to the government’s move to impose proper behavior.
Frightened of union reaction to the government’s move to impose proper behavior the Minister is.
2. Substitution: elements which are acting together as a single clause constituent should be
reducible to a single substituted item.
LA

My son ate the apple > He ate it. > My son did it.

- The only phrase is the prepositional phrase (preposition + prepositional object).

● Variations on the typical structure.

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Prototypical organization of grammar:

Martin offers new insights in his new book.
NG VG NG PP
Non-prototypical:


Why she is so cruel is beyond my understanding.

CLAUSE VG PP

The first immediate constituent of this clause is another clause, instead of a group or phrase.
And that clause is an essential component of the larger structure: if you remove it, the clause
becomes ungrammatical.

The girl we met yesterday is her sister.

NG VG NG
NG + CLAUSE VG NG

- In this example, the immediate constituents of the clause are groups.

- But in turn, the first group is made up of a group + a clause.

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 - In this case, if the clause is removed, the structure remains grammatical but there is a
problem of meaning: the girl that is mentioned is no longer identifiable.
● The clauses that are constituents (components) of other clauses or groups are called
EMBEDDED

It is possible to link or bind one clause to another clause or even to a number of other clauses.
When this happens, the result is known as a clause complex. We can see that the term sentence in
SFL does not carry the same information as the term clause or clause complex, even though it is
often used to refer loosely to the same unit/s.

Grammatical functions can have different realizations

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Subject NGs–that clauses, wh- clauses, infinitive clauses, and Ving clauses

Complement NGs, nominal cl, Adj Gr, PrepP

Object NGs

Adjunct ADV Gr, PrepP

Finite

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VG (the first constituent of the verb group- marked for tense-agreement/ or
modal aux) Non-Finite: verb forms V.ing and to + V are always nonfinite.
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Predicator everything in the verb group (except the finite or modal aux)
Non-finite clauses consist only of a Predicator, whereas a finite group consists of a Finite and a
Predicator. Sometimes a Finite verb group consists of only one word. In this case, the single word
realizes both Finite and Predicator functions.
LA

He has been sleeping all day. Did you sleep well last night? Being exhausted, he slept all day.
F P F P P F+P

Independent
(main) Stand alone
FI

(not structurally
dependent on other cl)
Ranking Always FINITE.
clauses


Dependent Adverbial F cl: Although prices are high,

Cannot stand alone customers flock to that restaurant.
Finite or Non-finite; NonF cl: Working hard, I was able to
Can form cl complex improve my performance.
Can be omitted Verbless clause: When in Rome, do
as Romans do.

Non-defining F cl: Noam Chomsky, who is a

Types
relative renowned linguist, formulated the
of
clauses innateness hypothesis.
clauses
NF cl: Romeo and Juliet,(which was)
first published in 1597, has become
one of Shakespeare's most popular
plays.

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 Embedded Defining relative F cl: The only person who was kind to her was Peter.
clauses clauses: (they modify (Postmodifier of the head of the subject)
cannot be the head of a NF cl: The green hills ringing the town are now
omitted constituent = post covered with colorful flowers.
modifier)

Noun clauses: (they F cl:.What caused the accident is not clear. (Head in a
function as NGr- S)
constituents of ranking NF cl: A farmer is interested in how to apply the
cl = head in a group) practice. (P. Comp)
Adverbial clauses (Prep + (n) + ing) RANKING

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Adverbial clauses without markers (-ing / ed) RANKING

Studying hard is an effective way to improve: embedded clause. non-finite noun clause, subject
My main concern is that nobody has called the police: embedded clause, noun clause, subject
The man standing in the corner looks suspicious: embedded clause, non-finite defining relative
clause, modifies the head of the subject.

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He complained about the people who were making noise: Embedded, defining relative clause,
modifier of the prepositional complement (about)
Many students fall behind because they usually attend classes without studying.
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● The notion of text & genres
In a text, there is a purpose, a topic, an identifiable addressee and links between messages.
Halliday and Hasan:
- “The word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage, spoken or written, of whatever
length, that does form a unified whole”
LA

- Texture is the property that distinguishes text from non-text. Texture is what holds the
clause of a text together to give them unity.
The result of these two dimensions is a piece of language which is using linguistic resources in a
meaningful way within a situational and cultural context.
“A text is best regarded as a semantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning’. A text is a
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unit of meaning, a unit which expresses, simultaneously, ideational, interpersonal and

textual meaning.
Texts are semantic units. Texts are realized through clauses. A sequence of clauses creates texts
when there is unity among them. The referent should identify the schematic structure or generic


structure of the text, which is what allows the reader to recognize it as a socio-culturally
conventionalized way of achieving a communicative goal through language. As members of a
culture, we can easily understand the purpose of a text

Texture involves the interaction of two components:

Cohesion Coherence

A property related to the internal semantic ties The way a sequence of clauses relates to the
between different parts of the text. context.
- It occurs where the Interpretation of - There is coherence when the stretch of
some element in the text is dependent language has an identifiable purpose,
on that of the other. content, interactants, role of language
That is, one element Presupposes the other. (e.g. spoken/written).

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‘A text is a unit of language in use. It is not a grammatical unit like a clause or a sentence. A text is
best regarded as a semantic unit, a unit not of form, but of meaning’.
‘A text is a semantic unit of whatever length, spoken or written, and which forms a unified whole
with respect both to its internal properties and to the social context in which it is produced’.

- The purposeful activities we engage in as social beings are called GENRES.

The purpose of the social activity generates text structure or schematic structure. As genres have
different purposes, they display distinctive structures.
- Each genre has prototypical lexicogrammatical choices (e.g. present tenses in descriptions,
passivization in regulations, lexical density in scientific articles, etc.)
As members of a culture we are able to identify the typical genres that circulate in our contexts; we

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are acquainted with how they are organized and the linguistic features they typically display.

● Speech and writing. Written and oral discourse.

A text is a semantic unit, a unit of meaning that expresses ideational, interpersonal and textual
meanings simultaneously.
- Medium Is the physical channel for the transmission of texts; it can be sound/phonological

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or graphic. Spoken and Written.
- Mode: the variable of context that influences the role that language plays in an interaction.

- Medium vs Mode
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The mode has two variables: the immediacy of feedback and the role of language.
It can be analyzed along these two dimensions:
- The immediacy of feedback: this continuum classifies situations according to the
possibilities of immediate feedback between participants.
- The role of language as action or as reflection: whether language is used to accompany an
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activity participants are engaged in or to reflect an experience.

These two polar extremes of spoken and written language situations influence linguistic choices,
which are likely to be made independently of the medium through which communication takes
place.
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Spoken Mode Written Mode

- interactive (2+ participants), can - not interactive (no immediate feedback)

answer - not face-to-face (need to make
- face-to-face everything clearer)


- language as action (accompanies the - language as reflection (the only means

activity) of making meaning)
- spontaneous (generally, no planning or - not spontaneous (planning: edit, draft,
editing) rewrite)
- Casual - not casual (formal)

These two polar extremes of S and W L situations influence linguistic choices, which are likely to
be made independently of the medium through which communication takes place.

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 Linguistic implications.

Spoken Mode Written Mode

Organization of Dynamic structure: interactive Rhetorical organization: synoptic

information staging, change of topic, structure, closed staging, clearly
overlapping, open-ended. organized.

Syntax Spontaneity phenomena: choppy, No spontaneity. Final draft, carefully

incomplete sentences, false starts, planned: full sentences, complex clauses,
interruptions/ hesitations, more impersonal forms, standard grammar.
coordinators.

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Lexis Everyday lexis, informal Prestige lexis: formal and technical
expressions vocabulary.

Grammar Non-standard grammar. Standard grammar.

Density Lexically sparse Lexically dense (nouns and emb)

situations.
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It is important to notice that both dimensions present not just two poles but a continuum of possible

Texts that share the same medium do not necessarily share similar linguistic features because it is
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the context in which language is used and not just the medium that influences linguistic choices. A
chat with a friend and a lecture at college share the same medium (spoken); however, they are not
likely to share similar linguistic features. Whereas a chat with a friend involves face-to-face
interaction, where every day lexis, hesitations, interruptions and incomplete sentences play a role,
a lecture resembles an expository essay in the sense that it has been planned beforehand,
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prestige lexis and impersonal forms are used, and for these reactions it is lexically dense as the
number of nominalizations, embedded clauses and nouns pre- and post- modified increases.
- If two friends are exchanging text messages on whatsapp about a party last Saturday, we
say that the text they produce is: in the spoken mode and written medium.
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● Lexical density
It’s the proportion of lexical items (content words) to the total discourse. It’s closely related to
whether it's active or reflective. Lexical density tends to be higher in written texts since we have
more time to edit them and include more content words. There are many content words and fewer


structure words because in the written mode you can plan your text and achieve fewer clauses.
Fewer clauses usually mean more density → content words are condensed in the fewer clauses.
- Lexical density: number of lexical items % number of ranking clauses.
- It is achieved through the use of nominalization and embedded clauses (function as
constituents of another clauses or group).

Nominalization: the process of turning things into that are not normally nouns into nouns. Since
nouns can be pre and post modified, nominalization allows for more information to be packed in
the same clause, thus making the rate of lexical density higher.
Embedding: These are cases in which one unit is used as a constituent of another unit at the same
or a lower rank, for example when a noun group contains within it a clause.
Embedded clauses occupy a lower position on the scale of rank. That’s why they are also called
rank shifted clauses. They are not syntactically related to others, they’re components.

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The latest figures come amid concern over a recent small rise in cases that are linked to the Indian
variant.

A. He works a lot, so he feels stressed-out.

B. His heavy workload results in stress.

Last week the death of a black man arrested in Minneapolis sparked calls for racial justice.

One of the biggest causes of forest loss in Brazil is to grow soybeans, much of which goes to
China and Europe for animal feed for pigs and chickens.
- The previous clause complex contains: a case of embedding and a case of hypotaxis.

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When I was around nine or ten, I wrote a play that was directed by a young, white school teacher,
who then took an interest in me and gave me books to read.
- There are instances of: two embedded clauses, two clauses are paratactically related, four
ranking clauses and two cases of hypotaxis

An amendment to a treaty known as the Rome Statute, which established the International

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Criminal Court, could criminalise acts that amount to ecocide, a radical idea that merits serious
discussion.
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How to write in the exam, examples:
❀ Both texts deal with [sth]; they could be considered [type e.g. narrative] texts. Although the texts share
[or not] the same purpose, they belong to different modes: text A is spoken and text B is written in mode.
This difference is evident in many linguistic implications related to the organization of information, syntax
and lexis. Regarding organization, text A does not have a clear structure, it is rather dynamic and presents
LA

lots of spontaneity phenomena such as pauses, false starts, and hesitations. Grammar is non-standard; for
example, there are fragments or incomplete sentences, agreement errors, and no clear boundaries between
clauses. As for lexis, the speaker uses informal and everyday words and expressions that are vague and lack
precision such as everyone, something like that, okay. In contrast, text B presents a clear and rhetorical
organization. For example, the first sentence is used to introduce the topic, which is then expanded in the rest
FI

of the text. As regards syntax, all the clauses are complete and more complex, and many of them contain
embedded clauses. Finally, lexis is more formal and elaborate, and many colorful adjectives are used to
describe the characters..
❀ This sentence is made up of only one clause: the message has been condensed into one clause. This has


been partly achieved by turning the action [verb- e.g. be concerned] into a noun: [noun], which is pre and
post modified by: [add]. As we can see, [noun], which is an [abstract] noun, is now a participant and the
[NG] have been removed.
❀ Although both examples express the same meaning, it can be seen that example 1 consists of [number]
ranking clauses and example 2 consists of only [number] ranking clauses. There are several instances of
nominalization in example 2, which makes this clause more lexically dense than the first example. Firstly,
the clauses in the first example [clauses] are linked by the logical connector [example of the connector],
which expresses the meaning of [add]. This [connector] has been turned into a noun in example 2[new noun],
which allows for the use of a postmodifier (example). Secondly, the adjective [add] in example 1 has been
turned into a noun which is pre and post modified [example] in example 2. Finally, the process ‘[verb] be’ in
example 1 has been turned into “[noun]” in the second example. This nominalization allows the writer to
introduce a postmodifier [add]. These [number] cases of nominalization make example 2 more lexically
dense, since the meanings have been compressed and the number of lexical items per clause is higher than in
example 1.

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 Unit 2
The Organization of Time in the Textual World

● Verb tenses and the concept of time.

verb tenses from a conceptual approach.
the role tenses have in the construction of the textual world.
the use of tenses in the co-text, how they build the text and contribute to make a message
or get the message across.

● Tense vs Time.
Tense refers to the form of the verb that (linguistically) expresses a time-relation. They vary from

OM
language to language and build up temporal frameworks in texts.
Time is a universal concept, common to all mankind independent of language.
One dimension (a straight line: past, present & future) = TIME FRAMES.

Past TIME FRAME Present TIME FRAME FutureTF

(BEFORE) (NOW) (AFTER)

-
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Time frame: a specified period of time in which something occurs, a time segment. The Axis
of orientation: how speakers position themselves in relation to the event they are
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describing. The temporal fragment of a text is chosen according to its purposes.
Point of reference: marks how language users will position in the text. Relevant to remain within
that time-frame unless there is a very good reason for shifting t-f (motivated shift).
- Time-frame shift: the change from one time frame to another. Has to be done with a good
reason. Generally signal by explicit temporal markers to guide the reader.
Tense: is a way of expressing events as occurring at points situated along the linear flow of time.
LA

- Tense shift: the change (use) of different tenses according to the order of events within the
same (one) time frame.

Reasons for a time-frame shift:

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● From present to the past:

- to explain or support a general statement with past description or elaboration on a topic.
- to support a claim about the present with examples from the past.
- to provide background information about a topic.
- to support a general statement about a change by comparing past and present situations.


Example: My most valuable possession is an old, slightly warped blond guitar--the first instrument I
taught myself how to play. It's nothing fancy, just a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed and scratched
and finger-printed.

● From past time frame to present

- to express a comment or an opinion about a topic.
- to describe something or present facts
Example: In late May, a friend invited me to visit Beijing's Xinfadi market, the city's largest
wholesale food market. It spans more than 250 acres, with thousands of vendors selling fresh
produce. She brought me to the best vendors and bargained hard for giant bags of cherries,
mangosteens, peaches and blueberries.

A time frame is defined as the reference to the past, present or future.

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The tense system is made up of different tenses that indicate time reference.
Tense-aspect choices contribute to the cohesion of texts when they work together as a system.
System: related to each other, what makes one different from the other. How to use the tenses
appropriately according to the context. Which tenses cluster together. It is necessary to read to
understand what point of reference the author stands. Once the author has decided an axis of
orientation, he has to choose appropriate verb tenses and be consistent of where he stands.
● Embedded clauses do not affect the time frame.

When people speak about an event, they place themselves in relation to the event they are
actually or imaginatively observing. They can do so by adopting a present axis of orientation, a
past axis of orientation when recalling an event, or a future axis of orientation if they are
anticipating an event. Each of these axes represents a different time segment.

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Written narratives:
Simple present to begin and set the scene for the reader (establishing a link to the here and now)
or to interrupt the basic storyline when they find it fitting to introduce a general statement.
Simple past is typically used to narrate a story.
Mental process verbs to express what the person's in the narrative see, feel or think.

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Action process verbs -look, put, give, jump- to refer to various events or steps in the story.Past
perfect to provide background information and locate events that took place before the main
events in the story, and past progressive to locate events that were simultaneous with the events
in the main storyline.
DD
Written descriptions:
Present perfect to indicate that an action that took place in an unspecified time in the past has
produced some effects in the present, and these effects are relevant to the description. Can also
be used to refer to an event that is not that important to the process being described or to link a
previous event to the new stage in the process.
LA

Simple past to describe things, places and people in the past.

Simple present to provide the basic time frame. Also to describe manufacturing and natural
processes.
Oral discourse
Conversations are instances of oral discourse. We use the present progressive to refer to future
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actions or actions that are occurring at the moment of speaking and the simple present to refer to
mental processes. When we tell stories, jokes, and anecdotes, we often combine certain discourse
segments with certain tenses and certain aspects. We may begin narrating an event in the past
and suddenly shift to the present. We can also make use of the historic present so as to add
more vividness to actions and events in the text.


● Genre related choices of tenses

The different genres language users produce are typically associated with the choice of certain
tenses in the tense system. These tense selections build up the temporal frameworks that are
functional to the purpose of each genre.
When we produce texts, we always have a purpose in mind. Depending on the purpose texts have,
they can be recognized as examples of different genres.
The communicative goal of language users shapes the lexico-grammatical choices they make
when they produce texts. One of the linguistic choices writers/speakers make is related to the verb
group, in which information about time is encoded. (tense-aspect)

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 ● Genres:

Definition Purpose: to describe the features of sth.

Point of reference: (likely) the present time frame.

Exposition. Purpose: to provide arguments; to persuade.

Point of reference: (usually) the present time frame.
background information or examples to support their point: past.

Recount Purpose: to recall a personal experience (past time frame)

Feature article Purpose: to deal with a topic de depth

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Point of reference: present time frame and then a shift to past time
frame signaled by a time marker.
wider variety of tenses

News report Purpose: to inform readers about relevant current events.

Point of reference: the dominant tenses are future ones because the

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purpose of the news reports is to inform about sth that will happen in
the near future.
tenses will depend on the type of news presented.
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Novel Purpose: to deal with human experience through the narration of
connected sequence of events.
Point of reference: (typically) past time frame.

Anecdote Purpose: to share an interesting or amusing story about an incident,

event or person (generally told in spoken contexts)
LA

Point of reference: (typically) past time frame.

tendency to use present tenses in spoken narrative and to add
vividness.
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● be careful with text productions; do not shift.

Examples on how to answer in an exam:

As the purpose of this text is to inform the reader about ___, the basic time frame is (present/past). The tense
mainly used is ___ (examples). In “___” there is a shift from the present to the past to explain/ support/


provide/ express ____.

Dominant frame, author’s purpose and time frame shift
The text is an article. The author’s main purpose is to inform the reader about … The dominant time fime is
.... time frame, which is realized by the … tense[example] and another … [example]There is a shift to …
time frame in the … line, which is realized by … tense [example] and … tense [example]. The … time frame
has been mainly used to [provide background information about sth, when it began and the results of it
during …
❀ The main time frame in this text is the present. In the second clause, there is a shift to the past time frame
(bought) in order to add background information to explain why the house is old.
❀ The time frame that prevails is…
❀ In this text, the dominant time frame is [time] since it is an introduction to a book/volume on educational
issues; the text describes what the book is about. In particular, it makes reference to the application of a
programme (Reading to Learn) used to help students with learning difficulties. In the [number] sentence,

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there is a shift to the [time] frame in order to provide background information about Reading to Learn,
mainly about its original purpose and first results (began, were reading).
- The present time frame is used as the purpose of this text is to provide information about
the current effects of global warming in the mountain regions from the Andes to the Himalayas (ice
turns to water, glaciers are slowly reduced to lakes). The writer also provides a present description
of Imja glacier lake (the lake is…, it grows…). There are two shifts to the past time frame,
which are signaled by the temporal markers “in 1953” and “in September”. The shifts are
motivated by the need to mention two expeditions, one in the past and the other more recent, and
to use this information to make the population aware of the negative effects of global warming

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 Unit 3
Cohesion

Cohesion
It is a property related to the internal semantic ties between different parts of the text. It occurs
where the interpretation of some element in the text is dependent on that of another. The one
presupposes the other, in the sense that it cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it.
The semantic relation established between at least two elements in a text to promote the unity of
the text.
- semantic relation: cohesive ties/links.
- at least two elements: the interpretation of some element is dependent on that of another.

OM
- in a text: the two elements must be part of the same stretch of discourse/text.
- the unity: coherence of text.
Cohesion are semantic relationships of cohesive ties between a presupposing element and a
presupposed element - these elements that are structurally unrelated to one another are linked
together through the dependence of one on the other for its interpretation.
Cohesion is part of the text-forming component in the linguistic system in which there is a relation

.C
of presupposition between at least two elements. This semantic tie links one part of a clause to
another part or idea of a different clause.
Tie: relation of a part of a clause that presupposes information in another clause. To interpret a part
of the text we must find its relation with another part of the text.
DD
Grammatical cohesion
● Cohesive devices.
- Reference
How the speaker/writer introduces participants and keeps track of them in a text.
LA

It is a resource that creates a link between a reference form/word and a referent.

1. Personal or pronominal: realized by personal pronouns, object pronouns, possessive
pronouns and determiners.
2. Demonstrative: this, that, these, those, the (when it can be replaced by this/these), here,
there, now, then, such.
FI

3. Comparative: same, equal(ly), such, similar(ly), other, and adjectives and adverbs in the
comparative degree. [always anaphoric]

Endophoric reference


(referent: inside the text, cohesive)

Anaphoric Cataphoric Esphoric

The referent comes before the The reference form comes Retrieve the identity of the
reference form. before the referent. reference form in the same
Typically in the a different noun group.
clause = cohesive (non-cohesive)
post-modification

● The reference form and the referent are in different ranking clauses. If they are in the
same clause, then the reference is not cohesive.
Apple has revealed its first Mac computers powered by chips of its own design.

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It is important to understand that this incident was not a freak occurrence. It is the logical
consequence of government policies. It follows from two features that have characterized those
policies from the start.
Exophoric reference
(referent: outside the text, non-cohesive)
Referent Referent - homophoric reference

in the immediate context of situation in the shared knowledge of reader and writer
“Come here, please” (i.e. context of culture)

*Endophoric reference creates cohesion since it establishes semantic ties between different
elements in the text, contributing to its internal unity.

OM
*Exophoric reference establishes ties between elements in the text and the immediate context of
the situation.

- Substitution.
The replacement of one item/s by another.
1. Nominal: one, ones, same, etc.

.C
2. Verbal: do, did, do so, doing, etc. (finite verb + complements)
3. Clausal: so, not. (subject + finite verb and complements)
I told my sister to not spend a lot of money but she did.
DD
The wind will stop soon. I hope so.

- Ellipsis.
Omission of an item/s.
1. Nominal: subjects, objects, attributes (even though it is an adj.), etc.
2. Verbal: finite verb and its complements.
LA

3. Clausal: subject + finite verb + complements if any.

I study Translation and my sister <>Nutrition.
Did you finish your homework?
Yes <>
FI

● Problematic cases. (only the cases when they are not endophoric referents as those cases
have been stated above)
It Anticipatory “it”: always cataphoric reference but non-cohesive. (postponed sub or obj)
- It is quite normal to work alongside former opponents or associates of


opponents in the world of politics

Dummy “it’: time, weather, distance.
- It 's raining / It’s two o’clock / It’s three miles to the university.
Dummy “it’: set expressions.
- This is it / Take it easy

So Degree adverb/intensifier.
- You are so untidy
Conjunct that links independent clauses.
- Change has been slow, so the mayor proposed a change in the law.
Subordinator when introducing a dependent clause.
- I cleaned all my house, so I could study properly

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 Such Prepositional cluster.
- She only leaves her house for emergencies such as a car accident.
Pre determiner in exclamatory clauses: non-cohesive.
- She's such an intelligent woman!

That Demonstrative pronoun, exophoric reference.

- Look at that!
Relative pronoun (relative clauses, defining)
- The book (that) I bought yesterday is missing. (also esphoric)
Conjunction (nominal clause)
- He would have liked to know that it was not his fault.

OM
One Numeral
- My mother has one sister
Indefinite pronoun, exophoric reference.
- One has to work hard for what one wants.

There Existential subject, non-cohesive.

.C
- There is a dog in my pool.
Adjunct of place: exophoric reference.
- I’m going there to bring her back.
DD
The Homophoric reference.
- The sun/The baby/The White House/The Channel
Esphoric reference. The + noun + postmodifier/prep. phrases/embedded clauses.
- The advantages of using the M1 chip included better battery life and instant
wake from sleep mode.
LA

Lexical cohesion
When lexical items in a text are related in terms of their meaning. Refers to the link or tie that exists
between two or more lexical elements inside a text.
Not so strict, the same elements can be in the same ranking clause.
FI

● Types of lexical cohesion

- Items in the same semantic field.
These words come from the general area of vocabulary so they also contribute to the unity of the


text. It is not a precise relationship but simply they all have to do with the general area of
something. They are not necessarily organized sequentially. A semantic field establishes relations
of meaning between linguistic units that belong to the same area of knowledge.

- Repetition.
Use typically in advertisements.
Of words or patterns.
Some people crack their knuckles by pulling the tip of each finger one at a time until they hear a
crack. Others make a tight fist or bend their fingers backwards away from the hand, cracking the lot
at once.

- Synonymy.
Use of synonyms so as to not repeat the same item for the sake of style or to nor highlight
information that we do not want to.

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 - Antonymy.
To reinforce the opposite view/ideas.

- Hyperonymy.
From general to particular. It has to do with the relationship inside a text between a general word
that refers to a class of something and the elements that are types of that class.
Hyperonym
Hyponyms and co-hyponyms.
*To have a relationship of co-hyponymy, there must be a relation of hyperonymy first. The
hyperonym has to be present in the text.
A respected international panel of experts says cellphones are possible cancer causing agents,

OM
putting them in the same category as the pesticide DDT, gasoline engine exhaust and coffee.

- Meronymy.
From whole to parts relation.
Meronym
Co-meronyms.

.C
In Europe, Spain reported 9,200 Covid deaths in November, the highest figure since April, but
infection rates have been falling.

● Double cohesive devices.

DD
Typically a noun group that is made up of a grammatical cohesive element and a lexical
cohesive one. Both elements together refer or point to the same entity.
This is an introductory account of a particular theory of grammar, namely systemic-functional
theory. Grammar is one of the subsystems of a language; more specifically, it is the system of
wordings of a language. It is a phenomenon that can be studied, just like light, physical motion, the
LA

human body, and decision making processes in bureaucracies; and just as in the case of these
and other phenomena under study, we need theory in order to interpret it.
- In the extract, “other phenomena” functions as a double cohesive device: other phenomena
is a double cohesive device other: grammatical cohesion: anaphoric comparative reference
phenomena: lexical cohesion: repetition
FI

Texts as examples, not all cases of grammatical cohesion, but many.



Wash and core the apples, taking care to remove all pips. Slice finely. Put them into a fireproof dish
with the water, and a tablespoon of the sugar. Ensuring that the lid is tightly sealed, put the dish
into a preheated oven, gas regulo 6. Reduce temperature to 3 after 10 minutes. Allow the fruit to
steam in its juice for a further 15 minutes. Spoon out the cooked apples and arrange them
attractively on a serving plate.

The textual metafunction engenders resources for presenting interpersonal and ideational
meanings as information organized into text that can be ongoingly exchanged between speaker
and listener. This involves transitions in the development of text (conjunctive relations) and the
assignment of different textual statuses (thematicity, newsworthiness,continuity and contrast,
recoverability). The existing lexical relation established between the items in the following sets is:
1) textual metafunction/resources 2) resources/ conjunctive relations, thematicity, newsworthiness
1.meronymy 2.hyperonymy

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The two parties’ differences are clear: Both parties spend too much money, but Republicans regret
doing so, aware as they are of ination’s approach and its cruel devastation when it arrives.
Democrats desire the approval of the world. Republicans prefer to lead it and take such approval
as it comes. Democrats generally don’t trust the military. Republicans trust it almost completely.
Democrats want to spend less on weapons. Republicans want more.

Nicolas Sarkozy smartly handled the Georgia crisis and the global economic downturn, showing
his energy, ideas and vitality in abundance when dealing with such matters.

The people of this country aren’t stupid. They know when politicians are lying to them. They know
when newspapers are not giving them the full picture. They know when company directors
on huge salaries are trying to make them feel guilty for wanting a decent living wage. And

OM
they know when their schools and hospitals are falling apart for lack of money.

Examples on how to answer to exam questions:

In this section/extract, there are X examples of grammatical cohesion. In line #, “X” is a case of (cohesive

.C
device) and stands for (referent). In line #, “X” is a case of (cohesive device) that stands for (referent). As for
lexical cohesion, there is an example of (lexical device) in line #, “X”, and one of (lexical device), (explain).
These instances create semantic ties between different parts of the text, thus contributing to internal unity.
DD
stands for: makes reference to

❀Lexical cohesion comes through the selection of items that are related in some way to those that have gone
before [examples synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms or semantic field] There are many lexical resources
belonging to the semantic field of…
❀[item: they](cohesive/NC, anaphoric/cataphoric/esphoric/pronominal/demonstrative/comparative
LA

reference). The referent/presupposed element is across clauses since…

❀Grammatical cohesion: The use of “...” in “[quote that part]” is an instance of [type of reference], there is
an instance of ellipses of …
FI


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